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{{Short description|Roman empress; second wife of Constantine I}} {{Short description|Roman empress from 307 to 326}}
{{about||the opera|Fausta (opera)|the Catholic saint|Saint Fausta}} {{for-multi|the opera|Fausta (opera)|the Catholic saint|Saint Fausta}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox royalty {{Infobox royalty
| name = Fausta | name = Fausta
| title = | title = ]
| image = P1070865 Louvre tête de Fausta Ma4881 rwk.JPG | image = P1070865 Louvre tête de Fausta Ma4881 rwk.JPG
| image_size = | image_size =
| alt = Female head statue | alt = Female head statue
| caption = Possible portrait of Fausta<!-- ", most probably before her marriage to Constantine" – not in source. -->, ]<ref></ref><ref>{{Citation |title=statue |date=300–325 |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010278397 |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=Musée du Louvre Collections database}}</ref>
| caption = Fausta, most probably before her marriage to Constantine, ]
| succession = ] | succession = ]
|consort=yes
| moretext = (307–326)
| birth_date = 289 | reign = 307–326
| birth_date =
| birth_place = ], ] | birth_place = ], ]
| death_date = 326 | death_date = 326
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| burial_place = | burial_place =
| spouse = ] | spouse = ]
| issue = {{unbulleted list|]|]|]|]|]|Fausta}} | issue = {{unbulleted list|]|]|]|]|]}}
| issue-link = | issue-link =
| issue-pipe = | issue-pipe =
| full name = | full name = Flavia Maxima Fausta{{sfn|Woods|1998|p=70}}
| dynasty = ] | dynasty = ]
| father = ] | father = ]
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}} }}


'''Flavia Maxima Fausta''' (289–326 AD) was a Roman empress. She was the second wife of ], who had her executed and ], possibly due to adultery with her stepson, ]. '''Flavia Maxima Fausta ''Augusta'''''{{Efn|She received the honorific '']'' in 324 AD.}} (died 326 AD) was a Roman empress. She was the daughter of ] and wife of ], who had her executed and ] for unknown reasons. Historians ] and ] reported that she was executed for ] with her stepson, ].


==Family== ==Family==
Fausta was the daughter of the emperor ] and his wife ]. As her age is nowhere outright attested, scholarly estimates have ranged from 289/290{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=34}} to the end of the 290s.{{sfn|Drijvers|1992|p=502}}{{sfn|Waldron|2022|p=191 with n. 98}} To seal the alliance between them for control of the ], Maximian married her to ] in 307.{{sfn|Drijvers|1992|p=500}}
Fausta was the daughter of ]. To seal the alliance between them for control of the ], in 307 Maximianus married her to ], who set aside his wife, ], in her favour. As the sister of Emperor ], Fausta had a part in their father's downfall. In 310 Maximian died as a consequence of an assassination plot against Constantine. Maximian decided to involve his daughter Fausta, but she revealed the plot to her husband, and the assassination was disrupted. Maximian died, by suicide or by assassination, in July of that same year.


Constantine at first tried to present Maximian’s suicide as an unfortunate tragedy, but later started spreading another version where Fausta was involved in her father’s downfall. Barnes observed that the story “shows clear signs of being invented during Constantine’s war against Maxentius.”{{sfn|Barnes|1973|pp=41-42}}
Fausta was held in high esteem by Constantine, and proof of his favour was that in 324 <ref>On 8 November 324 according to Prof. Dr. Klaus Rosen, ''Konstantin der Grosse: Kaiser zwischen Machtpolitik und Religion'', Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-608-94050-3}}, pp. 248–49.</ref> she was proclaimed '']''; previously she held the title of ''] femina''. Their sons became emperors: ], {{r.|337|340}}, ], r. 337–361, and ], r. 337–350. She also bore three daughters: ], ] and Fausta. Of these, Constantina married her cousins, firstly ] and secondly ], and Helena married Emperor ].

