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Line of Control
Political map of the Kashmir region showing the Line of Control (LoC)
Characteristics
Entities	Pakistan India
Length	740 km (460 mi) to 776 km (482 mi)
History
Established	2 July 1972 Resulting from the ceasefire of 17 December 1971 and after ratification of the Shimla Treaty
Treaties	Simla Agreement

The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary, but serves as the de facto border. It was established as part of the Simla Agreement at the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Both nations agreed to rename the ceasefire line as the "Line of Control" and pledged to respect it without prejudice to their respective positions. Apart from minor details, the line is roughly the same as the original 1949 cease-fire line.

The part of the former princely state under Indian control is divided into the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. The Pakistani-controlled section is divided into Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan. The northernmost point of the Line of Control is known as NJ9842, beyond which lies the Siachen Glacier, which became a bone of contention in 1984. To the south of the Line of Control, (Sangam, Chenab River, Akhnoor), lies the border between Pakistani Punjab and the Jammu province, which has an ambiguous status: India regards it as an "international boundary", and Pakistan calls it a "working border".

Another ceasefire line separates the Indian-controlled state of Jammu and Kashmir from the Chinese-controlled area known as Aksai Chin. Lying further to the east, it is known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

Background

After the partition of India, present-day India and Pakistan contested the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir – India because of the ruler's accession to the country, and Pakistan by virtue of the state's Muslim-majority population. The First Kashmir War in 1947 lasted more than a year until a ceasefire was arranged through UN mediation. Both sides agreed on a ceasefire line.

After another Kashmir War in 1965, and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (which saw Bangladesh become independent), only minor modifications had been effected in the original ceasefire line. In the ensuing Simla Agreement in 1972, both countries agreed to convert the ceasefire line into a "Line of Control" (LoC) and observe it as a de facto border that armed action should not violate. The agreement declared that "neither side shall seek to alter it unilaterally, irrespective of mutual differences and legal interpretations". The United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) had the role of investigating ceasefire violations (CFVs), however their role decreased after 1971. In 2000, US President Bill Clinton referred to the Indian subcontinent and the Kashmir Line of Control, in particular, as one of the most dangerous places in the world.

Characteristics

Terrain

The LoC from Kargil to Gurez comprises mountain passes and valleys with small streams and rivers. The area up to around 14,000 feet (4,300 m) is wooded while the peaks rise higher. Winter is snowy while summers are mild. From Gurez to Akhnoor, the area is mountainous and hilly respectively and is generally forested. There are tracks and minor roads connecting settlements. The mix of flora and elevation affects visibility and line of sight significantly.

Ceasefire violations

In 2018, two corps and a number of battalions of the Border Security Force manned the Indian side of the LoC. The Rawalpindi Corps manned the Pakistani side. Ceasefire violations (CFV's) are initiated and committed by both sides and show a symmetry. The response to a CFV at one location can lead to shooting at an entirely different area. Weapons used on the LoC include small arms, rocket-propelled grenades, recoilless rifles, mortars, automatic grenade launchers, rocket launchers and a number of other direct and indirect weaponry. Military personnel on both sides risk being shot by snipers in moving vehicles, through bunker peepholes and during meals.

The civilian population at the LoC, at some points ahead of the forward most post, has complicated the situation. Shelling and firing by both sides along the LoC has resulted in civilian deaths. Bunkers have been constructed for these civilian populations for protection during periods of CFV's. India and Pakistan usually report only casualties on their own sides of the LoC, with the media blaming the other side for the firing and each side claiming an adequate retaliation.

According to Happymon Jacob, the reasons for CFVs along the LoC include operational reasons (defence construction like observation facilities, the rule of the gun, lack of bilateral mechanisms for border management, personality traits and the emotional state of soldiers and commanders), politico-strategic reasons, proportional response (land grab, sniping triggered, "I am better than you", revenge firing), accidental CFVs (civilian related, lack of clarity where the line is) and other reasons (like testing the new boys, honour, prestige and humiliation, fun, gamesmanship). Jacob ranks operational reasons as the main cause for CFVs, followed by retributive and politico-strategic reasons .

Landmines and IEDs

Mines have been laid across the India–Pakistan border and the LoC in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 2001. The small stretch of land between the rows of fencing is mined with thousands of landmines. During the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff thousands of acres of land along the LoC were mined. Both civilians and military personnel on both sides have died in mine and improvised explosive device (IED)-related blasts, and many more have been injured. Between January 2000 to April 2002, 138 military personnel were killed on the Indian side.

