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{{Short description|Peninsula in northwestern Turkey}} {{Short description|Peninsula in northwestern Turkey}}
{{About|the peninsula|the eponymous town|Gelibolu|other uses|Gallipoli (disambiguation)}} {{About|the peninsula|other uses|Gallipoli (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
] ]
] in Gallipoli]] ] in Gallipoli]]
The '''Gallipoli''' ] ({{IPAc-en|ɡ|ə|ˈ|l|ɪ|p|əl|i|,_|ɡ|æ|-}};{{refn|{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2 }}}} {{lang-tr|Gelibolu Yarımadası}}; {{lang-grc|Χερσόνησος της Καλλίπολης}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Chersónisos tis Kallípolis}}) is located in the southern part of ], the ]an part of ], with the ] to the west and the ] strait to the east. The '''Gallipoli''' ] ({{IPAc-en|ɡ|ə|ˈ|l|ɪ|p|əl|i|,_|ɡ|æ|-}};{{refn|{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2}}}} {{langx|tr|Gelibolu Yarımadası}}; {{langx|el|Χερσόνησος της Καλλίπολης|Chersónisos tis Kallípolis}}) is located in the southern part of ], the ]an part of ], with the ] to the west and the ] strait to the east.


Gallipoli is the Italian form of the ] name {{lang|grc|Καλλίπολις}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|Kallípolis}}), meaning 'beautiful city',<ref name="lid">{{cite book |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkalli%2Fpolis |chapter=Καλλίπολις |first1=Henry George |last1=Liddell |author1-link=Henry Liddell |first2=Robert |last2=Scott |author2-link=Robert Scott (philologist) |title=A Greek–English Lexicon |others=Revised and augmented throughout by Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1940 |via=Perseus Digital Library Project |access-date=2020-08-28 }}</ref> the original name of the modern town of ]. In ], the peninsula was known as the '''Thracian Chersonese''' ({{lang-grc|Θρακικὴ Χερσόνησος}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Thrakiké Chersónesos}}; {{lang-la|Chersonesus Thracica}}). Gallipoli is the Italian form of the ] name {{lang|grc|Καλλίπολις}} ({{transl|grc|Kallípolis}}), meaning 'beautiful city',<ref name="lid">{{cite book |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkalli%2Fpolis |chapter=Καλλίπολις |first1=Henry George |last1=Liddell |author1-link=Henry Liddell |first2=Robert |last2=Scott |author2-link=Robert Scott (philologist) |title=A Greek–English Lexicon |others=Revised and augmented throughout by Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1940 |via=Perseus Digital Library Project |access-date=2020-08-28 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051701/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkalli%2Fpolis |url-status=live }}</ref> the original name of the modern town of ]. In ], the peninsula was known as the '''Thracian Chersonese''' ({{langx|grc|Θρακικὴ Χερσόνησος|Thrakiké Chersónesos}}; {{langx|la|Chersonesus Thracica}}).


