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{{short description|Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews}}
{{Antisemitism}}
{{Distinguish|anti-Judaism}}
'''Antisemitism''' (also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism''') is ] against or hostility towards ]s, often rooted in ] of their ], ], and/or ]. In its extreme form, it "attributes to the Jews an exceptional position among all other civilizations, defames them as an inferior group and denies their being part of the nation" in which they reside.<ref>Pauley, B.F. ''From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism'' Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. p. 1</ref> A person who practices antisemitism is called an "antisemite."
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{{Antisemitism}}{{Discrimination sidebar|expand-ethnic=yes}}{{Judaism}}
{{Status of religious freedom|persecution}}<!--Before making an edit to this article's definition of "antisemitism" to include prejudice against all Semitic people, please review the relevant discussions on the article's talk page and the related archives. If you still want to change the definition on this article, please discuss first on the talk page.-->
'''Antisemitism'''{{Efn|Also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism'''; The ] has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "]" is a valid concept.<ref name=IHRA2 />}} or '''Jew-hatred'''<ref>{{Cite OED|term=Jew-hatred|id=2854443694|access-date=2 September 2024}}</ref> is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, ].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808034525/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 August 2018|title=anti-Semitism|website=Oxford Dictionaries – English|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="MWdef">{{cite web|title=anti-Semitism|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031195040/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism|archive-date=31 October 2018|access-date=27 October 2018|work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary}}</ref><ref>See, for example:
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Anti-Semitism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2006}}
* {{cite book|first=Paul|last=Johnson|author-link=Paul Johnson (writer)|title=A History of the Jews|publisher=HarperPerennial|year=1988|page=133}}
*{{cite journal|author-link=Bernard Lewis|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|url=http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|title=The New Anti-Semitism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|archive-date=8 September 2011|url-status=dead|journal=The American Scholar|volume=75|number=1|date=Winter 2006|pages=25–36}}</ref> This sentiment is a form of ],{{Efn|Whether it is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought, see the {{section link||Eternalism–contextualism debate}} paragraph.}}<ref>{{cite web|date=1 March 1999|title=Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance|url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page=4|publisher=]|page=4|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=27 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827100852/https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page=4|url-status=live}}{{void|comment|Fabrickator|following "UN doc" template is not resolving to a working url}}<!-- {{UN doc |docid=A-RES-53-133 |body=A |session=53 |type=R |resolution_number=133 |title=Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance |page=4 |date=1 March 1999}}{{dl|date=April 2023}} --></ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Nathan|first=Julie|date=9 November 2014|title=2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia|url=http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412202844/http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf|archive-date=12 April 2015|access-date=27 October 2018|publisher=]|page=9}}</ref> and a person who harbours it is called an '''antisemite'''. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards ] or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to ]. In the former case, usually presented as ], a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-racial-antisemitism-18751945|access-date=20 September 2023|website=]|quote=These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial ], they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in ] not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure ] by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious ].|archive-date=31 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331191034/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|url-status=live}}</ref> In the latter case, known as ], a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other ].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Novak|first1=David|title=Supersessionism hard and soft|url=https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft|website=firstthings.com|access-date=24 September 2023|date=February 2019|archive-date=29 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929133324/https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014|chapter=Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān|author=Sandra Toenies Keating|title=Nicholas of Cusa and Islam|pages=202–217|chapter-url-access=subscription|publisher=Brill|year=2014|doi=10.1163/9789004274761_014|isbn=9789004274761|s2cid=170395646|access-date=24 September 2023|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129100206/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014|url-status=live}}</ref> The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by the concept of ],<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 August 2017|title=From Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism|access-date=20 September 2023|website=]|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922224125/https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Zauzmer Weil|first=Julie|date=22 August 2019|title=How anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/|newspaper=]|access-date=20 September 2023|archive-date=19 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519162501/https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/|url-status=live}}</ref> which is distinct from antisemitism itself.<ref>{{Cite web|last=M. Freidenreich|first=David|date=18 November 2022|title=How Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends|url=https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/|access-date=20 September 2023|website=]|archive-date=25 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925160443/https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/|url-status=live}}</ref>


There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of ]. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of ]s or ], which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the ] in 1096; the ] in 1290; the ], between 1348 and 1351; the ] in 1391, the crackdown of the ], and the ] in 1492; the ], between 1648 and 1657; various ], between 1821 and 1906; the ], between 1894 and 1906; ] by ] during ]; and various ]. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in ]. However, since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in ], largely due to the surge in ], which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of ].<ref name="Herf 2009">{{cite journal|last=Herf|first=Jeffrey|author-link=Jeffrey Herf|date=December 2009|title=Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings|journal=]|publisher=]|volume=42|issue=4|pages=709–736|doi=10.1017/S000893890999104X|jstor=40600977|s2cid=145568807|issn=0008-9389}}</ref><ref name="JCPA 2020">{{cite journal|last=Spoerl|first=Joseph S.|date=January 2020|title=Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism|url=https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/|url-status=live|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|publisher=]|volume=31|issue=1/2|pages=210–244|issn=0792-335X|jstor=26870795|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609120031/https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/|archive-date=9 June 2020|access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref>
Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from individual expressions of hatred and ] against individual Jews to organized ] by ] or even ] ] or ] attacks on entire Jewish communities. Extreme instances of ] include the ] of 1096, the ] in 1290, the ], the ] in 1492, the ] in 1497, various ], the ], and perhaps the most infamous, ] under ]'s ].


In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "]" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since ] is a ], expressions of ] could harbour antisemitic sentiments.<ref>{{Cite news|date=28 April 2016|title=What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36160928|access-date=20 February 2024|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Malik|first=Kenan|date=24 February 2019|title=Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/feb/24/antisemites-use-language-of-anti-zionism-the-two-are-distinct|access-date=20 February 2024|work=The Observer|issn=0029-7712}}</ref> ] describes the "3D" test to determine the existence of such antisemitism: demonizing Israel, the double standard of criticizing Israel disproportionately to other countries, and ].<ref name="g639">{{cite web | title=3D Test of Anti-Semitism: Demonization, Double Standards, Delegitimization | website=Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs | date=2012-11-11 | url=https://jcpa.org/article/3d-test-of-anti-semitism-demonization-double-standards-delegitimization/ | access-date=2024-10-29}}</ref>
While the term's ] might suggest that antisemitism is directed against all ], the term was coined in the late 19th century in Germany as a more scientific-sounding term for ''Judenhass'' ("Jew-hatred"),<ref name=Judenhass>See, for example:
*Jerome A. Chanes. '']'', ], 2004, p. 150.
*Ali Rattansi. ''Racism: a very short introduction'', ], 2007, p. 5.
*Richard L. Rubenstein, John K. Roth. ''Approaches to Auschwitz: the Holocaust and its legacy'', Westminster John Knox Press, 2003, p. 30.
*William M. Johnston. ''The Austrian mind: an intellectual and social history, 1848-1938'', ], 1983, p. 27.</ref>
and that has been its normal use since then.<ref name=Lewis_MEI1973>"Antisemitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews." ]. , ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973.</ref><ref name=JustJews>See, for example:
*"Anti-Semitism", ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2006.
*]. ''A History of the Jews'', HarperPerennial 1988, p 133 ff.
*]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at ] on March 24, 2004.</ref>


Due to the root word '']'', the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who incorrectly assert (in an ]) that it refers to racist hatred directed at "]" in spite of the fact that this grouping is an obsolete ]. Likewise, such usage is erroneous; the compound word {{lang|de|antisemitismus}} was first used in print in ] in 1879{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=595}} as a "]" for {{lang|de|Judenhass}} ({{Literal translation|Jew-hatred}}),{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=150}}{{sfnp|Rattansi|2007|pp=4–5}}{{sfnp|Johnston|1983|p=27}}{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=}} and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=133}}<ref name="JustJews">{{cite web|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|author-link=Bernard Lewis|url=http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html|title=Semites and Anti-Semites|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514133732/http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html|archive-date=14 May 2011|access-date=27 October 2018}}. Extract from ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973.
==Forms==
*{{cite journal|author-link=Bernard Lewis|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832|title=The New Anti-Semitism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108130056/http://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832|archive-date=8 November 2017|url-status=dead|journal=The American Scholar|volume=75|number=1|date=Winter 2006|pages=25–36}}</ref>
The Roman Catholic historian ] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:<ref>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1965, this edition 2004.</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}


==Origin and usage==
*political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples ] and ];
===Etymology===
*], sometimes known as anti-Judaism;
{{Anchor|Etmyology and uses}}
*nationalistic antisemitism, citing ] and other ] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as ] and ];
]
*and ], as practiced in the ] by the ]s.
In addition, from the 1990s, some writers claim to have identified a ], a form of antisemitism coming simultaneously from the ], the ], and ], which tends to focus on opposition to ] and a Jewish homeland in the ], and which may deploy traditional antisemitism motifs, including older motifs like the 'Blood Libel'.<ref name="New-AS-List">
*]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181
*]. , accessed March 5, 2006
*, '']'', August 8, 2004.
*Endelman, Todd M. "Antisemitism in Western Europe Today" in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65-79
*Matas, David. ''Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and antisemitism'', p.31. Dundurn Press, 2005.
</ref>


The word "Semitic" was coined by German orientalist ] in 1781 to designate the ]—], ], ] and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure ], son of ].<ref name="Vermeulen 2015 p. 252">{{cite book|last=Vermeulen|first=H.F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252|title=Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8032-7738-0|series=Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series|quote=Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."|access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kiraz|2001|p=25}}; {{harvp|Baasten|2003|p=67}}</ref>
] and ] theories are also considered a form of antisemitism.<ref name="hoax">Mathis, Andrew E. , ], July 2, 2004. Retrieved May 16, 2007.</ref><ref>Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. ''Denying History: : who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?'', University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-23469-3, p. 106.</ref><ref>, ], 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007.</ref><ref>]. ''Denying the Holocaust -- The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1993, ISBN 0-452-27274-2, p. 27.</ref><ref name="adl.org">, "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", ], 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.</ref><ref name="adl.org"/>

<ref>Lawrence N. Powell, ''Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana'', University of North Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445.</ref>
The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist ] to the views of orientalist ]. Historian ] writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' ]" as a ]]."{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=}} Psychologist ] similarly writes: "The German word ''{{Lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase ''antisemitische Vorurteile'' (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how ']' were inferior to ']s{{'"}}.{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=21}}
<ref name="antisemitic">|33.8&nbsp;KB}}, ]</ref>

<ref>], ''Denying the Holocaust'', ISBN 0-14-024157-4, p. 11.</ref>
] theories ], civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as ]n nationalistic historian ] did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Poliakov|first=Léon|author-link=Léon Poliakov|title=The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From Voltaire to Wagner|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2003|page=404|isbn=978-0-8122-1865-7}}</ref> According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=}} based generally on linguistic criteria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brustein|first=William I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA118|title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust|location=Cambridge|publisher=]|year=2003|page=118|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9780521774789}}</ref>
<ref>Roth, Stephen J. "Denial of the Holocaust as an Issue of Law" in the ''Israel Yearbook on Human Rights'', Volume 23, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993, ISBN 0-7923-2581-8, p. 215.</ref>

<ref>Austin, Ben S. , The Holocaust\Shoah Page, ]. Retrieved March 29, 2007.</ref>
According to philologist ], the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."<ref>{{cite journal|first=Jonathan M.|last=Hess|title=Johann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany|journal=Jewish Social Studies|volume=6|number=2|date=Winter 2000|pages=56–101|doi=10.1353/jss.2000.0003|s2cid=153434303|quote=When the term "antisemitism" was first introduced in Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own "antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.}}</ref>
<ref>, JPR report #3, 2000. Retrieved May 16, 2007.</ref>

<ref>Schweitzer, Frederick M. & Perry, Marvin. ''Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7, p. 3.</ref>
]
<ref>Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7, p. 10.</ref>

<ref>Geoffrey Short, Carole Ann Reed. ''Issues in Holocaust Education'', Ashgate Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-7546-4211-9, p. 71.</ref>
In 1879, German journalist ] published a pamphlet, {{Lang|de|Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet}} (''The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective'') in which he used the word ''Semitismus'' interchangeably with the word ''Judentum'' to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).<ref>{{cite book|last=Jaspal|first=Rusi|year=2014|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qS_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38|title=Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk|location=Farnham, Surrey|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|chapter=Antisemitism: Conceptual Issues|isbn=9781472407252|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235525/https://books.google.com/books?id=qS_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} Jaspal erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.</ref><ref>]. ''''. Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition/printing. Internet Archive. Marr uses the word "Semitismus" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "Ja, ich bin überzeugt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!" (Yes, I am convinced that I have articulated what millions of Jews are quietly thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Marr|first=Wilhem|author-link=Wilhelm Marr|url=http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/Marr-Text-English.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/Marr-Text-English.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live|title=The Victory of Judaism over Germanism: Viewed from a Nonreligious Point of View|translator-first=Gerhard|translator-last=Rohringer|year=1879|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref> He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even the highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wilhelm Marr|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/wilhelm-marr|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref>
<ref>Stephen Trombley, "antisemitism", ''The Norton Dictionary of Modern Thought'', W. W. Norton & Company, 1999, ISBN 0-393-04696-6, p. 40.</ref>

<ref>Howard K. Wettstein, ''Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity'', University of California Press, 2002, ISBN 0-520-22864-2, p. 169.</ref>
This followed his 1862 book ''Die Judenspiegel'' (''A Mirror to the Jews'') in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity".<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Wilhelm Marr's A Mirror to the Jews|url=https://keydocuments.net/article/bergmann-marr-mirror-jews|access-date=29 July 2024|website=Key Documents of German-Jewish History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Levy|first=Richard S.|author-link=Richard S. Levy|date=1 April 1987|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, by Moshe Zimmermann|url=https://www.commentary.org/articles/richard-levy/wilhelm-marr-the-patriarch-of-anti-semitism-by-moshe-zimmermann/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of ''Der Judenspiegel,'' Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble."<ref name=":5" />

This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "]" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benz|first=Wolfgang|author-link=Wolfgang Benz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGpj0ORpwAC&dq=%22Antisemitismus%22&pg=PA7|title=Was ist Antisemitismus?|date=2004|publisher=C.H.Beck|isbn=978-3-406-52212-3|language=de|access-date=29 October 2023|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235555/https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGpj0ORpwAC&dq=%22Antisemitismus%22&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q=%22Antisemitismus%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.

The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (League of Antisemites),<ref name=":4">{{cite book|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism|last=Zimmermann|first=Moshe|author-link=Moshe Zimmermann|publisher=New York and Oxford: Oxford University|pages=71}}</ref> apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League).<ref name="MZ1987">{{cite book|last=Zimmermann|first=Moshe|author-link=Moshe Zimmermann|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA112|year=1987|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-536495-8|page=112|access-date=27 October 2018|quote=The term "anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period.|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235552/https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their ] from the country.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte'', and ] used the term ''Antisemiten'' in the January issue of '']''.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

The '']'' reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the '']'' speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p.&nbsp;138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deutsch|first=Gotthard|author-link=Gotthard Deutsch|year=1901|title=Anti-Semitism|url=https://archive.org/details/b29000488_0001/page/640/mode/2up|journal=]|publisher=]|volume=1|page=641|access-date=21 August 2023|via=]}}</ref>

The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. '']'' editor ] wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!"<ref name="toi">{{cite news|last1=Mandel|first1=Jonah|title=Letter shows first dictionary editor thought 'anti-Semite' wouldn't be used|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/letter-shows-first-dictionary-editor-thought-anti-semite-wouldnt-be-used/|access-date=5 May 2020|work=The Times of Israel|date=4 May 2019|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505080418/https://www.timesofisrael.com/letter-shows-first-dictionary-editor-thought-anti-semite-wouldnt-be-used/|url-status=live}}</ref> The related term "]" was used by 1881.<ref name=philosemitism>{{cite magazine|title=The Jews in Germany|magazine=]|publisher=]|volume=XXXIII|date=March 1881|page=350|quote=...the position of German Liberals in this matter of philo-Semitism.}}</ref>


==Etymology and usage==
===Usage=== ===Usage===
From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against ].<ref name="MWdef" />{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}<ref name="JustJews" /> The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of ] (e.g., ], ], and ]) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak ], a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as ] against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=117}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Benjamin|last=Isaac|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eem1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA442|title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity|publisher=]|year=2004|page=442|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9781400849567|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235521/https://books.google.com/books?id=eem1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA442#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link=David Matas|last=Matas|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA34|title=Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism|publisher=Dundurn Press|year=2005|page=34|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9781550025538|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235524/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|title=Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism|publisher=]|date=April 2015|quote=... the hyphenated spelling allows for the possibility of something called 'Semitism', which not only legitimizes a form of pseudo-scientific racial classification that was thoroughly discredited by association with Nazi ideology, but also divides the term, stripping it from its meaning of opposition and hatred toward Jews.|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
Despite the use of the prefix ''anti-'', the terms ''Semitic'' and ''anti-Semitic'' are not directly opposed to each other. ''Antisemitism'' refers specifically to prejudice against ]s alone and in general,<ref name=Lewis_MEI1973/><ref name=JustJews/><ref></ref> despite the fact that there are other speakers of ]s (e.g. ]s, ], or ]) and that not all Jews speak a Semitic language.