Posts and bunkers

Reinforced sandbagged and concrete posts and bunkers are among the first line of defence along the LoC. Armed soldiers man these positions with enough supplies for at least a week. The posts and bunkers allow soldiers to sleep, cook, and keep a watch on enemy positions round the clock. Some posts are located in remote locations. Animals are sometimes used to help transport loads, and at some posts animals are reared. The living quarters and the forward facing bunker are located at some distance apart. The locations of some posts do not follow any pre-ordained plan, rather they are in locations used during the First Kashmir War and the following cease-fire line, with minor adjustments made in 1972.

Indian LoC fencing

India constructed a 550-kilometre (340 mi) barrier along the 740 kilometres (460 mi)–776 kilometres (482 mi) LoC by 2004. The fence generally remains about 150 yards (140 m) on the Indian-controlled side. Its stated purpose is to exclude arms smuggling and infiltration by Pakistani-based separatist militants. The barrier, referred to as an Anti-Infiltration Obstacle System (AIOS), consists of double-row of fencing and concertina wire 8–12 feet (2.4–3.7 m) in height, and is electrified and connected to a network of motion sensors, thermal imaging devices, lighting systems and alarms. They act as "fast alert signals" for the Indian troops, who can be alerted and ambush the infiltrators trying to sneak in.

The barrier's construction began in the 1990s but slowed in the early 2000s as hostilities between India and Pakistan increased. After a November 2003 ceasefire agreement, building resumed and was completed in late 2004. LoC fencing was completed in the Kashmir Valley and Jammu region on 30 September 2004. According to Indian military sources, the fence has reduced the numbers of militants who routinely cross into the Indian side of the disputed region by 80%. In 2017, a proposal for an upgraded smart fence on the Indian side was accepted.

Border villages

A number of villages lie between the Indian fence and the zero line. Pakistan has not constructed a border fence, however a number of villages lie near the zero line. In the Tithwal area, 13 villages are in front of the Indian fence. The total number between the fence and zero line on the Indian side is estimated to be 60 villages and at least one million people are spread over the districts adjacent to the LoC from Rajouri to Bandipora.

Infiltration and military cross-LoC movement

According to the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, 1,504 "terrorists" attempted to infiltrate India in 2002. Infiltration was one of India's main issues during the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff. There has been a decrease in infiltration over the years. Only a select number of individuals are successful; in 2016, the Ministry reported 105 successful infiltrations. The Indian LoC fence has been constructed with a defensive mindset to counter infiltration. The reduction in infiltration also points to a reduction in support of such activities within Pakistan. During the 2019 Balakot airstrike, Indian planes crossed the LoC for the first time in 48 years.

Crossing points

Pakistan and India officially designated five crossing points following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake—Nauseri-Tithwal; Chakoti-Uri; Hajipur-Uri; Rawalakot-Poonch and Tattapani-Mendhar.

According to Azad Jammu and the Kashmir Cross LoC Travel and Trade Authority Act, 2016, the following crossing points are listed:

• Rawalakot–Poonch
• Chakothi–Uri
• Chaliana–Tithwal
• Tatta Pani–Mendher
• Haji Peer–Silli Kot

Trade points include: Chakothi – Salamabad and Rawalakot (Titrinote) – Poonch (Chakkan-da-Bagh). The ordinance passed in 2011.

Between 2005 and 2017, and according to Travel and Trade Authority figures, Muzaffarabad, Indian Kashmiris crossing over into Pakistan was about 14,000, while about 22,000 have crossed over to the Indian side. Crossing legally for civilians is not easy. A number of documents are required and verified by both countries, including proof of family on the other side. Even a short-term, temporary crossing invites interrogation by government agencies. The Indian and Pakistani military use these crossing points for flag meetings and to exchange sweets during special occasions and festivals. On 21 October 2008, for the first time in 61 years, cross-LoC trade was conducted between the two sides. Trade across the LoC is barter trade. In ten years, trade worth nearly PKR 11,446 crore or ₹5,000 crore (equivalent to ₹67 billion or US$780 million in 2023) has passed through the Chakothi – Salamabad crossing.

Chilliana – Teetwal

The Teetwal crossing is across the Neelum River between Muzaffarabad and Kupwara. It is usually open only during the summer months, and unlike the other two crossings is open only for the movement of people, not for trade. The Tithwal bridge, first built in 1931, has been rebuilt twice.

Chakothi – Salamabad

The Salamabad crossing point, or the Kamran Post, is on the road between Chakothi and Uri in the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir along the LoC. It is a major route for cross LoC trade and travel. Banking facilities and a trade facilitation centre are being planned on the Indian side. The English name for the bridge in Uri translates as "bridge of peace. The Indian Army rebuilt it after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake when a mountain on the Pakistani side caved in. This route was opened for trade in 2008 after being closed for 61 years. The Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus crosses this bridge on the LoC.

Tetrinote – Chakan Da Bagh

A road connects Kotli and Tatrinote on the Pakistan side of the LoC to the Indian Poonch district of Jammu and Kashmir through the Chakan Da Bagh crossing point. It is a major route for cross LoC trade and travel. Banking facilities and a trade facilitation centre are being planned on the Indian side for the benefit of traders.

Most of the flag meetings between Indian and Pakistani security forces are held here.

Tattapani – Mendhar

The fourth border crossing between Tattapani and Mendhar was opened on 14 November 2005.

Impact on civilians

The Line of Control divided the Kashmir into two and closed the Jhelum valley route, the only way in and out of the Kashmir Valley from Pakistani Punjab. This ongoing territorial division severed many villages and separated family members. Some families could see each other along the LoC in locations such as the Neelum River, but were unable to meet. In certain locations, women on the Pakistan side on the LoC have been instrumental in influencing infiltration and ceasefire violations; they have approached nearby Pakistani Army camps directly and insisted infiltration stop, which reduces India's cross LoC firing.

In popular culture

Documentaries covering the LoC and related events include A journey through River Vitasta, Raja Shabir Khan's Line of Control and HistoryTV18's Kargil: Valour & Victory. A number of Bollywood films on the 1999 Kargil conflict have involved depictions and scenes of the line of control including LOC: Kargil (2003), Lakshya (2004) and Gunjan Saxena: The Kargil Girl (2020). Other Bollywood films include Uri: The Surgical Strike (2019) and Bajrangi Bhaijaan (2015), and streaming television shows such as Avrodh (2020).

See also

• India–Pakistan relations
• Transport between India and Pakistan
• Actual Ground Position Line – the line of separation near the Siachen Glacier
• United Nations Military Observer Group in Kashmir

References

Notes

1. 767 kilometres (477 mi) long according to Mahmud Ali Durrani (2001)

Citations

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2. ^ Arora & Kumar 2016, p. 6.
3. Durrani 2001, p. 26.
4. Wirsing 1998, p. 13: 'With particular reference to Kashmir, they agreed that: ... in J&K, the Line of Control resulting from the ceasefire of December 17, 1971, shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognised position of either side.'
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Bibliography

• Wirsing, Robert G. (1998), "War or Peace on the Line of Control?", in Clive Schofield (ed.), Boundary and Territory Briefing, Volume 2, Number 5, ISBN 1-897643-31-4 (Page numbers cited per the e-document)
• Bharat, Meenakshi; Kumar, Nirmal, eds. (2012). Filming the Line of Control: The Indo–Pak Relationship through the Cinematic Lens. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-51606-1.
• — Budha, Kishore (2012), "1", Genre Development in the Age of Markets and Nationalism: The War Film
• Jacob, Happymon (2018). The Line of Control: Travelling with the Indian and Pakistani Armies. Penguin Random House India. ISBN 978-93-5305-352-9. (print version)
• — Jacob, Happymon (2018). Line on Fire: Ceasefire Violations and India–Pakistan Escalation Dynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-909547-6. (e-book version)
• Zakaria, Anam (2018). Between the Great Divide: A Journey into Pakistan-Administered Kashmir. India: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-93-5277-947-5.
• Hafeez, Mahwish (2014). "The Line of Control (LoC) Trade: A Ray of Hope". Strategic Studies. 34 (1). Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad: 74–93. ISSN 1029-0990. JSTOR 48527555.
• Arora, RK; Kumar, Manoj (November 2016), Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System: Implementation Challenges (PDF), Occasional Paper No. 100, Observer Research Foundation
• Durrani, Major General (Retd) Mahmud Ali (July 2001), Enhancing Security through a Cooperative Border Monitoring Experiment: A Proposal for India and Pakistan, Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy, Cooperative Monitoring Center, Sandia National Laboratories, doi:10.2172/783991, OSTI 783991