During her marriage, she had 5 children.<ref>Hans Pohlsander, </ref> Fausta held the title of ''] femina'' up until 324,{{sfn|Drijvers|1992|pp=500-501}} when Constantine held her in high enough regard to grant her the title of '']'', which she received together with Constantine’s mother ].{{sfn|Woods|1998|p=70}}{{sfn|Drijvers|1992|p=501}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=217}}


==Execution== ==Execution==
In 326, Fausta was put to death by Constantine,<ref>{{cite journal|title=On the Death of the Empress Fausta|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0017383500029156|last=Woods|first=David|journal=Greece & Rome|year=1998|volume=45|issue=1}}</ref> following the execution of ], his eldest son by Minervina. The circumstances surrounding the two deaths were unclear. Various explanations have been suggested; in one, Fausta is set jealously against Crispus, as in the anonymous ''Epitome de Caesaribus'',<ref>41.11–12; According to some sources, she had accused Crispus of rape, and Constantine had Crispus executed. Stephenson remarks that if Fausta had reported a false tale of treachery and was killed in Constantine's subsequent remorse, the ''damnatio memoriae'' against Crispus was not in fact repealed.</ref> or conversely her adultery, perhaps with the stepson who was close to her in age, is suggested. In 326, Fausta was put to death by Constantine, following the execution of ], his eldest son by Minervina.{{sfn|Woods|1998|p=70}} The circumstances surrounding the two deaths were unclear. Various explanations have been suggested; in one, Fausta is set against Crispus, as in the anonymous ''Epitome de Caesaribus'',{{sfn|Woods|1998|pp=70-71}} or conversely her adultery, perhaps with the stepson who was close to her in age, is suggested.


According to the Latin ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' and the '''' of Philostorgius (as epitomized by Photius), Fausta was executed by being locked in a bath which was over heated,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Die Epitome de Caesaribus. Untersuchungen zur heidnischen Geschichtsschreibung des 4. Jahrhunderts n. Chr.|last=Schlumberger|first=Jörg A.|publisher=C.H. Beck|year=1974|location=Munich|pages=41.11–12}}</ref> in connection with the death of Crispus, which "people " was caused by Fausta's accusation of unclear nature. <blockquote>But Constantine, having obtained rule over the whole Roman Empire by remarkable success in wars, ordered his son Crispus to be put to death, at the behest (so people think) of his wife Fausta. Later he locked his wife Fausta in overheated baths and killed her, because his mother Helena blamed him out of excessive grief for her grandson.<ref>Epitome de Caesaribus, 42.11–12</ref></blockquote> According to the Latin ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' and the '''' of Philostorgius (as epitomized by Photius), Fausta was executed by being locked in a bath which was over heated,{{sfn|Woods|1998|pp=70-71}} in connection with the death of Crispus, which "people " was caused by Fausta's accusation of unclear nature. <blockquote>But Constantine, having obtained rule over the whole Roman Empire by remarkable success in wars, ordered his son Crispus to be put to death, at the behest (so people think) of his wife Fausta. Later he locked his wife Fausta in overheated baths and killed her, because his mother Helena blamed him out of excessive grief for her grandson.<ref>Epitome de Caesaribus, 42.11–12</ref></blockquote>


], on the other hand, suggests adultery as the reason: <blockquote>He killed Crispus, who had been deemed worthy of the rank of Caesar, as I have said before, when he incurred suspicion of having sexual relations with his stepmother Fausta, without taking any notice of the laws of nature. Constantine’s mother Helena was distressed at such a grievous event and refused to tolerate the murder of the young man. As if to soothe her <feelings> Constantine tried to remedy the evil with a greater evil: having ordered baths to be heated above the normal level, he deposited Fausta in them and brought her out when she was dead.<ref>Barnes, Timothy. ''Constantine Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire'', 145.</ref></blockquote> ], on the other hand, suggests adultery as the reason: <blockquote>He killed Crispus, who had been deemed worthy of the rank of Caesar, as I have said before, when he incurred suspicion of having sexual relations with his stepmother Fausta, without taking any notice of the laws of nature. Constantine’s mother Helena was distressed at such a grievous event and refused to tolerate the murder of the young man. As if to soothe her Constantine tried to remedy the evil with a greater evil: having ordered baths to be heated above the normal level, he deposited Fausta in them and brought her out when she was dead.<ref>Barnes, Timothy. ''Constantine Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire'', 145.</ref></blockquote>


