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Western influence on Qing Dynasty paintings led to the creation of a new painting style that blended elements of both the East and the West, a style now recognized to be very representative of the Qing Dynasty court. The creation of Qing dynasty paintings influenced by the West was largely situated around the reigns of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors and the arrival of more Jesuit missionaries to Qing China. These paintings, blending elements of Chinese art and Western art, included many portrait paintings but were not entirely limited to just portraiture.

Historical Context

Western influence on Qing Dynasty paintings was contextualized by Qing Dynasty China’s interactions with the rest of the world from the late 17th century to the 18th century. On the one hand, Jesuit missionaries had started their conversion since Ming China. On the other hand, Qing emperors finally stabilized their reign after forty years of chaos in the early years of the dynasty. The reign of three emperors in particular— Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong, witnessed the rise of Western influence brought by Jesuit missionaries on imperial paintings for Qing emperors. Jesuit missionaries were sent by the Society of Jesus “founded in 1540 with the express purpose of converting the heathen overseas” to China in 1583, when China was still ruled by Ming emperors. These Jesuit missionaries were well-trained by the Society of Jesus with the education of broad knowledge beyond Catholicism to be capable of “draw(ing) connections between different branches of their knowledge to be able to analyze and defend their faith.” This education of Jesuit missionaries laid the foundation for their ability to instruct European painting techniques in the Qing court.

When practicing their converting mission in China, Jesuit missionaries held a top-down strategy to seek the support of the upper class, especially the emperors, as the key to converting China since they arrived in China in the 16th century, believing that converting the elite would lead to ripple effects throughout China. Building close relationships with the Qing emperors thus became a priority of Jesuit missionaries in Qing’s reign. While Qing emperors had little interest in Catholicism, Jesuit missionaries applied the use of secular knowledge to gain the favor of the Qing emperors. Their expertise in various disciplines such as astronomy and cartography enabled them to gain Qing emperors’ trust and admiration, though limited to the aspects of their pragmatic knowledge instead of their belief. As Qing emperors showed particular interest in European painting style, Jesuit missionaries in the Qing court were willing to please the emperors with their European painting techniques.

Qing emperors’ interests in the West, including Western artwork, were not just a coincidence as the knowledge they wanted to know from Jesuit missionaries would be “capable of supporting Qing’s efforts to reaffirm its legitimacy as rulers of China, their military exploits, their imperial aspirations, and their efforts to control the historical record.” Though Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors showed exceptional interest in Western painting styles, Jesuit missionaries’ paintings commissioned by the emperors suggested that their interest would always contain their pride in the Qing empire’s military victories and their ambitious understanding of the world.

While the Western influence on Qing dynasty paintings peaked during the reigns of Yongzheng and Qianlong, it rapidly faded away after its peak as an inevitable result of the decline of the dynasty. In 1724, the Yongzheng emperor and his successors officially banned Catholicism in China, though they kept missionaries who provided technical services for them including favored missionary painters such as Giuseppe Castiglione. The consequence of Catholicism’s decline in Qing China was the overthrow of the Society of Jesus in Europe. As the Society of Jesus was abolished in 1773 by the papal, no new missionary painter would come to China and please its emperors with their paintings.

Portraiture

Yongzheng Emperor in European Attire

Though taking a hostile attitude towards Catholicism, the Yongzheng emperor showed a favorable interest in Western painting styles. Figure 1 is a portrait of the Yongzheng Emperor, when he was still a prince, confronting a tiger while wearing European-style attire, providing a vivid example of the Western influence on Qing dynasty paintings.

The emperor’s elaborate costume, complete with a European wig, with his face vividly portrayed with Western portrait painting techniques demonstrates Yongzheng’s unique taste in foreign aesthetics. Moreover, this painting was collected in an album of Yongzheng’s portraits in multiple images as scholars, warriors, Buddhist deities, etc, suggesting that this portrayal of Yongzheng in European attire projected the emperor’s cosmopolitan image and command over diverse cultural elements, aligning with the Qing dynasty’s vision of itself as a global power.

Lang Shining and Qianlong on Horseback

Giuseppe Castiglione, known by his Chinese name Lang Shining, was an Italian Jesuit missionary and court painter who served the Qing court for over 50 years. Trained in the Baroque tradition, Castiglione brought European techniques such as linear perspective, chiaroscuro, and oil painting to China, merging them with traditional Chinese styles to create a unique artistic synthesis.

Giuseppe Castiglione’s work led to the emergence of a new Qing court art style by integrating Eastern and Western techniques. In Figure 2, his equestrian portrait of the Qianlong Emperor, The Qianlong Emperor in Ceremonial Armor on Horseback, epitomizes this artistic synthesis, combining the anatomical precision of Western realism with the symbolic and harmonious composition characteristic of traditional Chinese art. Castiglione's innovative approach garnered significant appreciation from the Qing emperors and symbolized the broader Jesuit mission of cultural exchange during a period of evolving political and cultural dynamics.