The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.<ref name=IHRA2>{{cite web|title=Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism|url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|publisher=]|date=April 2015|quote=The unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Power of Myth|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/$FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf|website=Facing History|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305002701/http://www2.facinghistory.org/Campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/%24FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Bauer">{{cite web|last1=Bauer|first1=Yehuda|title=Problems of Contemporary Antisemitism|url=http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307094003/http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2008}}</ref><ref name="Bauer2">{{cite book|last=Bauer|first=Yehuda|title=A History of the Holocaust|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofholocau00yehu|url-access=registration|publisher=Franklin Watts|year=1982|page=|isbn=978-0-531-05641-7}}</ref> Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful&nbsp;... n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Almog|first=Shmuel|date=Summer 1989|title=What's in a Hyphen?|url=http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990428121824/http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm|archive-date=28 April 1999|access-date=3 April 2024|website=]|postscript=. Published in SICSA report: the newsletter of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Republished in 2014 by Alabama Holocaust Education Center: ahecinfo.org/wp-content/uploads/Why-antisemitism-with-no-hyphen.pdf}}</ref> ] supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to " the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."{{sfnp|Prager|Telushkin|2003|p=}}
The term ''anti-Semitic'' has been used on occasion to include bigotry against other Semitic-language peoples such as Arabs, but such usage is not widely accepted.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Aftershock: anti-zionism and anti-semitism
|first=David
|last=Matas
|authorlink=David Matas
|page=34
|publisher=Dundum Press
|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Semites and anti-Semites
|first=Bernard
|last=Lewis
|authorlink=Bernard Lewis
|page=117
|year=1999
|unused_data=W. W. Norton}}</ref>


Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the ],<ref name=IHRA2/> historian ],{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}} Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at ]; and historians ] and ]. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism{{'"}}, "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll|first=James|author-link=James Carroll (author)|title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews|publisher=Mariner|location=New York|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EUdvSQs70C&pg=PT421|isbn=978-0618219087|pages=628–629|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235554/https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EUdvSQs70C&pg=PT421|url-status=live}}</ref>
Both terms ''anti-Semitism'' and ''antisemitism'' are in common use. Some scholars favor usage of the unhyphenated form ''antisemitism'' to avoid possible confusion involving whether the term refers specifically to ], or to ]-language speakers as a whole.<ref>{{PDFlink| (Facing History).|184&nbsp;KB}} Accessed August 21, 2006</ref><ref name=Bauer>]. {{PDFlink||196&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref><ref name=Bauer2>Bauer, Yehuda. ''A History of the Holocaust'', Franklin Watts, 1982, p. 52. ISBN 0-531-05641-4</ref><ref name=Almog>Almog, Shmuel. , SICSA Report: Newsletter of the ] (Summer 1989).</ref> ] supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "dispel the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."<ref name=Fackenheim>Cited in ]; ]. ''Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism'', ], 1983, p. 199.</ref>


The ] and its accompanying '']'' adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bandler|first=Aaron|date=27 April 2021|title=AP Changes Spelling of "Anti-Semitism" to "Antisemitism"|work=Jewish Journal|url=https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/336003/ap-changes-spelling-of-anti-semitism-to-antisemitism/|access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref> Style guides for other news organizations such as the ''New York Times'' and ''Wall Street Journal'' later adopted this spelling as well.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hanau|first=Shira|date=8 December 2021|title=The New York Times updates style guide to 'antisemitism,' losing the hyphen|publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|url=https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen|access-date=18 July 2023|archive-date=19 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=15 December 2022|title=Vol. 35, No. 11: Antisemitism|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285|access-date=19 July 2023|issn=0099-9660|archive-date=19 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040044/https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285|url-status=live}}</ref> It has also been adopted by many ], such as the ] and ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Jo Zerivitz|first=Marcia|date=1 February 2021|title=In a word, it's antisemitism|work=Jewish Press of Tampa Bay|url=https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/|access-date=18 July 2023|archive-date=19 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Etymology===
]
The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably{{Vague|date=May 2010}} first used in 1860 by the ]n Jewish ] ] in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" ({{lang-de|"antisemitische Vorurteile"}}).<ref>In: ]. ''The ]: Biography of a World Problem''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 594. ISBN 0-8386-3252-1</ref> Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize ]'s ideas about how "] races" were inferior to "] races." These ] theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in ] in the second half of the 19th century, especially as ]n nationalistic historian ] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was ]ous with ''Jewish'', in contrast to its usage by Renan and others.


===Definition===
In 1873 German journalist ] published a pamphlet ''"The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective."'' (''"Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet."'') in which he used the word ''"Semitismus"'' interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). Although he did not use the word "Antisemitismus" in the pamphlet, the coining of the latter word followed naturally from the word "Semitismus", and indicated either opposition to the Jews as a people, or else opposition to jewishness or the Jewish spirit, which he saw as infiltrating German culture.<ref>Wilhelm Marr. Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition. Archive.org</ref> In his next pamphlet, ''"The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit"'', published in 1880, Marr developed his ideas further and coined the related ] word ''Antisemitismus'' – ''antisemitism'', derived from the word "Semitismus" that he had earlier used.
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to ], has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",<ref name="pogromsriots">{{cite book|first=Sonja|last=Weinberg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18|title=Pogroms and Riots: German Press Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in Germany and Russia (1881–1882)|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2010|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9783631602140|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235557/https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|18}} a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.


Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and ] professor ] defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Fine|editor-first=Helen|title=The persisting question: sociological perspectives and social contexts of modern antisemitism|date=1987|page=67|publisher=de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-010170-6|location=Berlin}}</ref>
The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Antisemites"'' ("''Antisemiten-Liga''"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence, and advocating their ] from the country.


Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the ] writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=}}
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and ] used the term "''Antisemiten''" in the January issue of ''"Neue Freie Presse"''. The related word '']'' was coined around 1885.


For Swiss historian ], as distinct from economic and religious ], antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that ]; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.<ref name="pogromsriots" />{{rp|18–19}}
===Definitions===
]


] with the world in his hands]]
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against ]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Holocaust scholar and ] professor ] defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ], ] and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."
In 2003, Israeli politician ] developed what he called the "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving ], demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former.<ref name="state178448"/><ref name="Patterns">{{cite journal|title=So what's new? Rethinking the 'new antisemitism' in a global age|author=Jonathan Judaken|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=42|issue=4–5|pages=531–560|year=2008|doi=10.1080/00313220802377453|url=https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq=-5aa3|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618033045/https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq=-5aa3|archive-date=2010-06-18}}</ref><ref name="t766">{{cite journal|last=Younes|first=Anna-Esther|title=Fighting Anti-Semitism in Contemporary Germany|journal=Islamophobia Studies Journal|volume=5|issue=2|date=1 October 2020|issn=2325-8381|doi=10.13169/islastudj.5.2.0249|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="a473">{{cite web|title=The Louis D. Brandeis Center FAQs About Defining Anti-Semitism|website=Brandeis Center - Advance the civil and human rights of the Jewish people and promote justice for all|date=14 March 2022|url=https://brandeiscenter.com/the-louis-d-brandeis-center-faqs-about-defining-anti-semitism-2/|access-date=16 September 2024}}</ref>


], writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated1">]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|date=8 September 2011}}.</ref>
Professor Dietz Bering of the ] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of antisemitic beliefs. To antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the antisemites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."


There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, the ] stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125182906/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/40258.htm |date=25 January 2021 }}, ], 5 January 2005.</ref>
] defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated1">]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at ] on March 24, 2004.</ref>


In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and ] (EUMC, now the ]), an agency of the ], developed a more detailed ], which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic."<ref name="antisemitic"/> It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; ] or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of ] or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.<ref name="antisemitic">
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State defines antisemitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews — individually and as a group — that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS>, ], January 5, 2005.</ref>
{{cite web|url=http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf|title=Working Definition of Antisemitism|publisher=]|access-date=24 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304162430/http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2011|url-status=dead}}
</ref>


The EUMC working definition was adopted by the ] Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/|title=EUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism|website=antisem.eu|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701214816/http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} by the ] in 2017,<ref>{{cite web|title=Defining Anti-Semitism|url=https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210041344/https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 February 2017|access-date=5 August 2018}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK ] in 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/|title=Hate crime|website=app.college.police.uk|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911161627/https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} and by the UK's ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://antisemitism.uk/definition/|title=Definition of antisemitism|date=13 July 2015|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=24 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924061521/https://antisemitism.uk/definition/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Working Definition of Antisemitism {{!}} IHRA|website=holocaustremembrance.com|url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=25 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825032144/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185|title=US House of Representatives votes to condemn antisemitism after Ilhan Omar's 'Israel loyalty' remarks|quote=Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel than to their interests of their own nation is listed by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance as an example of contemporary antisemitism in public life|website=The Jewish Chronicle|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-date=3 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203163852/https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185|url-status=live}}</ref> IHRA's ] is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ruth Gould|first1=Rebecca|author1-link=Rebecca Ruth Gould|title=The IHRA Definition of Antisemitism: Defining Antisemitism by Erasing Palestinians|journal=The Political Quarterly|year=2020|volume=91|issue=4|pages=825–831|doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12883|s2cid=225366096|doi-access=free}}</ref> In response to the perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the ] in February 2021 and the ] in March 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shamir|first=Jonathan|date=18 April 2021|title=Two Jews, Three Definitions: New Documents Challenge Mainstream View of Antisemitism|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-04-18/ty-article/.highlight/two-jews-three-definitions-new-documents-challenge-mainstream-view-of-antisemitism/0000017f-db27-db22-a17f-ffb71c8f0000?lts=1674173929738|url-access=subscription|access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Starr|first=Michael|date=22 April 2021|title=War of the words: The conflict between definitions of antisemitism|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/war-of-the-words-the-conflict-between-definitions-of-antisemitism-665935|access-date=19 January 2023|website=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kampeas|first=Ron|date=17 March 2021|title=A liberal definition of antisemitism that allows for Israel criticism|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/a-liberal-definition-of-antisemitism-that-allows-for-israel-criticism-662248|access-date=22 January 2023|website=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kampeas|first=Ron|date=17 March 2021|title=US Jewish scholars push anti-Semitism definition allowing more Israel criticism|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-scholars-push-anti-semitism-definition-allowing-more-israel-criticism/|access-date=19 January 2023|website=The Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=McGreal|first=Chris|date=24 April 2023|title=UN urged to reject antisemitism definition over 'misuse' to shield Israel|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/apr/24/un-ihra-antisemitism-definition-israel-criticism|access-date=5 February 2024|work=The Guardian|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Hofmann|first=Sarah Judith|date=17 June 2021|title=A new definition for antisemitism?|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-jerusalem-declaration-redefining-antisemitism/a-57895132|access-date=5 February 2024|publisher=]}}</ref>
In 2005, the ] (EUMC), a body of the ], developed a more detailed discussion: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the ], conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm ]ity, and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'."


]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)]]
The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of antisemitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: "Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; ]; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, e.g.


===Evolution of usage===
:*Denying the Jewish people the right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor;
In 1879, ] founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (Anti-Semitic League).<ref>Richard S. Levy, "Marr, Wilhelm (1819–1904)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 2, pp. 445–446}}</ref> Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, ], the popular mayor of ] ], skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref>Richard S. Geehr. ''Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna'', ], Detroit, 1989. {{ISBN|0-8143-2055-4}}</ref> In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''The New York Times'' notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref>"", ''The New York Times'', 11 March 1910. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126110903/https://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/11/archives/dr-karl-lueger-dead-antisemitic-leader-and-mayor-of-vienna-was-66.html |date=26 January 2021 }}.</ref> In 1895, ] organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the period before ], when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.
:*Applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation;
:*Using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis;
:*Drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis;
:*Holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel.


The early ] pioneer ], a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term ''Judeophobia'' to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word ''Judeophobia'' first appeared in his pamphlet "]", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.<ref name="Bartlett2005">{{cite book|last=Bartlett|first=Steven J.|title=The Pathology of Man: A Study of Human Evil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5KQ0Yi76GMC&pg=PA30|year=2005|publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher|isbn=9780398075576|page=30}}</ref> {{blockquote|Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Leon Pinsker|last1=Pinsker|first1=Leon|translator-last=Blondheim|translator-first=D.S.|title=Auto-Emancipation|series=Zionist publications|date=1906|publisher=The Maccabaean Publishing Company|location=New York|pages=3, 4|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw5rcs;view=1up;seq=15|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161903/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw5rcs&view=1up&seq=15|url-status=live}}, ] and {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726052832/https://he.wikisource.org/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94 |date=26 July 2020 }} translations.</ref> }}
The EUMC added that criticism of Israel cannot be regarded as antisemitism so long as it is "similar to that leveled against any other country."<ref name=workingdef>{{PDFlink||33.8&nbsp;KB}}, EUMC.</ref><ref name=EUMC>], {{PDFlink||33.8&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref> To encourage additional usage of the definition, the European Forum on Antisemitism has commissioned
]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)]]


In the aftermath of the ] pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister ] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', 12 November 1938. Cited in ]. ''Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction''. Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.</ref>
===Evolution of usage as a term===
In 1879, ] founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (Antisemitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe in the latter 19th century. For example, ], the popular mayor of ] ], skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref>Richard S. Geehr. ''Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna'', Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1989. ISBN 0-8143-2055-4</ref> In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''The New York Times'' notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref> ''The New York Times'', March 11, 1910.</ref> In 1895 ] organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the period before ], when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, organization, or political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.


After 1945 ], and particularly after the full extent of the ] became known, the term ''antisemitism'' acquired ] connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>Jacob Rader Marcus. ''United States Jewry, 1776–1985.'' Wayne State University Press, 1989, p. 286. {{ISBN|0-8143-2186-0}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=580}} Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world&nbsp;... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>]: ''The Most Ancient Group Prejudice'' in Leo Eitinger (1984): ''The Anti-Semitism of Our Time''. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p. 14. citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003): ''The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History.'' Oneworld Publications. p.&nbsp;73. {{ISBN|1-85168-313-5}}.</ref>
The early zionist pioneer, ], in a pamphlet written in 1882, said that antisemitism was an inherited predisposition:{{quote|Judeophobia is a psychic aberration. As a psychic aberration it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable.' ... 'In this way have Judaism and Anti-Semitism passed for centuries through history as inseparable companions.'... ...'Having analyzed Judeophobia as an hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and having represented Anti-Semitism as proceeding from an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion that we must give' up contending against these hostile impulses as we must against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>]</ref>}}


===Eternalism–contextualism debate===
In the aftermath of ], ] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', November 12, 1938. Cited in ]. ''Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction.'' Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.</ref>
The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123–1124}} There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}} The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force ]ly culminating in the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}}{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123, 1130}} Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility."{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}} Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}{{sfnp|Ury|2018|p=1151}} Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}


The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=27}} Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1132}} Historian ] has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=26}} Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}}
After ]'s fall from power, and particularly after the extent of the ] ] of Jews became known, the term "antisemitism" acquired ] connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>Jacob Rader Marcus. ''United States Jewry, 1776-1985.'' Wayne State University Press, 1989, page 286. ISBN 0-8143-2186-0</ref><ref>Alex Bein. ''The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 580. ISBN 0-8386-3252-1</ref> Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no antisemites in the world... Nobody says, 'I am antisemitic.'" You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>]: ''The Most Ancient Group Prejudice'' in Leo Eitinger (1984): ''The Anti-Semitism of Our Time''. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p.14. citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003): ''The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History.'' Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-313-5. p.73</ref>


==History== ==Manifestations==
] and ]) being burned.]]
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}


Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. ] mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite book|title=Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie|first=René|last=König|publisher=VS Verlag|year=2004|page=231|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231|isbn=978-3-8100-3306-2|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000128/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Ancient world===
Examples of antipathy to ] and ] during ] are abundant. Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.<ref>Daniels. J,L, ''Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period'' in JBL 98 (1979) pp.45–65</ref> There are examples of ] rulers desecrating the ] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, ] observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in ] in the 3rd century BCE. ] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.


These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. ], writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: ], economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book|title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes|first=Bernard|last=Lazare|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|year=2006|page=224|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224|isbn=978-1-59605-601-5|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000042/https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> ] names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political.<ref>{{cite book|title=Roots of hate: anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust|first=William|last=Brustein|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|page=46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46|isbn=978-0-521-77478-9|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] historian ] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>Colpe, Carsten (Berlin). "Anti-Semitism." Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 28 April 2008</ref>
*Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples ]{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=16}} and ];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=260}}
*], also called "traditional antisemitism"<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Sherwood|first1=Harriet|last2=correspondent|first2=Harriet Sherwood Religion|date=11 April 2018|title=Traditional antisemitism is back, global study finds|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds|access-date=17 October 2023|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017211114/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds|url-status=live}}</ref> and sometimes known as ];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=289}}
*Nationalistic antisemitism, citing ] and other ] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as ] and ];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=176}}
*], with its extreme form resulting in ] by the ]s.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=179}}
{{Quote box
|quote=] for an encyclopedia of ]s.<br/>] blamed the Jews for ]; ] blamed the Jews for ]. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were ] and ] and ]. Jews were the creators of both ] and ]; they were ] but also ]; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.<br/>Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.
|author=], 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Goldberg|first1=Jeffrey|title=Is It Time for the Jews to Leave Europe?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/|magazine=]|date=April 2015|access-date=21 April 2023|archive-date=21 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421112016/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|source=
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], writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book|title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature, 1900-1940s|first=Louis|last=Harap|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1987|page=24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24|isbn=978-0-313-25386-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000143/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
* Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
* Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
* Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
* Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
* Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).


===Religious antisemitism===
Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying ] were at first antagonistic and resulted in ]. According to ], the emperor ] expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th century ] historian ] identified a more tolerant period beginning in about 160 CE.
{{Main|Religious antisemitism}}
{{See also|Anti-Judaism|Antisemitism in Christianity|Antisemitism in Islam}}
] (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, ], 1601]]


], also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by ] to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of '']'' (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
] asserted, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the ]. By that ratio, if other factors such as ]s and ]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. '']'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26</ref><ref></ref>


Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."<ref>{{cite book|title=A concise history of American antisemitism|first=Robert|last=Michael|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2005|page=vii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7|isbn=978-0-7425-4313-3|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001047/https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon ]." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism. From the ] onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicholls|first=William|author-link=|date=1993|title=Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cg00E0gk9PQC|location=]|publisher=] / ]|page=314|isbn=0-87668-398-7}}</ref>
===Persecutions in the Middle Ages===
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
From the 9th century CE, the ] classified Jews (and Christians) as '']'', and were allowed to practice their religion more freely than they could do in ]. Under ], there was a ] that lasted until at least the 11th century,<ref>{{Cite book|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=0316168718}}</ref> when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place in the ]; those that occurred in ] in 1011 and in ].<ref name="Schweitzer267-268">Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 267-268.</ref><ref> by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, '']''. 1906 ed.</ref><ref>Harzig, Hoerder & Shubert, 2003, p. 42.</ref> Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in ], ], ] and ] from the 11th century. Despite the ]'s prohibition, Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and ] several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref></ref> The ], who had taken control of the ]' ] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 2, 2007, from .</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.<ref name=frank>Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137-138.</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> Some, such as the family of ], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,<ref name=frank/> while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms, where Jews were increasingly forced to convert to Christianity from the 13th century.<ref></ref><ref>Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16-17.</ref>


Some Christians such as the Catholic priest ], who published the first French translation of the ''Protocols'', combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."{{sfnp|Michael|2008|p=171}} The virulent antisemitism of ], one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arnal|first1=Oscar L.|title=Ambivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899–1939|date=1985|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rubenstein|first1=Richard L.|title=Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy|date=2003|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Brustein|first1=William|title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=60}}</ref> Drumont founded the ].
During the ] in Europe there was persecution against Jews in many places, with ]s, expulsions, ]s and ]. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. The persecution hit its first peak during the ]. In the ] (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube ]. In the ] (1147) the Jews in Germany were subject to several massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the ]s of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including, in 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews France; and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref></ref>


===Economic antisemitism===
As the ] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, Jews were used as ]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately ]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although ] tried to protect them by the July 6, 1348, ] and an additional bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in ], where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.<ref name="Black"/>
{{Main|Economic antisemitism}}
<!-- ] asserting Jewish control of banking and finance]]
-->
] propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".]]
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref name=MeyerBrenner220>{{cite book|title=German-Jewish History in Modern Times: Integration in dispute, 1871–1918|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1998|page=220|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220|isbn=978-0-231-07476-6|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting ]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jews & Money – The story of a stereotype|url=http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp|access-date=18 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228220753/http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp|archive-date=28 February 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent '']'' and later repeated by ] and his '']''. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as '']'' published by the ] and on the internet.
===Seventeenth century===
During the mid-to-late 17th century the ] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in hundreds of thousands. First, the ] when ]'s ]s massacred tens of thousands of ] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's ]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and ], called ''jasyr''.<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." , '']''. Accessed May 13, 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." ]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-231-10965-2, p. 219.</ref>


] writes that there are two components to the financial canards:<ref>Penslar page 5 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
===Eighteenth century===
:a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
In 1744, ] limited the number of Jews allowed to live in ] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other ]n cities. In 1750 he issued the ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting ]). In the same year, Archduchess of ] ] ordered Jews out of ] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This ] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, ] abolished most of these persecution practices in his '']'', on the condition that ] and ] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. ] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
:b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"


] describes six facets of the financial canards:
In 1772, the empress of Russia ] forced the Jews of the ] to stay in their ] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the ].<ref></ref>
#All Jews are wealthy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=84}}
#Jews are stingy and greedy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=89}}
#Powerful Jews control the business world{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=93}}
#Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=98}}
#It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=102}}
#Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=105}}


] summarizes the myth as " control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".<ref>Krefetz page 45 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref> Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.<ref>Krefetz pages 6–7 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref> During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the ] and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate ".<ref>Krefetz page 47 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
===Nineteenth century===
Historian ] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. ] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish ]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>


] asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".<ref>Penslar page 12 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
In 1850 the ] composer ] published '']'' ("Jewishness in Music") under a ] in the '']''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries (and rivals) ] and ], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in ]. Antisemitism can also be found in many of the ] by ] and ], published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the ] of a story, such as in “The Good Bargain (Der gute Handel)” and “The Jew Among Thorns (Der Jude im Dorn).”