] reports that the pair plotted treason.<ref>''History of the Franks'', 1.36</ref> In ]' version written in the 12th century, Crispus' death was caused by Fausta's retaliatory accusation of rape following her unsuccessful sexual advances toward him. But when Constantine realized his innocence, he punished her, mirroring the myth of Phaedra and Hippolytus.<ref>Garland, Lynda. ''Questions of Gender in Byzantine Society'', 108.</ref> In ]' version written in the 12th century, Crispus' death was caused by Fausta's retaliatory accusation of rape following her unsuccessful sexual advances toward him. But when Constantine realized his innocence, he punished her, mirroring the myth of ] and Hippolytus.<ref>]. ''Questions of Gender in Byzantine Society'', 108.</ref> Scholars have noted that if Crispus was found to be innocent, his condemnation of memory should have been lifted, but it was not.{{sfn|Drijvers|1992|p=505}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=221}}{{sfn|Woods|1998|p=73}}


The mode of her assassination is not otherwise attested in the Roman world. David Woods departs from the traditional view that Crispus and Fausta were executed and offers the connection of overheated bathing with contemporaneous techniques of abortion,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woods|first=D.|date=1998|title=On the Death of the Empress Fausta.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3CE624703CA80405ACBFBB40EA629FCC/S0017383500029156a.pdf/on_the_death_of_the_empress_fausta.pdf|journal=Greece and Rome|volume=45|issue=1|pages=70–86|doi=10.1093/gr/45.1.70|doi-access=free}}</ref> a suggestion that implies an unwanted, adulterous pregnancy with her relationship from Crispus<ref>Stephenson 2010:222.</ref> and a fatal accident during the abortion. Although Hans Pohlsander dismissed the idea of Fausta’s death being accidental, viewing the condemnation of memory to be certain proof that Constantine intended to kill his wife, David Woods’ response was that, “Accidents continue to happen even to people deep in disgrace.”{{sfn|Woods|1998|p=86}} He suggested that Crispus and Fausta were not actually executed, offering the connection of overheated bathing with contemporaneous techniques of abortion,{{sfn|Woods|1998|p=76}} a suggestion that implies an unwanted, adulterous pregnancy from her relationship with Crispus{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=222}} and a fatal accident during the abortion.


], holding her two sons, ] and ]]] ], holding her two sons, ] and ]]]
Constantine I ordered the '']'' of Fausta and Crispus around 326 with the result that no contemporary source records details of her fate: "], ever the sycophant, mentions neither Crispus nor Fausta in his ''Life of Constantine'', and even wrote Crispus out of the final version of his ''Ecclesiastical History'' (''HE'' X.9.4)", Constantine's biographer Paul Stephenson observes.<ref name="Stephenson2010">Paul Stephenson. ''''. Abrams; 2010. {{ISBN|978-1-4683-0300-1}}. p. 224.</ref> However, in 355/6, ] praised Fausta's beauty, nobility, and moral virtue in his panegyric to ], revealing that the ''damnatio memoriae'' may have been lifted during the reign of her son. Constantine I ordered the '']'' of Fausta and Crispus around 326 with the result that no contemporary source records details of her fate: "], ever the sycophant, mentions neither Crispus nor Fausta in his ''Life of Constantine'', and even wrote Crispus out of the final version of his ''Ecclesiastical History'' (''HE'' X.9.4)", Constantine's biographer Paul Stephenson observes.{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=220}} Although ] praised Fausta in his panegyric to ],<ref>Julian, "Panegyric in honour of Constantius", 9. {{Wikisource-inline|Panegyric in honour of Constantius|single=true}}</ref> there is no other evidence of her memory being rehabilitated.{{sfn|Pohlsander|1996|p=54}}{{sfn|Drijvers|1992|p=501}}


==In popular culture== ==In popular culture==
Fausta is an important antagonist in ]' chronicle-play '']'' (1951). In addition, Fausta was portrayed by ] in the film '']'' (1961). Fausta is an important antagonist in ]' chronicle-play '']'' (1951). In addition, Fausta was portrayed by ] in the film '']'' (1961).