The Qianlong Emperor played a pivotal role in shaping Castiglione’s hybrid art style. While the emperor admired the realism of Western paintings, he rejected elements like heavy shadows and facial unevenness, prompting Castiglione to adapt his techniques to align with Chinese aesthetic preferences. This approach allowed him to balance the lifelike qualities of Western methods with the elegance and softness valued in Chinese art, particularly in his portraits of the emperors.

Over time, Lang Shining adopted distinctive Chinese methods, including cunfa (皴法), a brushstroke technique for depicting texture, and began leaving white spaces in the background, a hallmark of traditional Chinese painting. This practice not only provided balance and harmony but also reflected Chinese philosophical concepts of “emptiness” (虚) and “absence” (无). In later works, such as Gathering Auspiciousness (聚瑞图), Lang Shining skillfully depicted flowers with precise detail and arranged overlapping blossoms to create depth and a three-dimensional effect. He used fine lines and subtle color gradients to define forms, avoiding heavy shadows and preserving white backgrounds, another hallmark of Chinese painting. This shift highlights his blending of Western realism with the refined elegance of Chinese aesthetics. Despite his acclaim, Castiglione’s work has faced modern criticism for its ambiguous blend of traditions, described by some as “neither a donkey nor a horse.” Nevertheless, his art remains a significant example of cultural adaptation and innovation. His ability to integrate Baroque-inspired techniques such as chiaroscuro and perspective into silk and paper-based Chinese formats highlighted his mastery of both traditions. This nuanced legacy underscores Castiglione’s unique position within the broader tapestry of Chinese art history.

The Qianlong Emperor in Buddhist Artwork

A few imperial portraits, particularly during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, exemplify a unique fusion of Buddhist symbolism and Western artistic techniques. This synthesis was facilitated by Jesuits such as Giuseppe Castiglione, who were trained in European methods like chiaroscuro, linear perspective, and realistic shading. These Western painters contributed to a distinctive hybrid art style that merged Chinese, Tibetan, and Western traditions.

The connection between the emperor and Buddhist figures can be traced back to the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, where rulers were found carefully associated with the Buddha's universal and transcendent qualities in inscriptions at the Juyong Gate near Beijing. By the Qing Dynasty, this legacy was revitalized and adapted by Kangxi, Qianlong's grandfather. Kangxi explicitly identified himself with Manjushri in his preface to the "Red Kanjur" in the early 18th century, where he claimed the association between Manjushri’s manifestation of human form with the empire's history, solidifying the Bodhisattva's role as a symbol of wisdom and benevolent rule.

Under Qianlong, Buddhist-themed portraiture became a significant medium for asserting imperial authority and spiritual legitimacy over the Tibetan and Mongol peoples within his multiethnic empire. Qianlong’s self-portraits often depicted him as a chakravartin (universal ruler) or as an emanation of Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom. These artworks incorporated Tibetan Buddhist motifs, such as refuge trees depicting sacred lineages, while employing Western techniques to enhance the lifelike qualities of the figures. The combination of Buddhist iconography with European realism created images that were both spiritually resonant and visually striking.

One notable example (Figure 3) is a thangka featuring Qianlong dressed in Buddhist attire. In this artwork, Qianlong is depicted in a dominant size, surrounded by 108 deities, lamas, and religious figures. Rolpay Dorje, Qianlong's Buddhist teacher, is placed above the emperor in the second-largest size within the painting, with the inscription "root lama" noted in Tibetan. This positioning highlights Rolpay Dorje's spiritual significance and Qianlong's role within the Buddhist lineage. The emperor is shown seated with folded legs on a throne, amidst lotus flowers, colorful clouds, and trees believed to represent Wutaishan, the sacred home of Manjushri. Qianlong holds the Buddhist wheel of law in his left hand and forms a mudra (a ritual gesture) with his right fingers, echoing common depictions of Buddhist figures. His face, specifically painted by Castiglione, showcases Western techniques of shading, creating a distinctive contrast with other parts of the painting with the flatter and more symbolic style of other Tibetan artists from the Zhongzhendian (Hall of Central Uprightness).

This blending of styles reflected the broader Qing strategy of cultural inclusivity. By integrating Western methods into Buddhist art, Qianlong projected an image of the Qing Empire as a cosmopolitan and universal realm. These portraits served multiple purposes: they honored Buddhist traditions, impressed Tibetan and Mongolian allies, and showcased the emperor’s ability to harmonize diverse cultural influences as a "Smooth Lord". The interplay between spiritual symbolism and artistic innovation made Qing Buddhist portraiture an example of cross-cultural exchange.

Non-portraiture

Zhantu 战图 or Depictions of War

In addition to portraiture, Jesuit missionaries also created paintings of scenes that were significant to the Qing dynasty court, documenting events such as the successful conquest of new regions to expand the territory of the empire. Zhantu (战图), a term referring to depictions of battle, featured most heavily during Emperor Qianlong’s reign due to Qianlong’s many successful military campaigns. Some of his many campaigns included the Zhungar, Ili, and Muslim campaigns (1755-1759) in the conquest of Xinjiang or the region historically referred to as xiyu or “the western regions.” War was waged in Burma  (1766-1770), Annam (Vietnam—1788-1789), Taiwan (1787-1788), Nepal, and in Sichuan province against rebellious Jinchuan minorities. To commemorate his victories on the battlefield, Emperor Qianlong commissioned many zhantu as documentary paintings.