The peninsula runs in a south-westerly direction into the Aegean Sea, between the ] (formerly known as the Hellespont), and the ] (formerly the bay of Melas). In ], it was protected by the ],<ref name="Brownson1921">{{cite book |title=Hellenica, Volume II |author=Xenophon |translator-last=Brownson |translator-first=Carleton L. |date=January 1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/xenophonmemorabi00xeno |publisher=] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780674990999 |author-link=Xenophon |translator-link=Carleton Lewis Brownson |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="Oldfather1933">{{cite book |title=Library of History, Volume I |author=Diodorus Siculus |url=https://archive.org/details/diodorussiculus09diod |date=January 1933 |translator-last=Oldfather |translator-first=Charles H. |publisher=] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780674993075 |author-link=Diodorus Siculus |translator-link=Charles Henry Oldfather |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="Pliny1855">{{cite book |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137&redirect=true |title=The Natural History |author-last=Plinius Secundus |author-first=Gaius |date=1855 |editor-last1=Bostock |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Riley |editor-first2=Henry Thomas |publisher=H. G. Bohn |location=London |author-link=Pliny the Elder |editor-link1=John Bostock (physician) |editor-link2=Henry Thomas Riley }}</ref><ref name="Plutarch1919">{{cite book |title=Lives |author=Plutarch |translator-last=Perrin |translator-first=Bernadotte |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0072%3Achapter%3D19%3Asection%3D1 |language=grc |date=January 1919 |publisher=] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780674991101|author-link=Plutarch |translator-link=Bernadotte Perrin }}</ref> a defensive structure built across the narrowest part of the peninsula near the ancient city of ]. The ] traversed by the wall was only 36 ] in breadth<ref name="herod_6.36_xen_3.2_scy_67">], ''The Histories'', ; Xenophon, ibid.; Pseudo-Scylax, '']'', 67 ()</ref> or about {{cvt|6.5|km}}, but the length of the peninsula from this wall to its southern extremity, Cape Mastusia, was 420 stadia<ref name="herod_6.36_xen_3.2_scy_67"/> or about {{cvt|77.5|km}}. The peninsula runs in a south-westerly direction into the Aegean Sea, between the ] (formerly known as the Hellespont), and the ] (formerly the bay of Melas). In ], it was protected by the ],<ref name="Brownson1921">{{cite book |title=Hellenica, Volume II |author=Xenophon |translator-last=Brownson |translator-first=Carleton L. |date=January 1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/xenophonmemorabi00xeno |publisher=] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780674990999 |author-link=Xenophon |translator-link=Carleton Lewis Brownson |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Oldfather1933">{{cite book |title=Library of History, Volume I |author=Diodorus Siculus |url=https://archive.org/details/diodorussiculus09diod |date=January 1933 |translator-last=Oldfather |translator-first=Charles H. |publisher=] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780674993075 |author-link=Diodorus Siculus |translator-link=Charles Henry Oldfather |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Pliny1855">{{cite book |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137&redirect=true |title=The Natural History |author-last=Plinius Secundus |author-first=Gaius |date=1855 |editor-last1=Bostock |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Riley |editor-first2=Henry Thomas |publisher=H. G. Bohn |location=London |author-link=Pliny the Elder |editor-link1=John Bostock (physician) |editor-link2=Henry Thomas Riley |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224102938/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137&redirect=true |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Plutarch1919">{{cite book |title=Lives |author=Plutarch |translator-last=Perrin |translator-first=Bernadotte |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0072%3Achapter%3D19%3Asection%3D1 |language=grc |date=January 1919 |publisher=] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780674991101 |author-link=Plutarch |translator-link=Bernadotte Perrin |access-date=25 December 2021 |archive-date=25 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225185610/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0072:chapter%3D19:section%3D1 |url-status=live }}</ref> a defensive structure built across the narrowest part of the peninsula near the ancient city of ]. The ] traversed by the wall was only 36 ] in breadth<ref name="herod_6.36_xen_3.2_scy_67">], ''The Histories'', ; Xenophon, ibid.; Pseudo-Scylax, '']'', 67 ( {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612100745/http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/gjs/skylax_for_www_02214.pdf |date=12 June 2009 }})</ref> or about {{cvt|6.5|km}}, but the length of the peninsula from this wall to its southern extremity, Cape Mastusia, was 420 stadia<ref name="herod_6.36_xen_3.2_scy_67"/> or about {{cvt|77.5|km}}.


==History== ==History==


===Antiquity and Middle Ages=== ===Antiquity and Middle Ages===
] ]
In ancient times, the Gallipoli Peninsula was known as the Thracian Chersonesus (from ] {{lang|grc|χερσόνησος}}, 'peninsula'<ref name="lid" />) to the Greeks and later the Romans. It was the location of several prominent towns, including ], ], Callipolis (Gallipoli), Alopeconnesus ({{lang|grc|Ἀλωπεκόννησος}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wikimapia.org/18225845/Alopeconnesus |title=Alopeconnesus |work=wikimapia.org }}</ref> ], ], and ]. The peninsula was renowned for its ]. It also benefited from its strategic importance on the main route between ] and ], as well as from its control of the shipping route from ]. The city of Sestos was the main crossing-point on the ]. In ancient times, the Gallipoli Peninsula was known as the ] (from ] {{lang|grc|χερσόνησος}}, 'peninsula'<ref name="lid" />) to the Greeks and later the Romans. It was the location of several prominent towns, including ], ], Callipolis (Gallipoli), Alopeconnesus ({{lang|grc|Ἀλωπεκόννησος}}), ], ], and ]. The peninsula was renowned for its ]. It also benefited from its strategic importance on the main route between ] and ], as well as from its control of the shipping route from ]. The city of Sestos was the main crossing-point on the ].