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}


==References== ==References==
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== Bibliography == == Bibliography ==
*{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/299163 | jstor=299163 | title=Lactantius and Constantine | last1=Barnes | first1=T. D. | journal=The Journal of Roman Studies | date=7 December 1973 | volume=63 | pages=29–46 | doi=10.2307/299163 | s2cid=163051414 }}
*{{in lang|fr}} Gérard Minaud, ''Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés '', Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, ch. 12, '' La vie de Fausta, femme de Constantin'', p.&nbsp;285-305.
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |year=1982 |first=Timothy D. |title=The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine |publisher=Harvard University Press |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 |place=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-28066-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/newempireofdiocl0000barn/mode/1up}}
* J.W. Drijvers, 'Flavia Maxima Fausta: Some Remarks', ''Historia'' 41 (1992) 500- 506.
*{{cite journal |last=Drijvers |year=1992 |first=Jan Willem |title= Flavia Maxima Fausta: Some Remarks |journal=] |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=500–506 |jstor=4436264}}
*{{cite book |last=Pohlsander |first=Hans A. |year=1996 |title=The Emperor Constantine |url=https://archive.org/details/emperorconstanti0000pohl|publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-31938-2}}
*{{Cite book |last=Stephenson |first=Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/constantineuncon0000step|title=Constantine: Unconquered Emperor, Christian Victor |date=2010 |publisher=London, Quercus |isbn=978-1-4683-0300-1 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last=Waldron |first=Byron |year=2022 |title=Dynastic Politics in the Age of Diocletian, AD 284-311 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474498654}}
* {{cite journal|last=Woods|first=David|year=1998|journal=Greece & Rome|title=On the Death of the Empress Fausta|volume=45|issue=1|pages=70–86|doi=10.1093/gr/45.1.70|doi-access=free}}


== External links == == External links ==
* {{Commons-inline|Fausta}} {{Commons category|Fausta}}
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Fausta, Flavia Maximiana|short=x}} * {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Fausta, Flavia Maximiana|short=x}}


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{{Roman empresses}}
{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 03:57, 5 December 2024

Roman empress from 307 to 326 For the opera, see Fausta (opera). For the Catholic saint, see Saint Fausta.

Fausta
Augusta
Female head statuePossible portrait of Fausta, Louvre
Roman empress
Tenure307–326
BornRome, Italy
Died326
SpouseConstantine I
Issue
Names
Flavia Maxima Fausta
DynastyConstantinian
FatherMaximian
MotherEutropia

Flavia Maxima Fausta Augusta (died 326 AD) was a Roman empress. She was the daughter of Maximian and wife of Constantine the Great, who had her executed and excluded from all official accounts for unknown reasons. Historians Zosimus and Zonaras reported that she was executed for adultery with her stepson, Crispus.

Family

Fausta was the daughter of the emperor Maximian and his wife Eutropia. As her age is nowhere outright attested, scholarly estimates have ranged from 289/290 to the end of the 290s. To seal the alliance between them for control of the Tetrarchy, Maximian married her to Constantine I in 307.

Constantine at first tried to present Maximian’s suicide as an unfortunate tragedy, but later started spreading another version where Fausta was involved in her father’s downfall. Barnes observed that the story “shows clear signs of being invented during Constantine’s war against Maxentius.”

During her marriage, she had 5 children. Fausta held the title of nobilissima femina up until 324, when Constantine held her in high enough regard to grant her the title of augusta, which she received together with Constantine’s mother Helena.

Execution

In 326, Fausta was put to death by Constantine, following the execution of Crispus, his eldest son by Minervina. The circumstances surrounding the two deaths were unclear. Various explanations have been suggested; in one, Fausta is set against Crispus, as in the anonymous Epitome de Caesaribus, or conversely her adultery, perhaps with the stepson who was close to her in age, is suggested.

According to the Latin Epitome de Caesaribus and the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius (as epitomized by Photius), Fausta was executed by being locked in a bath which was over heated, in connection with the death of Crispus, which "people " was caused by Fausta's accusation of unclear nature.

But Constantine, having obtained rule over the whole Roman Empire by remarkable success in wars, ordered his son Crispus to be put to death, at the behest (so people think) of his wife Fausta. Later he locked his wife Fausta in overheated baths and killed her, because his mother Helena blamed him out of excessive grief for her grandson.