An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."<ref>D'Acunto, Francesco, et al. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107191848/http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |date=7 November 2014 }} ''Haas School of Business''. September 2014. 20 October 2014.</ref>
The ] was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment at Devil's Island. The actual spy Marie Charles Esterhazy was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French and everyone chose a side regarding whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of polluting the French Justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: eighty percent of the press in France condemned Dreyfus. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.</ref>


===Racial antisemitism===
] (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, antiliberal political party called The ]. However, this party did not attract as many votes as the Nazi party, which flourished in part because of The Great Depression which hit Germany especially hard during the early 1930s.<ref>Harold M. Green (2003). "Adolf Stoecker:Portrait of a Demagogue." ''Politics and Policy'''''31'''(1):106-129; D.A. Jeremy Telman (1995) "Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission." ''Jewish History'''''9'''(2):93-112</ref>
{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}


]
===Twentieth century===
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against ]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than ] as a religion.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921041255/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=anti-semitism |date=21 September 2011 }}, ].</ref>
]


Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the ] movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=31 August 2022|archive-date=11 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211142824/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the first half of the 20th century, in the USA, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrollment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The ] lynching by a mob of prominent citizens in ], ] in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the ] which had been inactive since 1870.


Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the ], following the ], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945|website=ushmm.org|access-date=15 September 2017|archive-date=23 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823210503/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the beginning of 20th century, the ] in ] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe. Allegations of Jews killing Christians were used as justification for killing of Jews by Christians.


In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>Paul Webster (2001) ''Petain's Crime''. London, Pan Books: pp. 13, 15.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2006) ''The Paradox of Anti-Semitism''. Continuum: pp. 44–46.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> The old laws restricting them to ]s, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by ], encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as ] and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–1855. ] agendas based on ], known as ], usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': p. 64.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> Allied to this were theories of ], which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white ]s to ] Jews.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': pp. 57–59.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref>
Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer ] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper '']''. The radio speeches of ] in the late 1930s attacked ]'s ] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Such views were also shared by some prominent politicians; ], Chairman of the ], blamed Jews for president Roosevelt's decision to abandon the ], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money."<ref>{{cite book |last=Arad |first=Gulie Ne'eman |title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism |year=2000 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indianapolis |isbn=0253338093 |page=174}}</ref>


===Political antisemitism===
].]]
{{Quote box
|quote=The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.
|author=]
|source=1886, <ref>{{cite book|title=Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker|pages=8, 63, ''et passim''|author=Alfred Baeumler|author-link=Alfred Baeumler|publisher=]|year=1931|asin=B002803IJK}}</ref>
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] defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book|title=Genocide, critical issues of the Holocaust: a companion to the film, Genocide|publisher=Behrman House, Inc|year=1983|page=100|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100|isbn=978-0-940646-04-9|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001125/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100|url-status=live}}</ref> ] wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized ]."<ref>Penslar, Derek J. Introduction. ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World'', edited by Penslar, et al, University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 3–12.</ref>


According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline|first=Viktor|last=Karády|publisher=]|year=2004|page=348|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351|isbn=978-963-9241-52-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001153/https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the 1940s the ] ] and many prominent Americans led The ] in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit he wrote letters saying that there was “more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized.”


===Cultural antisemitism===
The ] held parades in ] during the late 1930s where ] uniforms were worn and flags featuring ]s were raised alongside American flags. The U.S. ] (HUAC) was very active in denying the Bund's ability to operate. With the start of U.S. involvement in ] most of the Bund's members were placed in ]s, and some were deported at the end of the war.
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."<ref>{{cite book|title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature|first=Louis|last=Harap|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1987|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76|isbn=978-0-313-25386-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000109/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, ] characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."<ref name=Kandel30>{{cite book|title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind|first=Eric R.|last=Kandel|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2007|page=30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30|isbn=978-0-393-32937-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust|first1=Donald L.|last1=Niewyk|first2=Francis R.|last2=Nicosia|publisher=]|year=2003|page=215|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215|isbn=978-0-231-11201-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000044/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.<ref name=Kandel3031>{{cite book|title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind|first=Eric R.|last=Kandel|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2007|pages=30–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30|isbn=978-0-393-32937-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


===Conspiracy theories===
Sometimes, during race riots, as in ] in 1943, Jewish businesses were targeted for looting and burning.<ref>Capeci Jr., Dominic J. , in Maurianne Adams, John H. Bracey. ''Strangers & neighbors: relations between Blacks & Jews in the United States'', ], 1999, p. 384.</ref>
{{See also|List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitic conspiracy theories}}
<!-- refs need sorting out -->
] and ] theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.<ref name="antisemitic"/><ref name="hoax">Mathis, Andrew E. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213171733/https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |date=13 February 2021 }}, ], 2 July 2004. Retrieved 15 August 2016.</ref><ref>Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. ''Denying History: who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?'', University of California Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-520-23469-3}}, p. 106.</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184616/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |date=28 June 2011 }}, ], 2000. Retrieved 17 May 2007.</ref>{{sfnp|Lipstadt|1994|p=27}}<ref name="adl.org"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |date=4 June 2011 }}, "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", ], 2001. Retrieved 12 June 2007.</ref><ref>Lawrence N. Powell, ''Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana'', University of North Carolina Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-8078-5374-7}}, p. 445.</ref> ] have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tait|first=Robert|date=10 December 2012|title='Vulture spying for Israel' caught in Sudan|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html|access-date=11 January 2014|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html|archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>


===New antisemitism===
]|thumb]]
{{Main|New antisemitism}}
<!-- ], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the ]s. This image shows the arrival of Hungarian Jews from ], many of them from the ] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the SS. Courtesy of ].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>, ].</ref> {{ifdc|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6}}]] -->
], Scotland, January 2009]]


Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of ], coming simultaneously from the ], the ], and ], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the ],<ref name="New-AS-List">* ]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158–159, 181
In Germany the ] regime of ], who came to power on 30 January 1933, instituted repressive legislation denying the Jews basic civil rights and instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed ], in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>Ian Kershaw (2008) ''Fateful Choices'': 441-44</ref> Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to Nazi occupied Europe, in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In the east Jews were forced into ghettos in ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) ''The Third Reich: A Concise History''. Tempus.</ref> After the invasion of Russia in 1941 a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the ], culminated, between 1942 to 1945, in systematic ]: the Holocaust.<ref name="saul1">Saul Friedlander (2008) The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)</ref><ref>]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref> This is seen by many as the culmination of generations of antisemitism in Europe.
* ]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729171012/http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |date=29 July 2012 }}. Retrieved 5 March 2006
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115132604/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |date=15 January 2008 }}, '']'', 8 August 2004.
* ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161939/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |date=17 November 2022 }} in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65–79.
* ]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161942/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA30 |date=17 November 2022 }}, Dundurn Press, 2005, pp. 30–31.
* ] "From Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel (Studies in Antisemitism)", University of Nebraska Press, 2012</ref> and they argue that the language of ] and ] are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and ] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.<ref name=":0"> in ] (ed.). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', Random House 2004, p.&nbsp;272.</ref>


Jewish scholar ] posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".<ref name=":0" /> It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the ].<ref name="New-AS-List"/>
Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for personal conflicts in ], starting from conflict between ] and ] and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the ] reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the ] (euphemism for ''"Jew"'') in which numerous Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal|author=Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov| title=From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism| journal=Journal of Cold War Studies| year=2002| volume=4:1| issue=Winter| pages=66–80| url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31}}</ref><ref name="Myth">{{cite book|title=The Myth of the Jewish Race| coauthors=Raphael and Jennifer Patai| year=1989| page=178| publisher=Wayne State University Press| isbn=0814319483, 9780814319482}}</ref> This culminated in the so-called ]. Similar anti-Jewish propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of the Polish Jewish survivors out of the country.<ref name="Myth" />


Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>]. {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090701082702/http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |date=1 July 2009 }}. '']'', posted 15 January 2004 (2 February 2004 issue). Retrieved 9 January 2006; and ]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126094118/http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |date=26 January 2011 }}, posted 5 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.</ref>
After the war, the ] and "]" in communist ] represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The common theme behind the ] were ] rumours.<ref></ref><ref></ref>


==History==
The cult of ] was disbanded in 1965 by ], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact.
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}
{{For timeline}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}


Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Chanes|2004}}
==Christianity and antisemitism==
#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
{{Main|Religious antisemitism}}
#Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
{{Main|Christianity and antisemitism}}
#Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
#Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
#Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
#Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the ]


Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; ], which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|pp=5–6}}
Religious antisemitism is also known as anti-Judaism. As the name implies, it was the practice of ] itself that was the defining characteristic of the antisemitic attacks. Under this version of antisemitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practicing or changed their public faith, especially by ] to the official or right religion, and sometimes, liturgical exclusion of Jewish converts (the case of Christianized '']'' or Iberian Jews in the late 15th and 16th centuries convicted of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs).<ref>See, for example, Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1985, this edition 2004.</ref>


===Ancient world===
===New Testament and antisemitism===
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to ],{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=11}} the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the ], a Greek translation of the ], was produced. ], an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of ], ], ], ], and in ] and ].{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} ] ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of ]", making a mocking reference to how ] was able to invade ] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the '']''.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} One of the earliest anti-Jewish ]s, promulgated by ] in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the ] in ].<ref name="gruen">{{cite encyclopedia|author-link=Erich S. Gruen|first=Erich S.|last=Gruen|year=1993|title=Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews|encyclopedia=Hellenistic History and Culture|editor-first=Peter|editor-last=Green|publisher=University of California Press|pages=250–252}}</ref>{{rp|238}}
{{Main|Antisemitism in the New Testament}}


In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the ] retelling of ]ian prejudices".<ref name="Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', ], 1997, p. 208.]</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher ] describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M G, 1999. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE)'', University of California. John M. G. Barclay of the ]</ref><ref>Philo of Alexandria, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804174650/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |date=4 August 2007 }}</ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as ].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem, 2003. ''Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill. ]</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the '']''.<ref name=tcherikover>Tcherikover, Victor, ''Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews'', New York: Atheneum, 1975</ref> Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al., ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, pp. 27–43 {{ISBN|9652172057}}.</ref>
Frederick Schweitzer and Marvin Perry write that the authors of the gospel accounts sought to place responsibility for the ] and his death on Jews, rather than the Roman emperor or ].<ref>Schweitzer & Perry (2002), pp. 27, 35.</ref> As a result, Christians for centuries viewed Jews as "the Christ Killers".<ref name=SchweitzerPerry2002p18>Schweitzer & Perry (2002), p. 18.</ref> The destruction of the ] was seen as judgment from God to the Jews for that death,<ref>Richardson (1986), p. 23</ref> and Jews were seen as "a people condemned forever to suffer exile and degradation".<ref name=SchweitzerPerry2002p18/> According to historian ], the ] in particular contains many verses that refer to Jews in a pejorative manner.<ref>Flannery (2004) p. 33.</ref>


Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many ] ] and ] writers.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3265911|author=Daniels J.L.|title=Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=98|issue=1|year=1979|pages=45–65|doi=10.2307/3265911}}</ref> Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian ] who had been taught by ] "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
In {{bibleverse|1|Thessalonians|2:14-16|31}}, ] states that the Churches in Judea had been persecuted by the Jews who killed Jesus and that such people displease God, oppose all men, and had prevented Paul from speaking to the gentile nations concerning the New Testament message. Described by ] as "the most explicit outburst against Jews in Paul's Epistles",<ref name=Maccoby203>], ''The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity'', ], 1986, ISBN 0-06-015582-5, p. 203.</ref> these verses have repeatedly been employed for antisemitic purposes. Maccoby views it as one of Paul's innovations responsible for creating Christian antisemitism, though he notes that some have argued these particular verses are later interpolations not written by Paul.<ref name=Maccoby203/> ] argues that viewing them as antisemitic is a mistake, but "understandable in light of harsh words". In his view, Paul is not condemning all Jews forever, but merely those he believed had specifically persecuted the prophets, Jesus, or the first century church. Blomberg sees Paul's words here as no different in kind than the harsh words the prophets of the Old Testament have for the Jews.<ref>], ''From Pentecost to Patmos: An Introduction to Acts Through Revelation'', ], 2006, ISBN 9780805432480, p. 144.</ref>


There are examples of ] rulers desecrating the ] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as ], Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
The ] contains two extra books in the New Testament – the ] and the ].<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|title=The rival to the Bible |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7651105.stm|publisher=BBC News|author=Roger Bolton|date=October 6, 2008|accessdate=January 1, 2010}}</ref> The latter emphasizes the claim that it was the Jews, not the Romans, who killed Jesus, and is full of antisemitism.<ref name="bbc"/> The Epistle of Barnabas was removed from later versions of the Bible; Professor ] has stated "the suffering of Jews in the subsequent centuries would, if possible, have been even worse had the Epistle of Barnabas remained".<ref name="bbc"/>


The Jewish diaspora on the ] island ], which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>Colpe, Carsten (Berlin). "Anti-Semitism." Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 28 April 2008</ref>
===Early Christianity===
A number of early and influential Church works — such as the dialogues of ], the homilies of ], and the testimonies of church father ] — are strongly anti-Jewish.


Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying ] were at times antagonistic and resulted in ]. According to ], the emperor ] expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian ] identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews ].
During a discussion on the celebration of ] during the ] in 325 CE, Roman emperor ] said, <blockquote> ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.<ref name=Eusebius>]. , 337 CE. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref></blockquote>


] asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as ]s and ]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. '']'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|0-395-77927-8}} p. 26</ref>
Prejudice against Jews in the ] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of ]'' established Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The ] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the 6th and 7th century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now ]), a Spanish town in ], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian ]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic ], the ] ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth).<ref name=Roth>Roth, A. M. Roth, and Roth, Norman. ''Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain'', Brill Academic, 1994.</ref> Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism.


===Persecutions during the Middle Ages===
===Medieval and Renaissance Europe===
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages|Antisemitism in Europe (Middle Ages)}} {{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}
], a Jewish tribe in ], 627]]
Antisemitism was widespread in Europe during the ]. In those times, a main cause of prejudice against Jews in Europe was the religious one. Although not part of ] ], many Christians, including members of the ], held the Jewish people ] for the death of Jesus, a practice originated by ].


In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lowney|first1=Chris|title=A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain|date=1999|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004112063|pages=124–125}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",<ref>{{cite book|editor=Alberto Ferreiro|last1=Gonzalez Salinero|first1=Raul|title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195311914|pages=29–31}}</ref> ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gorsky|first1=Jeffrey|title=Exiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain|date=2015|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=9780827612419|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=964eCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref>
Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed the doors for many professions to the Jews, pushing them into occupations considered socially inferior such as accounting, rent-collecting and ], which was tolerated then as a "]".<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. {{PDFlink||74.4&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref> During the ], Jews were accused as being the cause, and were often killed.<ref name="Black">See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in '']'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{fr icon}}</ref> There were expulsions of Jews from ], ], ], ] and ] during the Middle Ages as a result of antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Holocaust and Return to Zion: A Study in Jewish Philosophy of History |last=Spero |first=Shubert |year=2000 |publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc. |isbn=0881256366 |page=164}}</ref>


From the 9th century, the ] classified Jews and Christians as '']'' and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in ]. Under ], there was a ] that lasted until at least the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=978-0-316-16871-7|url=https://archive.org/details/ornamentofworldh00meno}}</ref> It ended when several Muslim ]s against Jews took place on the ], including those that occurred in ] in 1011 and in ].{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2002|pp=267–268}}<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224005745/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada |date=24 December 2010 }} by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, '']''. 1906 ed.</ref>{{sfnp|Harzig|Hoerder|Shubert|2003|p=42}} Several decrees ordering the destruction of ]s were also enacted in ], ], ] and ] from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to ] or face death in some parts of ], ] and ] several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bat Ye'or|year=1985|title=The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam|place=Madison, New Jersey|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|page=61|isbn=978-0838632628|author-link=Bat Ye'or}}</ref>
]
] for "Jews' sow", '']'' was the derogatory and dehumanizing imagery of Jews that appeared around the 13th century. Its popularity lasted for over 600 years and was revived by the Nazis. The Jews, typically portrayed in ] contact with ] such as ]s or ]s or representing a ], appeared on ] or ] ceilings, pillars, utensils, etchings, etc. Often, the images combined several antisemitic motifs and included derisive prose or poetry.
<blockquote>"Dozens of Judensaus... intersect with the portrayal of the Jew as a ]. Various illustrations of the murder of ] blended images of Judensau, the ], the murder of little Simon himself, and the ]. In the 17th-century engraving from Frankfurt<ref>Cohen's book includes an earlier variation of the same image.</ref> ... a well-dressed, very contemporary-looking Jew has mounted the sow backward and holds her tail, while a second Jew sucks at her milk and a third eats her feces. The horned devil, himself wearing a ], looks on and the butchered Simon, splayed as if on a cross, appears on a panel above."<ref>Jeremy Cohen (2007): ''Christ Killers: The Jews and the Passion from the Bible to the Big Screen.'' Oxford University Press. p.208 ISBN 0-19-517841-6</ref></blockquote>


The ], who had taken control of the ]' ] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 September 2007, from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213154933/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |date=13 December 2007 }}.</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213223723/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |date=13 February 2009 }}. Myjewishlearning.com. Retrieved 2 June 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728230344/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39|archive-date=28 July 2007|title=Historical Timeline|url-status=dead|access-date=27 October 2018}}. The Forgotten Refugees</ref> Some, such as the family of ], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}} while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}
In ]'s ''"]",'' considered to be one of the greatest romantic comedies of all time, the villain ] was a Jewish moneylender. By the end of the play he is mocked on the streets after his daughter elopes with a Christian. Shylock, then, compulsorily converts to Christianity as a part of a deal gone wrong. This has raised profound implications regarding Shakespeare and antisemitism.<ref> by Bradley S. Berens</ref>


] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
During the Middle Ages, the story of Jephonias,<ref>, the original 5th or 6th century text</ref> the Jew who tried to overturn Mary's funeral bier, changed from his converting to Christianity into his simply having his hands cut off by an angel.<ref></ref>
In ] Europe, Jews were persecuted with ]s, expulsions, ]s and ]s. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the ]. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of ] during the ].<ref>], ''In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews'' (1996) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053850/https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |date=26 July 2020 }}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.<ref>{{cite book|author=Corliss K. Slack|title=Historical Dictionary of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|pages=108–9|isbn=9780810878310|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the ]. The ] and ] both involved attacks, as did the ] in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from ], the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,<ref>History of the reign of Charles VI, titled '']'', encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.</ref> and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html|title=Why the Jews? – Black Death|access-date=22 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211173212/http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html|archive-date=11 December 2003}}</ref>
]
On many occasions, Jews were subjected to ], false accusations of drinking the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian ].
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden.