According to ], the Thracian tribe of ] ({{lang|grc|Δόλογκοι}}) (or 'barbarians' according to Cornelius Nepos) held possession of Chersonesus before the Greek colonization. Then, settlers from ], mainly of ]n and ] stock, founded about 12 cities on the peninsula in the 7th century BC.<ref name="herod_6.34_nepos_1">Herodotus, ; ], ''Lives of Eminent Commanders'', "Miltiades", </ref> The ] statesman ] founded a major Athenian colony there around 560 BC. He took authority over the entire peninsula, augmenting its defences against incursions from the mainland. It eventually passed to his nephew, the more famous ], about 524 BC. The peninsula was abandoned to the ] in 493 BC after the beginning of the ] (499–478 BC). According to ], the Thracian tribe of ] ({{lang|grc|Δόλογκοι}}) (or 'barbarians' according to ]) held possession of the peninsula before Greek colonizers arrived. Then, settlers from ], mainly of ]n and ] stock, founded about 12 cities on the peninsula in the 7th century BC.<ref name="herod_6.34_nepos_1">Herodotus, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062722/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=25 April 2023 }}; ], ''Lives of Eminent Commanders'', "Miltiades", {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107233658/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nepos.htm#Miltiades |date=7 November 2017 }}</ref> The ] statesman ] founded a major Athenian colony there around 560 BC. He took authority over the entire peninsula, augmenting its defences against incursions from the mainland. It eventually passed to his nephew, the more famous ], about 524 BC. The peninsula was abandoned to the ] in 493 BC after the beginning of the ] (499–478 BC).


The Persians were eventually expelled, after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the ] in 478 BC. The Athenians established a number of ] on the Thracian Chersonese and sent an additional 1,000 settlers around 448 BC. Sparta gained control after the decisive battle of ] in 404 BC, but the peninsula subsequently reverted to the Athenians. During the 4th century BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and ], whose king ] sought possession. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC. The Persians were eventually expelled, after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the ] in 478 BC. The Athenians established a number of ] on the Thracian Chersonese and sent an additional 1,000 settlers around 448 BC. ] gained control after the decisive ] in 404 BC, but the peninsula subsequently reverted to the Athenians. During the 4th century BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and ], whose king ] sought its possession. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC.


After the death of Philip's son ] in 323 BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the object of contention among ]. ] established his capital ] here. In 278 BC, Celtic tribes from ] in Asia Minor settled in the area. In 196 BC, the ] king ] seized the peninsula. This alarmed the Greeks and prompted them to seek the aid of the ], who conquered the Thracian Chersonese, which they gave to their ally ] of ] in 188 BC. At the extinction of the ] in 133 BC it passed again to the Romans, who from 129 BC administered it in the Roman province of ]. It was subsequently made a state-owned territory ({{lang|la|ager publicus}}) and during the reign of the emperor ] it was imperial property. After the death of Philip's son ] in 323 BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the object of contention among ]. ] established his capital ] here. In 278 BC, ] from ] in Asia Minor settled in the area. In 196 BC, the ] king ] seized the peninsula. This alarmed the Greeks and prompted them to seek the aid of the ], who conquered the Thracian Chersonese, which they gave to their ally ] of ] in 188 BC. At the extinction of the ] in 133 BC it passed again to the Romans, who from 129 BC administered it in the ] of ]. It was subsequently made a state-owned territory ({{lang|la|]}}) and during the reign of the emperor ] it was imperial property.
] ]


The Thracian Chersonese was part of the ] from its foundation in 330 AD. In 443 AD, ] invaded the Gallipoli Peninsula during one of the last stages of his grand campaign that year. He captured both Callipolis and Sestus.<ref>{{cite book |title=Attila the Hun: Barbarian Terror and the Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-YN6NwHqq4C |publisher=Vintage |page=105 |isbn=978-1844139156 |date=2011}}</ref> Aside from a brief period from 1204 to 1235, when it was controlled by the ], the ] ruled the territory until 1356. During the night between 1 and 2 March 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses. The Thracian Chersonese was part of the ] from its foundation in 395 AD. In 443 AD, ] invaded the Gallipoli Peninsula during one of the last stages of his grand campaign that year. He captured both Callipolis and Sestus.<ref>{{cite book |title=Attila the Hun: Barbarian Terror and the Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-YN6NwHqq4C |publisher=Vintage |page=105 |isbn=978-1844139156 |date=2011 |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062720/https://books.google.com/books?id=f-YN6NwHqq4C |url-status=live }}</ref> Aside from a brief period from 1204 to 1235, when it was controlled by the ], the ] ruled the territory until 1356. During the night between 1 and 2 March 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses.