Zosimus, on the other hand, suggests adultery as the reason:

He killed Crispus, who had been deemed worthy of the rank of Caesar, as I have said before, when he incurred suspicion of having sexual relations with his stepmother Fausta, without taking any notice of the laws of nature. Constantine’s mother Helena was distressed at such a grievous event and refused to tolerate the murder of the young man. As if to soothe her Constantine tried to remedy the evil with a greater evil: having ordered baths to be heated above the normal level, he deposited Fausta in them and brought her out when she was dead.

In Zonaras' version written in the 12th century, Crispus' death was caused by Fausta's retaliatory accusation of rape following her unsuccessful sexual advances toward him. But when Constantine realized his innocence, he punished her, mirroring the myth of Phaedra and Hippolytus. Scholars have noted that if Crispus was found to be innocent, his condemnation of memory should have been lifted, but it was not.

Although Hans Pohlsander dismissed the idea of Fausta’s death being accidental, viewing the condemnation of memory to be certain proof that Constantine intended to kill his wife, David Woods’ response was that, “Accidents continue to happen even to people deep in disgrace.” He suggested that Crispus and Fausta were not actually executed, offering the connection of overheated bathing with contemporaneous techniques of abortion, a suggestion that implies an unwanted, adulterous pregnancy from her relationship with Crispus and a fatal accident during the abortion.

Fausta, as Salus, holding her two sons, Constantine II and Constantius II

Constantine I ordered the damnatio memoriae of Fausta and Crispus around 326 with the result that no contemporary source records details of her fate: "Eusebius, ever the sycophant, mentions neither Crispus nor Fausta in his Life of Constantine, and even wrote Crispus out of the final version of his Ecclesiastical History (HE X.9.4)", Constantine's biographer Paul Stephenson observes. Although Julian praised Fausta in his panegyric to Constantius II, there is no other evidence of her memory being rehabilitated.

In popular culture

Fausta is an important antagonist in Dorothy L. Sayers' chronicle-play The Emperor Constantine (1951). In addition, Fausta was portrayed by Belinda Lee in the film Constantine and the Cross (1961).

Notes

  1. She received the honorific Augusta in 324 AD.

References

  1. http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-573 (J. Lenaghan)
  2. "statue", Musée du Louvre Collections database, 300–325, retrieved 25 September 2024
  3. ^ Woods 1998, p. 70.
  4. Barnes 1982, p. 34.
  5. Drijvers 1992, p. 502.
  6. Waldron 2022, p. 191 with n. 98.
  7. Drijvers 1992, p. 500.
  8. Barnes 1973, pp. 41–42.
  9. Hans Pohlsander, Fausta (293-326 A.D.)
  10. Drijvers 1992, pp. 500–501.
  11. ^ Drijvers 1992, p. 501.
  12. Stephenson 2010, p. 217.
  13. ^ Woods 1998, pp. 70–71.
  14. Epitome de Caesaribus, 42.11–12
  15. Barnes, Timothy. Constantine Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire, 145.
  16. Garland, Lynda. Questions of Gender in Byzantine Society, 108.
  17. Drijvers 1992, p. 505.
  18. Stephenson 2010, p. 221.
  19. Woods 1998, p. 73.
  20. Woods 1998, p. 86.
  21. Woods 1998, p. 76.
  22. Stephenson 2010, p. 222.
  23. Stephenson 2010, p. 220.
  24. Julian, "Panegyric in honour of Constantius", 9. The full text of Panegyric in honour of Constantius at Wikisource
  25. Pohlsander 1996, p. 54.

Bibliography

External links

Royal titles
Preceded byGaleria Valeria
(or Minervina) 		Empress of Rome
307–326
with Galeria Valeria (307–311)
Valeria Maximilla (307–312)
Flavia Julia Constantia (313–324) 		Succeeded byDaughter of Julius Constantius
Roman and Byzantine empresses
Principate
27 BC – AD 235
Crisis
235–285
Dominate
284–610
Western Empire
395–480
Eastern Empire
395–610
Eastern/
Byzantine Empire
610–1453
See also
Italics indicates a consort to a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates a consort to an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper, and bold incidates an empress regnant.
Categories: