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This list of genocides includes estimates of all deaths which were directly or indirectly caused by genocides that are recognised in significant scholarship as genocides. It excludes mass killings which have not been explicitly defined as genocidal, but called mass murder, crimes against humanity, politicide, classicide, or war crimes, such as the Thirty Years' War (4.5 to 8 million deaths), Japanese war crimes (30 million deaths), the Red Terror (50,000 to 200,000 deaths), the Atrocities in the Congo Free State (1.5 to 13 million deaths), the Great Purge (0.7 to 1.2 million deaths), the Great Leap Forward and the famine which followed it (15 to 55 million deaths). A broader list of genocides, ethnic cleansing and related mass persecution is available. Genocides in history includes cases where there is less consensus among scholars as to whether they constituted genocide.

Definition

Scholarship varies on the definition of genocide employed when analysing whether events are genocidal in nature. The United Nations Genocide Convention, not always employed, defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; forcibly transferring children of the group to another group".

List of genocides

The term genocide is contentious and as a result its definition varies. This list only considers acts which are recognised in significant scholarship as genocides.

See also

• Casualty recording
• Democide
• Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples
• Genocidal massacre
• Genocide of indigenous peoples
• Genocides in history
• Hamoodur Rahman Commission
• List of ongoing armed conflicts
• List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll
• List of wars by death toll

Political extermination campaigns

• Anti-communist mass killings
• Dirty War
• Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66
• Mass killings of landlords under Mao Zedong (1949–1951)
• Mass killings under communist regimes
• Operation Condor
• Red Terror (Ethiopia)
• White Terror (Spain)

Notes

1. Eastern Pygmy population was reduced to 90,000 after a campaign that killed 60,000 implying a 40% decline
2. Unlike other deported peoples who were acknowledged to be distinct ethnic groups and given their national republics back under Khrushchev, the Crimean Tatars were not given the right of return for decades, and in addition were stripped of recognition as a distinct ethnic group as part of a wider campaign pushing for their assimilation in the Fergana valley.
3. ^ Total number of Serbs, Jews and Roma killed. Excluding the Jews sent to the German extermination camps.
4. Roger Casement reported that a population officially placed at 50,000 had dropped to 7,000 at the lowest estimation, and 10,000 remaining natives with the highest estimation by the time investigations were sent to the Putumayo.
5. Although ethnic cleansings and massacres began in the early 1800s, particularly under the command of the Tsarist Russian general Grigory Zass, the mass deportations, mass murders and extermination operations — where most deaths occurred — started in 1864.
6. Only the range of deaths caused by massacred
7. The total population decline of the period overall
8. • Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations."
   • Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide".
   • Sociologist and historian Vahakn Dadrian lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America."
   • Genocide scholar Adam Jones – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 percent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease."
   • Cherokee politician Bill John Baker – "this ruthless policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence."
   • Sociologist James V. Fenelon and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes."
9. • Political scientist Michael Rogin – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide."
   • Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing."
   • Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America.
   • Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces."
   • Political scientist Barbara Harff – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838-1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people."
   • Legal scholar Rennard Strickland – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names - Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee - and by their tragic poetic codes - the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law - in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"."
   • Legal scholars Christopher Turner and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond reiterate Strickland's assessment.
   • Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs."
   • Historian David Stannard and ethnic studies scholar Ward Churchill have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations.
   • Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five Lemkin specified genocidal acts."
   • Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide.
   • Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today’s generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears."
   • English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide."

1. Quote: "To conclude: the Germans committed genocide against the Polish population. The very term genocide comes from the 1944 book of the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin, whose study of Nazi-occupied Europe focused on the German attack on the Poles. Not only did the Nazis seek ultimately to eliminate the Polish nation 'as such', but they engaged in each of the acts identified by the 1949 Genocide Convention as signifiers of the 'intent to destroy'"
2. "In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands." Ahmed 2013, p. 357
3. In an account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or the Kazakh Khanate, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands of Chinese miles except those of the surrendered. Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 600,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the extermination of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor. Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars, Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".