A prominent example of zhantu artwork is the Pingding Xiyu Zhantu (平定西域战图), which actually consists of a series of sixteen total war pictures created around the year 1760 by four missionaries and court painters—Jean Denis Attiret, Giuseppe Castiglione, Ignaz Sichelbarth, and Giovanni Damasceno Salusti. Pingding Xiyu Zhantu roughly translates to “Illustrations of the Campaign to Pacify the Western Regions.” The titles of the sixteen scenes are 1）平定伊犁受降 or Receiving the Surrender of Yili, 2）格登鄂拉斫营 or Storming of the Camp at Gadan-Ola, 3）鄂垒扎拉图之战 or Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, 4）库陇癸之战 or The Battle of Khurungui, 5）和落霍澌之捷 or Victory at Heluo Heshi, 6）乌什酋长献城 or The Cheiftan of Turfans Surrenders the City, 7）通古斯鲁克之战 or Battle of Tonguzluq, 8）黑水解围 or The Lifting of the Siege of the Black River (Khara-Usu), 9）呼尔璊大捷 or The Great Victory at Huermen, 10）阿尔楚尔之战 or The Battle of Arcul, l1）伊西洱库尔淖尔之战 or Battle of Yesil Kol Nor, 12）霍斯库鲁克之战 or The Battle of Qos-Qulaq, 13）拔达山汗纳款 or The Khan of Badakhsan Asks to Surrender, 14）平定回部献俘 or The Emperor is Presented with Prisoners from the Pacification of the Muslim Tribes, 15）郊劳回部成功诸将 or The Emperor Receives News of the Officers and Soldiers Distinguished in the Campaign, 16）凯宴成功诸将 or A Victory Banquet Given by the Emperor for Distinguished Officers and Soldiers. Figure 4 depicts a print of scene 1 from the set.

It is believed that Qing dynasty zhantu were influenced by European-painted depictions of war such as those on display in France’s Palace of Versailles and Spain’s El Escorial palace-monastery. The El Escorial palace-monastery in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial of Spain, commissioned by King Philip II in the late 16th century served as a center for Catholic Christianity and a symbol of the Spanish monarchy. Within the Spanish building is a Hall of Battles, a gallery of paintings and artwork depicting military achievements. Though battle paintings have not been consistently popular throughout European history, battle paintings or depictions of victorious battles in Europe predated the emergence of zhantu during Qianlong’s reign.

The original Pingding Xiyu Zhantu hung in the Zi Guang Ge, a pavilion within the imperial park to the west of the Forbidden City, but Emperor Qianlong, quite pleased with the Pingding Xiyu Zhantu, later ordered for the paintings to be made into copper engravings of the best quality. Copies of the paintings were shipped to Paris, France on French East India Company Ships for this purpose. In a postscript to a letter dated 27 October 1765 and written from Father Augustin de Hallerson, a Portuguese missionary in Beijing, to his brother—Father Augustin de Hallerson—details the circumstances surrounding the commissioning of the copper engravings. The letter was translated from Latin to English by Tanya Szrajber and part of it reads as follows:

That which I had forgotten in the letter, I here point out. Our Emperor wishes to have engraved, & printed in Europe sixteen images, which represent the operations of the war, which in these past years he waged against the Tartar Eleuths, & their neighbors, & the Mahomedans he had formerly subdued. Indeed, when the war was finished he ordered the painting of 16 large pictures, with which he adorned his halls.

The completed copper engravings would be displayed in public spaces around the country. The Pingding Xiyu Zhantu was one of many commemorative battle paintings commissioned by Qianlong. Later series of zhantu depicted further military campaigns and battles against groups such as Muslims in Wushi (1765), Gurkhas in Nepal (1792), and indigenous Miao people in Yunnan and Hunan (1790s).

References

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6. ^ Lin, Shufen 林淑芬. "A Study of the Transition in Giuseppe Castiglione’s Painting Style to Lang Shining (Part II)" 〈從Giuseppe Castiglione到郎世寧的繪畫風格轉移之探討（下）〉 Journal of Calligraphy and Painting Arts《書畫藝術學刊》第11期（2011）：279-301.
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8. Castiglione, Giuseppe. The Qianlong Emperor as Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom. mid-18th century (Qing dynasty, Qianlong reign, China), Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
9. ^ Berger, Patricia (2003). Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2563-8. JSTOR j.ctt6wr2tf.
10. Attiret, Jean Denis, Giuseppe Castiglione, Giovanni Damasceno Sallusti, Ignaz Sichelbarth. Pingding Xiyu Zhantu. 1765-1766, The Palace Museum, Beijing, China.
11. ^ Waley-Cohen, Joanna. “Commemorating War in Eighteenth-Century China.” Modern Asian Studies 30, no. 4 (1996): 869–99. http://www.jstor.org/stable/312952.
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