In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially ]) and Dominicans (especially ]), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>Franco Mormando, ''The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1999, Ch. 2.</ref>
===19th and 20th century===
{{See also|Christianity and Judaism|Relations between Catholicism and Judaism}}
] illustration in ] by Bishop ] 1928 Published by the ] in ]]]
Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong antisemitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial antisemitism. ] (1800–1823) had the walls of the Jewish ] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were ], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870. Additionally, official organizations such as the ] banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian ], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book '']'' that in the 19th and early 20th centuries the ] adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of antisemitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations ], for example, criticized Kertzer in the '']'' for using evidence selectively.


As the ] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as ]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were ]. Although ] tried to protect them by issuing two ]s in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were ], where the plague had not yet affected the city.<ref name="Black">See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in '']'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p. 47 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
The ], the ] document, and the efforts of ] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. According to Roman Catholic Holocaust scholar ] the Church as a whole recognized its failings during the council when it corrected the traditional beliefs of the Jews having committed deicide and affirmed that they remained God's chosen people.<ref>"''Pius XII, The Holocaust and the Cold War''", Indiana University Press, p. 252, 2008, ISBN 978-0-253-34930-9</ref>


===Reformation===
The Nazis used ]'s book, '']'' (1543), to ] a moral righteousness for their ideology. Luther even went so far as to advocate the murder of those Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, writing that "we are at fault in not slaying them"<ref>Luther, Martin. ''On the Jews and Their'' ''Lies'', cited in Robert.Michael. "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," ''Encounter'' 46 ( Autumn 1985) No.4.343-344</ref> In 1994, the Church Council of the ], the largest ] denomination in the United States and a member of the ] publicly ] Luther's antisemitic writings. The controversial document ] was issued by many American Jewish scholars in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document says, <blockquote>
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}
"Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity."
</blockquote>


], an ] reformer whose teachings inspired the ], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet '']'', written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a ] against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian ], "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to ]."<ref name=Johnson>] (1987) ''A History of the Jews''. New York: HarperCollins. p.242. {{ISBN|5-551-76858-9}}</ref>
===Accusations of deicide===
{{Main|Jewish deicide}}


===17th century===
Though never a part of ] ], many Christians, including members of the ], held the Jewish people under an ] to be ] for ], the ], whom they believed to be the son of God.<ref></ref>
] in 1614]]


During the mid-to-late 17th century the ] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3&nbsp;million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the ], when ]'s supporters massacred tens of thousands of ] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's ]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and ], called ''jasyr''.<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020024503/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |date=20 October 2012 }}, ]. Retrieved 13 May 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage." ]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-231-10965-2}}, p. 219.</ref>
According to this interpretation, the Jews present at Jesus’ death as well as the Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. The accusation has been the most powerful warrant for antisemitism by Christians.<ref>Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 26</ref>


European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. ], the Dutch governor of ], implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the ] that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Boyer|editor-first=Paul S.|title=The Oxford companion to United States history|year=2006|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-508209-8|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42}}</ref>
]s are dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of ] and have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during ]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for ] in a ]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to ] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal ] for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, '']'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks — or ]s — on Europe's Jewish communities".<ref name=Sennott>Sennott, Charles M. , '']'', April 10, 2004.</ref>


In the ] of ], Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of ] and which became known as the ].<ref>Yosef Qafiḥ, ''Ketavim'' (''Collected Papers''), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, pp. 714–716 (Hebrew)</ref>
==Islam and antisemitism==
{{Main|Islam and antisemitism}}
{{See also|Arabs and antisemitism|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
Various definitions of antisemitism in the context of Islam are given. The extent of antisemitism among Muslims varies depending on the chosen definition:


===Enlightenment===
*Scholars like ] and ] define it to be the animosity specifically applied to Jews only and do not include discriminations practiced against Non-Muslims in general.<ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein">], A Mediterranean Society: An Abridgment in One Volume, p. 293</ref><ref name="Cahen">"Dhimma" by Claude Cahen in ]</ref><ref name="OxfordDic">The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, ''Antisemitism''</ref> For these scholars, antisemitism in Medieval Islam has been local and sporadic rather than general and endemic ,<ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein"/> not at all present ,<ref name="Cahen"/> or rarely present.<ref name="OxfordDic"/>
In 1744, Archduchess of Austria ] ordered Jews out of ] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This ] was known among the Jews as '']'' ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, Under Maria Teresa">{{cite book|author-last=Büchler|author-first=Alexander|chapter=Hungary|editor1-last=Singer|editor1-first=Isidore|title=The Jewish Encyclopedia|date=1904|publisher=Funk and Wagnalls Co.|location=New York and London|volume=6|pages=}}</ref> In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.


In 1782, ] abolished most of these persecution practices in his '']'',<ref>O'Brien, H.C. Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', p. 29</ref><ref>Ingrao, W. Charles, ''The Habsburg Monarchy 1618-1815'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 199</ref> on the condition that ] and ] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.<ref>O'Brien, H.C. Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', p. 30</ref> ] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
*According to ], antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil."<ref>Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004</ref> For Lewis, from the late nineteenth century, movements appear among Muslims of which for the first time one can legitimately use the technical term antisemitic.<ref>Lewis(1984), p.184</ref> However, he describes demonizing beliefs, anti-Jewish discrimination and systematic humiliations, as an "inherent" part of the traditional Muslim world, even if violent persecutions were relatively rare.<ref>Lewis(1984), p.8, 32-33, 41-45, etc.</ref>


===Jews in Islamic texts=== ====Voltaire====
According to ], ]'s "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".<ref>Ages Arnold. "Tainted Greatness: The Case of Voltaire's Anti-Semitism: The Testimony of the Correspondence." Neohelicon 21.2 (Sept. 1994): 361.</ref> Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."<ref>Meyer, Paul H. "The Attitude of the Enlightenment Toward the Jew." Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 26 (1963): 1177.</ref> Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's '']'' concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.<ref>] ''The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner''. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). page 88-89.</ref>
],<ref name="EncJud">Poliakov</ref> ],<ref name="Laqueur192"/> and ],<ref>Gerber 78</ref> suggest that later passages in the ] contain very sharp attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize ] as a ] of ].<ref name="EncJud"/> There are also Qur'anic verses, particularly from the earliest Qur'anic surahs, showing respect for the Jews (e.g. see {{Quran-usc|2|47}}, {{Quran-usc|2|62}})<ref name="Poliakov (1961), pg. 27">Poliakov (1961), pg. 27</ref><ref>Glazov, Jamie, "Symposium: The Koran and Anti-Semitism", FrontPageMag.com, June 25, 2004. (retrieved May 3, 2006)</ref> and preaching tolerance (e.g. see {{Quran-usc|2|256}}).<ref name="Laqueur192">Laqueur 192</ref> This positive view tended to disappear in the later Surahs. Taking it all together, the Qur'an differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, Poliakov states.<ref name="Poliakov (1961), pg. 27"/> Laqueur argues that the conflicting statements about Jews in the Muslim holy text has defined ] and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising ].<ref>Laqueur 191</ref>


===Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution===
During Muhammad's life, Jews lived in the ], especially in and around ]. They reportedly refused Muhammad's offer for them to convert and accept him as the Prophet.<ref>F.E.Peters(2003), p.103</ref> According to ], they also began to secretly to conspire with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca to overthrow him (despite having been forced by their conquerors to sign a peace treaty.)<ref name="Sameul">Samuel Rosenblatt, ''Essays on Antisemitism: The Jews of Islam'', p.112</ref><ref>F.E.Peters(2003), p.194</ref><ref>The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), pp.43-44</ref> After each major battle, Muhammad accused one of the Jewish tribes of treachery and attacked it. Two Jewish tribes were expelled and the last one, the Banu Qura was wiped out after it threw itself on Muhammad's mercy.<ref name="Laqueur192"/><ref>Esposito (1998), pp.10-11</ref> Samuel Rosenblatt states that these incidents were not part of policies directed exclusively against Jews, and that Muhammad was more severe with Arab pagans than with Jews.<ref name="Sameul"/> The attitude towards Jews changed in the course of Muhammad's career, as expressed in more positive teachings in the earlier Qur'anic surahs, from the Mecca period, to increasingly hostile and negative ones, characterizing Jews as such, in Medina as the Jewish tribes there refused to submit completely to Muhammad's authority and claims. This distinction of periods is crucial to assess the weight of Qur'anic passages. According to traditional rules of Qur'anic exegesis stipulated in the Qur'an itself (Surah 2:106, from the later Medina period), the later passages must be taken as the last and binding final word from God, rendering earlier passages merely temporal expedients that no longer apply and are cancelled outright. Thus the negative characterizations have become the authoritative consensus. It may therefore be quite misleading to equate the earlier more positive statements with the later ones as some apologists do.
The ] Catholic royalist ] stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the ].<ref name="Battini1">{{Cite book|title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism|last=Battini|first=Michele|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|pages=2–7 and 30–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Jacob|title=From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933|url=https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz|url-access=registration|date=1980|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=|isbn=9780674325050}}</ref> Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced ]'s decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism|last=Battini|first=Michele|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|page=164}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Garṭner|first1=Aryeh|last2=Gartner|first2=Lloyd P.|title=History of the Jews in Modern Times|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=|isbn=978-0-19-289259-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Joskowicz|first1=Ari|title=The Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France|date=2013|publisher=]|page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Michael|first1=Robert|last2=Rosen|first2=Philip|title=Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present|date=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=67}}</ref> Bonald's article ''Sur les juifs'' (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as ], ], and ], nationalists such as ] and ], and antisemitic socialists such as ].<ref name="Battini1" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sanos|first1=Sandrine|title=The Aesthetics of Hate: Far-Right Intellectuals, Antisemitism, and Gender in 1930s France|date=2012|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Laqueur|first1=Walter|last2=Baumel|first2=Judith Tydor|title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia|date=2001|publisher=]|page=20}}</ref> Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.<ref name="Battini1" />{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}


Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist ] propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Graetz|first1=Michael|title=The Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle|date=1996|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=208}}</ref> Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}} Gougenot des Mousseaux's ''Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens'' (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue ].{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}
The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Qur'an and later Muslim literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to Jews is verse {{Quran-usc|2|61}}: "And remember ye said: "O Moses! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, Its garlic, lentils, and onions." He said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing. "<ref name = "Lewis p128">Lewis (1999), p. 128</ref> Two verses later we read: "And remember, Children of Israel, when We made a covenant with you and raised Mount Sinai before you saying, "Hold tightly to what We have revealed to you and keep it in mind so that you may guard against evil." But then you turned away, and if it had not been for Allah's grace and merecy, you surely would have been among the lost. And you know those among who sinned on the Sabbath. We said to them, "You will be transformed into despised apes." So we used them as a warning to their people and to the following generations, as well as a lesson for the Allah-fearing."(Qur'an {{Quran-usc|2|63}}) The accusation that Jews will ultimately be transformed into apes and pigs is traditionally understood literally and is derived from such Qur'anic and other early Muslim sources.


===Imperial Russia===
The Qur'an associates Jews above all with rejection of God's prophets including Jesus and Muhammad, thus explaining their resistance to him personally. (Cf. Surah 2:87-91; 5:59, 61, 70, and 82.) It states that they are, together with outright idolators, the worst and most inveterate enemies of Islam, and thus will not only suffer eternally in Hell but in this world will be the most degraded of the Peoples of the Book, below even Christians, everywhere. (Cf. Surah 5:82; 3:54-56.) It also asserts that Jews believe that they are the sole children of God (Surah 5:18), and that only they will achieve salvation (Surah 2:111). According to the Qur'an, Jews blasphemously claim that ] is the son of God, as ] claim Jesus is, (Surah 9:30) and that God’s hand is fettered (Surah 5:64 – i.e., that they can freely defy God). Some of those who are Jews,<ref name="Yahud">Here the Qur'an uses an Arabic expression ''alladhina hadu'' ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Qur'an ten times. "Yahud". ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref> "pervert words from their meanings", (Surah 4:44), and because they have committed wrongdoing, God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them", thus explaining Jewish commandments regarding food, sabbath restrictions on work, and other rulings as a punishment from God (Surah 4:160). They listen for the sake of mendacity (Surah 5:41), twisting the truth, and practice forbidden usury, and therefore they will receive "a painful doom" (Surah 4:161).<ref name="Yahud"/> The Qur'an gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "...but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers"(Surah 3:54). In the Muslim view, the ] was an illusion, and thus the supposed Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 120</ref> In numerous verses (Surah 3:63, 71; 4:46, 160-161; 5:41-44, 63-64, 82; 6:92)<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 91</ref> the Qur'an accuses Jews of deliberately ].<ref name = "Gerber p78">Gerber (1986), p. 78</ref>
] in ], Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)]]


Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack ] in the 1768 ] in the ]. In 1772, the empress of Russia ] forced the Jews into the ] &ndash; which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus &ndash; and to stay in their ] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the ]. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.<ref>Paul Johnson, ''A History of the Jews'', Harper Perennial, 1986, p 358</ref> A decree by emperor ] in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the ] schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia|title=Military Service in Russia|author-link1=Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern|last=Petrovsky-Shtern|first=Yohanan|date=8 June 2017|website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052626/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Differences with Christianity===
] holds that Muslims were not antisemitic in the way Christians were for the most part because:
# The gospels are not part of the educational system in Muslim society and therefore Muslims are not brought up with the stories of ]; on the contrary the notion of deicide is rejected by the Qur'an as a blasphemous absurdity.
# Muhammad and his early followers were not Jews and therefore they did not present themselves as the true Israel or feel threatened by survival of the old Israel.
# The Qur'an was not viewed by Muslims as a fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible but rather as a restorer of its original messages that had been distorted over time. Thus no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam could arise.
# Muhammad was not killed by the Jewish community and he was victorious in the clash with the Jewish community in Medina.
# Muhammad did not claim to have been Son of God or Messiah but only a prophet; a claim which Jews repudiated less.
# Muslims saw the conflict between Muhammad and the Jews as something of minor importance in Muhammad's career.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.117-118</ref>


Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under ] ({{reign|1855|1881}}).<ref>Paul Johnson, ''A History of the Jews'', Harper Perennial, 1986, p 359</ref> However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the ] of 1882. ], nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the ], later crowned ], declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".<ref>],''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', Sutton, 1998, p 104</ref>
===Status of Jews under Muslim rule===
Traditionally Jews living in Muslim lands, known (along with Christians) as ], were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs but subject to certain conditions.<ref name = "Gerber p10,20">Lewis (1984), pp.10,20</ref> They had to pay the ] (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to Muslims.<ref name = "Gerber p10,20"/> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal ] such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<ref>Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27</ref> Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The most degrading one was the requirement of ], not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in ] ]; its enforcement was highly erratic.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131</ref> Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62</ref>


===Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century===
The notable examples of massacre of Jews include the ], when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in ], ] ]ish ] ] and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."<ref name = "Gottheil-1906"> by Richard Gottheil, ], '']''. 1906 ed.</ref> This was the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula under Islamic rule. There was also the killing or forcibly conversion of them by the rulers of the ] dynasty in ] in the 12th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77</ref> Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters (]s) in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 28</ref> Most conversions were voluntary and happened for various reasons. However, there were some forced conversions in the 12th century under the ] dynasty of North Africa and ] as well as in Persia.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp.17,18,94,95; Stillman (1979), p.27</ref>
Historian ] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in ] countries. ] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish ]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name="Morris10">]. '']''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref>


In the middle of the 19th century, ] wrote about the life of ], describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."<ref>{{cite book|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|title=The Jews of Islam|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|year=1984|pages=181–183|isbn=978-0-691-00807-3}}</ref>
===Pre-modern times===
The portrayal of the Jews in the early Islamic texts played a key role in shaping the attitudes towards them in the Muslim societies. According to ], "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history."<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 82</ref> In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of Muhammad, Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, ] attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness".<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 129–130</ref>


In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. ], on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in ] and ]; Arabs called the ]s 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the ] and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.<ref>], ''Jerusalem'', Phoenix, 2011, pp. 429–432</ref>
Some Muslim writers have inserted racial overtones in their anti-Jewish polemics. ] speaks of the deterioration of the Jewish stock due to excessive inbreeding. ] also implies racial qualities in his attacks on the Jews. However, these were exceptions, and the racial theme left little or no trace in the medieval Muslim anti-Jewish writings.<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 131–132</ref>


At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".<ref>], ''What Went Wrong?'', Phoenix, 2002, p 172</ref>
Anti-Jewish sentiments usually flared up at times of the Muslim political or military weakness or when Muslims felt that some Jews had overstepped the boundary of humiliation prescribed to them by the Islamic law.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 130; Gerber (1986), p. 83</ref> In ], ibn Hazm and ] focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivation behind the ], when "ore than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day",<ref name = "Gottheil-1906"/> and in ] in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed.<ref name=Morris10>]. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10-11.</ref> There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465.<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 84</ref>


===Secular or racial antisemitism===
Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as dhimmis. According to ], the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of ] law.<ref name = "Lewis p128"/> This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries, when Christian communities enjoyed protection, unavailable to the Jews, under the provisions of ]. For example, in 18th century ], a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and prostitutes.<ref>Gerber (1986), pp. 84–85</ref> In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, ], a high-ranking official observed: "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then the Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.'"<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 136–137; Gerber (1986), p. 86</ref>
]
]]]


In 1850, the German composer ] – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"<ref name=bismarck /> – published '']'' (roughly "Jewishness in Music"<ref name=bismarck>] (2011) ''Bismarck: A Life'' New York: Oxford, pp.388–90. {{ISBN|978-0-19-997539-6}}</ref>) under a ] in the '']''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, ] and ], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in ], who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:<ref name=bismarck />
Some scholars have questioned the correctness of the term "antisemitism" to Muslim culture in pre-modern times.<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>Cahen, Cl. "" Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.21 November 2006.</ref><ref>] (1995) p. xvii</ref><ref>Nissim Rejwan, ''Israel's Place in the Middle East: A Pluralist Perspective'', University Press of Florida, p.31</ref> Robert Chazan and Alan Davies argue that the most obvious difference between pre-modern Islam and pre-modern Christendom was the "rich melange of racial, ethic, and religious communities" in Islamic countries, within which "the Jews were by no means obvious as lone dissenters, as they had been earlier in the world of polytheism or subsequently in most of medieval Christendom." According to Chazan and Davies, this lack of uniqueness ameliorated the circumstances of Jews in the medieval world of Islam.<ref>Encyclopedia of religion, anti-semitism article.</ref> According to ], antisemitism, understood as hatred of Jews as Jews, "did exist in the medieval Arab world even in the period of greatest tolerance".<ref>Stillman (1979), p. 63</ref> Also see Bostom, Bat Ye'or, and the CSPI issued text, supporting Stillman and cited in the bibliography.


