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{{short description|Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews}}
<!-- NOTE. Please first read the section ] below if you intend to insert corrections -->{{dablink|This article describes the development and history of traditional antisemitism. A separate article exists on the more recent concept of ].}}
{{Distinguish|anti-Judaism}}
]'' (German: Der ewige Jude): 1937 German poster advertising an antisemitic Nazi movie.]]
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{{Antisemitism}}{{Discrimination sidebar|expand-ethnic=yes}}{{Judaism}}
{{Status of religious freedom|persecution}}<!--Before making an edit to this article's definition of "antisemitism" to include prejudice against all Semitic people, please review the relevant discussions on the article's talk page and the related archives. If you still want to change the definition on this article, please discuss first on the talk page.-->
'''Antisemitism'''{{Efn|Also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism'''; The ] has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "]" is a valid concept.<ref name=IHRA2 />}} or '''Jew-hatred'''<ref>{{Cite OED|term=Jew-hatred|id=2854443694|access-date=2 September 2024}}</ref> is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, ].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808034525/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 August 2018|title=anti-Semitism|website=Oxford Dictionaries – English|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="MWdef">{{cite web|title=anti-Semitism|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031195040/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism|archive-date=31 October 2018|access-date=27 October 2018|work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary}}</ref><ref>See, for example:
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Anti-Semitism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2006}}
* {{cite book|first=Paul|last=Johnson|author-link=Paul Johnson (writer)|title=A History of the Jews|publisher=HarperPerennial|year=1988|page=133}}
*{{cite journal|author-link=Bernard Lewis|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|url=http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|title=The New Anti-Semitism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|archive-date=8 September 2011|url-status=dead|journal=The American Scholar|volume=75|number=1|date=Winter 2006|pages=25–36}}</ref> This sentiment is a form of ],{{Efn|Whether it is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought, see the {{section link||Eternalism–contextualism debate}} paragraph.}}<ref>{{cite web|date=1 March 1999|title=Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance|url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page=4|publisher=]|page=4|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=27 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827100852/https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page=4|url-status=live}}{{void|comment|Fabrickator|following "UN doc" template is not resolving to a working url}}<!-- {{UN doc |docid=A-RES-53-133 |body=A |session=53 |type=R |resolution_number=133 |title=Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance |page=4 |date=1 March 1999}}{{dl|date=April 2023}} --></ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Nathan|first=Julie|date=9 November 2014|title=2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia|url=http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412202844/http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf|archive-date=12 April 2015|access-date=27 October 2018|publisher=]|page=9}}</ref> and a person who harbours it is called an '''antisemite'''. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards ] or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to ]. In the former case, usually presented as ], a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-racial-antisemitism-18751945|access-date=20 September 2023|website=]|quote=These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial ], they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in ] not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure ] by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious ].|archive-date=31 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331191034/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|url-status=live}}</ref> In the latter case, known as ], a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other ].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Novak|first1=David|title=Supersessionism hard and soft|url=https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft|website=firstthings.com|access-date=24 September 2023|date=February 2019|archive-date=29 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929133324/https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014|chapter=Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān|author=Sandra Toenies Keating|title=Nicholas of Cusa and Islam|pages=202–217|chapter-url-access=subscription|publisher=Brill|year=2014|doi=10.1163/9789004274761_014|isbn=9789004274761|s2cid=170395646|access-date=24 September 2023|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129100206/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014|url-status=live}}</ref> The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by the concept of ],<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 August 2017|title=From Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism|access-date=20 September 2023|website=]|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922224125/https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Zauzmer Weil|first=Julie|date=22 August 2019|title=How anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/|newspaper=]|access-date=20 September 2023|archive-date=19 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519162501/https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/|url-status=live}}</ref> which is distinct from antisemitism itself.<ref>{{Cite web|last=M. Freidenreich|first=David|date=18 November 2022|title=How Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends|url=https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/|access-date=20 September 2023|website=]|archive-date=25 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925160443/https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/|url-status=live}}</ref>


There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of ]. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of ]s or ], which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the ] in 1096; the ] in 1290; the ], between 1348 and 1351; the ] in 1391, the crackdown of the ], and the ] in 1492; the ], between 1648 and 1657; various ], between 1821 and 1906; the ], between 1894 and 1906; ] by ] during ]; and various ]. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in ]. However, since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in ], largely due to the surge in ], which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of ].<ref name="Herf 2009">{{cite journal|last=Herf|first=Jeffrey|author-link=Jeffrey Herf|date=December 2009|title=Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings|journal=]|publisher=]|volume=42|issue=4|pages=709–736|doi=10.1017/S000893890999104X|jstor=40600977|s2cid=145568807|issn=0008-9389}}</ref><ref name="JCPA 2020">{{cite journal|last=Spoerl|first=Joseph S.|date=January 2020|title=Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism|url=https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/|url-status=live|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|publisher=]|volume=31|issue=1/2|pages=210–244|issn=0792-335X|jstor=26870795|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609120031/https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/|archive-date=9 June 2020|access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref>
'''Antisemitism''' (alternatively spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism''') is hostility toward or ] against ]s as a religious, racial, or ethnic group, which can range in expression from individual ] to institutionalized, violent ]. While the term's ] may imply that antisemitism is directed against all ], it is in practice used exclusively to refer to hostility towards Jews. The highly explicit ] of ]'s ] was the most extreme example of this phenomenon, leading to the ].


In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "]" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since ] is a ], expressions of ] could harbour antisemitic sentiments.<ref>{{Cite news|date=28 April 2016|title=What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36160928|access-date=20 February 2024|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Malik|first=Kenan|date=24 February 2019|title=Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/feb/24/antisemites-use-language-of-anti-zionism-the-two-are-distinct|access-date=20 February 2024|work=The Observer|issn=0029-7712}}</ref> ] describes the "3D" test to determine the existence of such antisemitism: demonizing Israel, the double standard of criticizing Israel disproportionately to other countries, and ].<ref name="g639">{{cite web | title=3D Test of Anti-Semitism: Demonization, Double Standards, Delegitimization | website=Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs | date=2012-11-11 | url=https://jcpa.org/article/3d-test-of-anti-semitism-demonization-double-standards-delegitimization/ | access-date=2024-10-29}}</ref>
Antisemitism can be broadly categorized into three forms:
* ] antisemitism, or ]. As the name implies, it was the practice of ] itself that was the defining characteristic of the antisemitic attacks. Under this version of antisemitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practising or changed their public faith.
* ] antisemitism. Either a pre-cursor or by-product of the ] movement, racial antisemitism replaced hatred of the Jewish religion with the concept that the Jews themselves were a distinct and inferior race.
* ] is the concept of a new form of 21st century antisemitism coming simultaneously from the ], the ], and ], which tends to focus on opposition to the emergence of a Jewish homeland in the ].<ref name="Chesler">]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181</ref><ref name="Kinsella">]. , accessed March 5, 2006</ref><ref name=Gable>, '']'', August 8, 2004.</ref><ref name=Endelman>Endelman, Todd M. "Antisemitism in Western Europe Today" in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65-79</ref><ref name=Matas>Matas, David. ''Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and antisemitism'', p.31. Dundurn Press, 2005.</ref> The concept has been criticized for what some authors see as a confusion of antisemitism and ].<ref name="Finkelstein78">]. ''Beyond Chutzpah: On the Misuse of Antisemitism and the Abuse of History'', University of California Press, 2005, p. 78.</ref><ref name=tariqali>]. , ''Counterpunch'', March 4, 2004, first published in ''il manifesto'', February 26, 2004.</ref>


Due to the root word '']'', the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who incorrectly assert (in an ]) that it refers to racist hatred directed at "]" in spite of the fact that this grouping is an obsolete ]. Likewise, such usage is erroneous; the compound word {{lang|de|antisemitismus}} was first used in print in ] in 1879{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=595}} as a "]" for {{lang|de|Judenhass}} ({{Literal translation|Jew-hatred}}),{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=150}}{{sfnp|Rattansi|2007|pp=4–5}}{{sfnp|Johnston|1983|p=27}}{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=}} and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=133}}<ref name="JustJews">{{cite web|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|author-link=Bernard Lewis|url=http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html|title=Semites and Anti-Semites|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514133732/http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html|archive-date=14 May 2011|access-date=27 October 2018}}. Extract from ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973.
{{AS}}
*{{cite journal|author-link=Bernard Lewis|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832|title=The New Anti-Semitism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108130056/http://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832|archive-date=8 November 2017|url-status=dead|journal=The American Scholar|volume=75|number=1|date=Winter 2006|pages=25–36}}</ref>
{{discrimination2}}
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==Etymology and usage== ==Origin and usage==
===Etymology===
] refers broadly to speakers of a language group which includes both ]s and ]s. However, the term antisemitism is specifically used in reference to attitudes held towards Jews.
{{Anchor|Etmyology and uses}}
]


The word "Semitic" was coined by German orientalist ] in 1781 to designate the ]—], ], ] and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure ], son of ].<ref name="Vermeulen 2015 p. 252">{{cite book|last=Vermeulen|first=H.F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252|title=Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8032-7738-0|series=Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series|quote=Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."|access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kiraz|2001|p=25}}; {{harvp|Baasten|2003|p=67}}</ref>
]
The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the ]n Jewish ] ] in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" ({{lang-de|"antisemitische Vorurteile"}}). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize ]'s ideas about how "] races" were inferior to "] races." These ] theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in ] in the second half of the 19th century, especially as ]n nationalistic historian ] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was practically ]ous with ''Jewish'', in contrast to its usage by Renan and others.


The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist ] to the views of orientalist ]. Historian ] writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' ]" as a ]]."{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=}} Psychologist ] similarly writes: "The German word ''{{Lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase ''antisemitische Vorurteile'' (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how ']' were inferior to ']s{{'"}}.{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=21}}
German political agitator ] coined the related ] word ''Antisemitismus'' in his book ''"The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism"'' in 1879. Marr used the phrase to mean ''hatred of jews'' or ''Judenhass'', and he used the new word ''antisemitism'' to make hatred of the Jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge. Marr's book became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Antisemites"'' ("''Antisemiten-Liga''"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews, and advocating their ] from the country.


] theories ], civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as ]n nationalistic historian ] did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Poliakov|first=Léon|author-link=Léon Poliakov|title=The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From Voltaire to Wagner|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2003|page=404|isbn=978-0-8122-1865-7}}</ref> According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=}} based generally on linguistic criteria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brustein|first=William I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA118|title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust|location=Cambridge|publisher=]|year=2003|page=118|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9780521774789}}</ref>
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and ] used the term "''Antisemiten''" in the ''"Neue Freie Presse"'' of January. The related word '']'' was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term "]" by Germans to refer to the nation or people known as ]s, as distinct from the religion of ].


According to philologist ], the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."<ref>{{cite journal|first=Jonathan M.|last=Hess|title=Johann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany|journal=Jewish Social Studies|volume=6|number=2|date=Winter 2000|pages=56–101|doi=10.1353/jss.2000.0003|s2cid=153434303|quote=When the term "antisemitism" was first introduced in Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own "antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.}}</ref>
Despite the use of the prefix "anti," the terms ''Semitic'' and ''anti-Semitic'' are not directly opposed to each other (unlike similar-seeming terms such as ] or ]). To avoid the confusion of the ], many scholars on the subject (such as ]) now favor the unhyphenated ''antisemitism''<ref> (Facing History) {{PDFlink}}. Accessed August 21, 2006</ref> in order to emphasize that the word should be read as a single unified term, not as a meaningful ]-] combination.


]
In fact, the term ''antisemitism'' has historically referred to prejudice towards ]s alone, and this was the only use of the word for more than a century. It does not traditionally refer to prejudice toward other people who speak ]s (e.g. ]s or ]). ], Professor of Near Eastern Studies Emeritus at Princeton University, says that "Antisemitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews."<ref name=Lewis>]. , ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973.</ref> ] articulated this view in his writings and lectures: (the term) "Antisemitism, especially in its ]ated spelling, is inane nonsense, because there is no Semitism that you can be ] to."<ref name=Bauer>]. {{PDFlink|}}. Accessed March 12, 2006.</ref><ref name=Bauer2>Bauer, Yehuda. ''A History of the Holocaust'', Franklin Watts, 1982, p. 52. ISBN 0-531-05641-4</ref>


In 1879, German journalist ] published a pamphlet, {{Lang|de|Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet}} (''The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective'') in which he used the word ''Semitismus'' interchangeably with the word ''Judentum'' to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).<ref>{{cite book|last=Jaspal|first=Rusi|year=2014|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qS_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38|title=Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk|location=Farnham, Surrey|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|chapter=Antisemitism: Conceptual Issues|isbn=9781472407252|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235525/https://books.google.com/books?id=qS_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} Jaspal erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.</ref><ref>]. ''''. Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition/printing. Internet Archive. Marr uses the word "Semitismus" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "Ja, ich bin überzeugt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!" (Yes, I am convinced that I have articulated what millions of Jews are quietly thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Marr|first=Wilhem|author-link=Wilhelm Marr|url=http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/Marr-Text-English.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/Marr-Text-English.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live|title=The Victory of Judaism over Germanism: Viewed from a Nonreligious Point of View|translator-first=Gerhard|translator-last=Rohringer|year=1879|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref> He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even the highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wilhelm Marr|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/wilhelm-marr|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref>
In recent decades some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs or ], in the context of answering accusations of Arab antisemitism; further, some, including the ], have argued that this implies that Arabs cannot, ''by definition'', be antisemitic. The argument for such an extension of meaning comes from the claim that since the ] ] includes ], ] and ] languages and the historical term "Semite" refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the Biblical ], "anti-Semitism" should be likewise inclusive. However, this usage is not generally accepted.


This followed his 1862 book ''Die Judenspiegel'' (''A Mirror to the Jews'') in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity".<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Wilhelm Marr's A Mirror to the Jews|url=https://keydocuments.net/article/bergmann-marr-mirror-jews|access-date=29 July 2024|website=Key Documents of German-Jewish History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Levy|first=Richard S.|author-link=Richard S. Levy|date=1 April 1987|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, by Moshe Zimmermann|url=https://www.commentary.org/articles/richard-levy/wilhelm-marr-the-patriarch-of-anti-semitism-by-moshe-zimmermann/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of ''Der Judenspiegel,'' Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble."<ref name=":5" />
===Definitions of the term===
]


This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "]" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benz|first=Wolfgang|author-link=Wolfgang Benz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGpj0ORpwAC&dq=%22Antisemitismus%22&pg=PA7|title=Was ist Antisemitismus?|date=2004|publisher=C.H.Beck|isbn=978-3-406-52212-3|language=de|access-date=29 October 2023|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235555/https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGpj0ORpwAC&dq=%22Antisemitismus%22&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q=%22Antisemitismus%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice towards ]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. ] scholar and ] professor Helen Fein's definition has been particularly influential. She defines antisemitism as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ], ] and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilisation against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."