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100. Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.
     * This estimates comes from taking the minimum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the minimum starved.
     "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report" (PDF)."The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012.
101. "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report". cavr-timorleste.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
102. Payaslian, Simon. "20th Century Genocides". Oxford bibliographies. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023.
103. "Genocide Studies Program: East Timor". Yale University. Archived from the original on 26 March 2022.
104. "Chega! The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012.
105. ^ "HOME". Combatgenocide (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 27 June 2023.
106. White, Matthew. "Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century: C. Burundi (1972–73, primarily Hutu killed by Tutsi) 120,000". Archived from the original on 12 January 2024.
107. "Fonds AG-062 - United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (UNICIB) (1995-1996)". United Nations - Archives and Records Management Section. 2002. p. 20 ¶ 85. The Micombero regime responded with a genocidal repression that is estimated to have caused over a hundred thousand victims and forced several hundred thousand Hutus into exile
108. ^ Krueger, Robert; Krueger, Kathleen Tobin (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years During Genocide (PDF). University of Texas Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780292714861.
109. "Burundi Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1996". U.S. Department of State. 30 January 1997.
110. Dummett, Mark (16 December 2011). "How one newspaper report changed world history". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
111. "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history – Asia". BBC. 25 March 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
112. While the official Pakistani government report (Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974) estimated that the Pakistani army was responsible for 26,000 killings in total, other sources have proposed various estimates ranging between 200,000 and 3 million. Indian Professor Sarmila Bose recently expressed the view that a truly impartial study has never been done, while Bangladeshi ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury has suggested that a joint Pakistan-Bangladeshi commission be formed to properly investigate the event.
     Chowdury, Bose comments – Dawn Newspapers Online.
     Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the 20th Century: Bangladesh – Matthew White's website.
113. Jahan 2013, p. 256.
114. Bass 2013a, p. 198:"The Nixon administration had ample evidence not just of the scale of the massacres, but also of their ethnic targeting of the Hindu minority—what Blood had condemned as genocide. This was common knowledge throughout the Nixon administration."
115. Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974.
116. "Bangladesh". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
117. Rummel, R.J. (January 1997). Death By Government. Routledge. p. 331. ISBN 1560009276. The human death toll over only 267 days was incredible. Just to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics published in Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee, the Pakistani army killed 100,000 Bengalis in Dacca, 150,000 in Khulna, 75,000 in Jessore, 95,000 in Comilla, and 100,000 in Chittagong. For eighteen districts the total is 1,247,000 killed. This was an incomplete toll, and to this day no one really knows the final toll. Some estimates of the democide (i.e. Rummel's 'death by government') are much lower—one is of 300,000 dead—but most range from 1 million to 3 million. ... The Pakistani army and allied paramilitary groups killed about one out of every sixty-one people in Pakistan overall; one out of every twenty-five Bengalis, Hindus, and others in East Pakistan. If the rate of killing for all of Pakistan is annualised over the years the Yahya martial law regime was in power (March 1969 to December 1971), then this one regime was more lethal than that of the Soviet Union, China under the communists, or Japan under the military (even through World War II).
118. ^ Ibrahim, Abdullah Ali (June 2015). "The 1964 Zanzibar Genocide: The Politics of Denial". In AbuSharaf, Rogaia Mostafa; Eickelman, Dale F. (eds.). Africa and the Gulf Region: Blurred Boundaries and Shifting Ties. Berlin: Gerlach – via ResearchGate.
119. ^ "What We Forgot To Remember, Part 1: Genocide in Zanzibar". Areo. 2 July 2017. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
120. Kuper, Leo (5 July 2017). Race, Class, and Power: Ideology and Revolutionary Change in Plural Societies. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-351-49504-2.
121. Namely the 83% of the "fully identified" 42,275 civilians killed by human rights violations during the Guatemalan Civil War. See CEH 1999, p. 17, and "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission". United Nations. 1 March 1999. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
122. Applying the same proportion as for the fully identified victims to the estimated total amount of person killed or disappeared during the Guatemalan civil war (at least 200,000). See CEH 1999, p. 17.
123. "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission". United Nations. 1 March 1999. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
124. CEH 1999.
125. Malkin, Elisabeth (16 May 2013). "Trial on Guatemalan Civil War Carnage Leaves Out U.S. Role". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 July 2023. The U.S. played a very powerful and direct role in the life of this institution, the army, that went on to commit genocide
126. "Group says files show U.S. knew of Guatemala abuses". New York Daily News. Associated Press. 19 March 2009. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
127. Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. pp. 91-94. ISBN 978-0415686174.
128. CEH 1999, p. 20.
129. CEH 1999, p. 23.
130. Wong, Tom K. (2015). Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804794572. LCCN 2014038930. page 68
131. Chanturiya, Kazbek (23 February 2017). "After 73 years, the memory of Stalin's deportation of Chechens and Ingush still haunts the survivors". OC Media. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
132. ^ Nekrich, Aleksandr (1978). The Punished Peoples: The deportation and fate of Soviet minorities at the end of the Second World War. New York: Norton. p. 138. ISBN 9780393000689. LCCN 77026201.
133. ^ Dunlop. Russia Confronts Chechnya. pp. 62–70.
134. ^ Gammer, Moshe (2006). Lone Wolf and the Bear. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 166–171. ISBN 0822958988.
135. Rummel, R. J. (1990). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-887-3. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
136. "Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944". UNPO. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.
137. "Press-Release: February 23, World Chechnya Day". Save Chechnya Campaign. Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
138. Wood, Tony. Chechnya: the Case for Independence. pp. 37–38.
139. "Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates". University of Hawaiʻi. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
140. ^ Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008). Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780801890758.
141. Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780822319948. LCCN 97019110. OCLC 610947243.
142. Legters 1992, p. 104; Fisher 2014, p. 150; Allworth 1998, p. 216
143. Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
144. ""Punished Peoples" of the Soviet Union: The Continuing Legacy of Stalin's Deportations" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1991. p. 34.
145. Allworth, Edward; Columbia University Center for the Study of Central Asia (1988). Tatars of the Crimea: Their Struggle for Survival: Original Studies from North America, Unofficial and Official Documents from Czarist and Soviet Sources. Duke University Press. pp. 173, 191–193. ISBN 978-0-8223-0758-7 – via Google Books.
146. • Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event"" (PDF). Hypatia. 35 (4): 635. doi:10.1017/hyp.2020.41. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2023. ...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21)
     • Fischel 2020, p. 10: "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..."
     • Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Books. ...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including...
     • Rummel, R.J. (2017) . "Democide in Totalitarian States". In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Books. 4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study.
     • Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law. University of Chicago Press. p. 203n64. ISBN 9780226415529 – via Google Books. Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000...
     • Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Books. ... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million.
     • Rubinstein, William D. (2014) . Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books. The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former
     • Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) . The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books. Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million
     • Benz, Wolfgang (2006). A Concise History of the Third Reich (1st ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 232. ISBN 0-520-23489-8. At least six million human beings were deliberately and systematically murdered because they were Jews.
     • Benz, Wolfgang (1999). The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide (1st ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 12, 152–153. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5. Six million Jews (not fewer, most probably more) were murdered in the course of the Final Solution of the Jewish question,
     • Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (1st ed.). New York: Praeger Publishers. p. 430. The genocide of the Jews — according to Eichmann's figures more than 6 million (4 million in extermination camps) had been murdered by the summer of 1944 . . . Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million. At any rate, the total number of Jews in Europe declined from 9.2 to 3.1 million.
147. Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (1st ed.). New York: Praeger Publishers. p. 430. Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million.
148. Fischel 2020, p. 10.
149. Landau, Ronnie S. (2016). The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning (3rd ed.). I. B. Tauris. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-85772-843-2.
150. Herf, Jeffrey C. (2024). "The Long Term and the Short Term: Antisemitism and the Holocaust". In Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (eds.). The Routledge History of Antisemitism (1st ed.). Abingdon and New York: Routledge. p. 278. doi:10.4324/9780429428616. ISBN 978-1-138-36944-3.
151. Gerlach, Christian (2016). The Extermination of the European Jews (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 9781139034180.
152. Stone, Lewi (2019). "Quantifying the Holocaust: Hyperintense kill rates during the Nazi genocide". Science Advances. 5 (1): eaau7292. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.7292S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau7292. PMC 6314819. PMID 30613773.
153. For a listing of the number of murdered Jews, detailed by country, see Dawidowicz, Lucy (2010). The War Against the Jews: 1933–1945. Open Road Media. Appendix A. ISBN 978-1453203064.
154. Rosenberg, Alan (1979). "The Genocidal Universe: A Framework for Understanding the Holocaust". European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe. 13 (1): 29–34. ISSN 0014-3006. JSTOR 41442658.
155. Stone, Dan (2023). The Holocaust: An Unfinished History (1st ed.). Pelican Books. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-241-38871-6.
156. "Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. In 1950, the Jewish population of Europe was about 3.5 million.
157. Berenbaum, Michael (2006). The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 16, 220. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3.
158. Earl Porter, Thomas (20 November 2018). "Hitler's Rassenkampf in the East: The Forgotten Genocide of Soviet POWs". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 839–859. doi:10.1080/00905990903230785. S2CID 162190846. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023.
159. ^ Jones 2010, p. 377: "'Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote Alexander Werth', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide."
160. Taulbee, James Larry (2017). Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and War Crimes in Modern History: Blood and Conscience [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 124. ISBN 978-1440829857 – via Google Books.
161. Calvocoressi, Peter; Wint, Guy (1989). Total War (Revised ed.). Viking Press. The total number of prisoners taken by the German armies in the USSR was in the region of 5.5 million. Of these, the astounding number of 3.5 million or more had been lost by the middle of 1944 and the assumption must be that they were either deliberately killed or done to death by criminal negligence. Nearly two million of them died in camps and close on another million disappeared while in military custody either in the USSR or in rear areas; a further quarter of a million disappeared or died in transit between the front and destinations in the rear; another 473,000 died or were killed in military custody in Germany or Poland.
162. "Nazi persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020.
163. ^ Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941-1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780822977933. Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps.
164. ^ "Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia – Croatia". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2010. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
165. ^ "The JUST Act Report: Croatia". state.gov. U.S. Department of State. In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75-80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control.
166. ^ Geiger 2012.
167. Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War. London; New York: Frank Cass. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 – via Google Books.
168. Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004). The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-57607-294-3 – via Google Books.
169. Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943. Oxford University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0197263801 – via Google Books.
170. Tomasevich 2001, pp. 379, 747.
171. Tomasevich 2001, p. 169.
172. Malcolm, Noel (1994). Bosnia: A Short History. New York: New York University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-0-8147-5520-4.
173. Furber, David; Lower, Wendy (2008). "Colonialism and genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. p. 393. ISBN 978-1-78238-214-0 – via Google Books.
174. Bauer, Yehuda (1999). "Comparison of Genocides". In Chorbajian, Levon; Shirinian, George (eds.). Studies in Comparative Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 31–43. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5_3. ISBN 978-1-349-27348-5. According to Polish sources, about three million ethnic Poles lost their lives during the war, or about 10 per cent of the Polish nation(...) large numbers were murdered, or died as a result of direct German actions such as denying food or medical treatment to Poles, or incarceration in concentration camps. There is no way of estimating the exact proportions, but I believe it would be difficult to deny that we have here a case of mass murder directed against Poles. German plans regarding Poles talked about denationalizing the Polish people, or in other words, making them into individuals who would no longer have any national identity(...)This is a case of genocide – a purposeful attempt toeliminate an ethnicity or a nation, accompanied by the murder of large numbers of the targeted group.
175. ^ "Polish Victims". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 30 October 2020. It is estimated that the Germans killed between 1.8 and 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II. In addition, the Germans murdered at least 3 million Jewish citizens of Poland.
176. Cherry, Robert D.; Orla-Bukowska, Annamaria (2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7425-4666-0 – via Google Books. ...and the ruthlessness of German rule in Poland, where three million gentiles also perished and the punishment for hiding a Jew was execution of captured rescuers and their immediate families.
177. ^ Banki & Pawlikowski 2001, p. 93: "...Along with those three million Polish Jews, three million Polish civilians were murdered as well...."
178. Kulesza 2004, PDF, p. 29.
179. Gushee 2012, pp. 313–314.
180. Kiernan, Ben; Lower, Wendy; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott, eds. (2023). "15: The Nazis and the Slavs - Poles and Soviet Prisoners of War". The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108767118. ISBN 978-1-108-48707-8.
181. Goldman, Wendy Z. (2011). Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-19196-8.
182. Rubenstein, Joshua. "The Devils' Playground". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2011. Rubenstein is the Northeast regional director of Amnesty International USA and a co-editor of The Unknown Black Book: The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories.
183. Wendy Z. Goldman (2011). Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-19196-8.
184. Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 August 2018. It is hard not to see the Soviet "Polish Operation" of 1937–38 as genocidal, as more than 100,000 innocent people were killed on the spurious grounds that theirs was a disloyal ethnicity and since Stalin spoke of "Polish filth".
185. ^ Ellman 2007.
186. Sebag-Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Vintage Books. p. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1.
187. Naimark, Norman M. (November 2016). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-063772-9.
188. Ellman 2007, p. 686.
189. Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Liverpool University Press. p. 20. ISBN 9781781387573.
190. Turits 2004, p. 161.
191. Cadeau, Sabine F. (2022). More than a Massacre: Racial Violence and Citizenship in the Haitian–Dominican Borderlands. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108942508. ISBN 978-1108942508. S2CID 249325622.
192. Turits 2002, p. 590.
193. Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Liverpool University Press. p. 20.
194. Cambeira, Alan (1997). Quisqueya la bella (1996 ed.). M. E. Sharpe. p. 182. ISBN 1-56324-936-7. anyone of African descent found incapable of pronouncing correctly, that is, to the complete satisfaction of the sadistic examiners, became a condemned individual. This holocaust is recorded as having a death toll reaching thirty thousand innocent souls, Haitians as well as Dominicans.
195. Paulino, Edward (16 February 2016). Dividing Hispaniola: The Dominican Republic's Border Campaign against Haiti, 1930-1961. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822981039 – via Google Books.
196. Turits 2002, p. 630.
197. "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2024-04-12.
198. Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-231-50590-1. Retrieved 5 July 2016 – via Google Books.
199. Hancock, Ian (2005), "True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview", The Historiography of the Holocaust, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 383–396, ISBN 978-1-4039-9927-6, archived from the original on 28 September 2011
200. Ignác, Benjamin (2018-08-02). "Why it is important to remember the Roma Holocaust?". European Roma Rights Centre. Retrieved 2023-08-02.
201. Davis, Mark (5 May 2015). "How World War II shaped modern Germany". euronews.
202. "Holocaust Encyclopedia – Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945". USHMM. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
203. Milton, Sybil (February 1992). "Nazi Policies towards Roma and Sinti 1933–1945". Journal of Gypsy Lore Society. 2 (1): 1–18. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
204. Naimark 2010, p. 70.
205. ^ Naimark 2010, pp. 70, 147.
206. Rozenas, Arturas; Zhukov, Yuri M. (2019). "Mass Repression and Political Loyalty: Evidence from Stalin's 'Terror by Hunger'". American Political Science Review. 113 (2): 571. doi:10.1017/S0003055419000066. S2CID 143428346. Similar to famines in Ireland in 1846–1851 (Ó Gráda 2007) and China in 1959–1961 (Meng, Qian and Yared 2015), the politics behind Holodomor have been a focus of historiographic debate. The most common interpretation is that Holodomor was 'terror by hunger' (Conquest 1987, 224), 'state aggression' (Applebaum 2017) and 'clearly premeditated mass murder' (Snyder 2010, 42). Others view it as an unintended by-product of Stalin's economic policies (Kotkin 2017; Naumenko 2017), precipitated by natural factors like adverse weather and crop infestation (Davies and Wheatcroft 1996; Tauger 2001).
207. Andriewsky, Olga (2015). "Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2: 37. doi:10.21226/T2301N. Historians of Ukraine are no longer debating whether the Famine was the result of natural causes (and even then not exclusively by them). The academic debate appears to come down to the issue of intentions, to whether the special measures undertaken in Ukraine in the winter of 1932–33 that intensified starvation were aimed at Ukrainians as such.
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228. United States Census (1930). "Indian Population of the United States" (PDF). 1930 Federal Population Census. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2024. At that time the mixed bloods had reached about 33 percent or the total. Since then, the population has steadily increased, but the number or full bloods has continued to decline. In 1910, 591, or 43.0%, claimed to be of full blood, but by 1930 the number of full bloods had declined to 545, or 23.3 percent.
229. Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3.
230. Morris & Ze'evi 2019, p. 1.
231. Robertson, Geoffrey (2016). "Armenia and the G-word: The Law and the Politics". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69–83. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3. Put another way – if these same events occurred today, there can be no doubt that prosecutions before the ICC of Talaat and other CUP officials for genocide, for persecution and for other crimes against humanity would succeed. Turkey would be held responsible for genocide and for persecution by the ICJ and would be required to make reparation.14 That Court would also hold Germany responsible for complicity with the genocide and persecution, since it had full knowledge of the massacres and deportations and decided not to use its power and influence over the Ottomans to stop them. But to the overarching legal question that troubles the international community today, namely whether the killings of Armenians in 1915 can properly be described as a genocide, the analysis in this chapter returns are sounding affirmative answer.
232. Lattanzi, Flavia (2018). "The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation?". The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law. Springer International Publishing. pp. 27–104. ISBN 978-3-319-78169-3. Starting from the claim by the Armenian community and the majority of historians that the 1915–1916 Armenian massacres and deportations constitute genocide as well as Turkey's fierce opposition to such a qualification, this paper investigates the possibility of identifying those massacres and deportations as the destruction of a nation. On the basis of a thorough analysis of the facts and the required mental element, the author shows that a deliberate destruction, in a substantial part, of the Armenian Christian nation as such, took place in those years. To come to this conclusion, this paper borrows the very same determinants as those used in the case-law of the Military Tribunals in occupied Germany, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in genocide cases.
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241. Jones 2010, p. 166: "An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period."
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