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Sibe

ᠰᡞᠪᡝ Sibo, Xibo
"Sibo military colonists", picture drawn by Henry Lansdell during his 1882 visit to what is now Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County
Total population
190,481
Regions with significant populations
China (Liaoning · Xinjiang · Heilongjiang · Jilin · Inner Mongolia)
Languages
Mandarin Chinese and Sibe
Religion
Tibetan Buddhism and shamanism
Related ethnic groups
Manchus, Daur, Nanai, Orok, Evenks and Solon

The Sibe or Xibo (ᠰᡞᠪᡝ, , IPA: [ɕivə]; simplified Chinese: 锡伯; traditional Chinese: 錫伯; pinyin: Xībó) are a Tungusic-speaking East Asian ethnic group living mostly in Xinjiang, Jilin and Shenyang in Liaoning. The Sibe form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by China, and had a recorded population of 190,481 in the 2010 Chinese Census, comprising just over 0.014% of China's total population.

Nomenclature

The Sibe are known by several variations of their name. The self-appellation of the Sibe people is pronounced Śivə, the official Chinese term is Xibo, in Russian literature the terms Сибинцы (sibintsy) and Шибинцы (shibintsy) are used, while in English works the name Sibe has been established, which corresponds to the written form.

History

According to the Russian scholar Elena P. Lebedeva, the Sibe people originated as a southern, Tungusic-speaking offshoot of the ancient Shiwei people. They lived in small town-like settlements, a portion of them nomadic, in the Songyuan and Qiqihar areas of what is now Jilin.

When the Buyeo kingdom was conquered by the Xianbei in 286 AD, the southern Shiwei started practicing agriculture. Some historians have theorized that the Xianbei were the direct progenitors of the Sibe, a theory described by some as politically motivated. Pamela Kyle Crossley writes the Xianbei might have undergone a language shift from an earlier Turkic or proto-Mongolian language to a Tungusic one. However, the name "Sibe" was not used in historical records during Xianbei times.

The Han dynasty, Cao Wei and the Jin dynasty (266–420) at times controlled the Sibe until the advent of the Göktürks, who accorded the Sibe lower status than did the Chinese dynasties. At the height of their territorial dispersion, the Sibe lived in an area bounded by Jilin to the east, Hulunbuir to the west, the Nen River to the north and the Liao River to the south. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Sibe became vassals of the Khorchin Mongols who moved to the Nen and Songhua river valleys in 1438 after the Khorchin were defeated by the Oirats.

Nurhaci, the first prominent figure of the Manchu people, routed the Sibe during the battle of Gure in 1593 on his way to founding the Qing dynasty of China. From that point, the Qing contracted the Sibe for logistical support against the Russian Empire's expansionism on China's northern border. Crossley claims that the Sibe were so "well known to Russians moving toward the Pacific" that the Russians named Siberia after them. In 1692, the Khorchin dedicated the Sibe, the Gūwalca and the Daur to the Kangxi Emperor in exchange for silver. The Sibe were incorporated into the Eight Banners and were stationed in Qiqihar and other cities in Northeast China.

In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Sibes were resettled in Hohhot (modern Inner Mongolia); 36,000 Songyuan Sibes were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. The relocation of the Sibe from Qiqihar is believed by Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's complete annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they revolted against the Qing. According to Jerry Norman, after a revolt by the Qiqihar Sibes in 1764, the Qianlong Emperor ordered an 800-man military escort to transfer 18,000 Sibe to the Ili River of Dzungaria.

In Ili, the Xinjiang Sibe built Buddhist monasteries and cultivated vegetables, tobacco and poppies. The Sibe population declined after the Qing used them to suppress the Dungan Revolt (1862–77) by the Hui and to fight against the Russian occupation of Ili during the revolt. The scarcity of provisions in Ili became such that the Governor at last saw himself obliged to dismiss his last auxiliaries, the Thagor Kalmuks. In the meantime both Solons and Sibos were being attacked and plundered and were obliged to make peace with the insurgents, so that only Ili, Khorgos, Losigun and Suidun, remained in the hands of the Mantchus. Ili was now entirely surrounded and it was resolved to reduce it by famine. The situation there was indeed frightful; all the provisions had been exhausted and the only food was horses, dogs and cats. Typhus so raged that from 50 to 100 men died daily.

During the Republic of China (1912–49) period, many northeastern Sibe joined anti-Japanese volunteer armies, while northwestern Sibe fought against the Kuomintang during the Ili Rebellion. After the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949 established the People's Republic of China (PRC), large-scale educational and hygiene campaigns increased Sibe literacy and resulted in the eradication of Qapqal disease (a form of type A botulism).

In 1954, the PRC established the Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County to replace Ningxi County in Xinjiang, in the group's area of highest ethnic concentration.

Culture

Most historical analyses indicate that the Sibe people were never treated as part of the Manchu proper, nor do they ever perceive themselves as being the same as the Manchu people. The Sibe garrisons were administered separately from those of the Manchu and did not enjoy the same rights as them. The Sibe soldiers had to earn their living by squatting on land to become self-sufficient, while the Manchu garrisons were supplied by the Qing state. Possibly due to the unequal administrative treatment in the history, alongside their late incorporation into the Eight Banners, there is both a Sibe self-perception and state recognition of the Sibe people in more recent times as a national minority that is distinct from the Manchu.

Historical religions of the Sibe included shamanism and Buddhism. Customary Sibe attire included short buttoned jackets and trousers for men and close-fitting, long and lace-trimmed gowns for women. Arranged marriage was common and women had low social status, including no right to inherit property. Nowadays almost all the Sibe wear modern clothing and the traditional clothing is worn by elders during festivals. Traditionally, the Sibe were divided into many hala, male-led clans consisting of people who shared the same surname. Until modern times, the dwellings of the Sibe housed up to three different generations from the same family, since it was believed that while the father was alive no son could break the family clan by leaving the house.