===Ottoman era=== ===Ottoman era===
Line 29: Line 29:


====Ottoman conquest==== ====Ottoman conquest====
Within a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the ] ] the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the ].<ref>Crowley, Roger. 1453: ''The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West''. New York: Hyperion, 2005. p 31 {{ISBN|1-4013-0850-3}}.</ref> The ] recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376. The ] living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities. In the 19th century, Gallipoli ({{lang-ota|گلیبولو}}, {{lang|tr|Gelibolu}}) was a district ({{lang|tr|]}}) in the ], with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.<ref>{{Catholic|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03183c.htm|title=Callipolis|inline=yes}}</ref> Within a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the ] ] the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the ].<ref>Crowley, Roger. 1453: ''The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West''. New York: Hyperion, 2005. p 31 {{ISBN|1-4013-0850-3}}.</ref> The ] recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376. The ] living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities. In the 19th century, Gallipoli ({{langx|ota|گلیبولو}}, {{lang|tr|Gelibolu}}) was a district ({{lang|tr|]}}) in the ], with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.<ref>{{Catholic |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03183c.htm|title=Callipolis|inline=yes}}</ref>


====Crimean War (1853–1856)==== ====Crimean War (1853–1856)====
] ]
Gallipoli became a major ] for British and French forces in 1854 during the ], and the harbour was also a stopping-off point between the western Mediterranean and ] (formerly ]).<ref name="Plus">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Crimea/Black_Sea_1854/04_28.html |title=Crimea |access-date=11 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222234538/http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Crimea/Black_Sea_1854/04_28.html |archive-date=22 February 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Victorian">{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/history/crimea/usher/despatch.html |title=Charles Usherwood's Service Journal, 1852–1856: despatch |work=victorianweb.org}}</ref> Gallipoli became a major ] for British and French forces in 1854 during the ], and the harbour was also a stopping-off point between the western Mediterranean and ] (formerly ]).<ref name="Plus">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Crimea/Black_Sea_1854/04_28.html |title=Crimea |access-date=11 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222234538/http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Crimea/Black_Sea_1854/04_28.html |archive-date=22 February 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Victorian">{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/history/crimea/usher/despatch.html |title=Charles Usherwood's Service Journal, 1852–1856: despatch |work=victorianweb.org |access-date=2 July 2006 |archive-date=28 November 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021128225126/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/crimea/usher/despatch.html |url-status=live }}</ref>


In March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an {{cvt|11.5|km}} line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and so secure control of the route to the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Maj Gen Whitworth |title=History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I |year=1889 |publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers |location=Chatham}}</ref>{{rp|414}} In March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an {{cvt|11.5|km}} line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and secure control of the route to the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Maj Gen Whitworth |title=History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I |year=1889 |publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers |location=Chatham}}</ref>{{rp|414}}


====First Balkan War (1912–1913)==== ====First Balkan War (1912–1913)====
During the ], the 1913 ] and several minor skirmishes took place where the Ottoman army fought in the Greek villages near Gallipoli".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shirinian |first1=George N. |title=Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 |date=2017 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1785334320 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SlwEDQAAQBAJ |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062720/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlwEDQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Astourian |first1=Stephan |title=Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State |date=2020 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78920-450-6 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ3UDwAAQBAJ |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062719/https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ3UDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European war">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Carroll N |last2=Papadopoulos |first2=Alexander |title=Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European war |date=1919 |publisher=Oxford university press |page=52 |url=https://archive.org/details/persecutionsofgr00papa}}</ref> The ] mention destruction and massacres in the area by the Ottoman army against Greek and Bulgarian population.<ref>{{cite book |title=Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan War |date=1914 |publisher=Washington, D.C. |page=132 |url=https://archive.org/details/reportofinternat00inteuoft/page/132/mode/2up}}</ref>
During the ], the 1913 ] and several minor skirmishes took place there.

At 1913 the Ottoman army "destroyed, looted, and burned all the Greek villages near Gallipoli".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shirinian |first1=George N. |title=Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 |date=2017 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1785334320 |page=42 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SlwEDQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Astourian |first1=Stephan |title=Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State |date=2020 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78920-450-6 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ3UDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>


The Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours. The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to ]. Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers. After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return. But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918"/> The Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours. The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to ]. Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers. After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return. But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918"/>


====World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1919)==== ====World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918)====
{{Main|Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli Peninsula Historical Site}} {{Main|Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli Peninsula Historical Site}}
] ]
] ]


During World War I (1914-1918), French, British and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the ] (1915-1916) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, ]. The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces. During World War I (1914–1918), French, British, and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the ] (1915–1916) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, ]. The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces.