Further reading

• Akhtar, Shaheen (2017). "Living on the frontlines: Perspective from Poonch and Kotli region of AJK" (PDF). Journal of Political Studies. 24 (2).
• — Akhtar, Shaheen (2017). "Living on the Frontlines: Perspective from the Neelum Valley" (PDF). Margalla Papers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2020.
• Bali, Pawan; Akhtar, Shaheen (31 July 2017), Kashmir Line of Control and Grassroots Peacebuilding (PDF), United States Institute of Peace
• Jacob, Happymon (2017), Ceasefire violations in Jammu and Kashmir (PDF), United States Institute of Peace, ISBN 978-1-60127-672-8
• Kira, Altaf Hussain (September 2011), Cross-LoC trade in Kashmir: From Line of Control to Line of Commerce (PDF), IGIDR, Mumbai
• —Kira, Altaf Hussain (2011). "From Line of Control to Line of Commerce". Economic and Political Weekly. 46 (40): 16–18. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 23047415.
• Padder, Sajad A. (2015). "Cross-Line of Control Trade: Problem and Prospects". Journal of South Asian Studies. 3 (1): 37–48.
• Ranjan Kumar Singh (2007), Sarhad: Zero Mile (in Hindi), Parijat Prakashan, ISBN 81-903561-0-0
• "Relevance of Simla Agreement". Editorial Series. Khan Study Group. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2013.

Reports

• Smart border management: An Indian perspective (PDF), FICCI, PwC India, September 2016
• Smart border management: Contributing to a US$5 trillion economy (PDF), FICCI, Ernst & Young India, 2019, archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2021, retrieved 7 September 2021

Photographs

• "LoC: Line of Control" (Photo Gallery). Outlook India. Retrieved on 3 September 2021.
• — Photos 1 to 100
• — Photos 101 to 176

v t e India–Pakistan relations
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Diplomacy	Karachi Agreement Jinnah–Mountbatten talks Liaquat–Nehru Pact Evacuee Trust Property Board Indus Waters Treaty Permanent Indus Commission Tashkent Declaration Simla Agreement Delhi Agreement Protocol on Visits to Religious Shrines 1974 Non-Nuclear Aggression Agreement Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline Lahore Declaration Iran–Pakistan gas pipeline Agra Summit Indo-Pak Joint Judicial Committee India–Pakistan maritime trespassing Sir Creek Mahavir/Sadqi International Parade Ground
Conflicts	Partition of India Kashmir conflict Indian Armed Forces in Jammu and Kashmir Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir Annexation of Junagadh Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948 Insurgency in Balochistan Indo-Pakistani war of 1965 Operation Gibraltar Custodian for Enemy Property for India Bangladesh Liberation War Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 Pakistani Instrument of Surrender Islamabad–New Delhi hotline POWs Line of Control NJ9842 Siachen conflict Operation Tupac Kargil War Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Indian Army operations in Jammu and Kashmir 2008 Kashmir unrest 2010 Kashmir unrest 2016–2017 Kashmir unrest 2019–2021 lockdown Inter-Services Intelligence activities in India
Incidents	1947 Amritsar train massacre Indo-Pakistani water dispute of 1948 Sino-Pakistan Agreement Trans-Karakoram Tract 1959 Canberra shootdown 1971 Indian Airlines hijacking Kashmir Singh Samba spy scandal Indian Airlines Flight 423 Ravindra Kaushik Pan Am Flight 73 Operation Brasstacks Sarabjit Singh Sanaullah Haq 1992 India–Pakistan floods 1999 Pakistan Breguet 1150 Atlantic shootdown Beheading of Bhausaheb Maruti Talekar 2001 Indian Parliament attack 2001–2002 standoff 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings 2008 Mumbai attacks 2008 military standoff 2011 border skirmishes Khaleel Chishty 2013 border skirmishes 2014–2015 border skirmishes 2014 India–Pakistan floods 2014 Wagah border suicide attack Kulbhushan Jadhav 2016 Pathankot attack 2016 Uri attack 2016 Indian Line of Control strike 2016–2018 border skirmishes 2019 India–Pakistan border skirmishes 2019 Balakot airstrike 2019 Jammu and Kashmir airstrikes Media coverage 2020–2021 skirmishes 2021 Lahore bombing 2022 missile incident 2023 border skirmishes
Related	Border Wagah-Attari Attari–Wagah border ceremony Ganda Singh Wala-Hussainiwala Kartarpur Corridor Indians in Pakistan Pakistanis in India Anti-Indian sentiment Anti-Pakistan sentiment Illegal immigration to India East Bengali refugees Sports rivalries Cricket Field hockey Transport between India and Pakistan Delhi–Lahore Bus Jammu–Sialkot line Poonch-Rawalakot Bus Samjhauta Express Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus Thar Express Sind Mail Jinnah House Aaghaz-e-Dosti Aman ki Asha Indian reunification Indo-Pakistani Confederation Akhand Bharat Hindi–Urdu controversy Pakistani textbooks controversy Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project Nuclear arms race India and weapons of mass destruction Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism Bleed India with a Thousand Cuts New Concept of War Fighting Cold Start Foodistan Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy Inspiration: Aman Ki Aasha tour
Category:India–Pakistan relations