{{blockquote|According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.<ref name=bismarck />}}
===Nineteenth century===
Historian ] writes that in the 19th century the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}}


Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.<ref name=bismarck />
There was a massacre of Jews in ] in 1828<ref name=Morris10/> and in 1839, in the eastern Persian city of ], a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the ]. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.<ref name=Gilbert179>]. ''Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People''. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179-182.</ref> There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867.<ref name=Morris10/>
Antisemitism can also be found in many of the ] by ] and ], published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the ] of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("''Der gute Handel"'') and "]" (''"Der Jude im Dorn"'').


The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.<ref name=BDE>{{cite bklyn|title=The Despot of Russia...|image=50249029|date=22 December 1846|page=2}}</ref>
In 1840, the ] were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having ] to bake ] or Matza. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the ] were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in ] and ] in ]. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in ], and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on ]. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in ], Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in ] asked the Ottoman authorities in ] to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from ]. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in ].<ref name=Gilbert179/>


Even such influential figures as ] tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.<ref name=BDE-Whitman>{{cite bklyn|title=Anecdotes of Jews, and their peculiar traits|image=50243090|page=2|date=8 January 1847}}</ref>
] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish ]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>


The ] was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. ], a Jewish artillery ] in the ], was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to ] on ]. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. ] accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan {{ISBN|0333652460}}.</ref>
According to ] in ''The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies'', most scholars conclude that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized").<ref>] (2002), p.208</ref>


] (1835–1909), the ] court chaplain to ], founded in 1878 an antisemitic, ] political party called the ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Harold M. Green|year=2003|title=Adolf Stoecker:Portrait of a Demagogue|journal=Politics and Policy|volume=31|doi=10.1111/j.1747-1346.2003.tb00889.x|issue=1|pages=106–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=D. A. Jeremy Telman|year=1995|title=Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission|jstor=20101235|journal=Jewish History|volume=9|issue=2|pages=93–112|doi=10.1007/BF01668991|s2cid=162391831}}</ref> This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the ].
===Twentieth century===


Some scholars view ]'s essay "]" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=168}}<ref name="Jacobs2005">{{cite book|chapter=Marx, Karl (1818–1883)|title=Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution|last=Jacobs|first=Jack|editor=Levy, Richard S.|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1-85109-439-4|pages=446–447}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=112}} These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced ], as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2005|pp=154–157}}<ref name="Stav2003">{{cite book|chapter=Israeli Anti-Semitism|title=Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk|last=Stav|first=Arieh|editor=Sharan, Shlomo|year=2003|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=978-1-903900-52-9|page=171|quote=Hitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism.}}</ref><ref name="Muravchik2003">According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four-point: "combat the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can achieve permanent health." See {{cite book|title=Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism|last=Muravchik|first=Joshua|author-link=Joshua Muravchik|year=2003|publisher=Encounter Books|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-1-893554-45-0|page=164}}</ref> Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and ] and ] have suggested that he was ].<ref>Lindemann, Albert S. ''Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-521-79538-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-79538-8}}. p. 166.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity|last=Maccoby|first=Hyam|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-31173-1|pages=64–66}}</ref>
{{See also|Jewish exodus from Arab lands}}
The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. Martin Gilbert writes that 40 Jews were murdered in ], Morocco in 1903. In 1905, old laws were revived in ] forbidding Jews from raising their voices in front of Muslims, building their houses higher than Muslims, or engaging in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation.<ref name=Gilbert179/> The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912.<ref name=Morris10/> There were ]-inspired pogroms in ] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in ] and ] in the 1940s (see ]). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941.<ref name=Morris10/>


Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.<ref>David McLellan (1970) ''Marx before Marxism'': pp. 141–142.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Y. Peled|title=From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation|journal=History of Political Thought|volume=13|issue=3|year=1992|pages=463–485|url=https://telaviv.academia.edu/YoavPeled/Papers/228344/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161924/https://www.academia.edu/280575/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist)|year=1995|contribution=Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question'|editor-last=Sarat|editor-first=Austin|editor2-last=Kearns|editor2-first=Thomas|title=Identities, Politics, and Rights|publisher=University of Michigan Press|pages=85–130}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert|last=Fine|title=Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism|journal=Engage|issue=2|date=May 2006|url=http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&article_id=33|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224193202/http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10|archive-date=24 February 2012}}</ref> Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>Iain Hampsher-Monk, ''A History of Modern Political Thought'' (1992), Blackwell Publishing, p. 496</ref>
George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the ] to several factors, including the breakdown of the ] and traditional ] society; domination by Western ] under which Jews gained a disproportionately larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of ], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment against Jewish ] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular ]s to ] local Jews for political purposes.<ref name=Gruen>Gruen, George E. , ''The Jerusalem Letter'', ], June 1, 1988.</ref>


David McLellan and ] argue that readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with ], author of '']'', about ] in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>Wheen, F., Karl Marx, p. 56.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word ''Judentum'' colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the ] not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|p=142}}
Antagonism and violence increased still further as resentment against ] efforts in the ] spread. ] propaganda in the Middle East frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to ] Israel and its leaders. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. Arabic- and Turkish-editions of Hitler's '']'' and '']'' have found an audience in the region with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media. See ].


===20th century===
According to ], Muslims and Arabs were involved both as rescuers and as perpetrators of the Holocaust during Italian and German Nazi occupation of Morocco, Tunisia and Libya.<ref> by Rachel Silverman, ''Jewish Exponent'', December 14, 2006 (], December 11, 2006)</ref>
{{See also|Jewish Bolshevism|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
]'', ], Germany, 1935]]


Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75&nbsp;million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping ]. This increase, combined with the ] of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of ] by a mob of prominent citizens in ], in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=}} The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the ] which had been inactive since 1870.{{sfnp|Levy|2005|loc=}}
Antisemitism has been reportedly found in Arab and Iranian media and schoolbooks. For example, the Center for Religious Freedom of ] analyzed a set of Saudi Ministry of Education textbooks in use during the current academic year in Islamic studies courses for elementary and secondary school students. Among the statements and ideas found against non-Wahhabi Muslims and "non-believers" were those that teach Muslims to "hate" Christians, Jews, "polytheists" and other "unbelievers," including non-Wahhabi Muslims, though, incongruously, not to treat them "unjustly"; teach the infamous forgeries '']'', as historical fact and relate modern events to it; teach that "Jews and the Christians are enemies of the believers" and that "the clash" between the two realms is perpetual; instruct that "fighting between Muslims and Jews" will continue until Judgment Day, and that the Muslims are promised victory over the Jews in the end; cite a selective teaching of violence against Jews, while in the same lesson, ignoring the passages of the Qur'an and hadiths that counsel tolerance; include a map of the Middle East that labels Israel within its pre-1967 borders as "Palestine: occupied 1948"; discuss Jews in violent terms, blaming them for virtually all the "subversion" and wars of the modern world.<ref></ref> A {{PDFlink||371&nbsp;KB}} of Saudi Arabia's curriculum has been released to the press by the ].


At the beginning of the 20th century, the ] in Russia represented modern incidents of ]s in Europe. During the ], close to 50,000 Jews were ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War|title=Russian Civil War|last=Abramson|first=Henry|website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-date=15 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115175836/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Twenty-first century===
], a children's program on the ] television station, ].]]


Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the ]. The pioneer automobile manufacturer ] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper '']'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of ] in the late 1930s attacked ]'s ] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: ], Chairman of the ], blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the ], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book|last=Arad|first=Gulie Ne'eman|title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism|year=2000|publisher=]|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-253-33809-9|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174}}</ref>
] Critic-at-large ] compares the extent of antisemitic Islamic visions of Jews, "the historical distortions they codify and the readiness with which they are taught to children and are secularized into political action," with the Nazi propaganda that led to the Holocaust.<ref>''Nazis’ ‘Terrible Weapon,’ Aimed at Minds and Hearts,'' Edward Rothstein, February 23, 2009 </ref>


<!-- ], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the ]s. This image shows the arrival of ] Jews from ], many of them from the ] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the ]. Courtesy of ].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>, ].</ref> {{FFDC|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6|date=May 2012}}]] -->
], the country's largest supermarket, had to apologise for allowing the '']'' to be sold through its website. Sheikh Dr Shaheed Satardien, head of the Muslim Council of Ireland, said this was effectively "polluting the minds of impressionable young people with hate and anger towards the Jewish community"<ref></ref>
], 1945]]


In Germany, shortly after ] and the ] ] in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.{{sfnp|Majer|2014|p=60}}<ref>see also ] (7 April 1933)</ref>
==Racial antisemitism==
{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}
] is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the ] movement, which categorized non-"Europeans" as inferior. It more specifically claims that the so-called Nordic Europeans are superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a ] and emphasized their "alien" extra-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion. Anthropologists discussed whether the Jews possessed any Arabic-], African-] or Asian-] ancestries. Since ] racial antisemitism has rarely appeared outside of ] and ] movements.


In September 1935, the ] prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as '']'' ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and ]s, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").{{sfnp|Majer|2014|pp=113, 116, 118}} It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed '']'', in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>Ian Kershaw (2008) ''Fateful Choices'': 441–44</ref> Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to ] in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.
Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the ], following the ], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of ], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.


In 1940, the famous aviator ] and many prominent Americans led the ] in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html|title='America First,' a phrase with a loaded anti-Semitic and isolationist history|last=Bennett|first=Brian|website=]|date=20 January 2017|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-date=7 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107115008/https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/|title=A Short History of 'America First'|last=Calamur|first=Krishnadev|date=21 January 2017|work=The Atlantic|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203044351/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66|title=1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm|last=Dunn|first=Susan|date=4 June 2013|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300195132|pages=66|access-date=26 November 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001721/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings &ndash; his letters and diary &ndash; to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to ''Kristallnacht'' by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".<ref>Cole, Wayne S. (1974) ''Charles Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II''. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp.171–74 {{isbn|0-15-118168-3}}</ref> An article by Jonathan Marwil in ''Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution'' claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.<ref>Levy, Richard S. "Lindbergh, Charles (1902–1974)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 1, pp.423–424}}</ref>
==New antisemitism==
{{Main|New antisemitism}}
In recent years some scholars have advanced the concept of ''New antisemitism'', coming simultaneously from the ], the ], and ], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the ],<ref name="New-AS-List" /> and argue that the language of ] and criticism of ] are used to attack the Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and ] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to antisemitism.<ref>
Sources for the following are:
*]. , 2003, retrieved April 22, 2006.
*]. ''The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181.
*Doward, Jamie. , '']'', August 8, 2004.
*]. , accessed March 5, 2006.
*]. , Ha'aretz, September 6, 2002, retrieved on January 10, 2007.
*]. in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', Random House 2004, p 272.</ref> The concept has been criticized by those who argue it is used to stifle debate and deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, is intended to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>]. . '']'', posted January 15, 2004 (February 2, 2004 issue), accessed January 9, 2006; and ]. , posted February 5, 2007. Retrieved February 6, 2007.</ref>


In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) ''The Third Reich: A Concise History''. Tempus.</ref>
==Current situation==
After ] of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the ], culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic ]: ].<ref name="saul1">] (2008): ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews''. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>] in ''Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus'' (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'', Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (1 October 1995)</ref><ref>]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref>
A report from the ] from March 14, 2008 detailed "an upsurge" across the world of antisemitism—hostility and discrimination toward Jewish people, accounting mostly from ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Report: Anti-Semitism on the rise globally |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=2008-03-14 |accessdate=2008-03-15}}</ref>


==Contemporary antisemitism==
In August 2005, the ] expressed 'serious concern' over anti-Christian and anti-Jewish passages in ] and termed them as "unacceptable and inciteful".<ref></ref>


===United States=== ===Post-WWII antisemitism===
{{See also|Soviet anti-Zionism|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
{{Main|Antisemitism in the United States}}


There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the ], antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between ] and ] and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. ] reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "]" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal|author=Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov|title=From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism|journal=Journal of Cold War Studies|year=2002|volume=4:1|issue=Winter|pages=66–80|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31|access-date=1 December 2008|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161918/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Myth">{{cite book|title=The Myth of the Jewish Race|author1=Raphael|author2=Jennifer Patai|year=1989|page=178|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=978-0-8143-1948-2}}</ref> This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the ']' in 1952.
], a Muslim leader in the U.S. who was later convicted of supporting a terrorist group, on September 29, 1991, said in a speech at a Chicago conference that "God cursed those who are the sons of Israel", and that ] had made Jews "monkeys and swine", and damned them in this world and the afterworld.<ref></ref>


In the 20th century, ] and ] antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the ] initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with ] ideology. However, under ]'s regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "]s".<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=25 January 2024|title=More than a Century of Antisemitism: How Successive Occupants of the Kremlin Have Used Antisemitism|url=https://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.<ref name=":7" /> The ] of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.
On April 3, 2006, the ] announced its finding that incidents of antisemitism are a "serious problem" on college campuses throughout the United States. The Commission recommended that the ]'s ] protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of ''Title VI'' of the ] and further recommended that ] clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.<ref>]: {{PDFlink||19.3&nbsp;KB}}. April 3, 2006</ref> ''


In that same year, the antisemitic ] alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=Tabarovsky|first=Izabella|date=1 May 2019|title=Soviet Anti-Zionism and Contemporary Left Antisemitism|url=https://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=Fathom Journal}}</ref> In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified.In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the ] and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ryvchin|first=Alex|date=10 September 2019|title=Red Terror: How the Soviet Union Shaped the Modern Anti-Zionist Discourse|url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book ''],'' written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed ], alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.<ref name=":02" /> It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.
On July 28, 2006, ] shot six women, one fatally, in the ] by Daniel Schwarz, an infamous leader of the Aryan Brotherhood who ordered the hit from the ].{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Police have classified the shooting as a ] based on Haq statements during a ] call.<ref name=LATimes>Associated Press. , '']'', July 29, 2006.</ref>


The ] in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.<ref name=":02" /> This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Korey|first=William|author-link=William Korey|year=1972|title=The Origins and Development of Soviet Anti-Semitism: An Analysis|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E|journal=]|volume=31|issue=1|pages=111–135|doi=10.2307/2494148|jstor=2494148|issn=0037-6779}}</ref> The ] shut down and expropriated ]s, ]s, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of ]. It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the ] and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.<ref name=":02" />
On September 19, 2006, ] founded ], the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its ]. Director ] of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of this disease".<ref> Associated Press, September 19, 2006</ref>


Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged ] and sometimes relied upon ]'s '']'' as a source of information about Zionism.<ref name=":02" /> Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Tabarovsky|first=Izabella|date=1 March 2022|title=Demonization Blueprints: Soviet Conspiracist Antizionism in Contemporary Left-Wing Discourse|journal=]|volume=5|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.26613/jca/5.1.97|issn=2472-9906|doi-access=free}}</ref> The still-extant ], a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the ] in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 ].<ref name=":22" /> According to historian ], "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"<ref name=":12" />
According to an ] survey 14 percent of U.S. residents had antisemitic views. The 2005 survey found "35 percent of foreign-born ]" and "36 percent of ]s hold strong antisemitic beliefs, four times more than the 9 percent for whites".<ref></ref>


Similar ] resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name="Myth" /> After the war, the ] and the "]" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The ] had a common theme of ] rumours.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233|title=Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath|isbn=978-0-8135-3158-8|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Joshua D|year=2003|publisher=Rutgers University Press|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001712/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74|title=World without civilization: Mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis|isbn=978-0-7618-2963-8|last1=Spector|first1=Robert Melvin|year=2005|publisher=University Press of America|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001648/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
A 2009 study published in '']'' found that nearly 25% of non-Jewish Americans blamed Jews for the ], with a higher percentage among Democrats than Republicans.<ref></ref>


===21st-century European antisemitism===
===Europe===
{{See|Antisemitism in Europe}} {{Further|Antisemitism in Europe#21st century}}
Antisemitism has increased significantly in Europe since 2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against Jews and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. According to a 2004 study, ], ], ] and ] are the countries with the highest rate of anti-semitic incidents in Europe.<ref name = "mgjmsp"></ref> The ] and ] have also consistently had high rates of anti-semitic attacks since 2000.<ref>The 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Antisemitism.</ref>


Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.<ref name = "mgjmsp">{{cite journal|url=http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm|title=Anti-Semitism in Germany Today: Its Roots and Tendencies|author=Susanne Urban|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|volume=16|issue=3–4|year=2004|page=119|access-date=1 December 2008|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161926/https://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html|title=Anti-Semitism up 30% in Belgium|newspaper=Ynetnews|access-date=17 June 2015|date=27 February 2013|archive-date=27 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327144035/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080|work=The Jerusalem Post|title=Washington: European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism|date=15 October 2015|access-date=16 April 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728080500/https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080|url-status=live}}</ref>
Much of the new European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running ] since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant ] communities in European cities. However, compared to France, the United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in Germany Arab and pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a small percentage of antisemitic incidents.<ref name = "mgjmsp"/><ref>Stephen Roth Institute, Tel Aviv University, http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/.</ref> According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current antisemitism in Europe, with exceptions to ], ], and ], comes from militant Islamic and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside.<ref name=roth>, The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref>