In early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing ] (formerly ]), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British and British Empire forces. The first Australian troops landed at ] early in the morning of 25 April 1915. After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916. In early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing the ] at ] (formerly ]), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British, and British Empire forces. The first Australian troops landed at ] early in the morning of 25 April 1915. After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916.


The campaign, one of the greatest ] victories during the war, is considered by historians as a major ] failure. ] regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history: a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. The struggle formed the basis for the ]{{citation needed|date=September 2019}} and the founding of the Republic of Turkey{{citation needed|date=September 2019}} eight years later under President ], who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli. The campaign, one of the greatest ] victories during the war, is considered by historians as a humiliating ] failure. ] regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history and national identity,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gallipoli: a Turkish view {{!}} Australian War Memorial |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/visit/exhibitions/gallipoli#:~:text=The%20events%20of%201915%20created,status%20within%20Turkey's%20national%20identity |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.awm.gov.au}}</ref> contributing to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under President ], who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli.


The Ottoman Empire instituted the ] as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I. The Ottoman Empire instituted the ] as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I.


The campaign was the first major military action of ] and ] (or ]) as independent ]s. The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as "]". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and ] in Australia and New Zealand. The campaign was the first major military action of ] and ] (or ]) as independent ]s, setting a foundation for Australian and New Zealand military history, and contributing to their developing national identities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2024 |title=Chapter 1 - The Significance of the Gallipoli Peninsula |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Finance_and_Public_Administration/Completed_inquiries/2004-07/gallipoli/report/d01b#:~:text=The%20national%20significance%20of%20the,and%20remembrance%2C%20into%20iconic%20status. |website=Parliament of Australia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gallipoli in brief {{!}} NZ History |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/the-gallipoli-campaign/gallipoli-in-brief#:~:text=In%20New%20Zealand%20(and%20Australia,grew%20out%20of%20this%20pride. |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=nzhistory.govt.nz}}</ref> The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as "]". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and ] in Australia and New Zealand.

On the Allied side one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's ], ], whose bullish optimism hurt his reputation that took years to recover.

Whilst the underlying strategic concept of the campaign was sound the military forces of the WW1 lacked the logistical, technological and tactical capabilities to undertake an operation of this scope against a determined, well equipped defender.


On the Allied side, one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's ], ], whose bullish optimism caused damage to his reputation that took years to repair.
The all arms coordination and logistical capabilities required to successfully prosecute such a campaign would only be achieved several decades later, during the successful Allied amphibious invasions of Europe and the Pacific during WW2.


Prior to the Allied landings in April 1915,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6k5HzkboGvcC|title=The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power|first=Sean|last=McMeekin|date=7 May 2012|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674058538|via=Google Books}}</ref> the Ottoman Empire deported ] from Gallipoli and surrounding region and from the islands in the ], to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks.<ref name="Terrible Fate">{{cite book |last= Lieberman |first=Benjamin |title=Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UXlfAgAAQBAJ| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|date=December 2013 |pages=96–97 |isbn=978-1442223196}}</ref> The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government.<ref name="Terrible Fate"/> The Turks also plundered Greek houses and properties.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenationalherald.com/128395/the-meaning-of-gallipoli-to-hellenism/|title=The Meaning of Gallipoli to Hellenism}}</ref> A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing-room only; how, on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the ] of the Ottoman army) and how the rest were "scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle".{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Prior to the Allied landings in April 1915,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6k5HzkboGvcC |title=The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power |first=Sean |last=McMeekin |date=7 May 2012 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674058538 |via=Google Books |access-date=25 November 2021 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062721/https://books.google.com/books?id=6k5HzkboGvcC |url-status=live }}</ref> the Ottoman Empire deported ] from Gallipoli and the surrounding region and from the islands in the ], to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks.<ref name="Terrible Fate">{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Benjamin |title=Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UXlfAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |date=December 2013 |pages=96–97 |isbn=978-1442223196 |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062722/https://books.google.com/books?id=UXlfAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government.<ref name="Terrible Fate"/> The Turks then plundered the houses and properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenationalherald.com/128395/the-meaning-of-gallipoli-to-hellenism/ |title=The Meaning of Gallipoli to Hellenism |access-date=15 October 2017 |archive-date=15 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015202301/https://www.thenationalherald.com/128395/the-meaning-of-gallipoli-to-hellenism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing-room only, then on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the ] of the Ottoman army). The rest were "scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle."{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}