v t e Indian Armed Forces
Indian Army  Indian Navy  Indian Air Force
Leadership	President Prime Minister Minister of Defence Defence Secretary National Security Advisor Chief of Defence Staff (Chairman Chiefs of Staff Committee) Chief of the Army Staff Chief of the Naval Staff Chief of the Air Staff Vice Chief of Defence Staff Director General Armed Forces Medical Services Serving generals Serving admirals Serving marshals
Organisation	Ministry and committees/councils Ministry of Defence Department of Military Affairs Department of Defence Research and Development Department of Ex-servicemen Welfare National Security Council Cabinet Committee on Security Standing Committee on Defence Defence Planning Committee Nuclear Command Authority Integrated Defence Staff Defence Intelligence Agency Commands Joint Integrated Theatre Commands Andaman and Nicobar Command Commander-in-Chief Strategic Forces Command Commander-in-Chief Northern Theatre Command (India) Western Theatre Command (India) Maritime Theatre Command Defence Cyber Agency Defence Space Agency Armed Forces Special Operations Division Army Central Command Eastern Command Northern Command Southern Command South Western Command Western Command Army Training Command Navy Western Naval Command Eastern Naval Command Southern Naval Command Air Force Central Air Command Eastern Air Command Southern Air Command South Western Air Command Western Air Command Training Command Maintenance Command Other components Indian Coast Guard National Cadet Corps Paramilitary forces Special forces Territorial Army Border Roads Organisation
Personnel	Military Academies Ranks and insignia Army Navy Air Force Coast Guard Border Roads Organisation Paramilitary forces Awards and Decorations
Operations	Wars Indo-Pakistani wars 1947–1948 1965 Battle of Asal Uttar Battle of Chawinda 1971 Naval War Air War Battle of Chamb Operation Trident Operation Cactus-Lilly Battle of Longewala Kargil War Sino-Indian War External conflicts Kashmir conflict Korean War Siachen conflict Indo-Pakistani border skirmishes Operation Parakram 2011 2013 2014–2015 2016–2018 2019 Balakot airstrike Congo Crisis Sino-Indian border skirmish 1987 Nathu La and Cho La clashes Doklam standoff 2020 Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War Operation Cactus Evacuation of Indian civilians from Kuwait Piracy off the coast of Somalia Operation Raahat Operation Devi Shakti Indo-Myanmar border strike Annexations Operation Polo (Hyderabad) Operation Vijay (Portuguese India - Goa, Damaon, Silvassa & Diu) Junagadh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Insurgencies Northeast India Punjab Operation Blue Star Operation Woodrose Kashmir Counter-insurgency operations LOC surgical strike
Equipment	Defence Research and Development Organisation Ordnance Factory Board Ballistic missiles Weapons of mass destruction Army List of equipment of the Indian Army Navy Active Ships Historical Ships Weapon Systems Future Air Force Active Aircraft Historical Aircraft Aircraft Squadrons Future
Documents	Indian Maritime Security Strategy
Other topics	President's fleet review History President's Colour Award Women in the Indian Armed Forces Armed Forces Flag Day Armed Forces Tribunal Indian Armed Forces rank flags Indian military bands National War Memorial Amar Jawan Jyoti
Category Army Navy Air Force

v t e Pakistan Armed Forces
Military history of Pakistan
Leadership	Commander-in-Chief President of Pakistan Chief Executive Prime Minister of Pakistan Parliament Senate Committee on Defence National Assembly Committee on Defence Cabinet Committee on National Security National Security Council Ministers Defence Secretary Defence Production Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman Chief of Army Staff Chief of Air Staff Chief of Naval Staff
Services	Army Navy Marines Air Force Inter-Services Intelligence Public Relations Selection Board National Command Authority Nursing Service Armed Forces Band
Paramilitary	Civil Armed Forces National Guard Strategic Plans Division Force
Personnel	Awards and decorations Women Ranks and insignia Army Navy Marines Air Force
Business interests	Pakistani Defence Industry Defence Housing Authority Foundations Fauji (Joint) Askari (Army) Bahria (Navy) Shaheen (Air Force)
Criticism	Establishment Gang of Four Bangladesh genocide
Categories (Army • Air Force • Navy)

• History of Azad Kashmir
• History of Gilgit-Baltistan
• Politics of the Kashmir conflict
• History of the Republic of India
• India–Pakistan border
• Separation barriers
• Territorial disputes of India
• Territorial disputes of Pakistan