This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both ] and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|agency=SBS|date=24 February 2015|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe|title=Special report: The rise of the right in Europe|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220160403/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe|url-status=live}}</ref> This rise in the support for far-right ideas in ] and ] has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf|title=Attitudes Toward Jews In Ten European Countries|date=March 2012|author=First International Resources|publisher=Anti-Defamation League|access-date=20 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512182655/http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Interior Minister of Germany, ], points out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism."<ref name=bbcwolfgang>{{cite news
|title=Germans warned of neo-Nazi surge
|accessdate=2007-06-06
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5005472.stm
|date=May 22, 2006}}</ref> Although the number of right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001)<ref name=bundesamt1>Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. {{PDFlink|}}. Annual Report. 2003, Page 29</ref> to 182 (2006),<ref name=bundesamt2>]. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. {{PDFlink|}}. 2006, Page 51</ref> especially in the formerly communist East Germany,<ref name=bbcwolfgang/> Germany's measures against right wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe. According to the annual reports of the ] the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700 (2001),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 45,000 (2002),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 41,500 (2003),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 40,700 (2004),<ref name=bundesamt2/> 39,000 (2005),<ref name=bundesamt2/> to 38,600 in 2006.<ref name=bundesamt2/> Germany provided several million Euros to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups."<ref name=ihtassociated>
]. '']''. October 22, 2006</ref> Despite these facts, Israeli Ambassador Shimon Stein warned in October 2006 that Jews in Germany feel increasingly "unsafe," stating that they "are not able to live a normal Jewish life" and that heavy security surrounds most synagogues or Jewish community centers.<ref name=ihtassociated/> Yosef Havlin, Rabbi at the Chabad Lubavitch Frankfurt does not agree with the Israeli Ambassador and states in an interview with '']'' magazine in September 2007, that the German public does not support Nazis, instead he has personally experienced the support of Germans, as a Jew and Rabbi he "feels welcome in his (hometown) Frankfurt, he is not afraid, the city is no-go-area".<ref>''Der Spiegel''. . '']''. September 12, 2007</ref> Despite this comment, on the 11th of September, 2007 an antisemitic incident occurred whereby Frankfurt Rabbi, Zalman Gurevitch, was stabbed repeatedly, the attacker subsequently threatening in German "I'll kill you, you (expletive) Jew."<ref>{{cite news |title=Police: Anti-Semitic insult preceded Frankfurt rabbi stabbing|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/902882.html |publisher=] |date=2007-11-09 |accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref>


In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as ]s. Writing on the ] surrounding the 2022 ], ] relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".<ref name="Stanley 2022">{{Cite news|last=Stanley|first=Jason|date=26 February 2022|title=The antisemitism animating Putin's claim to 'denazify' Ukraine|author-link=Jason Stanley|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=17 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417105216/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify|url-status=live}}</ref> He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."<ref name="Stanley 2022" />
In 2005 the UK Parliament set up an all-party inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. The inquiry stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. It aimed to investigate the problem, identify the sources of contemporary antisemitism and make recommendations to improve the situation. It discussed the influence of the Israel-Palestine conflict and issues of anti-Israel sentiment versus antisemitism at length and noted "most of those who gave evidence were at pains to explain that criticism of Israel is not to be regarded in itself as antisemitic..The Israeli government itself may, at times, have mistakenly perceived criticism of its policies and actions to be motivated by antisemitism"<ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry into Antisemitism|url=http://thepcaa.org/Report.pdf |month=September|year=2006|accessdate=14 February 2007|author=All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism (UK)|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref> On January 1,, 2006, Britain's chief ], Sir ], warned that what he called a "] of antisemitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's ], Sacks said: "A number of my rabbinical colleagues throughout Europe have been assaulted and attacked on the streets. We've had synagogues desecrated. We've had Jewish schools burnt to the ground – not here but in France. People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable."<ref name=Gillan>Gillan, Audrey. , ''Guardian'', January 2, 2006.</ref>


Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,<ref>{{cite news|title=Rabbi's son foils bombing attempt at Moscow shul – j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California|newspaper=J|date=30 July 1999|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=6 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706124450/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/|url-status=live}}</ref> the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/12/international/12briefs.html|work=The New York Times|title=World Briefing: Asia, Europe, Americas and Africa|date=12 January 2006}}</ref> the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman|title=Rise of Anti-Semitism in the Ukraine threatens Jewish pilgrimages to Uman|date=2 October 2011|access-date=26 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615170744/http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman|archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref> and the attack against a ] by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994|title=Video: Priest Attacks Menorah – Jewish World|publisher=Arutz Sheva|date=14 December 2009|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617125403/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994|url-status=live}}</ref>
France is home to ]’s largest ] population (]) as well as the continent’s largest Jewish community (about 600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of ] or ] heritage, but also growing among ] islanders from former French colonies.<ref> by Daniel Ben-Simon. Haaretz. 25/03/07</ref> However, it is Muslims rather than Jews who can expect to suffer more from bigotry in France, stated Holocaust survivor and former French cabinet minister ]. "Let's not exaggerate," she said. While noting that radical Islamists are behind some violent incidents against Jews in certain French neighbourhoods, "] sentiment is much stronger in France than anti-Semitism." France's Jewish community is much more integrated than its 5 to 6 million Muslims, she noted, claiming Muslim youth are moved by a militant and anti-Jewish hierarchy.<ref>{{cite news |first=Irwin |last=Block |title=More hatred towards Muslims and Jews in France: Holocaust survivor |url=http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=85ca8e66-a12c-40b0-9ce8-95823057df6c&k=46226 |publisher=] |date=2007-10-13 |accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref> Former Interior Minister ] denounced the killing of ] on 13 February 2006 as an antisemitic crime.


According to ], antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.<ref>]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817030629/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |date=17 August 2015 }} ''Commentary Magazine''. 1 June 2005. 26 January 2015</ref> While no European state currently has such policies, the ] notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.<ref name="Cohen">Cohen, Ben. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817195418/https://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%e2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |date=17 August 2020 }} ''Algemeiner''. 26 January 2015.</ref>
Independent voices, including leading Jewish philanthropist Baron ] who received an honorary doctorate from ], suggest that the extent of antisemitism in Europe has been exaggerated. In an interview with the Jerusalem Post he says that "some of the complaints emanating from Israel about the treatment of French Jews amount to 'an element of ] (taking pleasure at another's misfortune) on the part of those who have already made aliya: When the cousins come over, they say, It's terrible – you have to come to Israel." About France he says: "People are in fact philo-Semitic in the government, mayors, to an extent which goes beyond pure electoral calculations" and "the one thing you can't say is that France is an anti-Semitic country."<ref>Krieger, Leila Hilary. . '']'', June 15, 2006</ref>


===21st-century Arab antisemitism===
In 2010, the ] after one year of research, revealed that ] was common among Norwegian ]s. Teachers at schools with large shares of ]s revealed that muslim students often "praise or admire ] for his killing of ]s", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of muslim students" and that "muslims laugh or command to stop when trying to educate about the ]". Additionally that "while some students might protest when some express support for ], none object when students express hate of Jews" and that it says in "the ] that you shall kill Jews, all true muslims hate Jews". Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One ]ish father also told that his child after school had been taken by a muslim mob (though managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and ] because he was a Jew".<ref>{{citenews|url=http://www1.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057|work=NRK Lørdagsrevyen|title=Jødiske blir hetset|date=13 March 2010}}</ref>
{{Main|Antisemitism in the Arab world}}
] of a ] on a building in the ] city of ], 2022]]


], founder of ], says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211002401/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |date=11 February 2021 }}. The Washington Post (26 September 2011). Retrieved 2 June 2012.</ref>
===Middle East===
{{See|Arabs and antisemitism}}


In a 2011 survey by the ], all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of ]ians, 3% of ] Muslims, and 2% of ]ians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of ] and 9% of ]ns viewing Jews favorably.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/|website=PEW Global Attitudes Report|date=21 July 2011|title=Muslim-Western Tensions Persist|access-date=19 September 2013|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060113/http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to the ] released on August 14, 2005, high percentages of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable," 60% of ], 88% of ], 99% of ] Muslims and 100% of ]ians checked either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews.<ref>
* statistics on how the world views different religious groups
*{{Cite news |first=Meg |last=Bortin |title=Poll Finds Discord Between the Muslim and Western Worlds |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/23/world/23pew.html?ei=5090&en=5b361ce4828f5847&ex=1308715200&adxnnl=1&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all&adxnnlx=1180479483-EJoZc0Poq7pWF1C9iBvPng |publisher=New York Times |date=June 23, 2006 |accessdate=2007-05-29}}</ref>


According to ], "Indeed, anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>Anti-Semitism In Araby, Josef Joffe, According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to ].<ref>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125152303/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |date=25 January 2021 }}, '']'', 23 February 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref> According to Josef Joffe of '']'', "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>Joffe, Josef. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328001627/http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |date=28 March 2010 }}, '']'', 28 February 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref>
NEWSWEEK,
From the magazine issue dated March 9, 2009 </ref>


Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00807-8}} p. 33</ref><ref>Aluma Solnick. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905201355/http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 |date=5 September 2009 }} MEMRI Special Report – No. 11, 1 November 2002</ref><ref>Neil J. Kressel. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710020511/http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |date=10 July 2009 }}, ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', ''The Chronicle Review'', 12 March 2004.</ref>
In the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders.


According to professor ], director of the ] (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by ] or by ], ], ], or the ], represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/|title=Holocaust Remembrance Day — a somber anniversary|website=The Times of Israel|access-date=27 January 2013|archive-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130105240/http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In ], Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of ]'s antisemitic treatise, '']'', complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.<ref> on intelligence.org.il, site of the Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
at the Center for Special Studies (C.S.S), Israel. Retrieved 24 September 2006.</ref>


===21st-century antisemitism at universities===
The ]n government website initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country.<ref> by Congressman Anthony D. Weiner (D-Queens & Brooklyn) February 26, 2004</ref><ref> (BBC) February 27, 2004.</ref>
{{Main|Universities and antisemitism}}
It has since removed this statement, and apologized for posting "erroneous information". Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia.


After the ] on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Abboud|first1=Leila|last2=Klasa|first2=Adrienne|last3=Chazan|first3=Guy|date=15 October 2023|title=Israel-Hamas war unleashes wave of antisemitism in Europe|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912|access-date=19 October 2023|archive-date=18 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018225127/https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Chrisafis|first1=Angelique|last2=Kassam|first2=Ashifa|last3=Connolly|first3=Kate|last4=Giuffrida|first4=Angela|date=20 October 2023|title='A lot of pain': Europe's Jews fear rising antisemitism after Hamas attack|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack|access-date=21 October 2023|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=21 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021041322/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sforza|first=Lauren|date=6 May 2024|title=Antisemitism surging worldwide since Oct. 7 attack: Report|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/|access-date=17 July 2024|work=]}}</ref> Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html|first=Stephanie|last=Saul|title=Students sue Harvard, calling it a bastion of antisemitism|work=The New York Times|date=11 January 2024|access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Harvard president keeps her job after antisemitism backlash|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381|website=CBC news|date=12 December 2023|access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Stanford is the latest elite university to be slammed for its lack of 'moral resolve' in its response to Hamas' attack on Israel|url=https://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/|access-date=31 October 2023|website=Fortune}}</ref> On 1 May 2024, the ] voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the ] definition of antisemitism into law.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Amiri|first=Farnoush|date=1 May 2024|title=House passes bill to expand definition of antisemitism amid growing campus protests over Gaza war|url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a|access-date=17 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the ] and ] generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 October 2023|title=Confronting Campus Antisemitism: An Action Plan for University Students|url=https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501032235/https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan|archive-date=1 May 2024|access-date=17 July 2024|website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 December 2023|title=Year in Review 2023: Jewish Unity Amid Challenges|url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/year-in-review-2023-jewish-unity-amid-challenges|access-date=17 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.<ref>Yonat Shimron, ] 14 May 2024.</ref>
Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that "the Jews" are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite '']'' as factual.<ref name=CMIP-KSA2001>. ''The Danger of World Jewry'', by Abdullah al-Tall, pp. 140–141 (Arabic). ''Hadith and Islamic Culture'', Grade 10, (2001) pp. 103–104.</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|}}, Report by Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House. 2006</ref>


===Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism===
In 2001, Arab Radio and Television of Saudi Arabia produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled "Horseman Without a Horse", a dramatization of '']''.<ref></ref>
{{Undue weight section|date=July 2024}}
{{Further|Black Hebrew Israelites}}


] in 2019.<ref name=":3" /> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name=":1" />]]
One Saudi Arabian government newspaper suggested that hatred of all Jews is justifiable.<ref>''Al-Riyadh'', Saudi government daily, April 15, 2002, Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, ''All of History is against Them''</ref>


In 2022, the ] stated that the ] claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Amanda Woods|first1=Mark Lungariello|title=Black Hebrew Israelites chant 'we are the real Jews' at pro-Kyrie Irving NYC march|url=https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/|access-date=26 November 2022|work=New York Post|date=25 November 2022|archive-date=26 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126000155/https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/|url-status=live}}</ref> Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion.<ref name=WaPoJersey>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/|title=Probe of Jersey City shooting leads FBI to arrest pawn shop owner on weapons charge|author=Derek Hawkins|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=15 December 2019|access-date=26 November 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927061617/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=WaPoNY>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/|title=Hanukkah stabbing suspect searched 'why did Hitler hate the Jews,' prosecutors say|date=30 December 2019|first1=Shayna|last1=Jacobs|first2=Deanna|last2=Paul|first3=Maria|last3=Sacchetti|first4=Hannah|last4=Knowles|newspaper=]|access-date=26 November 2022|archive-date=30 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330123630/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name=":1" />
] vilify Jews (and Christians and non-] Muslims): according to the May 21, 2006 issue of '']'', Saudi textbooks claimed by them to have been sanitized of antisemitism still call Jews apes (and Christians swine); demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad to vanquish Jews.<ref>Shea, Nina. , '']'', May 21, 2006, p. B01.</ref>


Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Simon Wiesenthal Center Special Report: Extreme Black Hebrew Israelites|url=https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf|website=Wiesenthal.com|publisher=The Simon Wiesenthal Center|access-date=4 January 2023|archive-date=4 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104050826/https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Black Hebrew Israelites promote the ] about Ashkenazi Jewish origins.<ref name=":1" /> In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites.<ref name=":3">{{cite news|last1=Esensten|first1=Andrew|date=26 November 2022|title=How many Hebrew Israelites are there, and how worried should Jews be?|work=]|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/|access-date=3 January 2023|archive-date=3 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103115838/https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called ''The Diaspora'', which observers allege is based on historical antisemitic allegations. ] reporters who watched the series said that correspondents who have viewed ''The Diaspora'' note that it quotes extensively from the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', a notorious 19th century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred.<ref></ref>


=== Antisemitism on the internet ===
Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>Bernard Lewis. ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 33.</ref><ref>Aluma Solnick. MEMRI Special Report – No. 11, November 1, 2002</ref> ] is the leading ] of the ] located in the Islamic holy city of ], ].<ref>
Antisemitism on the internet involves a complex interplay between social media dynamics, conspiracy theories, and the broader socio-political context. Social media platforms have proved fertile for breeding antisemitic rhetoric, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, during which a notable rise in antisemitic conspiracy theories emerged.<ref>Sundberg, K., Mitchell, L., & Levinson, D. (2022). Health, religiosity and hatred: a study of the impacts of covid-19 on world jewry. Journal of Religion and Health, 62(1), 428-443.</ref><ref>Garner, G., McGrann, M., Klug, D., Kranson, R., & Yoder, M. (2023). The relationship between antisemitism and covid-19 conspiracy on twitter.</ref><ref>Evanega, S., Lynas, M., Adams, J., & Smolenyak, K. (2020). Coronavirus misinformation: quantifying sources and themes in the covid-19 ‘infodemic’.</ref> The role of social media in amplifying these sentiments is underscored by analyses of comment sections on major media outlets, which reveal a significant presence of antisemitic discourse, often framed within the context of political events and international relations.<ref>Becker, M., Ascone, L., & Troschke, H. (2022). Antisemitic comments on Facebook pages of leading British, French, and German media outlets. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9(1).</ref><ref name=Subotić>Subotić, J. (2021). Antisemitism in the global populist international. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24(3), 458-474.</ref> Furthermore, the emergence of TikTok as a new platform has raised concerns about the proliferation of antisemitic content, with studies highlighting the challenges of moderating such material effectively.<ref>McMann, T., Calac, A., Nali, M., Cuomo, R., Maroulis, J., & Mackey, T. (2022). Synthetic cannabinoids in prisons: content analysis of tiktoks. Jmir Infodemiology, 2(1), e37632.</ref><ref>Nathanael, G. (2023). Tiktok’s spiral of antisemitism: a study case in indonesia. Ekspresi Dan Persepsi Jurnal Ilmu Komunikasi, 6(3), 547-553.</ref> The intersection of antisemitism with broader themes of populism and right-wing extremism is also evident, as these ideologies often utilize antisemitic narratives to galvanize support and create a sense of otherness.<ref name=Subotić/><ref>Ichau, E., Frissen, T., & d’Haenens, L. (2019). From #selfie to #edgy. hashtag networks and images associated with the hashtag #jews on instagram. Telematics and Informatics, 44, 101275.</ref> Additionally, the phenomenon of subtle hate speech has been identified, where antisemitic sentiments are recontextualized in ways that may evade direct detection yet still perpetuate harmful stereotypes.<ref>Serafis, D. (2023). Subtle hate speech and the recontextualisation of antisemitism online., 143-167.</ref> Antisemitic bias appears even in ostensibly neutral sources such as ].<ref>Grabowski, J., & Klein, S. (2023). Misplaced Pages’s Intentional Distortion of the History of the Holocaust. The Journal of Holocaust Research, 37(2), 133-190.</ref> Overall, the digital landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for combating antisemitism, necessitating a multifaceted approach that includes community engagement and technological solutions to monitor and counteract hate speech effectively.<ref>Ozalp, S., Williams, M., Burnap, P., Liu, H., & Mostafa, M. (2020). Antisemitism on twitter: collective efficacy and the role of community organisations in challenging online hate speech. Social Media + Society, 6(2).</ref><ref>Kahn-Harris, K. (2020). Inundated with online antisemitism. Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism, 3(1), 55-58.</ref>
*Neil J. Kressel. , ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', ''The Chronical Review'', March 12, 2004.
*Tom Gross, , '']'', June 18, 2004.</ref> The ] aired a ] episode, entitled ''A Question of Leadership'', which reported that al-Sudais referred to Jews as "the scum of the human race" and "offspring of apes and pigs", and stated, "the worst of the enemies of Islam are those whom he made monkeys and pigs, the aggressive Jews and oppressive ] and those that follow them Monkeys and pigs and worshippers of false Gods who are the Jews and the Zionists."<ref name="panorama">{{cite interview
|last=Sacranie
|first=Iqbal
|subjectlink = Iqbal Sacranie
|last2 = Abdul Bari
|first2 = Muhammad
|subjectlink2 = Muhammad Abdul Bari
|last3 = Kantharia
|first3 = Mehboob
|last4 = Siddiqui
|first4 = Ghayasuddin
|interviewer = John Ware
|title=A Question of Leadership
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/panorama/4171950.stm
|program = '']''
|callsign = ]
|city = ]
|date=August 21, 2005
|accessdate=2007-03-30
}}</ref> In another sermon, on April 19, 2002, he declared that Jews are "evil offspring, infidels, distorters of words, calf-worshippers, prophet-murderers, prophecy-deniers the scum of the human race whom Allah cursed and turned into apes and pigs "<ref>{{PDFlink|}} by Dr. Leah Kinberg. Lecture delivered in May 2003, Monash University, Melbourne, quoting </ref>