The Metropolitan of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical.<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/persecutionofgre00consrich|title=Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey, 1914–1918|date=1919|publisher=Constantinople }}</ref> He also mentions that "The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off. The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...".<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918"/> Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape among women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to ].<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918"/> In some cases, ] appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they didn't leave.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Morris |first1=Benny |last2=Ze'evi |first2=Dror |title=The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THSPDwAAQBAJ&q=greek%2BGallipoli%2Bdeportee |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=April 2019 |page=338 |isbn=978-0674916456}}</ref> The ] of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical.<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/persecutionofgre00consrich |title=Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey, 1914–1918 |date=1919 |publisher=Constantinople }}</ref> He also mentions that "The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off. The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...".<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918"/> Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape of women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to ].<ref name="Persecution_of_the_Greeks_in_Turkey_1914_1918"/> In some cases, ] appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants were deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they did not leave.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Benny |last2=Ze'evi |first2=Dror |title=The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THSPDwAAQBAJ&q=greek%2BGallipoli%2Bdeportee |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=April 2019 |page=338 |isbn=978-0674916456 |access-date=3 May 2021 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425062720/https://books.google.com/books?id=THSPDwAAQBAJ&q=greek%2BGallipoli%2Bdeportee |url-status=live }}</ref>


====Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)==== ====Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)====
Greek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the ], considered part of the ]. After the ] of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as ''Kallipolis''. However, Greece was forced to withdraw from Eastern Thrace after the ] of October 1922. Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922. Greek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the ], considered part of the ]. After the ] of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as ''Kallipolis''. However, Greece was forced to cede Eastern Thrace after the ] of October 1922. Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922.


In 1920, after the defeat of the ] of General ], a significant number of ] and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the ]. From there, many went to European countries, such as ], where they found refuge. In 1920, after the defeat of the ] of General ], a significant number of ] and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the ]. From there, many went to European countries, such as ], where they found refuge.
Line 80: Line 74:


==Notable people== ==Notable people==
* ] (1398 – {{circa|1466}}), author *] (1398 – {{circa|1466}}), author
* ] (1465/70 – 1553<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/19/821/10412.pdf |title=Ana Sayfa}}</ref>), admiral, geographer and cartographer *] (1465/70 – 1553<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/19/821/10412.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206015913/http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/19/821/10412.pdf |archive-date=2020-02-06 |url-status=live |title=Ana Sayfa}}</ref>), admiral, geographer and cartographer
* ] (1541–1600), Ottoman historian, politician and writer *] (1541–1600), Ottoman historian, politician and writer
* ] (1910–1978), Greek singer and actress *] (1910–1978), Greek singer and actress


==References== ==References==
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==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons category|Gallipoli (Turkey)}} {{Commons category|Gallipoli (Turkey)}}
* {{Wikivoyage-inline|Gallipoli}} *{{Wikivoyage inline|Gallipoli}}
* *
* * {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817172634/https://rsltours.com/ |date=17 August 2020 }}
* *


{{Peninsulas of Turkey}} {{Peninsulas of Turkey}}
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{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}


{{Coord|40|21|N|26|28|E|source:cawiki_region:TR_scale:1000000|display=title}} {{Coord|40|21|N|26|27|E|region:TR_scale:1000000|display=title}}


] ]

Latest revision as of 20:26, 25 November 2024

Peninsula in northwestern Turkey This article is about the peninsula. For other uses, see Gallipoli (disambiguation).

Satellite image of the Gallipoli peninsula and surrounding area
ANZAC Cove in Gallipoli

The Gallipoli peninsula (/ɡəˈlɪpəli, ɡæ-/; Turkish: Gelibolu Yarımadası; Greek: Χερσόνησος της Καλλίπολης, romanizedChersónisos tis Kallípolis) is located in the southern part of East Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles strait to the east.

Gallipoli is the Italian form of the Greek name Καλλίπολις (Kallípolis), meaning 'beautiful city', the original name of the modern town of Gelibolu. In antiquity, the peninsula was known as the Thracian Chersonese (Ancient Greek: Θρακικὴ Χερσόνησος, romanizedThrakiké Chersónesos; Latin: Chersonesus Thracica).

The peninsula runs in a south-westerly direction into the Aegean Sea, between the Dardanelles (formerly known as the Hellespont), and the Gulf of Saros (formerly the bay of Melas). In antiquity, it was protected by the Long Wall, a defensive structure built across the narrowest part of the peninsula near the ancient city of Agora. The isthmus traversed by the wall was only 36 stadia in breadth or about 6.5 km (4.0 mi), but the length of the peninsula from this wall to its southern extremity, Cape Mastusia, was 420 stadia or about 77.5 km (48.2 mi).

History

Antiquity and Middle Ages

Map of the Thracian Chersonese

In ancient times, the Gallipoli Peninsula was known as the Thracian Chersonese (from Greek χερσόνησος, 'peninsula') to the Greeks and later the Romans. It was the location of several prominent towns, including Cardia, Pactya, Callipolis (Gallipoli), Alopeconnesus (Ἀλωπεκόννησος), Sestos, Madytos, and Elaeus. The peninsula was renowned for its wheat. It also benefited from its strategic importance on the main route between Europe and Asia, as well as from its control of the shipping route from Crimea. The city of Sestos was the main crossing-point on the Hellespont.

According to Herodotus, the Thracian tribe of Dolonci (Δόλογκοι) (or 'barbarians' according to Cornelius Nepos) held possession of the peninsula before Greek colonizers arrived. Then, settlers from Ancient Greece, mainly of Ionian and Aeolian stock, founded about 12 cities on the peninsula in the 7th century BC. The Athenian statesman Miltiades the Elder founded a major Athenian colony there around 560 BC. He took authority over the entire peninsula, augmenting its defences against incursions from the mainland. It eventually passed to his nephew, the more famous Miltiades the Younger, about 524 BC. The peninsula was abandoned to the Persians in 493 BC after the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars (499–478 BC).

The Persians were eventually expelled, after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the Delian League in 478 BC. The Athenians established a number of cleruchies on the Thracian Chersonese and sent an additional 1,000 settlers around 448 BC. Sparta gained control after the decisive Battle of Aegospotami in 404 BC, but the peninsula subsequently reverted to the Athenians. During the 4th century BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and Macedon, whose king Philip II sought its possession. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC.

After the death of Philip's son Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the object of contention among Alexander's successors. Lysimachus established his capital Lysimachia here. In 278 BC, Celtic tribes from Galatia in Asia Minor settled in the area. In 196 BC, the Seleucid king Antiochus III seized the peninsula. This alarmed the Greeks and prompted them to seek the aid of the Romans, who conquered the Thracian Chersonese, which they gave to their ally Eumenes II of Pergamon in 188 BC. At the extinction of the Attalid dynasty in 133 BC it passed again to the Romans, who from 129 BC administered it in the Roman province of Asia. It was subsequently made a state-owned territory (ager publicus) and during the reign of the emperor Augustus it was imperial property.

Map of the peninsula and its surroundings

The Thracian Chersonese was part of the Eastern Roman Empire from its foundation in 395 AD. In 443 AD, Attila the Hun invaded the Gallipoli Peninsula during one of the last stages of his grand campaign that year. He captured both Callipolis and Sestus. Aside from a brief period from 1204 to 1235, when it was controlled by the Republic of Venice, the Byzantine Empire ruled the territory until 1356. During the night between 1 and 2 March 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses.

Ottoman era

Further information: Sanjak of Gelibolu

Ottoman conquest

Within a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the Ottomans besieged and captured the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the Balkans. The Savoyard Crusade recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376. The Greeks living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities. In the 19th century, Gallipoli (Ottoman Turkish: گلیبولو, Gelibolu) was a district (kaymakamlik) in the Vilayet of Adrianople, with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.

Crimean War (1853–1856)

The port of Gallipoli, c. 1880

Gallipoli became a major encampment for British and French forces in 1854 during the Crimean War, and the harbour was also a stopping-off point between the western Mediterranean and Istanbul (formerly Constantinople).

In March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an 11.5 km (7.1 mi) line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and secure control of the route to the Mediterranean Sea.

First Balkan War (1912–1913)

During the First Balkan War, the 1913 Battle of Bulair and several minor skirmishes took place where the Ottoman army fought in the Greek villages near Gallipoli". The Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars mention destruction and massacres in the area by the Ottoman army against Greek and Bulgarian population.

The Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours. The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to Gallipoli. Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers. After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return. But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.

World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918)

Main articles: Gallipoli Campaign and Gallipoli Peninsula Historical Site
Landing at Gallipoli in April 1915
The Sphinx overlooking Anzac Cove

During World War I (1914–1918), French, British, and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, Russia. The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces.

In early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing the Bosporus Strait at Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British, and British Empire forces. The first Australian troops landed at ANZAC Cove early in the morning of 25 April 1915. After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916.

The campaign, one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, is considered by historians as a humiliating Allied failure. Turks regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history and national identity, contributing to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli.

The Ottoman Empire instituted the Gallipoli Star as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I.

The campaign was the first major military action of Australia and New Zealand (or ANZACs) as independent dominions, setting a foundation for Australian and New Zealand military history, and contributing to their developing national identities. The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as "ANZAC Day". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and "returned soldiers" in Australia and New Zealand.

On the Allied side, one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, whose bullish optimism caused damage to his reputation that took years to repair.

Prior to the Allied landings in April 1915, the Ottoman Empire deported Greek residents from Gallipoli and the surrounding region and from the islands in the sea of Marmara, to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks. The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government. The Turks then plundered the houses and properties. A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing-room only, then on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the labour battalions of the Ottoman army). The rest were "scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle."

The Metropolitan bishop of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical. He also mentions that "The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off. The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...". Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape of women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to Islam. In some cases, Muhacirs appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants were deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they did not leave.

Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)

Greek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–22, considered part of the Turkish War of Independence. After the Armistice of Mudros of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as Kallipolis. However, Greece was forced to cede Eastern Thrace after the Armistice of Mudanya of October 1922. Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922.

In 1920, after the defeat of the Russian White army of General Pyotr Wrangel, a significant number of émigré soldiers and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the Crimean Peninsula. From there, many went to European countries, such as Yugoslavia, where they found refuge.

There are now many cemeteries and war memorials on the Gallipoli peninsula.

Turkish Republic

Between 1923 and 1926 Gallipoli became the centre of Gelibolu Province, comprising the districts of Gelibolu, Eceabat, Keşan and Şarköy. After the dissolution of the province, it became a district centre in Çanakkale Province.

Notable people

  • Ahmed Bican (1398 – c. 1466), author
  • Piri Reis (1465/70 – 1553), admiral, geographer and cartographer
  • Mustafa Âlî (1541–1600), Ottoman historian, politician and writer
  • Sofia Vembo (1910–1978), Greek singer and actress

References

  1. Jones, Daniel (2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
  2. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). "Καλλίπολις". A Greek–English Lexicon. Revised and augmented throughout by Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2020 – via Perseus Digital Library Project.
  3. Xenophon (January 1921). Hellenica, Volume II. Translated by Brownson, Carleton L. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674990999.
  4. Diodorus Siculus (January 1933). Library of History, Volume I. Translated by Oldfather, Charles H. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674993075.
  5. Plinius Secundus, Gaius (1855). Bostock, John; Riley, Henry Thomas (eds.). The Natural History. London: H. G. Bohn. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  6. Plutarch (January 1919). Lives (in Ancient Greek). Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674991101. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
  7. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, vi. 36; Xenophon, ibid.; Pseudo-Scylax, Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, 67 (PDF Archived 12 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine)
  8. Herodotus, vi. 34 Archived 25 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine; Nepos, Cornelius, Lives of Eminent Commanders, "Miltiades", 1 Archived 7 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  9. Attila the Hun: Barbarian Terror and the Fall of the Roman Empire. Vintage. 2011. p. 105. ISBN 978-1844139156. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
  10. Crowley, Roger. 1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West. New York: Hyperion, 2005. p 31 ISBN 1-4013-0850-3.
  11.  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domainHerbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Callipolis". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  12. "Crimea". Archived from the original on 22 February 2006. Retrieved 11 October 2006.
  13. "Charles Usherwood's Service Journal, 1852–1856: despatch". victorianweb.org. Archived from the original on 28 November 2002. Retrieved 2 July 2006.
  14. Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers.
  15. Shirinian, George N. (2017). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923. Berghahn Books. p. 42. ISBN 978-1785334320. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  16. Astourian, Stephan (2020). Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State. Berghahn Books. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-78920-450-6. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  17. Brown, Carroll N; Papadopoulos, Alexander (1919). Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European war. Oxford university press. p. 52.
  18. Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan War. Washington, D.C. 1914. p. 132.
  19. ^ Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey, 1914–1918. Constantinople . 1919.
  20. "Gallipoli: a Turkish view | Australian War Memorial". www.awm.gov.au. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
  21. "Chapter 1 - The Significance of the Gallipoli Peninsula". Parliament of Australia. 6 June 2024.
  22. "Gallipoli in brief | NZ History". nzhistory.govt.nz. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
  23. McMeekin, Sean (7 May 2012). The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674058538. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 November 2021 – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Lieberman, Benjamin (December 2013). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-1442223196. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
  25. "The Meaning of Gallipoli to Hellenism". Archived from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
  26. Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (April 2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. p. 338. ISBN 978-0674916456. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  27. "Ana Sayfa" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2020.

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40°21′N 26°27′E / 40.350°N 26.450°E / 40.350; 26.450

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