The Sibe in Northeast China speak Mandarin Chinese as their first language. In some Sibe communities in Northeast China, women are not allowed to live with men before formal marriage. During this time, the man must formally propose and express his intention to marry through specific acts and ceremonies. Only after the woman accepts the proposal and the marriage is finalized can she move into the man's home. In Xinjiang, descendants of the Qing dynasty military garrison speak the Xibe language, a Southern Tungusic language that underwent morphophonological changes and the adoption of loanwords from languages spoken in Xinjiang including Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Uyghur, and Kazakh.

The different ethnicities of Northern Xinjiang have shared musical culture and adopted elements from each other's music.

Distribution

According to the 2010 Chinese Census, there were 190,481 Sibe people in China: 99,571 males and 90,910 females. The largest Sibe population within China was in the province of Liaoning, home to 132,431 Sibe people, 69.52% of all Sibe people in China, but just 0.30% of Liaoning's total population. The autonomous region of Xinjiang is also home to a sizable number of Sibe people: 34,399 in total, accounting for 18.06% of all Sibe people in China, and 0.16% of Xinjiang's total population. Outside of these two, Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Inner Mongolia have the largest Sibe populations, totaling 7,608, 3,113, and 3,000, respectively.

Xinjiang

Approximately 43,000 Sibe people live in the autonomous region of Xinjiang, of which, approximately 34,000 live in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, where the Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County is located. As of 2018, 19,984 Sibe people live in the autonomous county, comprising 10.28% of its total population, which is dominated by larger groups, such as the Han Chinese, Uyghurs, and Kazakhs. In 2015, 20,426 Sibe people lived in the autonomous county, comprising 10.38% of its total population.

Notable individuals

• Tong Liya (佟丽娅) – actress
• Wu Qian (吴谦) – retired basketball player

References

1. ^ Huang Beibei, ed. (2011-11-12). "The Xibe ethnic minority". People's Daily. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
2. ^ Zikmundová 2013, p. 10.
3. ^ 1-6 各地区分性别、民族的人口 [1-6 Population by sex, ethnicity and region]. www.stats.gov.cn (in Chinese). National Bureau of Statistics of China. 2010. Archived from the original on 2021-06-11. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
4. ^ Gorelova, Liliya. "Past and Present of a Manchu Tribe: The Sibe". In Atabaki, Touraj; O'Kane, John (eds.). Post-Soviet Central Asia. Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 325–327.
5. Zikmundová 2013, p. 11.
6. ^ Crossley 1997, p. 213 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCrossley1997 (help)
7. Evelyn S. Rawski (15 November 1998). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. University of California Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0-520-92679-0.
8. Gorelova 2002, p. 36.
9. Gorelova 2002, p. 37.
10. Gorelova 2002, p. 37.
11. Turkistan: 2 (5 ed.). Sampson Low, Marston, Searle &Rivington. 1876. p. 181.
12. Schuyler, Eugene (1876). Turkistan: Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bukhara and Kuldja, Volume 2 (2 ed.). S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington. p. 181.
13. Schuyler, Eugene (1876). Turkestan: Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khorand, Bukhara, and Kuldja (4 ed.). Sampson Low. p. 181.
14. McLelland, Nicola; Zhao, Hui, eds. (2022-12-31). Language Standardisation and Language Variation in Multilingual Contexts: Asian Perspectives. Multilingual Matters. doi:10.21832/9781800411562. ISBN 978-1-80041-156-2.
15. Harris 2004, p. 194.
16. ^ 3-7 各地、州、市、县(市)分民族人口数 [3-7 Population by Nationality by Prefecture, State, City and County (City)]. www.xjtj.gov.cn (in Chinese). Statistic Bureau of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. 2017-03-15. Archived from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
17. ^ 3-7 各地、州、市、县(市)分民族人口数 [3-7 Population by Nationality by Prefecture, State, City and County (City)]. tjj.xinjiang.gov.cn (in Chinese). Statistic Bureau of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. 2020-06-10. Archived from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2021-06-11.

Bibliography

• Zikmundová, Veronika (2013). Spoken Sibe: Morphology of the Inflected Parts of Speech (1st ed.). Prague: Karolinum Press. ISBN 978-80-24621036.
• Wu Yuanfeng, Zhao Zhiqiang. 1981. "Sibezu xiqian gaishu" . Minzu yanjiu 2:22–29.
• Ramsey, S. Robert. 1987. The Languages of China. Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey ISBN 0-691-06694-9
• C. G. Mannerheimin Valokuvia Aasian-Matkalta 1906–1908 (Photographs By C. G. Mannerheim From His Journey Across Asia 1906–1908), (Otava, Keuruu: 1990) ISBN 951-1-11357-7. Contains photographs of Sibe and other ethnic groups.
• Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002), The Manchus, Volume 14 of Peoples of Asia (3 ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-23591-4
• Gorelova, Liliya M., ed. (2002). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies, Manchu Grammar. Vol. Seven Manchu Grammar. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 9004123075. Retrieved 6 May 2014.

External links

• Video on Sibe culture (in Chinese)
• Website on Sibe archery
• Mini Buleku A Recorded Sibe Dictionary
• Sibe Culture (in Eng and Chinese) Archived 2012-02-25 at the Wayback Machine
• The Sibe in the Early 20th Century by David Brophy, ANU

• Sibe people
• Tungusic peoples
• Ethnic groups officially recognized by China