==Causes==
On May 5, 2001, after ] visited ], the Egyptian '']'' internet paper stated that: "lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews. For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs."<ref>, "Classic Anti-Semitic Stereotypes", ]. Retrieved March 4, 2007.</ref>
Antisemitism has been explained in terms of ], ], ], ], ], and the search for a ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Jews in the early modern world|first=Dean Phillip|last=Bell|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|page=212|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212|isbn=978-0-7425-4518-2|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001601/https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."<ref name="u458">{{cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Lars|title="The word 'Jew' has several meanings in relation to commerce, but almost all negative": on the evolution of a projection|journal=Jewish Historical Studies|volume=51|issue=1|date=27 April 2020|issn=2397-1290|doi=10.14324/111.444.jhs.2020v51.032}}</ref> The latter position is exemplified by ], who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."<ref>{{cite web|author=schalomlibertad|title=Antisemitism and the (modern) critique of capitalism|date=23 July 2009|website=libcom.org|quote=Adorno, T. (1951), Minima Moralia. Reflexionen aus dem beschädigten Leben, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, p. 141.|url=https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism|access-date=5 December 2023|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180431/https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=]|title=The rumour about the Jews|date=28 January 2020|website=]|quote=Theodor Adorno in 1951 called 'the rumour about Jews'...|url=https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism|access-date=5 December 2023|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180457/https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism|url-status=live}}</ref>
In Israel, Zalman Gilichenski has warned about the spread of antisemitism among ] in the last decade.<ref>See and by example , ], London, 2007-10-09</ref>

As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by ] questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.<ref> in: {{cite book|title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes|author=Bernard Lazare|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|year=2006|isbn=9781596056015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Brustein|first1=William L.|last2=Roberts|first2=Louisa|title=The Scialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=55|quote=Lazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His bool was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.}}</ref><ref name="q406">{{cite journal|last=Swanson|first=Joel|title=We Spring from that History: Bernard Lazare, between Universalism and Particularism|journal=Religions|volume=9|issue=10|date=21 October 2018|issn=2077-1444|doi=10.3390/rel9100322|doi-access=free|page=322}}</ref> As another example, ] suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in ]) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of ] was operated by Jews.{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} while the ] declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "]",<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hawthorne's secret: an un-told tale|jstor=41398742|journal=The Georgia Review|volume=38|issue=3|pages=664–666|author=Philip Young|year=1984}}</ref> although recent scholarship, such as that of historian ] shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian ] of taboo behaviour on to the minority.<ref name="u458"/><ref name="s525">{{cite journal|last=Cassen|first=Flora|title=Jews and Money: Time for a New Story?|journal=Jewish Quarterly Review|volume=110|issue=2|year=2020|issn=1553-0604|doi=10.1353/jqr.2020.0007|pages=373–382}}</ref><ref name="a817">{{cite journal|last=Mell|first=Julie L.|title=Cultural Meanings of Money in Medieval Ashkenaz: On Gift, Profit, and Value in Medieval Judaism and Christianity|journal=Jewish History|publisher=Springer|volume=28|issue=2|year=2014|issn=0334-701X|jstor=24709715|pages=125–158|doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9212-3|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24709715|access-date=11 July 2024}}</ref>

In ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (2013), historian ] traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Nirenberg|first=David|author-link=David Nirenberg|title=Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition|publisher=Norton|year=2014|isbn=978-0-393-34791-3|edition=1. publ. as Norton paperb|location=New York}}</ref> Its foundation lies in the early claim of ] and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic ']' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable. It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the ], figures like ] critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the ] frequently ] Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and ]. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.<ref name=":6" />

British ] ] has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hall|first=Brett|date=1 November 2023|title=Antisemitism: The Sinister Pattern|url=https://quillette.com/2023/11/01/antisemitism-the-sinister-pattern/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> He provides the following examples:

# The idea that Jews have collectively failed some crucial test (e.g. they rejected Jesus, or Mohammed, or do not have the Aryans' capacity for 'culture', or do not satisfy Stalin's criteria for being a 'nation', or lack a mystical 'connection to the land', etc.);
# The idea that Jews cause pollution – for instance that they are ], or that they desecrate holy sites and artefacts – which is often extended, semi-metaphorically, to the idea that Jews are pollution/vermin/rotten/cancer etc.;
# ]s, the classic one being that Jews kidnap and murder non-Jewish children and consume their blood in religious rituals;
# The incorporation of an entity called 'The Jews' deeply into the fabric of many cultures as the eternal enemy bent on destroying whatever that culture values; and
# Conspiracy theories, especially theories that 'The Jews' are secretly 'behind' the events of history and current affairs.

British medievalist historian Richard Landes has further argued that,<blockquote>This Pattern, Deutsch observes, is always present, but is most likely to cause persecution, expulsions and mass murder when there is a serious threat it, to the ''legitimacy'' of hurting Jews. Such a threat appeared when Europeans, previously Pattern-compliant in their belief in Jewish deicide, became 'Enlightened,' and so had difficulty blaming the Jews for killing a God in which they no longer believed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Landes|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Landes|date=2023-11-01|title=Lethal Journalism and the Pattern: Why the World Fell for Hamas' Al Ahli Lie|url=https://fathomjournal.org/fathom-long-read-lethal-journalism-and-the-pattern-why-the-world-fell-for-hamas-al-ahli-lie/|access-date=2024-07-29|website=Fathom Journal}}</ref>

The key to people's behavior in this regard, he argues, is the need to preserve the legitimacy of hurting Jews, for being Jews. This legitimacy is much more important than actually hurting Jews. And it targets only the Jews. It is not, accordingly, either a hatred or a fear, a form of racism or prejudice in the conventional sense, even though it can lead to those feelings and attitudes. But it is actually unique. No other group can substitute for the Jews as the target whom it is legitimate to hurt.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Landes|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Landes|date=2019-08-30|title=The Small Matter of Malice: Meditations on "the Pattern" of Antisemitism|url=https://isgap.org/flashpoint/the-small-matter-of-malice-the-pattern-of-antisemitism-now-and-then-meditations-on-the-pattern-of-antisemitism/|access-date=2024-07-29|website=]}}</ref></blockquote>Author and scholar ] published an article in '']'' reflecting on her previous published doubts about the effectiveness of ] ] and the rising antisemitism in the wake of the ] in Israel by Palestinians.<ref name=":8" /> In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. In particular, Jewish particularism is perceived as an aggression against a supposedly more enlightened universalism. By rejecting this new universalism, the Jews are thus judged to have failed a crucial moral test. As a result, hatred of Jews becomes a sign of moral righteousness. Historically, this pattern manifests in various ways: Christianity and Islam each claimed to embody a universal truth that Jews rejected, justifying persecution. In the modern era, German ] and ] defined Jews as an inferior race threatening societal progress, while the ] positioned itself as the victim of Nazism, obscuring the Jewish suffering during the Holocaust and framing Jews as oppressors through its ]. Horn concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.<blockquote>This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=Horn|first=Dara|author-link=Dara Horn|date=2024-10-07|title=October 7 Created a Permission Structure for Anti-Semitism|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20241010011236/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/|archive-date=2024-10-10|access-date=2024-10-15|website=]|issn=2151-9463}}</ref></blockquote>

==Prevention through education==
] plays an important role in addressing and overcoming ] and countering social ].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702|title=Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100274-8|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117130019/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702|url-status=live}}</ref> However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of ] and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by ] and Jewish communities.<ref name=":2" />

Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the ] is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. ] wrote in '']'' that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Horn|first=Dara|author-link=Dara Horn|date=6 June 2019|title=Auschwitz Is Not a Metaphor|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/auschwitz-not-long-ago-not-far-away/591082/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]|issn=2151-9463}}</ref>

Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"<ref>{{Cite news|last=Horn|first=Dara|author-link=Dara Horn|date=3 April 2023|title=Is Holocaust Education Making Anti-Semitism Worse?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/05/holocaust-student-education-jewish-anti-semitism/673488/|access-date=29 July 2024|work=The Atlantic|issn=2151-9463}}</ref>

==Geographical variation==
{{Main|Geography of antisemitism}}

A March 2008 report by the ] found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315181305/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |date=15 March 2008 }}, ], 14 March 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref> A 2012 report by the U.S. ] also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2012|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|access-date=21 December 2013|archive-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207121457/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ''ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://global100.adl.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015413/http://global100.adl.org/public/ADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016|title=ADL Global 100: A Survey of Attitudes Toward Jews in Over 100 Countries Around the World|website=ADL/Global 100|access-date=14 January 2024|url-status=dead}}</ref> which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".<ref name="TOI-ADL">{{cite web|last=Gur|first=Haviv Rettig|author-link=Haviv Rettig Gur|title=Hating the Jew you've never met|website=The Times of Israel|date=18 May 2014|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/|access-date=26 August 2018|archive-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601140048/https://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.<ref name=Diaspora1>{{cite news|last=Starr|first=Michael|date=19 August 2024|title=Can Diaspora Ministry's new monitoring system help better understand antisemitism?|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815377|work=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=20 August 2024}}</ref><ref name=Diaspora2>{{cite news|date=18 August 2024|title=Diaspora Ministry unveils system for monitoring antisemitic discourse online|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815209|work=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=20 August 2024}}</ref> The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends.<ref name=Diaspora1 /> In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.<ref name=Diaspora1 />


==See also== ==See also==
{{Portal|Jewish|Judaism}}
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==Notes== == Notes ==
{{Reflist|2}} {{Notelist}}


==References== == References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Sisterlinks}}
{{Reflist}}
*]. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999.
*Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001.
*Chanes, Jerome A. '']'', ABC-CLIO, 2004.
*Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
*{{Cite book |title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism |last=Flannery |first=Edward H. |year=2004 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=0809143240}}
*]. ''Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred''. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, 2008. ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0.
*Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994.
*] (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In ''History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism'', ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7
*]. '']''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
*]: ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987) ISBN 0-06-091533-1
*]. ''The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day''. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2
*] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
*Lewis, Bernard (1999). ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
*]. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994.
*McKain, Mark. '']'', Greenhaven Press, 2005.
*Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. , The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007
*Perry, Marvin and Frederick Schweitzer. ''Anti-Semitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present.'' Palgrave Macmillan. 2002.
*] (1997). "Anti-Semitism". '']'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. ]. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8
*Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. ''Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism''. Touchstone (reprint), 1985.
*{{Cite book |title=Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity |last=Richardson |first=Peter |year=1986 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=0889201676}}
*Roth, Philip. ], 2004
*Schweitzer, Frederick M. & Perry, Marvin. ''Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7
*Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.
*Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X.
*] (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
*Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". '']''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the ], 1901-1906 ed.


==Further reading== === Sources ===
{{refbegin|32em}}
*
* {{Cite web|year=2022|title=Adoption of the Working Definition|url=https://www.ajc.org/adoption-of-the-working-definition|access-date=17 July 2022|website=American Jewish Committee|archive-date=23 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623215205/https://www.ajc.org/adoption-of-the-working-definition|url-status=live}}
*
* {{Cite book|last=Baasten|first=Martin F. J.|title=Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday|date=2003|publisher=Peeters|isbn=90-429-1215-4|editor-last=Baasten|editor-first=M. F. J.|pages=57–73|chapter=A Note on the History of 'Semitic'|editor-last2=Van Peursen|editor-first2=W. Th.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIIvqaVaLacC&pg=PA58}}
* AJC Survey of Anti-Semitism, Roots and Responses
*{{cite book|last=Bein|first=Alex|year=1990|title=The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem|translator=Harry Zohn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQOn0y8ENg4C|location=Rutherford, NJ|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-3252-9|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001603/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQOn0y8ENg4C|url-status=live}}
* (ADL compilation of modern day anti-semitism happening around the world.)
*{{cite journal|last1=Consonni|first1=Manuela|title='Upping the Antis': Addressing the Conceptual Ambiguities Surrounding 'Antisemitism'|journal=Society|year=2022|volume=59|issue=1|pages=25–33|doi=10.1007/s12115-022-00665-4|s2cid=247172627}}
*, ''Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles'', March 9, 2007
* {{cite book|first=Jerome A.|last=Chanes|year=2004|title=Antisemitism: a Reference Handbook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C|isbn=978-1-57607-209-7|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001716/https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C|url-status=live}}
*
*], ] vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;641–9. New York, Funk & Wagnalls, 1901. At ]
*
* {{cite book|last=Falk|first=Avner|year=2008|title=Anti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, CT|isbn=978-0-313-35384-0}}
*Stav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X
*{{cite book|last=Flannery|first=Edward H.|author-link=Edward Flannery|year=1985|title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5}}
*Falk, Avner. (2008). ''Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred''. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0
* {{cite book|last=Flannery|first=Edward H.|author-link=Edward Flannery|year=2004|title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism|publisher=Paulist Press|location=Mahwah, NY|isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5}}
* (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today)
* {{cite book|last=Foxman|first=Abraham|author-link=Abraham Foxman|year=2010|title=Jews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype|publisher=]|location=New York|isbn=978-0-230-11225-4}}
* hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
* {{cite book|last1=Frank|first1=Daniel H.|last2=Leaman|first2=Oliver|title=The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-65574-9}}
*
* {{cite book|last1=Harzig|first1=Christiane|last2=Hoerder|first2=Dirk|last3=Shubert|first3=Adrian|title=The historical practice of diversity : transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world|date=2003|publisher=Berghahn Books|location=New York|isbn=1-57181-377-2}}
* hosted by the Tel Aviv University – (includes an annual report)
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Johnson (writer)|year=1987|title=A History of the Jews|location=New York, NY|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|isbn=978-0-06-091533-9|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john}}
*
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=William|author-link=Will Johnston|title=The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dmH7FjxassC&pg=PA27|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04955-0|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id=-dmH7FjxassC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}
*
*{{cite journal|last1=Judaken|first1=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Judaken|title=Introduction|journal=The American Historical Review|year=2018|volume=123|issue=4|pages=1122–1138|doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy024}}
*
* {{cite book|last=Kiraz|first=George Anton|author-link=George Kiraz|title=Computational Nonlinear Morphology: With Emphasis on Semitic Languages|year=2001|publisher=]|isbn=9780521631969|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dpl3dHMjVZcC|quote=The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible (Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East (Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these languages and dialects were known as ''Oriental languages''.}}
*
* {{cite book|last=Laqueur|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Laqueur|year=2006|title=The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530429-9|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/changingfaceofan00laqu}}
*
* {{cite book|editor-last=Levy|editor-first=Richard S.|year=2005|title=Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution|location=Santa Barbara, CA|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-439-4}}
*
* {{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|year=1999|author-link=Bernard Lewis|title=Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice|publisher=W.&nbsp;W. Norton & Co.|isbn=978-0-393-31839-5|url=https://archive.org/details/semitesantisemit0000lewi_n3m3/mode/2up}}
* – documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media.
* {{cite book|last=Lipstadt|first=Deborah|author-link=Deborah Lipstadt|year=2019|title=Antisemitism: Here and Now|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-80524337-6}}
* at Zionism and Israel Information Center.
* {{cite book|last=Lipstadt|first=Deborah|author-link=Deborah Lipstadt|year=1994|title=Denying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-452-27274-3|url=https://archive.org/details/denyingholocaust00lips}}
*: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
* {{cite book|last=Laurens|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Laurens (scholar)|title=La Question de Palestine|volume=II|year=2002|publisher=Fayard}}
*
* {{cite book|last=Majer|first=Diemut|year=2014|title="Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945|publisher=]|isbn=978-0896728370}}
* Dina Porat, ''Haaretz'', January 27, 2007
* {{cite book|last1=McLellan|first1=David|title=Marx before Marxism|date=1980|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-27883-3|edition=2d|url=https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live}}
*
* {{cite book|last=Michael|first=Robert|title=A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-61117-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ|access-date=15 March 2021|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
*
* {{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=Marvin|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Frederick M.|year=2002|title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yQmyXeNEMQC&pg=PA53|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-16561-1|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001722/https://books.google.com/books?id=9yQmyXeNEMQC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}
*
* {{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=Marvin|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Frederick M.|year=2005|title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present|publisher=Palgrave|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-312-16561-1}}
* by ], , Spring 2008.
*]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*] (1997). "Anti-Semitism". '']'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. ]. Keter Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-07-0665-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Prager|first1=Dennis|author1-link=Dennis Prager|last2=Telushkin|first2=Joseph|author2-link=Joseph Telushkin|year=2003|orig-year=1985|title=Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism|publisher=Touchstone|edition=reprint|isbn=978-0-7432-4620-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Rattansi|first=Ali|title=Racism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVOb3MDBmBEC&pg=PA4|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-280590-4|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001645/https://books.google.com/books?id=YVOb3MDBmBEC&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rubenstein|first1=Richard L.|author1-link=Richard L. Rubenstein|last2=Roth|first2=John K.|author2-link=John K. Roth|title=Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC&pg=PA30|year=2003|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22353-3|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001710/https://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|title=Aliyah: The People of Israel|last=Sachar|first=Howard Morley|author-link=Howard Sachar|publisher=World Publishing Company|year=1961}}
* ] (2018). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data (17 November 2018). Available at
* ] (2015). Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (14 August 2015). Available at {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161159/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2600825 |date=20 February 2021 }} or {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161944/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2600825 |date=17 November 2022 }}
* ] (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (14 January 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at or {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161945/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2549654 |date=17 November 2022 }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Ury|first1=Scott|title=Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of "the Jews"|journal=The American Historical Review|year=2018|volume=123|issue=4|pages=1151–1171|doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy030}}
{{refend}}


'''Attribution'''
==External links==
{{refbegin}}
*The Journal for the Study of Antisemitism
* {{Free-content attribution
*Why the Jews? Real Causes or mere excuses?
| title = Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers
*United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – ; and Encyclopedia , , , , ,
|publisher=UNESCO
* from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum
| page numbers =
*
| source = UNESCO
*
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702
*
| license statement URL =
*
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
* – a learning resource from the British Library
}}
*
{{refend}}
*
*
*, Dr. Rivka Shafek Lissak
*
*
*
*


== Further reading ==
{{Template group
{{refbegin|32em}}
* Brustein, William I., and Ryan D. King. "Anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust." ''International Political Science Review'' 25.1 (2004): 35–53. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407035009/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0192512104038166 |date=7 April 2022 }}
* Bitton, Israel B., A Brief and Visual History of Antisemitism, Jerusalem : Gefen Publishing, 2022.
* Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001.
* Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
* Fischer, Klaus P. ''The History of an Obsession: German Judeophobia and the Holocaust'', The Continuum Publishing Company, 1998.
* Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', ], 1994.
* ] (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In ''History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism'', ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. {{ISBN|0-8276-0267-7}}
* Goldberg, Sol; Ury, Scott; Weiser, Kalman (eds.). ''Key Concepts in the Study of Antisemitism'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2021) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005142905/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=56840 |date=5 October 2021 }}
* Hanebrink, Paul. ''A Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism'', ], 2018. {{ISBN|9780674047686}}.
* ]. '']''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
* Isser, Natalie. ''Antisemitism during the French Second Empire'' (1991)
* {{cite book|last=Kertzer|first=David I.|author-link=David Kertzer|title=The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ|isbn=9780198716167|access-date=21 August 2017|archive-date=12 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112150430/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102213414/https://newint.org/issues/2004/10/01 |date=2 November 2023 }}, ], Issue 372, October 2004.
*McKain, Mark. ''Anti-Semitism: At Issue'', Greenhaven Press, 2005.

* Marcus, Ivan G. ''How the West Became Antisemitic: Jews and the Formation of Europe, 800–1500'' (Princeton University Press, 2024)

* Marcus, Kenneth L. ''The Definition of Anti-Semitism'' (Oxford University Press, 2015)
* Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220162613/https://rowman.com/ISBN/0810858622 |date=20 February 2021 }}, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007
* Michael, Robert. ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust''
* ]. ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-393-05824-6}}
* {{cite book|title=Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity|last=Richardson|first=Peter|year=1986|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-88920-167-5}}
* Porat, Dina. , '']'', 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
* Selzer, Michael (ed.). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.
* Small, Charles Asher ed. ''The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective'' (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003014435/https://isgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Yale-Papers-Complete-071315-Reprinted.pdf#page=417 |date=3 October 2021 }}, scholarly studies.
* Stav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-229-215-X}}.
* Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-674-02205-X}}.
* ]. ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979). {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". '']''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* {{cite SSRN|last1=Tausch|first1=Arno|title=The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council|year=2018|ssrn=3098079}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2549654|title=The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data|journal=Middle East Review of International Affairs|last=Tausch|first=Arno|ssrn=2549654|volume=18|issue=3 (Fall 2014)|date=14 January 2015|s2cid=59022284}}
* {{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf|title=Contemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United States Congress|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=21 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121171610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf|url-status=live}}&nbsp;{{small|(7.4&nbsp;MB)}}, ], 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804184602/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/102406.htm |date=4 August 2019 }}.
* Vital, David. ''People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939'' (1999); 930pp highly detailed
*], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721141312/http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id=18&page=all |date=21 July 2011 }}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107014155/http://azure.org.il/ |date=7 January 2009 }}, Spring 2008.
* Antisemitism on Social Media.&nbsp;United Kingdom,&nbsp;Taylor & Francis,&nbsp;2022. (Editors: Monika Hübscher, Sabine von Mering {{ISBN|9781000554298}})
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*] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120080724/http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm |date=20 January 2013 }}
* hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
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Latest revision as of 10:36, 8 December 2024

Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews Not to be confused with anti-Judaism.

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Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, Jews. This sentiment is a form of racism, and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism. In the former case, usually presented as racial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions. The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by the concept of anti-Judaism, which is distinct from antisemitism itself.

There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of pogroms or genocide, which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the Rhineland massacres in 1096; the Edict of Expulsion in 1290; the European persecution of Jews during the Black Death, between 1348 and 1351; the massacre of Spanish Jews in 1391, the crackdown of the Spanish Inquisition, and the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492; the Cossack massacres in Ukraine, between 1648 and 1657; various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, between 1821 and 1906; the Dreyfus affair, between 1894 and 1906; the Holocaust by Nazi Germany during World War II; and various Soviet anti-Jewish policies. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Christian Europe. However, since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world, largely due to the surge in Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories, which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of European antisemitic conspiracy theories.

In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "new antisemitism" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since Israel is a Jewish state, expressions of anti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments. Natan Sharansky describes the "3D" test to determine the existence of such antisemitism: demonizing Israel, the double standard of criticizing Israel disproportionately to other countries, and delegitimizing Israel's right to exist.

Due to the root word Semite, the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who incorrectly assert (in an etymological fallacy) that it refers to racist hatred directed at "Semitic people" in spite of the fact that this grouping is an obsolete historical race concept. Likewise, such usage is erroneous; the compound word antisemitismus was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a "scientific-sounding term" for Judenhass (lit. 'Jew-hatred'), and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.

Origin and usage

Etymology

1879 statute of the Antisemitic League

The word "Semitic" was coined by German orientalist August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781 to designate the Semitic group of languagesAramaic, Arabic, Hebrew and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure Sem, son of Noah.

The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist Moritz Steinschneider to the views of orientalist Ernest Renan. Historian Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' ." Psychologist Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races'".

Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria.

According to philologist Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."

Cover page of Marr's The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism, 1880 edition

In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even the highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped".

This followed his 1862 book Die Judenspiegel (A Mirror to the Jews) in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity". In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of Der Judenspiegel, Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble."

This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.

The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country.

So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte, and Wilhelm Scherer used the term Antisemiten in the January issue of Neue Freie Presse.

The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'"

The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. Oxford English Dictionary editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!" The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881.

Usage

From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g., Arabs, Ethiopians, and Arameans) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.

The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that." Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to " the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."

Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historian Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".

The Associated Press and its accompanying AP Stylebook adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021. Style guides for other news organizations such as the New York Times and Wall Street Journal later adopted this spelling as well. It has also been adopted by many Holocaust museums, such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Yad Vashem.

Definition

Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.

Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."

Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."

For Swiss historian Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.

A caricature by C. Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the world in his hands

In 2003, Israeli politician Natan Sharansky developed what he called the "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving delegitimization, demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former.

Bernard Lewis, writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.

There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, the United States Department of State stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."

In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC, now the Fundamental Rights Agency), an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.

The EUMC working definition was adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010, by the United States Department of State in 2017, in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing in 2014 and by the UK's Campaign Against Antisemitism. In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. IHRA's Working definition of antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel. In response to the perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the Nexus Document in February 2021 and the Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism in March 2021.

1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" Adolphe Willette: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)

Evolution of usage

In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.

The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.

Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.

In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."

After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term antisemitism acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."

Eternalism–contextualism debate

The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism. The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust. Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility." Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge. Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.

The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges. Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon. Historian David Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination. Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.

Manifestations

Jews (identified by the mandatory Jewish badge and Jewish hat) being burned.

Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."

These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare, writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism. William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:

Europe has blamed the Jews for an encyclopedia of sins.
The Church blamed the Jews for killing Jesus; Voltaire blamed the Jews for inventing Christianity. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were usurers and well-poisoners and spreaders of disease. Jews were the creators of both communism and capitalism; they were clannish but also cosmopolitan; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.
Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.

Jeffrey Goldberg, 2015.

Louis Harap, writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".

  • Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
  • Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
  • Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
  • Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
  • Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
  • Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).

Religious antisemitism

Main article: Religious antisemitism See also: Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism in Christianity, and Antisemitism in Islam
The execution of Mariana de Carabajal (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, Mexico City, 1601

Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Marranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.

Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like." William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism. From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."

Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the Protocols, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism. Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France.

Economic antisemitism

Main article: Economic antisemitism
Man kissing feet of another man with hooked nose, dropping money on his head
A World War II-era Slovak propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".

The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.

Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and later repeated by Henry Ford and his The Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam and on the internet.

Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards:

a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"

Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:

  1. All Jews are wealthy
  2. Jews are stingy and greedy
  3. Powerful Jews control the business world
  4. Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism
  5. It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews
  6. Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"

Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as " control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate ".

Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".

An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."

Racial antisemitism

Main article: Racial antisemitism
A Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.

Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion.

Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.

Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.

In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–1855. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.

Political antisemitism

The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.

Friedrich Nietzsche, 1886,

William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms." Derek J. Penslar wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized modernity."

According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.

Cultural antisemitism

Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture." Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation." Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live." An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.

Conspiracy theories

See also: List of conspiracy theories § Antisemitic conspiracy theories

Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.

New antisemitism

Main article: New antisemitism
A sign held at a protest in Edinburgh, Scotland, January 2009

Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.

Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews". It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.

Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.

History

Main article: History of antisemitism For a chronological guide, see Timeline of antisemitism.
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Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:

  1. Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
  2. Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
  3. Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
  4. Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
  5. Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
  6. Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism

Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

Ancient world

The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat. One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.

In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis. Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.

Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."

There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.

The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.

Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened.

James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."

Persecutions during the Middle Ages

Main article: Jews in the Middle Ages
The massacre of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627

In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments", ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.

From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as dhimmis and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.

The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.

In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did the Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394, and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.

In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.

As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.

Reformation

Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism

Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust."

17th century

Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614

During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr.

European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.

In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.

Enlightenment

In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as malke-geld ("queen's money" in Yiddish). In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.

In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

Voltaire

According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative". Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France." Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.

Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution

The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.

Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians. Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows. Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.

Imperial Russia

The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)

Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns. A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.

Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (r. 1855–1881). However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".

Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century

Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."

In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."

In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.

At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".

Secular or racial antisemitism

Title page of the second edition of Das Judenthum in der Musik, published in 1869
Antisemitic agitators in Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during the Dreyfus affair

In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism" – published Das Judenthum in der Musik (roughly "Jewishness in Music") under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:

According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.

Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.

Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn").

The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.

Even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.

The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.

Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.

Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay "On The Jewish Question" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it.

Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."

David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians". According to McLellan, Marx used the word Judentum colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".

20th century

See also: Jewish Bolshevism, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, and Soviet anti-Semitism
Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper Der Stürmer, Worms, Germany, 1935

Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms.

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".

A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated Buchenwald concentration camp, 1945

In Germany, shortly after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.

In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as Rassenschande ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state"). It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched. Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.

In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany. Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings – his letters and diary – to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to Kristallnacht by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem". An article by Jonathan Marwil in Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.

In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom. After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.

Contemporary antisemitism

Post-WWII antisemitism

See also: Soviet anti-Zionism and Soviet anti-Semitism

There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the 'Doctors' Plot' in 1952.

In the 20th century, Soviet and Russian antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the Bolsheviks initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with Marxist ideology. However, under Joseph Stalin's regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "rootless cosmopolitans". The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s. The Doctors' plot of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.

In that same year, the antisemitic Slánský show trial alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies." In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified.In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the State of Israel and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David." The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book Judaism Without Embellishment, written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed Nazi propaganda, alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union. It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.

The Six-Day War in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states. This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements." The Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public shut down and expropriated synagogues, yeshivas, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of Hebrew. It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the KGB and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.

Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion and sometimes relied upon Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf as a source of information about Zionism. Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV." The still-extant Novosti Press Agency, a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the CPSU in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 Prague Spring. According to historian William Korey, "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"

Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country. After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours.

21st-century European antisemitism

Further information: Antisemitism in Europe § 21st century

Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."

This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.

In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)". He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."

Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.

According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed. While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.

21st-century Arab antisemitism

Main article: Antisemitism in the Arab world
Graffiti of a swastika on a building in the Palestinian city of Nablus, 2022

Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".

In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably.

According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."

Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.

According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.

21st-century antisemitism at universities

Main article: Universities and antisemitism

After the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly. Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism. On 1 May 2024, the United States House of Representatives voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance definition of antisemitism into law. The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the American Jewish Committee and World Jewish Congress generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses. An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.

Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism

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Further information: Black Hebrew Israelites
4% of African-Americans self-identified as Black Hebrew Israelites in 2019. Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.

In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential". Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion. Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.

Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity. Black Hebrew Israelites promote the Khazar theory about Ashkenazi Jewish origins. In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites.

Antisemitism on the internet

Antisemitism on the internet involves a complex interplay between social media dynamics, conspiracy theories, and the broader socio-political context. Social media platforms have proved fertile for breeding antisemitic rhetoric, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, during which a notable rise in antisemitic conspiracy theories emerged. The role of social media in amplifying these sentiments is underscored by analyses of comment sections on major media outlets, which reveal a significant presence of antisemitic discourse, often framed within the context of political events and international relations. Furthermore, the emergence of TikTok as a new platform has raised concerns about the proliferation of antisemitic content, with studies highlighting the challenges of moderating such material effectively. The intersection of antisemitism with broader themes of populism and right-wing extremism is also evident, as these ideologies often utilize antisemitic narratives to galvanize support and create a sense of otherness. Additionally, the phenomenon of subtle hate speech has been identified, where antisemitic sentiments are recontextualized in ways that may evade direct detection yet still perpetuate harmful stereotypes. Antisemitic bias appears even in ostensibly neutral sources such as on the Misplaced Pages platform. Overall, the digital landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for combating antisemitism, necessitating a multifaceted approach that includes community engagement and technological solutions to monitor and counteract hate speech effectively.

Causes

Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, conspiracy theory, and the search for a scapegoat.

Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other." The latter position is exemplified by Theodor W. Adorno, who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."

As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by Bernard Lazare questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today. As another example, Walter Laqueur suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews. Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions, while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury", although recent scholarship, such as that of historian Julie Mell shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian projection of taboo behaviour on to the minority.

In Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (2013), historian David Nirenberg traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society. Its foundation lies in the early claim of Jewish deicide and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic 'other' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable. It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the Enlightenment, figures like Voltaire critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the Soviet Union frequently portrayed Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and communism. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.

British quantum physicist David Deutsch has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews." He provides the following examples:

  1. The idea that Jews have collectively failed some crucial test (e.g. they rejected Jesus, or Mohammed, or do not have the Aryans' capacity for 'culture', or do not satisfy Stalin's criteria for being a 'nation', or lack a mystical 'connection to the land', etc.);
  2. The idea that Jews cause pollution – for instance that they are poisoning the water supply, or that they desecrate holy sites and artefacts – which is often extended, semi-metaphorically, to the idea that Jews are pollution/vermin/rotten/cancer etc.;
  3. Blood libels, the classic one being that Jews kidnap and murder non-Jewish children and consume their blood in religious rituals;
  4. The incorporation of an entity called 'The Jews' deeply into the fabric of many cultures as the eternal enemy bent on destroying whatever that culture values; and
  5. Conspiracy theories, especially theories that 'The Jews' are secretly 'behind' the events of history and current affairs.

British medievalist historian Richard Landes has further argued that,

This Pattern, Deutsch observes, is always present, but is most likely to cause persecution, expulsions and mass murder when there is a serious threat it, to the legitimacy of hurting Jews. Such a threat appeared when Europeans, previously Pattern-compliant in their belief in Jewish deicide, became 'Enlightened,' and so had difficulty blaming the Jews for killing a God in which they no longer believed. The key to people's behavior in this regard, he argues, is the need to preserve the legitimacy of hurting Jews, for being Jews. This legitimacy is much more important than actually hurting Jews. And it targets only the Jews. It is not, accordingly, either a hatred or a fear, a form of racism or prejudice in the conventional sense, even though it can lead to those feelings and attitudes. But it is actually unique. No other group can substitute for the Jews as the target whom it is legitimate to hurt.

Author and scholar Dara Horn published an article in The Atlantic reflecting on her previous published doubts about the effectiveness of Holocaust education pedagogy and the rising antisemitism in the wake of the October 7th Massacre in Israel by Palestinians. In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. In particular, Jewish particularism is perceived as an aggression against a supposedly more enlightened universalism. By rejecting this new universalism, the Jews are thus judged to have failed a crucial moral test. As a result, hatred of Jews becomes a sign of moral righteousness. Historically, this pattern manifests in various ways: Christianity and Islam each claimed to embody a universal truth that Jews rejected, justifying persecution. In the modern era, German pseudo-scientific racism and Social Darwinism defined Jews as an inferior race threatening societal progress, while the Soviet Union positioned itself as the victim of Nazism, obscuring the Jewish suffering during the Holocaust and framing Jews as oppressors through its propaganda about Zionism. Horn concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.

This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.

Prevention through education

Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination. However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities.

Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the Holocaust is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. Dara Horn wrote in The Atlantic that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."

Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"

Geographical variation

Main article: Geography of antisemitism

A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism. In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism, which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".

In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project. The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends. In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.

See also

Notes

  1. Also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "Semitism" is a valid concept.
  2. Whether it is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought, see the § Eternalism–contextualism debate paragraph.

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism" (PDF). International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. April 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2019. The unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.
  2. "Jew-hatred". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/2854443694. Retrieved 2 September 2024. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. "anti-Semitism". Oxford Dictionaries – English. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  4. ^ "anti-Semitism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived from the original on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  5. See, for example:
  6. "Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance" (PDF). United Nations. 1 March 1999. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  7. Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). "2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia" (PDF). Executive Council of Australian Jewry. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  8. "Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2023. These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial eugenics, they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in Central Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure Aryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious Jewish plan for world domination.
  9. Novak, David (February 2019). "Supersessionism hard and soft". firstthings.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  10. Sandra Toenies Keating (2014). "Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān". Nicholas of Cusa and Islam. Brill. pp. 202–217. doi:10.1163/9789004274761_014. ISBN 9789004274761. S2CID 170395646. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
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  16. "What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?". BBC News. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  17. Malik, Kenan (24 February 2019). "Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  18. "3D Test of Anti-Semitism: Demonization, Double Standards, Delegitimization". Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs. 11 November 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  19. Bein (1990), p. 595.
  20. ^ Lipstadt (2019), pp. 22–25.
  21. Chanes (2004), p. 150.
  22. Rattansi (2007), pp. 4–5.
  23. Johnston (1983), p. 27.
  24. Laqueur (2006), p. 21.
  25. Johnson (1987), p. 133.
  26. ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Anti-Semites". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2018.. Extract from Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973.
  27. Vermeulen, H.F. (2015). Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment. Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7738-0. Retrieved 7 October 2022. Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."
  28. Kiraz (2001), p. 25; Baasten (2003), p. 67
  29. Bein (1990), p. 594.
  30. Falk (2008), p. 21.
  31. Poliakov, Léon (2003). The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From Voltaire to Wagner. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-8122-1865-7.
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  • Marcus, Ivan G. How the West Became Antisemitic: Jews and the Formation of Europe, 800–1500 (Princeton University Press, 2024) online review of this book

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