The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (League of Antisemites),<ref name=":4">{{cite book|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism|last=Zimmermann|first=Moshe|author-link=Moshe Zimmermann|publisher=New York and Oxford: Oxford University|pages=71}}</ref> apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League).<ref name="MZ1987">{{cite book|last=Zimmermann|first=Moshe|author-link=Moshe Zimmermann|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA112|year=1987|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-536495-8|page=112|access-date=27 October 2018|quote=The term "anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period.|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235552/https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their ] from the country.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
Professor Dietz Bering of the ] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of antisemitic beliefs. To antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the antisemites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."


So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte'', and ] used the term ''Antisemiten'' in the January issue of '']''.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to formally define antisemitism. The United States Department of State defines antisemitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews — individually and as a group — that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS>, ], January 5, 2005.</ref>


The '']'' reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the '']'' speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p.&nbsp;138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deutsch|first=Gotthard|author-link=Gotthard Deutsch|year=1901|title=Anti-Semitism|url=https://archive.org/details/b29000488_0001/page/640/mode/2up|journal=]|publisher=]|volume=1|page=641|access-date=21 August 2023|via=]}}</ref>
In 2005, the ] (EUMC), a body of the ], developed a more detailed working definition: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the ], conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm ], and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'."


The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. '']'' editor ] wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!"<ref name="toi">{{cite news|last1=Mandel|first1=Jonah|title=Letter shows first dictionary editor thought 'anti-Semite' wouldn't be used|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/letter-shows-first-dictionary-editor-thought-anti-semite-wouldnt-be-used/|access-date=5 May 2020|work=The Times of Israel|date=4 May 2019|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505080418/https://www.timesofisrael.com/letter-shows-first-dictionary-editor-thought-anti-semite-wouldnt-be-used/|url-status=live}}</ref> The related term "]" was used by 1881.<ref name=philosemitism>{{cite magazine|title=The Jews in Germany|magazine=]|publisher=]|volume=XXXIII|date=March 1881|page=350|quote=...the position of German Liberals in this matter of philo-Semitism.}}</ref>
The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of antisemitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; ]; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, depending on the context (see ] below).<ref name=EUMC>], , accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>


===Usage===
===Emotionality of the term===
From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against ].<ref name="MWdef" />{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}<ref name="JustJews" /> The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of ] (e.g., ], ], and ]) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak ], a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as ] against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=117}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Benjamin|last=Isaac|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eem1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA442|title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity|publisher=]|year=2004|page=442|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9781400849567|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235521/https://books.google.com/books?id=eem1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA442#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link=David Matas|last=Matas|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA34|title=Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism|publisher=Dundurn Press|year=2005|page=34|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9781550025538|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235524/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|title=Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism|publisher=]|date=April 2015|quote=... the hyphenated spelling allows for the possibility of something called 'Semitism', which not only legitimizes a form of pseudo-scientific racial classification that was thoroughly discredited by association with Nazi ideology, but also divides the term, stripping it from its meaning of opposition and hatred toward Jews.|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
]]]
Before the extent of the Nazi genocide became widely known and the term "antisemitism" acquired emotional connotations, it was not uncommon for a person to self-identify as an antisemite. In 1879 ] founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga''. In 1895 ] organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the aftermath of ], ] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', November 12, 1938. Cited in ]. ''Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction.'' Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.</ref>


The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.<ref name=IHRA2>{{cite web|title=Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism|url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|publisher=]|date=April 2015|quote=The unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Power of Myth|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/$FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf|website=Facing History|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305002701/http://www2.facinghistory.org/Campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/%24FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Bauer">{{cite web|last1=Bauer|first1=Yehuda|title=Problems of Contemporary Antisemitism|url=http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307094003/http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2008}}</ref><ref name="Bauer2">{{cite book|last=Bauer|first=Yehuda|title=A History of the Holocaust|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofholocau00yehu|url-access=registration|publisher=Franklin Watts|year=1982|page=|isbn=978-0-531-05641-7}}</ref> Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful&nbsp;... n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Almog|first=Shmuel|date=Summer 1989|title=What's in a Hyphen?|url=http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990428121824/http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm|archive-date=28 April 1999|access-date=3 April 2024|website=]|postscript=. Published in SICSA report: the newsletter of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Republished in 2014 by Alabama Holocaust Education Center: ahecinfo.org/wp-content/uploads/Why-antisemitism-with-no-hyphen.pdf}}</ref> ] supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to " the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."{{sfnp|Prager|Telushkin|2003|p=}}
==Earliest antisemitism==
The earliest occurrence of Antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars. Professor Peter Schafer of the ] has argued that antisemitism was first spread by "the ] retelling of ancient ] prejudices". In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest ], Schafer suggests that antisemitism may have emerged "in Egypt alone".<ref name=Schafer>Schafer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', Harvard University Press, 1997, p 208.</ref> The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the ] has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay of the ].<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M. G. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE)'', University of California, 1999.</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher ] described an attack on Jews in ] in 38 CE in '''', in which thousands of Jews died. In the analysis of Pieter W. Van Der Horst, the cause of the violence in Alexandria was that Jews had been portrayed as ].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem. ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill, 2003.</ref> Gideon Bohak has argued that early animosity against Jews was not ] unless it arose from attitudes held against Jews alone. Using this stricter definition, Bohak says that many Greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al, ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, p 27-43.</ref> The 150 BCE suppression of Jewish religious practice by use of deadly force against civilians, as recounted in ], then qualifies as anti-Judaism in a broader sense of the term than is used by Bohak. There are other examples of ] that are not considered by all to fall within the definition of antisemitism.


Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the ],<ref name=IHRA2/> historian ],{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}} Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at ]; and historians ] and ]. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism{{'"}}, "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll|first=James|author-link=James Carroll (author)|title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews|publisher=Mariner|location=New York|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EUdvSQs70C&pg=PT421|isbn=978-0618219087|pages=628–629|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235554/https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EUdvSQs70C&pg=PT421|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Religious antisemitism==
{{Jew}}
===Antisemitism and the Christian world===
{{main|Christianity and antisemitism}}


The ] and its accompanying '']'' adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bandler|first=Aaron|date=27 April 2021|title=AP Changes Spelling of "Anti-Semitism" to "Antisemitism"|work=Jewish Journal|url=https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/336003/ap-changes-spelling-of-anti-semitism-to-antisemitism/|access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref> Style guides for other news organizations such as the ''New York Times'' and ''Wall Street Journal'' later adopted this spelling as well.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hanau|first=Shira|date=8 December 2021|title=The New York Times updates style guide to 'antisemitism,' losing the hyphen|publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|url=https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen|access-date=18 July 2023|archive-date=19 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=15 December 2022|title=Vol. 35, No. 11: Antisemitism|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285|access-date=19 July 2023|issn=0099-9660|archive-date=19 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040044/https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285|url-status=live}}</ref> It has also been adopted by many ], such as the ] and ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Jo Zerivitz|first=Marcia|date=1 February 2021|title=In a word, it's antisemitism|work=Jewish Press of Tampa Bay|url=https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/|access-date=18 July 2023|archive-date=19 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Anti-Judaism in the New Testament====
The ] is a collection of books written by various authors. Most of this collection was written by the end of the first century. The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of ], and all but two books (] and ]) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers. Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as antisemitic, or have been used for antisemitic purposes, most notably:


===Definition===
:Jesus speaking to a group of ]: "I know that you are descendants of ]; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father. They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God." (] 8:37-39, 44-47, ])
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to ], has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",<ref name="pogromsriots">{{cite book|first=Sonja|last=Weinberg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18|title=Pogroms and Riots: German Press Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in Germany and Russia (1881–1882)|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2010|access-date=27 October 2018|isbn=9783631602140|archive-date=29 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235557/https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|18}} a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.


Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and ] professor ] defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Fine|editor-first=Helen|title=The persisting question: sociological perspectives and social contexts of modern antisemitism|date=1987|page=67|publisher=de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-010170-6|location=Berlin}}</ref>
:] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the ]. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it." (] 7:51-53, RSV)


Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the ] writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=}}
:"Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie — behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you." (] 3:9, RSV).


For Swiss historian ], as distinct from economic and religious ], antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that ]; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.<ref name="pogromsriots" />{{rp|18–19}}
Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from ] and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. Deut 9:13-14; 31:27-29; 32:5, 20-21; 2 Kings 17:13-14; Is 1:4; Hos 1:9; 10:9). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' (Mk 8:33). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus. Today, nearly all Christian denominations de-emphasize verses such as these, and reject their use and misuse by antisemites.


] with the world in his hands]]
Drawing from the Jewish prophet ] (] 31:31-34), the ] taught that with the death of Jesus a ] was established which rendered obsolete and in many respects superseded the first covenant established by Moses (] 8:7-13; Lk 22:20). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes ]. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called ]. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice ] and observe ], which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first ] Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death (Acts 11:3; 15:1ff; 16:3).
In 2003, Israeli politician ] developed what he called the "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving ], demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former.<ref name="state178448"/><ref name="Patterns">{{cite journal|title=So what's new? Rethinking the 'new antisemitism' in a global age|author=Jonathan Judaken|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=42|issue=4–5|pages=531–560|year=2008|doi=10.1080/00313220802377453|url=https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq=-5aa3|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618033045/https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq=-5aa3|archive-date=2010-06-18}}</ref><ref name="t766">{{cite journal|last=Younes|first=Anna-Esther|title=Fighting Anti-Semitism in Contemporary Germany|journal=Islamophobia Studies Journal|volume=5|issue=2|date=1 October 2020|issn=2325-8381|doi=10.13169/islastudj.5.2.0249|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="a473">{{cite web|title=The Louis D. Brandeis Center FAQs About Defining Anti-Semitism|website=Brandeis Center - Advance the civil and human rights of the Jewish people and promote justice for all|date=14 March 2022|url=https://brandeiscenter.com/the-louis-d-brandeis-center-faqs-about-defining-anti-semitism-2/|access-date=16 September 2024}}</ref>


], writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated1">]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|date=8 September 2011}}.</ref>
The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple ] (]14:43-46), the ] governor ] along with Roman forces (] 19:11; Acts 4:27) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus (Acts 13:27); Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control.


There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, the ] stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125182906/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/40258.htm |date=25 January 2021 }}, ], 5 January 2005.</ref>
After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in ] as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning (Acts 7:58). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison (Acts 8:3; ] 1:13-14; ] 1:13). After his conversion, ] is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities (] 11:24), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., Acts 25:6-7). However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly (2 Corinthians 11:26; Acts 16:19ff; 19:23ff). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others (Romans 8:35; ] 4:11ff; Galatians 3:4; ] 1:5; Hebrews 10:32; ] 4:16; Revelation 20:4).


In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and ] (EUMC, now the ]), an agency of the ], developed a more detailed ], which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic."<ref name="antisemitic"/> It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; ] or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of ] or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.<ref name="antisemitic">
See Joseph Atwill's interview on the [
{{cite web|url=http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf|title=Working Definition of Antisemitism|publisher=]|access-date=24 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304162430/http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2011|url-status=dead}}
</ref>


The EUMC working definition was adopted by the ] Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/|title=EUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism|website=antisem.eu|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701214816/http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} by the ] in 2017,<ref>{{cite web|title=Defining Anti-Semitism|url=https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210041344/https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 February 2017|access-date=5 August 2018}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK ] in 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/|title=Hate crime|website=app.college.police.uk|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911161627/https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} and by the UK's ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://antisemitism.uk/definition/|title=Definition of antisemitism|date=13 July 2015|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=24 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924061521/https://antisemitism.uk/definition/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=September 2024}} In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Working Definition of Antisemitism {{!}} IHRA|website=holocaustremembrance.com|url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=25 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825032144/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185|title=US House of Representatives votes to condemn antisemitism after Ilhan Omar's 'Israel loyalty' remarks|quote=Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel than to their interests of their own nation is listed by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance as an example of contemporary antisemitism in public life|website=The Jewish Chronicle|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-date=3 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203163852/https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185|url-status=live}}</ref> IHRA's ] is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ruth Gould|first1=Rebecca|author1-link=Rebecca Ruth Gould|title=The IHRA Definition of Antisemitism: Defining Antisemitism by Erasing Palestinians|journal=The Political Quarterly|year=2020|volume=91|issue=4|pages=825–831|doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12883|s2cid=225366096|doi-access=free}}</ref> In response to the perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the ] in February 2021 and the ] in March 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shamir|first=Jonathan|date=18 April 2021|title=Two Jews, Three Definitions: New Documents Challenge Mainstream View of Antisemitism|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-04-18/ty-article/.highlight/two-jews-three-definitions-new-documents-challenge-mainstream-view-of-antisemitism/0000017f-db27-db22-a17f-ffb71c8f0000?lts=1674173929738|url-access=subscription|access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Starr|first=Michael|date=22 April 2021|title=War of the words: The conflict between definitions of antisemitism|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/war-of-the-words-the-conflict-between-definitions-of-antisemitism-665935|access-date=19 January 2023|website=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kampeas|first=Ron|date=17 March 2021|title=A liberal definition of antisemitism that allows for Israel criticism|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/a-liberal-definition-of-antisemitism-that-allows-for-israel-criticism-662248|access-date=22 January 2023|website=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kampeas|first=Ron|date=17 March 2021|title=US Jewish scholars push anti-Semitism definition allowing more Israel criticism|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-scholars-push-anti-semitism-definition-allowing-more-israel-criticism/|access-date=19 January 2023|website=The Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=McGreal|first=Chris|date=24 April 2023|title=UN urged to reject antisemitism definition over 'misuse' to shield Israel|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/apr/24/un-ihra-antisemitism-definition-israel-criticism|access-date=5 February 2024|work=The Guardian|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Hofmann|first=Sarah Judith|date=17 June 2021|title=A new definition for antisemitism?|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-jerusalem-declaration-redefining-antisemitism/a-57895132|access-date=5 February 2024|publisher=]}}</ref>
====Early Christianity====
A number of early and influential Church works — such as the dialogues of ], the homilies of ], and the testimonies of church father ] — are strongly anti-Jewish.


]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)]]
During a discussion on the celebration of ] during the ] in AD 325, Roman emperor ] said, <blockquote> ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.<ref name=Eusebius>]. , 337 CE, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref></blockquote>


===Evolution of usage===
Prejudice against Jews in the ] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of ]'' established ] Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The ] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now ]), a Spanish town in ], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian ]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Spain, the ] ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth).<ref name=Roth>Roth, A. M. Roth, and Roth, Norman. ''Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain'', Brill Academic, 1994.</ref> Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism.
In 1879, ] founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (Anti-Semitic League).<ref>Richard S. Levy, "Marr, Wilhelm (1819–1904)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 2, pp. 445–446}}</ref> Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, ], the popular mayor of ] ], skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref>Richard S. Geehr. ''Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna'', ], Detroit, 1989. {{ISBN|0-8143-2055-4}}</ref> In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''The New York Times'' notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref>"", ''The New York Times'', 11 March 1910. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126110903/https://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/11/archives/dr-karl-lueger-dead-antisemitic-leader-and-mayor-of-vienna-was-66.html |date=26 January 2021 }}.</ref> In 1895, ] organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the period before ], when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.


The early ] pioneer ], a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term ''Judeophobia'' to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word ''Judeophobia'' first appeared in his pamphlet "]", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.<ref name="Bartlett2005">{{cite book|last=Bartlett|first=Steven J.|title=The Pathology of Man: A Study of Human Evil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5KQ0Yi76GMC&pg=PA30|year=2005|publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher|isbn=9780398075576|page=30}}</ref> {{blockquote|Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Leon Pinsker|last1=Pinsker|first1=Leon|translator-last=Blondheim|translator-first=D.S.|title=Auto-Emancipation|series=Zionist publications|date=1906|publisher=The Maccabaean Publishing Company|location=New York|pages=3, 4|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw5rcs;view=1up;seq=15|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161903/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw5rcs&view=1up&seq=15|url-status=live}}, ] and {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726052832/https://he.wikisource.org/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94 |date=26 July 2020 }} translations.</ref> }}
====Antisemitism in Europe (Middle Ages)====
===== Accusations of deicide =====
{{Further|], ]}}
In the ] a main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Though not part of ] ], many Christians, including members of the ], have held the Jewish people collectively responsible for killing Jesus, a practice originated by ]. As stated in the ] Guide to Passion Plays, "Over the course of time, Christians began to accept... that the Jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time, have committed the sin of ], or God-killing. For 1900 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America."<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. , accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> This accusation was repudiated in 1964, when the Catholic Church under ] issued the document ] as a part of ].


In the aftermath of the ] pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister ] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', 12 November 1938. Cited in ]. ''Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction''. Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.</ref>
===== Restrictions to marginal occupations (tax collecting, moneylending, etc.) =====
Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and ], tolerated then as a "]". Catholic doctrine of the time held that lending money for interest was a ], and forbidden to Christians. Not being subject to this restriction, Jews dominated this business. The ] and later sections of the ] criticise ] but interpretations of the Biblical prohibition vary. Since few other occupations were open to them, Jews were motivated to take up money lending. This was said to show Jews were insolent, greedy, ], and subsequently lead to many negative sterotypes and propaganda. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious, and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked.


After 1945 ], and particularly after the full extent of the ] became known, the term ''antisemitism'' acquired ] connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>Jacob Rader Marcus. ''United States Jewry, 1776–1985.'' Wayne State University Press, 1989, p. 286. {{ISBN|0-8143-2186-0}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=580}} Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world&nbsp;... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>]: ''The Most Ancient Group Prejudice'' in Leo Eitinger (1984): ''The Anti-Semitism of Our Time''. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p. 14. citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003): ''The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History.'' Oneworld Publications. p.&nbsp;73. {{ISBN|1-85168-313-5}}.</ref>
===== The Black Death =====
{{further|Black Death}}
As the ] ] devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than a half of the population, Jews were taken as ]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately ]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence, in particular in the Iberian peninsula and in the Germanic Empire. In ], 40 Jews were burnt in ] as soon as April 1348.<ref name="Black"> See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in '']'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{fr icon}} </ref> "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague <!-- uncertainty about the plague being bubonic, although it is the most accepted hypothesis; irrelevant link, Black Death link more appropriate -->; they were tortured until they "confessed" to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of ] (near ]) had ordered him to poison the wells in ], ], and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet’s "confession," the Jews of ] were burned alive on February 14, 1349.<ref name=Hertzberg>] and Hirt-Manheimer, Aron. ''Jews: The Essence and Character of a People'', HarperSanFrancisco, 1998, p.84. ISBN 0-06-063834-6</ref>


===Eternalism–contextualism debate===
Although the ] tried to protect them by the ], ] ] and another 1348 bull, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt in ], where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.<ref name="Black"/> Clement VI condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews (among whom were the ]s) had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil."
The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123–1124}} There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}} The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force ]ly culminating in the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}}{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123, 1130}} Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility."{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}} Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}{{sfnp|Ury|2018|p=1151}} Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}


The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=27}} Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1132}} Historian ] has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=26}} Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}}
=====The demonizing of the Jews=====
From around the 12th century through the 19th there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the ]. See also ], ].


==Manifestations==
=====Blood libels=====
] and ]) being burned.]]
''Main articles: ], ]''


Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. ] mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite book|title=Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie|first=René|last=König|publisher=VS Verlag|year=2004|page=231|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231|isbn=978-3-8100-3306-2|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000128/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231|url-status=live}}</ref>
On many occasions, Jews were accused of a ], the supposed drinking of blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian ]. (Early Christians had been accused of a similar practice based on pagan misunderstanding of the Eucharist ritual.){{fact}} According to the authors of these blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses and then drunk. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of ] would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.


These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. ], writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: ], economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book|title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes|first=Bernard|last=Lazare|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|year=2006|page=224|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224|isbn=978-1-59605-601-5|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000042/https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> ] names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political.<ref>{{cite book|title=Roots of hate: anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust|first=William|last=Brustein|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|page=46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46|isbn=978-0-521-77478-9|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] historian ] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
The story of ] (d. 1144) is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a Christian ], while the story of ] (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his ] removed for some ] purpose, such as a ]. The story of ] (d. 1475) emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by ] in 1588. The cult of Simon was disbanded in 1965 by ], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the ] in ] and the ] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe. Unproved rumours of Jews killing Christians were used as justification for killing of Jews by Christians.
*Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples ]{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=16}} and ];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=260}}
*], also called "traditional antisemitism"<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Sherwood|first1=Harriet|last2=correspondent|first2=Harriet Sherwood Religion|date=11 April 2018|title=Traditional antisemitism is back, global study finds|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds|access-date=17 October 2023|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017211114/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds|url-status=live}}</ref> and sometimes known as ];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=289}}
*Nationalistic antisemitism, citing ] and other ] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as ] and ];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=176}}
*], with its extreme form resulting in ] by the ]s.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=179}}
{{Quote box
|quote=] for an encyclopedia of ]s.<br/>] blamed the Jews for ]; ] blamed the Jews for ]. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were ] and ] and ]. Jews were the creators of both ] and ]; they were ] but also ]; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.<br/>Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.
|author=], 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Goldberg|first1=Jeffrey|title=Is It Time for the Jews to Leave Europe?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/|magazine=]|date=April 2015|access-date=21 April 2023|archive-date=21 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421112016/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/|url-status=live}}</ref>
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], writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book|title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature, 1900-1940s|first=Louis|last=Harap|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1987|page=24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24|isbn=978-0-313-25386-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000143/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
* Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
* Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
* Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
* Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
* Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).


===Religious antisemitism===
More recently blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state-sponsored media of a number of ] nations, in Arab television shows, and on websites.
{{Main|Religious antisemitism}}
{{See also|Anti-Judaism|Antisemitism in Christianity|Antisemitism in Islam}}
] (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, ], 1601]]


], also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by ] to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of '']'' (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
=====Host desecration=====
]
Jews were sometimes falsely accused of desecrating consecrated ] in a reenactment of the ]; this crime was known as ] and carried the ].


Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."<ref>{{cite book|title=A concise history of American antisemitism|first=Robert|last=Michael|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2005|page=vii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7|isbn=978-0-7425-4313-3|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001047/https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon ]." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism. From the ] onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicholls|first=William|author-link=|date=1993|title=Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cg00E0gk9PQC|location=]|publisher=] / ]|page=314|isbn=0-87668-398-7}}</ref>
=====Disabilities and restrictions=====
]


Some Christians such as the Catholic priest ], who published the first French translation of the ''Protocols'', combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."{{sfnp|Michael|2008|p=171}} The virulent antisemitism of ], one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arnal|first1=Oscar L.|title=Ambivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899–1939|date=1985|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rubenstein|first1=Richard L.|title=Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy|date=2003|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Brustein|first1=William|title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=60}}</ref> Drumont founded the ].
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden. The number of Jews permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in ], and were not allowed to own land; they were subject to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, were forced to swear special ], and suffered a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress.


=====Clothing===== ===Economic antisemitism===
{{Main|Economic antisemitism}}
''Main article: ], ]''
<!-- ] asserting Jewish control of banking and finance]]
-->
] propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".]]
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref name=MeyerBrenner220>{{cite book|title=German-Jewish History in Modern Times: Integration in dispute, 1871–1918|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1998|page=220|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220|isbn=978-0-231-07476-6|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting ]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jews & Money – The story of a stereotype|url=http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp|access-date=18 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228220753/http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp|archive-date=28 February 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent '']'' and later repeated by ] and his '']''. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as '']'' published by the ] and on the internet.
The ] in 1215 was the first to proclaim the requirement for Jews to wear something that distinguished them as Jews. It could be a coloured piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square, a hat (]), or a robe. In many localities, members of the medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as ] members) were prestigious, while others ostracised outcasts such as ]s, reformed ] and ]. Jews sought to evade the ] by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary "exemptions" to kings, which were revoked and re-paid whenever the king needed to raise funds.


] writes that there are two components to the financial canards:<ref>Penslar page 5 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
=====The Crusades=====
:a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
The ]s were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the Papacy that took place during the 11th through 13th centuries. They began as Catholic endeavors to recapture ] from the Muslims but developed into territorial wars.
:b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"


] describes six facets of the financial canards:
The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades, and particularly the ] accompanying the first Crusade, attacked the Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and put many Jews to death. Entire communities, like those of ], ], ], ], and ], were slain during the first Crusade by a mob army. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July, 1096. Before the Crusades the Jews had practically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent. The religious zeal fomented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against the Jews as against the Muslims, though attempts were made by bishops during the ] and the ] during the ] to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of ], and formed the turning point in the ] ].
#All Jews are wealthy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=84}}
#Jews are stingy and greedy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=89}}
#Powerful Jews control the business world{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=93}}
#Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=98}}
#It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=102}}
#Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=105}}


] summarizes the myth as " control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".<ref>Krefetz page 45 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref> Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.<ref>Krefetz pages 6–7 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref> During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the ] and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate ".<ref>Krefetz page 47 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
=====The expulsions from England, France, Germany, and Spain=====
''Only a few expulsions of the Jews are described in this section, for a more extended list see ], and also the ], ], ], and ].''


] asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".<ref>Penslar page 12 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for ], was utilized to enrich the French crown during 12th-14th centuries. The most notable such expulsions were: from ] by ] in 1182, from the entirety of France by ] in 1254, by ] in 1306, by ] in 1322, by ] in 1394.


An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."<ref>D'Acunto, Francesco, et al. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107191848/http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |date=7 November 2014 }} ''Haas School of Business''. September 2014. 20 October 2014.</ref>
To finance his war to conquer ], ] taxed the Jewish moneylenders. When the Jews could no longer pay, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, the Jews saw Edward abolish their "privilege" to lend money, choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a ]. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested, over 300 of them taken to the ] and executed, while others killed in their homes. ''See also:-].'' The complete banishment of all Jews from the country in 1290 led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of Jews from England for three and a half centuries, until 1655, when ] reversed the policy.


===Racial antisemitism===
In 1492, ] and ] issued ''General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews'' from ] (''see also ]'') and many ] Jews fled to the ], some to the ].
{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}


]
In 1744, ] limited ] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other ]n cities. In 1750 he issued ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting ]). In the same year, Archduchess of ] ] ordered Jews out of ] but soon reversed her position, on condition that Jews pay for readmission every ten years. This ] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, ] abolished most of persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that ] and ] are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled. ] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution".
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against ]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than ] as a religion.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921041255/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=anti-semitism |date=21 September 2011 }}, ].</ref>


Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the ] movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=31 August 2022|archive-date=11 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211142824/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century|url-status=live}}</ref>
=====Anti-Judaism and the Reformation=====
]
{{main|Christianity and antisemitism}}


Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the ], following the ], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945|website=ushmm.org|access-date=15 September 2017|archive-date=23 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823210503/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|url-status=live}}</ref>
], an ] ] and an ] reformer whose teachings inspired the ], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his book '']'', which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriating them, and providing detailed recommendation for a ] against them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion. According to ], it "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to ]."<ref name=Johnson>]. ''A History of the Jews'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1987, p.242. ISBN 5-551-76858-9</ref>
In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord."<ref name=Luther>]. ''D. Martin Luthers Werke: kritische Gesamtausgabe'', Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1920, Vol. 51, p. 195.</ref> Still, Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian antisemitism.
''See also ]''


In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>Paul Webster (2001) ''Petain's Crime''. London, Pan Books: pp. 13, 15.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2006) ''The Paradox of Anti-Semitism''. Continuum: pp. 44–46.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> The old laws restricting them to ]s, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by ], encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as ] and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–1855. ] agendas based on ], known as ], usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': p. 64.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> Allied to this were theories of ], which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white ]s to ] Jews.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': pp. 57–59.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref>
====Antisemitism in 19th and 20th century (Catholicism)====
''see also: ]''


===Political antisemitism===
Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Catholic Church still incorporated strong antisemitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial antisemitism. ] (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish ] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were ], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the papacy of ] (1846-1878), the last Pope to rule Rome. Additionally, official organizations such as the ] banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian ], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book '']'' that in the 19th and 20th century the ] adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of antisemitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations ], for example, criticized Kertzer in the ] for using evidence selectively. The ], the ] document, and the efforts of ] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however.
{{Quote box
|quote=The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.
|author=]
|source=1886, <ref>{{cite book|title=Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker|pages=8, 63, ''et passim''|author=Alfred Baeumler|author-link=Alfred Baeumler|publisher=]|year=1931|asin=B002803IJK}}</ref>
|style=max-width:30em
}}
] defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book|title=Genocide, critical issues of the Holocaust: a companion to the film, Genocide|publisher=Behrman House, Inc|year=1983|page=100|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100|isbn=978-0-940646-04-9|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001125/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100|url-status=live}}</ref> ] wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized ]."<ref>Penslar, Derek J. Introduction. ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World'', edited by Penslar, et al, University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 3–12.</ref>


According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline|first=Viktor|last=Karády|publisher=]|year=2004|page=348|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351|isbn=978-963-9241-52-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001153/https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
=====Passion plays=====
]s, dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of ], have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during ]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for ] in a ]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to ] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, '']'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks — or ]s — on Europe's Jewish communities".<ref name=Sennott>Sennott, Charles M. , '']'', April 10, 2004.</ref> ] in its article, ''The Problem With Passion'', explains that "such passages (are) highly subject to interpretation".<ref name=Biema>Van Biema, David. , '']'', August 25, 2003.</ref> Although modern scholars interpret the "blood on our children" ({{bibleref|Matthew|27:25}}) as "a specific group's oath of responsibility" some audiences have historically interpreted it as "an assumption of eternal, racial guilt". This last interpretation has often incited violence against Jews; according to the ], "Passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the Jews, who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for Jesus' death".<ref name=Foxman>] , '']'', January 25, 2004.</ref> The '']'', in its article, ''Capturing the Passion'', explains that "istorically, productions have reflected negative images of Jews and the long-time church teaching that the Jewish people were collectively responsible for Jesus' death. Violence against Jews as 'Christ-killers' often flared in their wake."<ref name=Lampman>Lampman, Jane. , '']'', July 10, 2003.</ref> '']'' in ''Why some Jews fear The Passion (of the Christ)'' observed that "Outbreaks of Christian antisemitism related to the Passion narrative have been...numerous and destructive."<ref name=Hansen>Hansen, Colin. , '']'', 2004.</ref> The ] observed that
:"in Easter 2001, three incidents made national headlines and renewed their fears. One was a column by ], a conservative Christian leader and head of the ], who argued that "Christ was crucified by the Jews." Another was sparked by comments from the NBA point guard and born-again Christian ], who said in an interview that Jews were persecuting Christians and that Jews "had his blood on their hands." Finally, the evangelical Christian comic strip artist ] published a B.C. strip that showed a menorah disintegrating until it became a cross, with each panel featuring the last words of Jesus, including "]."<ref name=religionlink> February 17, 2004</ref>


===Cultural antisemitism===
In 1988, the Bishops' Committee for Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs of the ] published ''Criteria for the Evaluation of Dramatizations of the Passion'', in order to ensure that Passion Plays adhere to the teaching of the ] and the ] as expressed in '']'' no. 4 (], ]). These criteria were summarized for the ] as:<ref name =sirois> Sirois, Celia. </ref>
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."<ref>{{cite book|title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature|first=Louis|last=Harap|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1987|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76|isbn=978-0-313-25386-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000109/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, ] characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."<ref name=Kandel30>{{cite book|title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind|first=Eric R.|last=Kandel|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2007|page=30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30|isbn=978-0-393-32937-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust|first1=Donald L.|last1=Niewyk|first2=Francis R.|last2=Nicosia|publisher=]|year=2003|page=215|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215|isbn=978-0-231-11201-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000044/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The overriding preoccupation of any dramatization of the Passion must be, in the words of ], not who killed Christ, but what killed Christ, namely, our sins.
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.<ref name=Kandel3031>{{cite book|title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind|first=Eric R.|last=Kandel|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2007|pages=30–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30|isbn=978-0-393-32937-7|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Those scripting a Passion play must use the best available biblical scholarship to elucidate the gospel texts which were not written to preserve historical facts so much as to proclaim the saving truth about Jesus.
* Harmonizing the four accounts of Jesus’ Passion — ''i.e''. constructing a single story of the Passion by combining elements from the four gospel versions — risks violating the integrity of the texts, each of which offers a distinct theological interpretation of Jesus ’ death.
* Because of the nature of the gospels, the choice of what gospel passages to use in the making of a Passion play must be guided by the Church’s teaching that “the Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God as if this followed from Sacred Scripture” (Nostra Aetate 4). The claim that a passage is “in the Bible” does not suffice to justify its inclusion.
* As ignorance of Judaism often leads to misinterpretation of events, the complexity of the Jewish world of Jesus must be carefully researched and correctly represented; ''e.g''., it is important to know that the high priest was appointed by the Roman procurator.
* Crowd scenes must represent this rich diversity and reflect a range of responses to Jesus among the crowd as among their leaders.
* The Jewishness of Jesus and his followers must be taken seriously. They must be portrayed as Jews among Jews and not set apart by means of costuming or makeup.
* Stereotypes of Jews and Judaism (''e.g''. depicting Jews as avaricious) must be avoided.
* The Pharisees are not mentioned in the gospel accounts of Jesus’ Passion and therefore should not be depicted as responsible for his death. The Jews most directly implicated in the death of Jesus are the Temple priests.
* Roman soldiers should be on stage throughout the play to keep before the audience the pervasive and oppressive reality of Roman occupation.
* Problematic passages, like Matthew’s “his blood be on us and on our children” (27:25), that can be misconstrued as blaming all Jews of all time for the death of Jesus, should be omitted. As a general rule in these cases, the Bishops suggest that “if one cannot show beyond reasonable doubt that the particular gospel element selected or paraphrased will not be offensive or have the potential for negative influence on the audience for whom the presentation is intended, the element cannot, in good conscience, be used” (“Criteria,” p. 12).


===Conspiracy theories===
On ], ], the Consultative Panel on Lutheran-Jewish Relations of the ] similarly issued a statement urging any Lutheran church presenting a Passion Play to adhere to their ''Guidelines for Lutheran-Jewish Relations'', stating that "the New Testament . . . must not be used as justification for hostility towards present-day Jews," and that "blame for the death of Jesus should not be attributed to Judaism or the Jewish people."<ref name=elca> January 6, 2004</ref>
{{See also|List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitic conspiracy theories}}
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] and ] theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.<ref name="antisemitic"/><ref name="hoax">Mathis, Andrew E. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213171733/https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |date=13 February 2021 }}, ], 2 July 2004. Retrieved 15 August 2016.</ref><ref>Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. ''Denying History: who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?'', University of California Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-520-23469-3}}, p. 106.</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184616/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |date=28 June 2011 }}, ], 2000. Retrieved 17 May 2007.</ref>{{sfnp|Lipstadt|1994|p=27}}<ref name="adl.org"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |date=4 June 2011 }}, "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", ], 2001. Retrieved 12 June 2007.</ref><ref>Lawrence N. Powell, ''Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana'', University of North Carolina Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-8078-5374-7}}, p. 445.</ref> ] have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tait|first=Robert|date=10 December 2012|title='Vulture spying for Israel' caught in Sudan|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html|access-date=11 January 2014|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html|archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>


===New antisemitism===
In 2003 and 2004 some compared ]'s recent film ''The Passion of the Christ'' to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed; an analysis of that topic is in the article on ]. Despite such fears, there have been no publicized antisemitic incidents directly attributable to the movie's influence. However, the film's reputation for antisemitism led to the movie being distributed and well-received throughout the Muslim world, even in nations that typically suppress public expressions of Christianity.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>
{{Main|New antisemitism}}
], Scotland, January 2009]]


Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of ], coming simultaneously from the ], the ], and ], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the ],<ref name="New-AS-List">* ]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158–159, 181
===Antisemitism and the Muslim world===
* ]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729171012/http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |date=29 July 2012 }}. Retrieved 5 March 2006
{{Main|Islam and antisemitism}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115132604/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |date=15 January 2008 }}, '']'', 8 August 2004.
{{seealso|Arabs and antisemitism}}
* ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161939/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |date=17 November 2022 }} in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65–79.
The ] contains attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize ] as a ] of ],<ref name="EncJud">"Anti-Semitism". ''Encyclopedia Judaica''</ref> and the Muslim holy text defined the Arab and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially in the periods when Islamic fundamentalism was on the rise. Muhammad's attitude towards Jews was shaped by his failure to convert them to the religion he preached. During his life, Jews lived in the ], especially in and around ]. They refused to accept Muhammad's teachings, and eventually he fought them, defeated them, and most of them were killed.<ref>Lacqueur (2006), pp. 191&ndash;192</ref>
* ]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161942/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA30 |date=17 November 2022 }}, Dundurn Press, 2005, pp. 30–31.
* ] "From Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel (Studies in Antisemitism)", University of Nebraska Press, 2012</ref> and they argue that the language of ] and ] are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and ] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.<ref name=":0"> in ] (ed.). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', Random House 2004, p.&nbsp;272.</ref>


Jewish scholar ] posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".<ref name=":0" /> It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the ].<ref name="New-AS-List"/>
The words "humility" and "humilitation" occur frequently in the Qur'an and later Muslim literature to describe the condition to which Jews must be reduced as a just punishment for their past rebelliousness, the punishment that shows itself in the defeat they suffered at the hands of Christians and Muslims. The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse 2:61,<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 128</ref> which says:{{cquote|And abasement and poverty were pitched upon them,<br>
and they were laden with the burden of God's anger;<br>
that, because they had disbelieved the signs of God<br>
and slain the Prophets unrightfully; that,<br>
because they disobeyed, and were transgressors.<ref>English translation of the Qur'an by Arberry.</ref>}}


Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>]. {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090701082702/http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |date=1 July 2009 }}. '']'', posted 15 January 2004 (2 February 2004 issue). Retrieved 9 January 2006; and ]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126094118/http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |date=26 January 2011 }}, posted 5 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.</ref>
Cowardice, greed, and chicanery are but a few of the characteristics that the Qur'an ascribes to the Jews.<ref>Gerber (1986), pp. 78&ndas;79</ref> The Qur'an further associates Jews with interconfessional strife and rivalry (Qur'an {{quran-usc|2|113}}). It claims that Jews believe that they alone are beloved of God (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|18}}) and only they will achieve salvation ({{Quran-usc|2|111}}). According to the Qur'an, Jews blasphemously claim that ] is the son of God, as ] claim Jesus is (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|9|30}}) and that God’s hand is fettered (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|64}}). Together with the ], Jews are “the most vehement of men in enmity to those who believe” (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|82}}). Some of those who are Jews<ref>Here the Qur'an uses an Arabic expression ''alladhina hadu'' ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Qur'an ten times. "Yahud". ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref> "pervert words from their meanings" (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|4|44}}), have committed wrongdoing, for which God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them" (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|4|160}}), they listen for the sake of mendacity (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|41}}), and some of them have taken usury and will receive "a painful doom" (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|4|161}}).<ref name="Yahud"/> The Qur'an gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "...but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers."(Qur'an {{Quran-usc|3|54}}) In the Muslim view, the ] was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in a sheer failure.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 120</ref> In numerous verses (3:63; 3:71; 4:46; 160-161; 5:41-44, 63-64, 82; 6:92)<ref>Geber (1986), p. 91</ref> the Qur'an accuses Jews of ].<ref>Geber (1986), p. 78</ref>


==History==
The ] the expulsion of the Jewish tribes of ] and ] from Medina, the massacre of ], and ]. The ]s of Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity was aimed at the Apostle of God ". Jews appear in the biographies of Muhammad not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly, and totally lacking resolve. Their ignominy stands in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and in general, conforms to the Quranic image of "wretchedness and baseness stamped upon them" (Qur'an 2:61).<ref name="Yahud"/>
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}
{{For timeline}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}


Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Chanes|2004}}
The ] continue the theme of the Jewish hostility toward Muslims. One hadith says: "A Jew will not be found alone with a Muslim without plotting to kill him."<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 78</ref> According to another hadith, Muhammad said: "The Hour will not be established until you fight with the Jews, and the stone behind which a Jew will be hiding will say. "O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, so kill him.'" (] 4:52.177). This hadith has been quoted countless times, and it has become a part of the charter of ].<ref>Lacqueur (2006), p. 192</ref>
#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
#Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
#Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
#Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
#Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
#Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the ]


Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; ], which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|pp=5–6}}
Islamic law demands that when under Muslim rule they should be treated as ]s - from the Arab term ''ahl adh-dhimma''. The writer ] introduced the modern word ''Dhimmitude'' as a generic indication of this Islamic attitude. Dhimmis were granted protection of life (including against other Muslim states), the right to residence in designated areas, worship, and work or trade, and were exempted from military service, and Muslim religious duties, personal law and tax on certain conditions such as paying the poll (]) and land taxes as set by Muslim authorities. At the same time they were subject to various restrictions in relation to Muslims and Islam (for example, Muslim men could marry Jewish women and own Jewish slaves, but the opposite was not true), the Qur'an or ] (such as desecrating scriptures or defaming the Prophet), and ]. At times Jews were subjected to a number of other restrictions on dress, riding horses or camels, carrying arms, holding public office, building or repairing places of worship, mourning loudly, wearing shoes outside a Jewish ghetto, etc.


===Ancient world===
According to ],
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to ],{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=11}} the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the ], a Greek translation of the ], was produced. ], an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of ], ], ], ], and in ] and ].{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} ] ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of ]", making a mocking reference to how ] was able to invade ] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the '']''.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} One of the earliest anti-Jewish ]s, promulgated by ] in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the ] in ].<ref name="gruen">{{cite encyclopedia|author-link=Erich S. Gruen|first=Erich S.|last=Gruen|year=1993|title=Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews|encyclopedia=Hellenistic History and Culture|editor-first=Peter|editor-last=Green|publisher=University of California Press|pages=250–252}}</ref>{{rp|238}}
<blockquote>"In theory, ... the status of Jewish ''dhimmi'' under Moslem rule was worse than under the Christians, since their right to practise their religion, and even their right to live, might be arbitrarily removed at any time. In practice, however, the Arab warriors ... had no wish to exterminate literate and industrious Jewish communities who provided them with reliable tax incomes and served them in innumerable ways. ... The Arab Moslems were slow to develop any religious animus against the Jews. In Moslem eyes, the Jews had sinned by rejecting Mohammed's claims, but they had not crucified him."<ref>Johnson, Paul: ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987) ISBN 0-06-091533-1. pp.175</ref>
<p>"Always, in the background, there was the menace of anti-Semitism. It is described in the ] documents by the word ''sinuth'', hatred. ... Parts of Islam were much worse than others for Jews. ] was fanatical. So was northern ]. ... Goitein concludes that the evidence does not support the view that in ], at least, anti-Semitism was endemic or serious.<ref>S. D. Goitein: ''A Mediterranean Society'', (University of California Press, 1971) vol. II, p.279</ref> But then Egypt under the ] and ] was a refuge for persecuted Jews (and others) from all over the world."<ref>Johnson, pp.204-205</ref>
</blockquote>


In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the ] retelling of ]ian prejudices".<ref name="Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', ], 1997, p. 208.]</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher ] describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M G, 1999. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE)'', University of California. John M. G. Barclay of the ]</ref><ref>Philo of Alexandria, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804174650/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |date=4 August 2007 }}</ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as ].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem, 2003. ''Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill. ]</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the '']''.<ref name=tcherikover>Tcherikover, Victor, ''Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews'', New York: Atheneum, 1975</ref> Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al., ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, pp. 27–43 {{ISBN|9652172057}}.</ref>
Some scholars have questioned the existence of antisemitism in Muslim lands in pre-modern times.<ref>Cahen, Cl. "" Encyclopaedia of Islam.Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.21 November 2006></ref><ref name=LewisBrandeis1>]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at ] on ], ].</ref> <ref> ] (1995) p.xvii </ref> <ref> Lewis (1984) p.85 </ref> <ref> , by Bernard Lewis, Middle East Quarterly, June 1998 </ref> <ref> Nissim Rejwan, ''Israel's Place in the Middle East: A Pluralist Perspective'', University Press of Florida, p.31 </ref> <ref> Joel S. Migdal, Boundaries and Belonging (2004), Cambridge University Press, p.55 </ref> Scholars such as S. D. Goitein argues that anti-semitism was not entirely absent as it is assumed by Cahen, and argues for its existences through Geniza letters. <ref>S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, University of California Press, p.278</ref> "The Genizah material confirms the existence of a discernible form of anti-Judaism in the time and the place considered here, but that form of 'anti-Semitism', if we may use this term, appears to have been local and sporadic rather than general and endemic." <ref> A Mediterranean Society: An Abrudgment in One Volume, p. 293 </ref>


Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many ] ] and ] writers.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3265911|author=Daniels J.L.|title=Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=98|issue=1|year=1979|pages=45–65|doi=10.2307/3265911}}</ref> Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian ] who had been taught by ] "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
====In the 19th century====
British historian ] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of ], a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the ]. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted. In 1840, the ] were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having ] to bake ]. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the ] were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in ] and ] in ]. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in ], and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on ]. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in ], Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in ] asked the Ottoman authorities in ] to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from ]. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in ]. In 1903, 40 Jews were murdered in ], Morocco. In 1905, old laws were revived in ] forbidding Jews from raising their voices in front of Muslims, building their houses higher than Muslims, or engaging in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation. <ref name=Gilbert>]. ''Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People''. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179-182.</ref>


There are examples of ] rulers desecrating the ] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as ], Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
====In the 20th century====
{{see also|Jewish exodus from Arab lands}}
Antagonism and violence increased still further in the ] as resentment against ] efforts in the ] spread. While antisemitism has certainly been heightened by the ], there were an increasing number of ]s against Jews prior to the foundation of ], including ]-inspired pogroms in ] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in ] and ] in the 1940s (see ]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the ] to several factors including: The breakdown of the ] and traditional ] society; domination by Western ] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of ], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish ] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular ]s to ] local Jews for political purposes.<ref name=Gruen>Gruen, George E. , ''The Jerusalem Letter'', ], June 1, 1988.</ref>


The Jewish diaspora on the ] island ], which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>Colpe, Carsten (Berlin). "Anti-Semitism." Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 28 April 2008</ref>
] ] in the ] frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of ] to ] Israel and its leaders. At the same time, ] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. Arabic- and Turkish-edition of Hitler's '']'' and '']'' have found an audience in the region with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media. See ].


Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying ] were at times antagonistic and resulted in ]. According to ], the emperor ] expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian ] identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews ].
==Racial antisemitism==
{{main|Racial antisemitism}}


] asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as ]s and ]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. '']'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|0-395-77927-8}} p. 26</ref>
Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the ], following the ], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of ], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.


===Persecutions during the Middle Ages===
==New antisemitism==
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}
{{main|New antisemitism}}
], a Jewish tribe in ], 627]]
In recent years some scholars of history, psychology, religion, and representatives of Jewish groups, have noted what they describe as the ''new antisemitism'', which they often associate with the Left rather than the Right, and argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack the Jews more broadly.


In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lowney|first1=Chris|title=A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain|date=1999|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004112063|pages=124–125}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",<ref>{{cite book|editor=Alberto Ferreiro|last1=Gonzalez Salinero|first1=Raul|title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195311914|pages=29–31}}</ref> ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gorsky|first1=Jeffrey|title=Exiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain|date=2015|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=9780827612419|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=964eCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref>
===Antisemitism and anti-Zionism===
Some commentators believe that criticisms of Israel and ] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to antisemitism. Some supporters of Zionism go so far as to say that all expressions of ] qualify as antisemitism.<ref> (The Peace Encyclopedia)</ref> Critics of this view believe that associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism is intended to stifle debate, deflect attention from valid criticisms, and taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref name=Finkelstein78>]. ''Beyond Chutzpah: On the Misuse of Antisemitism and the Abuse of History'', University of California Press, 2005, p. 78.</ref><ref name=tariqali>]. , ''Counterpunch'', March 4, 2004, first published in ''il manifesto'', February 26, 2004.</ref>


From the 9th century, the ] classified Jews and Christians as '']'' and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in ]. Under ], there was a ] that lasted until at least the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=978-0-316-16871-7|url=https://archive.org/details/ornamentofworldh00meno}}</ref> It ended when several Muslim ]s against Jews took place on the ], including those that occurred in ] in 1011 and in ].{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2002|pp=267–268}}<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224005745/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada |date=24 December 2010 }} by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, '']''. 1906 ed.</ref>{{sfnp|Harzig|Hoerder|Shubert|2003|p=42}} Several decrees ordering the destruction of ]s were also enacted in ], ], ] and ] from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to ] or face death in some parts of ], ] and ] several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bat Ye'or|year=1985|title=The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam|place=Madison, New Jersey|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|page=61|isbn=978-0838632628|author-link=Bat Ye'or}}</ref>
Since the support and defense of Israel has become a central focus of Jewish life for many since 1948, many Jews see attacks on the existence of Israel as inherently antisemitic. For example, ], Professor of Holocaust Studies at the ], has argued: "If you advocate the abolition of Israel ... that means in fact that you're against the people who live there. If you are, for example, against the existence of ], you are anti-Malay. If you are against the existence of Israel, you are anti-Jewish."<ref>. Interview with ] at ] (Audio) January 11, 2005</ref>


The ], who had taken control of the ]' ] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 September 2007, from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213154933/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |date=13 December 2007 }}.</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213223723/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |date=13 February 2009 }}. Myjewishlearning.com. Retrieved 2 June 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728230344/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39|archive-date=28 July 2007|title=Historical Timeline|url-status=dead|access-date=27 October 2018}}. The Forgotten Refugees</ref> Some, such as the family of ], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}} while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}
According to ], Professor of Linguistics at Tel Aviv University who said she was speaking as one who loves the country and its people, "Being against Israel is the best act of solidarity and compassion with the Jews that one can have. ... The system of prisons that Israel is building is also a prison for Israelis. This small state is making itself the enemy of the entire Arab world and now the Muslim world. A state with this strategy does not have a future, so the solution for the Palestinians is also the solution for Israel."<ref> Tanya Reinhardt speaking at a lecture at the University of Sydney as quoted in "Criticism of Israel 'an act of solidarity'" by Mark Franklin; www.ajn.com.au, October 12, 2006. </ref>


] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
Another position is that criticism of Israel or Zionism is not in itself antisemitic, but that anti-Zionism can be used to hide antisemitism. ], in response to a question from the audience after a lecture at ] shortly before his death in 1968, said:
In ] Europe, Jews were persecuted with ]s, expulsions, ]s and ]s. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the ]. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of ] during the ].<ref>], ''In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews'' (1996) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053850/https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |date=26 July 2020 }}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.<ref>{{cite book|author=Corliss K. Slack|title=Historical Dictionary of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|pages=108–9|isbn=9780810878310|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"When people criticize Zionists they mean Jews; you are talking anti-Semitism."<ref>The Socialism of Fools: The Left, the Jews and Israel" by Seymour Martin Lipset; in Encounter magazine, December 1969, p. 24</ref>
On ], ], the ] announced that anti-Israelism or anti-Zionism may often serve as "camouflage" for "anti-Semitic bigotry" on American college campuses:


In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the ]. The ] and ] both involved attacks, as did the ] in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from ], the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,<ref>History of the reign of Charles VI, titled '']'', encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.</ref> and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html|title=Why the Jews? – Black Death|access-date=22 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211173212/http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html|archive-date=11 December 2003}}</ref>
<blockquote>On many campuses, anti-Israeli or anti-Zionist propaganda has been disseminated that includes traditional anti-Semitic elements, including age-old anti-Jewish stereotypes and defamation. This has included, for example, anti-Israel literature that perpetuates the medieval anti-Semitic blood libel of Jews slaughtering children for ritual purpose, as well as anti-Zionist propaganda that exploits ancient stereotypes of Jews as greedy, aggressive, overly powerful, or conspiratorial. Such propaganda should be distinguished from legitimate discourse regarding foreign policy. Anti-Semitic bigotry is no less morally deplorable when camouflaged as anti-Israelism or anti-Zionism.<ref>]: "Findings and Recommendations Regarding Campus Anti-Semitism", April 3, 2006. </ref></blockquote>


In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially ]) and Dominicans (especially ]), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>Franco Mormando, ''The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1999, Ch. 2.</ref>
One of the first people who criticized Israel immediately after its Independence was Albert Einstein who co-authored a ] of the ] criticizing it for the massacres at Deir Yassin. {{cite news | last=Einstein | first=Albert | coauthors=], ] | title=New Palestine Party Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed | publisher = ] | date = ] }}


As the ] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as ]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were ]. Although ] tried to protect them by issuing two ]s in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were ], where the plague had not yet affected the city.<ref name="Black">See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in '']'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p. 47 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
] wrote that "riticizing Israel is not anti-Semitic, and saying so is vile. But singling out Israel for opprobrium and international sanction - out of proportion to any other party in the Middle East - is anti-Semitic, and not saying so is dishonest".<ref>]: "Campus Hypocrisy", October 16, 2002</ref>


===Reformation===
In 2005, the ] (EUMC), part of the ], tried to define more clearly the relationship between anti-Zionism and anti-Semitism. The EUMC developed a working definition of anti-Semitism that defined ways in which attacking Israel or Zionism could be anti-Semitic. The definition states:
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}


], an ] reformer whose teachings inspired the ], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet '']'', written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a ] against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian ], "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to ]."<ref name=Johnson>] (1987) ''A History of the Jews''. New York: HarperCollins. p.242. {{ISBN|5-551-76858-9}}</ref>
<blockquote>Examples of the ways in which anti-Semitism manifests itself with regard to the State of Israel taking into account the overall context could include:<p>
*Denying the Jewish people right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor.<p>
*Applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation.<p>
*Using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis.<p>
*Drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the ].<p>
*Holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel. However, criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as anti-Semitic.<p><ref> (PDF)</ref></blockquote>


===17th century===
An academic survey of attitudes towards Jewish people and Israel was recently conducted among 5,000 participants in ten European countries. Kaplan and Small of Yale University published the results in the ''Journal of Conflict Resolution''. They found an almost perfect correlation between anti-Zionist attitudes and frank anti-Semitism. People who believed that the Israeli soldiers "intentionally target Palestinian civilians," and that "Palestinian suicide bombers who target Israeli civilians" are justified, also believed that "Jews don't care what happens to anyone but their own kind," "Jews have a lot of irritating faults," and "Jews are more willing than others to use shady practices to get what they want."<ref>Kaplan, Edward H. and Small, Charles A., “Anti-Israel Sentiment Predicts Anti-Semitism in Europe,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 50 No. 4, August 2006, pp. 548-561</ref> Diana Muir, summarizing the article, states that "only a small fraction of Europeans believe any of these things." She further claims that "anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism flourish among the few, but those few are over-represented in Europe's newspapers, its universities, and its left-wing political parties."<ref>Muir, Diana, "Anti-Semitism and Anti-Zionism: The Link," History News Network, George Mason University, July 21, 2006.</ref>
] in 1614]]


During the mid-to-late 17th century the ] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3&nbsp;million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the ], when ]'s supporters massacred tens of thousands of ] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's ]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and ], called ''jasyr''.<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020024503/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |date=20 October 2012 }}, ]. Retrieved 13 May 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage." ]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-231-10965-2}}, p. 219.</ref>
===European Commission definition===
The European Commission on Racism and Intolerance has proposed a '''' outlining some of the ways in which anti-Zionism may cross the line into antisemitism. "Examples of the ways in which antisemitism manifests itself with regard to the State of Israel taking into account the overall context could include:
* denying the Jewish people right to ], e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor;
* applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation;
* using the symbols and images associated with classic antisemitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis; and
* holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel."


European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. ], the Dutch governor of ], implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the ] that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Boyer|editor-first=Paul S.|title=The Oxford companion to United States history|year=2006|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-508209-8|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42}}</ref>
==Bans on kosher slaughter==
The kosher slaughter of animals is currently banned in Switzerland and Sweden, and partially banned in Holland (for older animals only, who are considered to take longer to lose consciousness). The Swiss banned kosher slaughter in 1902 and saw an antisemitic backlash against a proposal to lift the ban a century later.<ref name=HBerlin>Berlin, Howard, "], argues that antisemitism is a motive for the bans: "I won't say this is the only motivation, but it's certainly no coincidence that one of the first things Nazi Germany forbade was kosher slaughter. I also know that during the original debate on this issue in Norway, where shechitah has been banned since 1930, one of the parliamentarians said straight out, 'If they don't like it, let them go live somewhere else.'"<ref name=WND>World Net Daily, [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=29841 "Europe's new face of antisemitism: 5 countries now ban production of kosher meat as synagogues burn, boycott of Israel continues", December 3, 2002</ref>
* see ]


In the ] of ], Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of ] and which became known as the ].<ref>Yosef Qafiḥ, ''Ketavim'' (''Collected Papers''), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, pp. 714–716 (Hebrew)</ref>
==Antisemitism and specific countries==
===United States===
]: Nazi salute and Holocaust denial]]
{{further|History of the Jews in the United States}}
Jews were often condemned by ] politicians alternately for their left-wing politics, or their perceived wealth, at the turn of the century.<ref>pg 37-39. Chanes, Jerome A. Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO, 2004.</ref> Antisemitism grew in the years leading up to America's entry into World War II, Father ], a radio preacher, as well as many other prominent public figures, condemned "the Jews," and ] reprinted ] in his newspaper.


===Enlightenment===
In 1939 a ] poll found that only thirty-nine percent of Americans felt that Jews should be treated like other people. Fifty-three percent believed that "Jews are different and should be restricted" and ten percent believed that Jews should be deported.<ref name=Smitha>Smitha, Frank E. , accessed ] ].</ref> Several surveys taken from 1940 to 1946 found that Jews were seen as a greater threat to the welfare of the United States than any other national, religious, or racial group.
In 1744, Archduchess of Austria ] ordered Jews out of ] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This ] was known among the Jews as '']'' ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, Under Maria Teresa">{{cite book|author-last=Büchler|author-first=Alexander|chapter=Hungary|editor1-last=Singer|editor1-first=Isidore|title=The Jewish Encyclopedia|date=1904|publisher=Funk and Wagnalls Co.|location=New York and London|volume=6|pages=}}</ref> In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.
It has been estimated that 190,000 - 200,000 Jews could have been saved during the ] had it not been
for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by ] and others.<ref name=PBS>, ] (PBS), accessed ] ].</ref>


In 1782, ] abolished most of these persecution practices in his '']'',<ref>O'Brien, H.C. Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', p. 29</ref><ref>Ingrao, W. Charles, ''The Habsburg Monarchy 1618-1815'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 199</ref> on the condition that ] and ] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.<ref>O'Brien, H.C. Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', p. 30</ref> ] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
In a speech at an ] rally on ] ] in ] entitled "Who Are the War Agitators?", ] claimed that three groups had been "pressing this country toward war": the Roosevelt Administration, the ], and the Jews - and complained about what he insisted was the Jews' "large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio and our government."<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref> The antisemitism of ] is one of the subjects of the novel ] by Philip Roth (2004).


====Voltaire====
Unofficial antisemitism was also widespread in the first half of the century. For example, to limit the growing number of Jewish students between 1919-1950s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed ]. These included ], ], ], and ]. In 1925 ], which already had such admissions preferences as "character", "solidity", and "physical characteristics" added a program of ] admission spots for children of Yale alumni, in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of Jews in the student body. This was soon copied by other Ivy League and other schools, and admissions of Jews were kept down to 10% through the 1950s. Such policies were for the most part discarded during the early 1960s.
According to ], ]'s "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".<ref>Ages Arnold. "Tainted Greatness: The Case of Voltaire's Anti-Semitism: The Testimony of the Correspondence." Neohelicon 21.2 (Sept. 1994): 361.</ref> Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."<ref>Meyer, Paul H. "The Attitude of the Enlightenment Toward the Jew." Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 26 (1963): 1177.</ref> Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's '']'' concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.<ref>] ''The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner''. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). page 88-89.</ref>


===Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution===
Some ] also support conspiracy theories regarding Jews as dominating and taking over the world. These cults are often vitriolic and severely antisemititic. For instance, the ] Cult from the 1950s on to the mid 1980's, has ] receiving antisemitic "visions" from the ] telling her that the Rothschilds, a prominent Jewish banking family, are "mongrel yids(Jews)" bent on dominating the entire world economy through international banking. Most of the worlds problems, from poverty to world wars, are the cause of International Banking Jews and their "satanic secret society," according to Van Hoof.
The ] Catholic royalist ] stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the ].<ref name="Battini1">{{Cite book|title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism|last=Battini|first=Michele|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|pages=2–7 and 30–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Jacob|title=From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933|url=https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz|url-access=registration|date=1980|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=|isbn=9780674325050}}</ref> Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced ]'s decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism|last=Battini|first=Michele|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|page=164}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Garṭner|first1=Aryeh|last2=Gartner|first2=Lloyd P.|title=History of the Jews in Modern Times|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=|isbn=978-0-19-289259-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Joskowicz|first1=Ari|title=The Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France|date=2013|publisher=]|page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Michael|first1=Robert|last2=Rosen|first2=Philip|title=Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present|date=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=67}}</ref> Bonald's article ''Sur les juifs'' (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as ], ], and ], nationalists such as ] and ], and antisemitic socialists such as ].<ref name="Battini1" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sanos|first1=Sandrine|title=The Aesthetics of Hate: Far-Right Intellectuals, Antisemitism, and Gender in 1930s France|date=2012|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Laqueur|first1=Walter|last2=Baumel|first2=Judith Tydor|title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia|date=2001|publisher=]|page=20}}</ref> Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.<ref name="Battini1" />{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}


Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist ] propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Graetz|first1=Michael|title=The Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle|date=1996|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=208}}</ref> Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}} Gougenot des Mousseaux's ''Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens'' (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue ].{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}
American antisemitism underwent a modest revival in the late twentieth century. The ] under ] claimed that Jews were responsible for slavery, economic exploitation of black labor, selling alcohol and drugs in their communities, and unfair domination of the economy. ] issued his infamous "Hymietown" remarks during the 1984 Presidential primary campaign.


===Imperial Russia===
According to ADL surveys begun in 1964, African-Americans are "significantly more likely" than white Americans to hold antisemitic beliefs, although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of antisemitic stereotypes.<ref name=ADL> , ], accessed ] ].</ref>
] in ], Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)]]


Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack ] in the 1768 ] in the ]. In 1772, the empress of Russia ] forced the Jews into the ] &ndash; which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus &ndash; and to stay in their ] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the ]. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.<ref>Paul Johnson, ''A History of the Jews'', Harper Perennial, 1986, p 358</ref> A decree by emperor ] in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the ] schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia|title=Military Service in Russia|author-link1=Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern|last=Petrovsky-Shtern|first=Yohanan|date=8 June 2017|website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052626/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Europe===
The summary of a 2004 poll by the "Pew Global Attitudes Project" noted, "Despite concerns about rising antisemitism in Europe, there are no indications that anti-Jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade. Favorable ratings of Jews are actually higher now in France, Germany and Russia than they were in 1991. Nonetheless, Jews are better liked in the U.S. than in Germany and Russia."<ref name=Pew>, ], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
]]
However, according to 2005 survey results by the ADL,<ref name=ADL2>, Anti-Defamation League, 2005, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> antisemitic attitudes remain common in Europe. Over 30% of those surveyed indicated that Jews have too much power in business, with responses ranging from lows of 11% in Denmark and 14% in England to highs of 66% in Hungary, and over 40% in Poland and Spain. The results of religious antisemitism also linger and over 20% of European respondents agreed that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus, with France having the lowest percentage at 13% and Poland having the highest number of those agreeing, at 39%.<ref name=flashmap>, Philo. Sophistry, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>


Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under ] ({{reign|1855|1881}}).<ref>Paul Johnson, ''A History of the Jews'', Harper Perennial, 1986, p 359</ref> However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the ] of 1882. ], nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the ], later crowned ], declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".<ref>],''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', Sutton, 1998, p 104</ref>
The Vienna-based European Union Monitoring Centre (EUMC), for 2002 and 2003, identified France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and the Netherlands as EU member countries with notable increases in incidents. Many of these incidents can be linked to immigrant communities in these countries and result from hightened tensions in the Middle East. As these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on antisemitic acts, and are engaged in combating antisemitism, their data was readily available to the EUMC. <!--UNSOURCED: Governments and leading public figures condemned the violence, passed new legislation, and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts.{{fact}} -->


===Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century===
In western Europe, traditional far-right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against Jews and Jewish properties; disadvantaged and disaffected Muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents. In Eastern Europe, with a much smaller Muslim population, neo-Nazis and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most antisemitic incidents. Antisemitism remained a serious problem in Russia and Belarus, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, with most incidents carried out by ultra-nationalist and other far-right elements. The stereotype of Jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for antisemitic aggression.
Historian ] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in ] countries. ] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish ]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name="Morris10">]. '']''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref>


In the middle of the 19th century, ] wrote about the life of ], describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."<ref>{{cite book|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|title=The Jews of Islam|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|year=1984|pages=181–183|isbn=978-0-691-00807-3}}</ref>
====Denmark====
<!--UNSOURCED: In 1813, Denmark had gone bankrupt and people were looking for a scapegoat. A German antisemitic book, translated into Danish, provoked a flood of polemical articles both for and against the Jews.{{fact}} -->


In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. ], on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in ] and ]; Arabs called the ]s 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the ] and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.<ref>], ''Jerusalem'', Phoenix, 2011, pp. 429–432</ref>
In 1819 a series of anti-Jewish riots in Germany spread to several neighboring countries including Denmark, resulting in mob attacks on Jews in Copenhagen and many provincial towns. These riots were known as ], from the derogatory rallying cry against the Jews in Germany. Riots lasted for five months during which time shop windows were smashed, stores looted, homes attacked, and Jews physically abused.


At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".<ref>], ''What Went Wrong?'', Phoenix, 2002, p 172</ref>
However, during World War II, Denmark was very uncooperative with the Nazi occupation on Jewish matters. Danish officials repeatedly insisted to the German occupation authorities that there was no "Jewish problem" in Denmark. As a result, even ideologically committed Nazis such as Reich Commissioner ] followed a strategy of avoiding and deferring discussion of Denmark's Jews. When Denmark's German occupiers began planning the deportation of the 8,000 or so Jews in Denmark to ], many Danes and Swedes took part in a collective effort to evacuate the roughly 8,000 Jews of Denmark by sea to nearby Sweden (see also ]).


===Secular or racial antisemitism===
====France====
]
{{further|History of the Jews in France}}
]]]


In 1850, the German composer ] – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"<ref name=bismarck /> – published '']'' (roughly "Jewishness in Music"<ref name=bismarck>] (2011) ''Bismarck: A Life'' New York: Oxford, pp.388–90. {{ISBN|978-0-19-997539-6}}</ref>) under a ] in the '']''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, ] and ], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in ], who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:<ref name=bismarck />
Antisemitism was particularly virulent in ] during ]. The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps.


{{blockquote|According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.<ref name=bismarck />}}
Today, despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the indigenous population,<ref name=tns>, Association Française des Amis de l'Université de Tel Aviv, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern,<ref name=Thiolay>Thiolay, Boris. , '']'', June 6, 2005.</ref> as is tension between the Jewish and Muslim populations of France, both the largest in Europe. However, according to a poll by the Pew Global Attitudes Project, 71% of French Muslims had positive views of Jews, the highest percentage in the world.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref> According to the National Advisory Committee on Human Rights, antisemitic acts account for a majority — 72% in all in 2003 — of racist acts in France.<ref name=communique>, Ministère de l'Intérieur et de l'Aménagement du territoire, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>


Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.<ref name=bismarck />
In July, 2005 the Pew Global Attitudes Project found that 82% of French people questioned had favorable attitudes towards Jews, the second highest percentage of the countries questioned. The Netherlands was highest at 85%.<ref name=pew0805>{{cite web
|url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=248
Antisemitism can also be found in many of the ] by ] and ], published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the ] of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("''Der gute Handel"'') and "]" (''"Der Jude im Dorn"'').
|title=Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics
|publisher=Pew Global Attitude Project
|date=2005-07-14
|accessed=2006-07-10}}</ref>


The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.<ref name=BDE>{{cite bklyn|title=The Despot of Russia...|image=50249029|date=22 December 1846|page=2}}</ref>
] and antisemitic speech are prohibited under the 1990 ].


Even such influential figures as ] tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.<ref name=BDE-Whitman>{{cite bklyn|title=Anecdotes of Jews, and their peculiar traits|image=50243090|page=2|date=8 January 1847}}</ref>
====Norway====


The ] was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. ], a Jewish artillery ] in the ], was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to ] on ]. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. ] accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan {{ISBN|0333652460}}.</ref>
''See also ]''


] (1835–1909), the ] court chaplain to ], founded in 1878 an antisemitic, ] political party called the ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Harold M. Green|year=2003|title=Adolf Stoecker:Portrait of a Demagogue|journal=Politics and Policy|volume=31|doi=10.1111/j.1747-1346.2003.tb00889.x|issue=1|pages=106–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=D. A. Jeremy Telman|year=1995|title=Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission|jstor=20101235|journal=Jewish History|volume=9|issue=2|pages=93–112|doi=10.1007/BF01668991|s2cid=162391831}}</ref> This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the ].
Jews were prohibited from living or entering Norway by paragraph 2 of the ], which originally read, ''"The evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State. Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same. ] and ]ish orders are not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm."'' In 1851 the last sentence was struck. Monks were permitted in 1897; Jesuits not before 1956.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>


Some scholars view ]'s essay "]" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=168}}<ref name="Jacobs2005">{{cite book|chapter=Marx, Karl (1818–1883)|title=Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution|last=Jacobs|first=Jack|editor=Levy, Richard S.|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1-85109-439-4|pages=446–447}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=112}} These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced ], as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2005|pp=154–157}}<ref name="Stav2003">{{cite book|chapter=Israeli Anti-Semitism|title=Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk|last=Stav|first=Arieh|editor=Sharan, Shlomo|year=2003|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=978-1-903900-52-9|page=171|quote=Hitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism.}}</ref><ref name="Muravchik2003">According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four-point: "combat the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can achieve permanent health." See {{cite book|title=Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism|last=Muravchik|first=Joshua|author-link=Joshua Muravchik|year=2003|publisher=Encounter Books|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-1-893554-45-0|page=164}}</ref> Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and ] and ] have suggested that he was ].<ref>Lindemann, Albert S. ''Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-521-79538-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-79538-8}}. p. 166.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity|last=Maccoby|first=Hyam|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-31173-1|pages=64–66}}</ref>
====Poland====
{{further|History of the Jews in Poland}}


Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.<ref>David McLellan (1970) ''Marx before Marxism'': pp. 141–142.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Y. Peled|title=From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation|journal=History of Political Thought|volume=13|issue=3|year=1992|pages=463–485|url=https://telaviv.academia.edu/YoavPeled/Papers/228344/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161924/https://www.academia.edu/280575/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist)|year=1995|contribution=Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question'|editor-last=Sarat|editor-first=Austin|editor2-last=Kearns|editor2-first=Thomas|title=Identities, Politics, and Rights|publisher=University of Michigan Press|pages=85–130}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert|last=Fine|title=Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism|journal=Engage|issue=2|date=May 2006|url=http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&article_id=33|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224193202/http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10|archive-date=24 February 2012}}</ref> Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>Iain Hampsher-Monk, ''A History of Modern Political Thought'' (1992), Blackwell Publishing, p. 496</ref>
In 1264, Duke ] from ] legislated a ], a charter for Jewish residence and protection, which encouraged money-lending, hoping that Jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the Polish economy. By the sixteenth century, Poland had become the center of European Jewry and the most tolerant of all European countries regarding the matters of faith, although occasionally also Poland witnessed violent antisemitic incidents.


David McLellan and ] argue that readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with ], author of '']'', about ] in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>Wheen, F., Karl Marx, p. 56.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word ''Judentum'' colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the ] not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|p=142}}
At the onset of the seventeenth century, however, the tolerance began to give way to increased antisemitism. Elected to the Polish throne King ] of the Swedish ], a strong supporter of the ], began to undermine the principles of the ] and the religious tolerance in the ], revoking and limiting privileges of all non-Catholic faiths. In 1628 he banned publication of ] books, including the ].<ref name=jonesd>Jones, Derek. , ''Censorship: A World Encyclopedia'', Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000.</ref> Acclaimed twentieth century historian ], in his '']'' ''History of the Jews in Poland and Russia'', detailed:
:"''At the end of the 16th century and thereafter, not one year passed without a blood libel trial against Jews in Poland, trials which always ended with the execution of Jewish victims in a heinous manner..."'' (ibid., volume 6, chapter 4).


===20th century===
In the 1650s the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth (]) and the ] of the ]s resulted in vast depopulation of the Commonwealth, as over 30% of the ~10 million population has perished or emigrated. In the related 1648-55 pogroms led by the Ukrainian uprising against Polish nobility (]), during which approximately 100,000 Jews were slaughtered, Polish and ] peasants often participated in killing Jews.<ref name="spiro">{{ cite book | title="The Jews in Poland" | author = Ken Spiro | year = 2001 }}</ref> The besieged szlachta, who were also decimated in the territories where the uprising happened, typically abandoned the loyal peasantry, townsfolk, and the Jews renting their land, in violation of "rental" contracts.
{{See also|Jewish Bolshevism|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
]'', ], Germany, 1935]]


Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75&nbsp;million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping ]. This increase, combined with the ] of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of ] by a mob of prominent citizens in ], in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=}} The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the ] which had been inactive since 1870.{{sfnp|Levy|2005|loc=}}
In the aftermath of the Deluge and Chmielnicki Uprising, many Jews fled to the less turbulent ], which had granted the Jews a protective charter in 1619. From then until the ] deportations in 1942, the Netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for Jews in Europe, exceeding the tolerance extant in all other European countries at the time, and becoming one of the few Jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of Europe. Many Jews also fled to England, open to Jews since the mid-seventeenth century, in which Jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted.
Historian Berel Wein notes:
:"''In a reversal of roles that is common in Jewish history, the victorious Poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless Jews of the area, accusing them of collaborating with the ] invader!... The Jews, reeling from almost five years of constant hell, abandoned their Polish communities and institutions..."'' (''Triumph of Survival'', 1990).


At the beginning of the 20th century, the ] in Russia represented modern incidents of ]s in Europe. During the ], close to 50,000 Jews were ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War|title=Russian Civil War|last=Abramson|first=Henry|website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-date=15 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115175836/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War|url-status=live}}</ref>
Throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century, many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry, townsfolk and Jews. Threat of mob violence was a specter over the Jewish communities in ] at the time. On one occasion in 1696, a mob threatened to massacre the Jewish community of Posin, ]. The mob accused the Jews of murdering a Pole. At the last moment, a peasant woman emerged with the victim's clothes and confessed to the murder. One notable example of actualized riots against Polish Jews is the rioting of 1716, during which many Jews lost their lives. Later, in 1723, the Bishop of ] instigated the massacre of hundreds of Jews.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>


Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the ]. The pioneer automobile manufacturer ] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper '']'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of ] in the late 1930s attacked ]'s ] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: ], Chairman of the ], blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the ], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book|last=Arad|first=Gulie Ne'eman|title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism|year=2000|publisher=]|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-253-33809-9|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174}}</ref>
The legendary ], a Polish nobleman who converted to Judaism, is said to have been burned by ] on May 24, 1749. In 1757, at the instigation of ] and his followers, the Bishop of ] forced the Jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi-Christian Frankists. Among the other charges, the Frankists claimed that the ] was full of heresy against Catholicism. The ] judges determined that the Frankists had won the debate, whereupon the Bishop levied heavy fines against the Jewish community and confiscated and burned all Jewish Talmuds. Polish antisemitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by Issac de Pinto as follows: "''Polish Jews... who are deprived of all the privileges of society... who are despised and reviled on all sides, who are often persecuted, always insulted.... That contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour....''" (], philosopher and economist, in a 1762 letter to ]).


<!-- ], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the ]s. This image shows the arrival of ] Jews from ], many of them from the ] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the ]. Courtesy of ].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>, ].</ref> {{FFDC|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6|date=May 2012}}]] -->
On the other hand, it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents, the ] was a relative haven for Jews when compared to the period of the ] and the PLC's destruction in 1795 (see ], below).
], 1945]]


In Germany, shortly after ] and the ] ] in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.{{sfnp|Majer|2014|p=60}}<ref>see also ] (7 April 1933)</ref>
Anti-Jewish sentiments continued to be present in Poland, even after the country regained its independence. One notable manifestation of these attitudes includes ] rules imposed, by almost all Polish universities in the 1930's. ] in his ''Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Antisemitism in Interwar Germany and Poland'' article in ''Journal of Modern History (July, 1996): 1-31'', details:
:"''In Poland, the semidictatorial government of ] and his successors, pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right, implemented many antisemitic policies tending in a similar direction, while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in 1939.... In the 1930s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass limits on Jewish export firms... and, increasingly, on university admission itself. In 1921-22 some 25 percent of Polish university students were Jewish, but in 1938-39 their proportion had fallen to 8 percent.''"


In September 1935, the ] prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as '']'' ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and ]s, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").{{sfnp|Majer|2014|pp=113, 116, 118}} It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed '']'', in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>Ian Kershaw (2008) ''Fateful Choices'': 441–44</ref> Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to ] in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.
While there are many examples of Polish support and help for the Jews during World War II and the Holocaust, there are also numerous examples of antisemitic incidents, and the Jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the Christian Poles. The Polish Institute for National Memory identified twenty-four ] against Jews during World War II, the most notable occurring at the village of ] in 1941 (see ]).


In 1940, the famous aviator ] and many prominent Americans led the ] in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html|title='America First,' a phrase with a loaded anti-Semitic and isolationist history|last=Bennett|first=Brian|website=]|date=20 January 2017|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-date=7 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107115008/https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/|title=A Short History of 'America First'|last=Calamur|first=Krishnadev|date=21 January 2017|work=The Atlantic|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203044351/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66|title=1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm|last=Dunn|first=Susan|date=4 June 2013|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300195132|pages=66|access-date=26 November 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001721/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings &ndash; his letters and diary &ndash; to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to ''Kristallnacht'' by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".<ref>Cole, Wayne S. (1974) ''Charles Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II''. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp.171–74 {{isbn|0-15-118168-3}}</ref> An article by Jonathan Marwil in ''Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution'' claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.<ref>Levy, Richard S. "Lindbergh, Charles (1902–1974)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 1, pp.423–424}}</ref>
After the end of World War II the remaining anti-Jewish sentiments were skilfully used at certain moments by Communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals, which pinnacled in the ]. These sentiments started to diminish only with the collapse of the ] rule in Poland in 1989, which has resulted in a re-examination of events between Jewish and Christian Poles, with a number of incidents, like the massacre at Jedwabne, being discussed openly for the first time. Violent antisemitism in Poland in 21st century was marginal<ref name=major> , The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> compared to elsewhere, and dropped to zero in 2005, but there are only about 10,000 Jews in Poland. Still, according to recent (June 7, 2005) results of research by ]s ], Poland remains among the European countries (with others being Italy, Spain and Germany) with the largest percentages of people holding antisemitic views.


In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) ''The Third Reich: A Concise History''. Tempus.</ref>
Poland is actively trying to address concerns about antisemitism. In 2004, the Polish government approved a National Action Program against racism, including antisemitism. Additionally the Polish Catholic Church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with Judaism. A Museum of the History of Polish Jewry is to be built in Warsaw. The land for the building was donated by the city of Warsaw, which also donated $13 million to the project. The Polish government contributed another $13 million. Four Jewish magazines are published by the Jewish communities in Poland (''Midrasz'', ''Dos Jidische Wort'', ''Jidele'' and ''Sztendlach'').
After ] of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the ], culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic ]: ].<ref name="saul1">] (2008): ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews''. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>] in ''Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus'' (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'', Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (1 October 1995)</ref><ref>]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref>


==Contemporary antisemitism==
According to 2005 Annual Report of Tel Aviv University Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism:


===Post-WWII antisemitism===
:''"There is heightened awareness of Poland’s rich Jewish past and the tragedy that befell most Polish Jews. In 2005 the first issue of the journal Zaglada, published by a special section of the ] and devoted to the Holocaust, made its appearance. In recent years there has been a spate of other publications on the same subject; especially noteworthy are works of the ]."''
{{See also|Soviet anti-Zionism|Soviet anti-Semitism}}


There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the ], antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between ] and ] and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. ] reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "]" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal|author=Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov|title=From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism|journal=Journal of Cold War Studies|year=2002|volume=4:1|issue=Winter|pages=66–80|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31|access-date=1 December 2008|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161918/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Myth">{{cite book|title=The Myth of the Jewish Race|author1=Raphael|author2=Jennifer Patai|year=1989|page=178|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=978-0-8143-1948-2}}</ref> This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the ']' in 1952.
Also, the restitution of communal property to the Jewish communities in Poland continues.


In the 20th century, ] and ] antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the ] initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with ] ideology. However, under ]'s regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "]s".<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=25 January 2024|title=More than a Century of Antisemitism: How Successive Occupants of the Kremlin Have Used Antisemitism|url=https://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.<ref name=":7" /> The ] of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.
====Hungary====
In June 1944, Hungarian police deported nearly 440,000 Jews in more than 145 trains, mostly to Auschwitz . Ultimately, over 400,000 Jews in Hungary were killed during the Holocaust. Although Jews were on both sides of the ], there was a perceptible antisemitic backlash against Jewish members of the former government led by ].


In that same year, the antisemitic ] alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=Tabarovsky|first=Izabella|date=1 May 2019|title=Soviet Anti-Zionism and Contemporary Left Antisemitism|url=https://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=Fathom Journal}}</ref> In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified.In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the ] and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ryvchin|first=Alex|date=10 September 2019|title=Red Terror: How the Soviet Union Shaped the Modern Anti-Zionist Discourse|url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book ''],'' written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed ], alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.<ref name=":02" /> It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.
Today, hatred towards ] and ] can be observed from many prominent Hungarian politicians. The most famous example is the ] party and its Chairman, ].


The ] in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.<ref name=":02" /> This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Korey|first=William|author-link=William Korey|year=1972|title=The Origins and Development of Soviet Anti-Semitism: An Analysis|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E|journal=]|volume=31|issue=1|pages=111–135|doi=10.2307/2494148|jstor=2494148|issn=0037-6779}}</ref> The ] shut down and expropriated ]s, ]s, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of ]. It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the ] and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.<ref name=":02" />
Antisemitism in Hungary was manifested mainly in far right publications and demonstrations. ] supporters continued their tradition of shouting antisemitic slogans and tearing the ] to shreds at their annual rallies in ] in March 2003 and 2004, commemorating the 1848–49 revolution. Further, during the anniversary demonstrations of both right and left marking the 1956 uprising, antisemitic and anti-Israel slogans were heard from the right, such as accusing Israel of war crimes. The center-right traditionally keeps its distance from the right-wing demonstration, which was led by Csurka.


Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged ] and sometimes relied upon ]'s '']'' as a source of information about Zionism.<ref name=":02" /> Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Tabarovsky|first=Izabella|date=1 March 2022|title=Demonization Blueprints: Soviet Conspiracist Antizionism in Contemporary Left-Wing Discourse|journal=]|volume=5|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.26613/jca/5.1.97|issn=2472-9906|doi-access=free}}</ref> The still-extant ], a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the ] in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 ].<ref name=":22" /> According to historian ], "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"<ref name=":12" />
====Germany====
]
{{further|History of the Jews in Germany}}
{{seealso|Holocaust}}


Similar ] resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name="Myth" /> After the war, the ] and the "]" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The ] had a common theme of ] rumours.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233|title=Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath|isbn=978-0-8135-3158-8|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Joshua D|year=2003|publisher=Rutgers University Press|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001712/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74|title=World without civilization: Mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis|isbn=978-0-7618-2963-8|last1=Spector|first1=Robert Melvin|year=2005|publisher=University Press of America|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001648/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
From the early Middle Ages to the 18th century, the Jews in Germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance. Though the 19th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the Jews, ] followed in 1848, so that, by the early 20th century, the Jews of Germany were the most integrated in Europe. The situation changed in the early 1930's with the rise of the ] and their explicitly antisemitic program. ] which referred to ]ish citizens as "dirty Jews" became common in antisemitic pamphlets, ]s such as the '']'' and '']'', and radio. Additionally, blame was laid on German Jews for having caused Germany's defeat in ] (see '']'').
<!-- Image with disputed fair-use status removed: ]'s publication , 1938. The caption reads: "The God of the Jew is Money. And to gain money, he will commit the greatest crimes…."]] -->


===21st-century European antisemitism===
Anti-Jewish propaganda expanded rapidly. Nazi cartoons depicting "dirty Jews" frequently portrayed a dirty, physically unattractive and badly dressed "talmudic" Jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by ]. Articles attacking Jewish Germans, while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent Jewish individuals, also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas, such as ].
{{Further|Antisemitism in Europe#21st century}}


Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.<ref name = "mgjmsp">{{cite journal|url=http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm|title=Anti-Semitism in Germany Today: Its Roots and Tendencies|author=Susanne Urban|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|volume=16|issue=3–4|year=2004|page=119|access-date=1 December 2008|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161926/https://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html|title=Anti-Semitism up 30% in Belgium|newspaper=Ynetnews|access-date=17 June 2015|date=27 February 2013|archive-date=27 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327144035/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080|work=The Jerusalem Post|title=Washington: European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism|date=15 October 2015|access-date=16 April 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728080500/https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Nazi antisemitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech. Starting in 1933, repressive laws were passed against Jews, culminating in the ] which removed most of the rights of citizenship from Jews, using a racial definition based on descent, rather than any religious definition of who was a Jew. Sporadic violence against the Jews became widespread with the ] riots, which targeted Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues, killing hundreds across Germany and Austria.


This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both ] and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|agency=SBS|date=24 February 2015|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe|title=Special report: The rise of the right in Europe|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220160403/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe|url-status=live}}</ref> This rise in the support for far-right ideas in ] and ] has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf|title=Attitudes Toward Jews In Ten European Countries|date=March 2012|author=First International Resources|publisher=Anti-Defamation League|access-date=20 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512182655/http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The antisemitic agenda culminated in the ] of the Jews of Europe, known as the ].


In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as ]s. Writing on the ] surrounding the 2022 ], ] relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".<ref name="Stanley 2022">{{Cite news|last=Stanley|first=Jason|date=26 February 2022|title=The antisemitism animating Putin's claim to 'denazify' Ukraine|author-link=Jason Stanley|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=17 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417105216/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify|url-status=live}}</ref> He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."<ref name="Stanley 2022" />
====Russia and the Soviet Union====
{{further|History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union}}
]
The ] was the Western region of ] to which Jews were restricted by the Tsarist ] of 1792. It consisted of the territories of former ], annexed with the existing numerous Jewish population, and the ] (which was later cut out from the Pale).


Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,<ref>{{cite news|title=Rabbi's son foils bombing attempt at Moscow shul – j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California|newspaper=J|date=30 July 1999|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=6 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706124450/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/|url-status=live}}</ref> the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/12/international/12briefs.html|work=The New York Times|title=World Briefing: Asia, Europe, Americas and Africa|date=12 January 2006}}</ref> the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman|title=Rise of Anti-Semitism in the Ukraine threatens Jewish pilgrimages to Uman|date=2 October 2011|access-date=26 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615170744/http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman|archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref> and the attack against a ] by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994|title=Video: Priest Attacks Menorah – Jewish World|publisher=Arutz Sheva|date=14 December 2009|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617125403/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994|url-status=live}}</ref>
During 1881-1884, 1903-1906 and 1914-1921, waves of antisemitic ]s swept Russian Jewish communities. At least some pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Russian ]. Although there is no hard evidence for this, the Russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms, for instance during the three-day ] of 1903.


According to ], antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.<ref>]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817030629/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |date=17 August 2015 }} ''Commentary Magazine''. 1 June 2005. 26 January 2015</ref> While no European state currently has such policies, the ] notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.<ref name="Cohen">Cohen, Ben. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817195418/https://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%e2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |date=17 August 2020 }} ''Algemeiner''. 26 January 2015.</ref>
During this period the ] policy was also put into effect, banning Jews from rural areas and towns, and placing strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed into higher education and many professions. The combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass Jewish emigration, and by 1920 more than two million Russian Jews had emigrated, most to the ] while some made ] to the ].


===21st-century Arab antisemitism===
One of the most infamous antisemitic tractates was the Russian okhranka literary ], '']'', created in order to blame the Jews for Russia's problems during the period of revolutionary activity.
{{Main|Antisemitism in the Arab world}}
<!--After the ], ] worked hard to combat Antisemitism in Russia. In a radio speech held in 1919, Lenin said: ''The tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organised pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews.'' ''It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism.''-->
] of a ] on a building in the ] city of ], 2022]]
<!--One speech is not "working hard" - this is pure original research. If Lenin "worked hard" against it, please bring some reliable source who says he did.-->


], founder of ], says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211002401/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |date=11 February 2021 }}. The Washington Post (26 September 2011). Retrieved 2 June 2012.</ref>
Even though many ] were ethnically Jewish, they sought to uproot Judaism and Zionism and established the ] to achieve this goal. By the end of the 1940s the Communist leadership of the former USSR had liquidated almost all Jewish organizations, including Yevsektsiya.


In a 2011 survey by the ], all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of ]ians, 3% of ] Muslims, and 2% of ]ians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of ] and 9% of ]ns viewing Jews favorably.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/|website=PEW Global Attitudes Report|date=21 July 2011|title=Muslim-Western Tensions Persist|access-date=19 September 2013|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060113/http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Stalin sought to segregate Russian Jews into "Soviet Zion", with the help of ] and ] in ]. The ] with the center in ] in the ] attracted only limited settlement, and never achieved Stalin's goal of an internal exile for the Jewish people.


According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to ].<ref>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125152303/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |date=25 January 2021 }}, '']'', 23 February 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref> According to Josef Joffe of '']'', "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>Joffe, Josef. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328001627/http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |date=28 March 2010 }}, '']'', 28 February 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref>
]'s antisemitic campaign of 1948-1953 against so-called "]," destruction of the ], the fabrication of the "]," the rise of "]" and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the ] were officially carried out under the banner of "anti-Zionism," but the use of this term could not obscure the antisemitic content of these campaigns, and by the mid-1950s the state persecution of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West and domestically. See also: ], ], ].


Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00807-8}} p. 33</ref><ref>Aluma Solnick. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905201355/http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 |date=5 September 2009 }} MEMRI Special Report – No. 11, 1 November 2002</ref><ref>Neil J. Kressel. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710020511/http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |date=10 July 2009 }}, ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', ''The Chronicle Review'', 12 March 2004.</ref>
Today, antisemitic pronouncements, speeches and articles are common in Russia, and there are a large number of antisemitic neo-Nazi groups in the republics of the former Soviet Union, leading ''Pravda'' to declare in 2002 that "Antisemitism is booming in Russia."<ref name=Litvinovich>Litvinovich, Dmitri. , '']'' July 30, 2002.</ref> Over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to antisemitic signs, apparently aimed at Jews, and other violent incidents, including stabbings, have been recorded.


According to professor ], director of the ] (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by ] or by ], ], ], or the ], represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/|title=Holocaust Remembrance Day — a somber anniversary|website=The Times of Israel|access-date=27 January 2013|archive-date=30 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130105240/http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Though the government of ] takes an official stand against antisemitism, some political parties and groups are explicitly antisemitic, in spite of a Russian law (Art. 282) against fomenting racial, ethnic or religious hatred. In 2005, a group of 15 ] members demanded that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from Russia. In June, 500 prominent Russians, including some 20 members of the nationalist ''Rodina'' party, demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as "anti-Russian" and ban Judaism &mdash; the investigation was actually launched, but halted amid international outcry.


===21st-century antisemitism at universities===
====Sweden====
{{Main|Universities and antisemitism}}
Sweden has a relatively small Jewish community of around 20,000.<ref name=Specktor>Specktor, Mordecai., '' The American Jewish World''. Retrieved Dec 17, 2006 from the "Jews of Sweden", The Stockholm International Forum on the Holocaust website (26-28 January 2000).</ref> Jews have been permitted to immigrate to ] since the late 18th century, at first only to ], ] and ], and various restrictions on permitted areas of settlement and holding of political office existed until after World War II; in 1951, the last restriction, the right to hold ministerial office, was lifted.<ref name=Spektor/> ] has legal status as one of the country's ].<ref>{{sv icon}} , 10 June 1999. Accessed online 17 October 2006.</ref>


After the ] on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Abboud|first1=Leila|last2=Klasa|first2=Adrienne|last3=Chazan|first3=Guy|date=15 October 2023|title=Israel-Hamas war unleashes wave of antisemitism in Europe|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912|access-date=19 October 2023|archive-date=18 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018225127/https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Chrisafis|first1=Angelique|last2=Kassam|first2=Ashifa|last3=Connolly|first3=Kate|last4=Giuffrida|first4=Angela|date=20 October 2023|title='A lot of pain': Europe's Jews fear rising antisemitism after Hamas attack|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack|access-date=21 October 2023|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=21 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021041322/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sforza|first=Lauren|date=6 May 2024|title=Antisemitism surging worldwide since Oct. 7 attack: Report|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/|access-date=17 July 2024|work=]}}</ref> Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html|first=Stephanie|last=Saul|title=Students sue Harvard, calling it a bastion of antisemitism|work=The New York Times|date=11 January 2024|access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Harvard president keeps her job after antisemitism backlash|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381|website=CBC news|date=12 December 2023|access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Stanford is the latest elite university to be slammed for its lack of 'moral resolve' in its response to Hamas' attack on Israel|url=https://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/|access-date=31 October 2023|website=Fortune}}</ref> On 1 May 2024, the ] voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the ] definition of antisemitism into law.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Amiri|first=Farnoush|date=1 May 2024|title=House passes bill to expand definition of antisemitism amid growing campus protests over Gaza war|url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a|access-date=17 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the ] and ] generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 October 2023|title=Confronting Campus Antisemitism: An Action Plan for University Students|url=https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501032235/https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan|archive-date=1 May 2024|access-date=17 July 2024|website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 December 2023|title=Year in Review 2023: Jewish Unity Amid Challenges|url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/year-in-review-2023-jewish-unity-amid-challenges|access-date=17 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.<ref>Yonat Shimron, ] 14 May 2024.</ref>
There has, however, been a number of antisemitic incidents in recent years. In January 2001, two Israeli Jews were beaten by two ]s in Stockholm. One of them required medical attention.{{fact}} On September 19, a Jewish youth was assaulted by a ] in the ]. The attacker was arrested.{{fact}} At least 16 telephone threats were received by the Gothenburg Jewish community.{{fact}} A Gothenburg rabbi was also the target of several bomb threats, forcing the police to evacuate his building, and in March a fake bomb in a suitcase was planted at the entrance of the Gothenburg Jewish Community Center.{{fact}} Also in March, a rabbi and his son were harassed in Stockholm by two men who shouted antisemitic slurs.{{fact}} In June the wall of the old Jewish cemetery in Malmö was smeared with antisemitic graffiti.{{fact}}


===Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism===
A government study in ] estimated that 15% of Swedes agree with the statement: "The Jews have too much influence in the world today". 5% of the entire adult population, and 39% of the muslim population, harbour strong and consistent antisemitic views. Former Prime Minister ] described these results as "surprising and terrifying"; but the president of the national Jewish community said that this only confirmed what was "daily fare" for Swedish Jews.{{fact}}
{{Undue weight section|date=July 2024}}
{{Further|Black Hebrew Israelites}}


] in 2019.<ref name=":3" /> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name=":1" />]]
====Turkey====
Despite close economic ties to Israel, Turkey has experienced a recent surge in anti-Semitic literature, most notably the sale of ], the autobiography of ], which has become a bestseller through the country. Sales of the similarly-themed books ] and ]'s ] have also increased. In the same vein, the 2005 bestselling book ], which depicts a fictional war between Turkey and the United States, is described by the author, in an interview with '']'', as helping people understand the realities behind Israel and the Jews, and would see how the Jews betrayed Turkey.


In 2022, the ] stated that the ] claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Amanda Woods|first1=Mark Lungariello|title=Black Hebrew Israelites chant 'we are the real Jews' at pro-Kyrie Irving NYC march|url=https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/|access-date=26 November 2022|work=New York Post|date=25 November 2022|archive-date=26 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126000155/https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/|url-status=live}}</ref> Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion.<ref name=WaPoJersey>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/|title=Probe of Jersey City shooting leads FBI to arrest pawn shop owner on weapons charge|author=Derek Hawkins|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=15 December 2019|access-date=26 November 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927061617/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=WaPoNY>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/|title=Hanukkah stabbing suspect searched 'why did Hitler hate the Jews,' prosecutors say|date=30 December 2019|first1=Shayna|last1=Jacobs|first2=Deanna|last2=Paul|first3=Maria|last3=Sacchetti|first4=Hannah|last4=Knowles|newspaper=]|access-date=26 November 2022|archive-date=30 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330123630/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name=":1" />
While the exact reason for the book's popularity is uncertain, it may reflect anger over the treatment of fellow Muslim in Palestine by Israelis, anti-western sentiments caused by the war in Iraq, or simply backlash caused by Turkey's bid to join the ].


Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Simon Wiesenthal Center Special Report: Extreme Black Hebrew Israelites|url=https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf|website=Wiesenthal.com|publisher=The Simon Wiesenthal Center|access-date=4 January 2023|archive-date=4 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104050826/https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Black Hebrew Israelites promote the ] about Ashkenazi Jewish origins.<ref name=":1" /> In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites.<ref name=":3">{{cite news|last1=Esensten|first1=Andrew|date=26 November 2022|title=How many Hebrew Israelites are there, and how worried should Jews be?|work=]|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/|access-date=3 January 2023|archive-date=3 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103115838/https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Anti-Semitic sentiments have also been observed in the Turkish media, such as in the nationalist ''Ortadogu'', where Selcuk Duzgun, in an article titled ''Here is the Real Jew'' stated: "We are surrounded. Wherever we look we see traitors. Wherever we turn we see impure, false converts. Whichever stone you turn over, there is a Jew under it. And we keep thinking to ourselves: Hitler did not do enough to these Jews."


=== Antisemitism on the internet ===
In the ''Milli Gazette'', Turkish author Hakan Albayrak wrote an article accusing the Israeli Government of Genocide and stating Zionism itself constituted genocide.
Antisemitism on the internet involves a complex interplay between social media dynamics, conspiracy theories, and the broader socio-political context. Social media platforms have proved fertile for breeding antisemitic rhetoric, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, during which a notable rise in antisemitic conspiracy theories emerged.<ref>Sundberg, K., Mitchell, L., & Levinson, D. (2022). Health, religiosity and hatred: a study of the impacts of covid-19 on world jewry. Journal of Religion and Health, 62(1), 428-443.</ref><ref>Garner, G., McGrann, M., Klug, D., Kranson, R., & Yoder, M. (2023). The relationship between antisemitism and covid-19 conspiracy on twitter.</ref><ref>Evanega, S., Lynas, M., Adams, J., & Smolenyak, K. (2020). Coronavirus misinformation: quantifying sources and themes in the covid-19 ‘infodemic’.</ref> The role of social media in amplifying these sentiments is underscored by analyses of comment sections on major media outlets, which reveal a significant presence of antisemitic discourse, often framed within the context of political events and international relations.<ref>Becker, M., Ascone, L., & Troschke, H. (2022). Antisemitic comments on Facebook pages of leading British, French, and German media outlets. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9(1).</ref><ref name=Subotić>Subotić, J. (2021). Antisemitism in the global populist international. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24(3), 458-474.</ref> Furthermore, the emergence of TikTok as a new platform has raised concerns about the proliferation of antisemitic content, with studies highlighting the challenges of moderating such material effectively.<ref>McMann, T., Calac, A., Nali, M., Cuomo, R., Maroulis, J., & Mackey, T. (2022). Synthetic cannabinoids in prisons: content analysis of tiktoks. Jmir Infodemiology, 2(1), e37632.</ref><ref>Nathanael, G. (2023). Tiktok’s spiral of antisemitism: a study case in indonesia. Ekspresi Dan Persepsi Jurnal Ilmu Komunikasi, 6(3), 547-553.</ref> The intersection of antisemitism with broader themes of populism and right-wing extremism is also evident, as these ideologies often utilize antisemitic narratives to galvanize support and create a sense of otherness.<ref name=Subotić/><ref>Ichau, E., Frissen, T., & d’Haenens, L. (2019). From #selfie to #edgy. hashtag networks and images associated with the hashtag #jews on instagram. Telematics and Informatics, 44, 101275.</ref> Additionally, the phenomenon of subtle hate speech has been identified, where antisemitic sentiments are recontextualized in ways that may evade direct detection yet still perpetuate harmful stereotypes.<ref>Serafis, D. (2023). Subtle hate speech and the recontextualisation of antisemitism online., 143-167.</ref> Antisemitic bias appears even in ostensibly neutral sources such as ].<ref>Grabowski, J., & Klein, S. (2023). Misplaced Pages’s Intentional Distortion of the History of the Holocaust. The Journal of Holocaust Research, 37(2), 133-190.</ref> Overall, the digital landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for combating antisemitism, necessitating a multifaceted approach that includes community engagement and technological solutions to monitor and counteract hate speech effectively.<ref>Ozalp, S., Williams, M., Burnap, P., Liu, H., & Mostafa, M. (2020). Antisemitism on twitter: collective efficacy and the role of community organisations in challenging online hate speech. Social Media + Society, 6(2).</ref><ref>Kahn-Harris, K. (2020). Inundated with online antisemitism. Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism, 3(1), 55-58.</ref>


==Causes==
On 8 January the Islamist daily ], the unofficial mouthpiece of the Justice and Development Party, published an article which alleged that the Israeli Government was attempting to set up farms in southeastern Turkey, and populate them with Russian and Ethiopian Jews whose integration into Israel they found difficult. In 2005, it was reported by journalists such as Ayhan Bilgin in ''Vakit'', that the Mossad and Israel were responsible for planting mines which killed Turkish soldiers in southeast Turkey. Such claims have created a very negative atmosphere against Israelis and Turkish Jews. Anti-Semitism has also recently been observed in the publications ''Anadoluda, Vakit,'' and ''Yeniçağ''.
Antisemitism has been explained in terms of ], ], ], ], ], and the search for a ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Jews in the early modern world|first=Dean Phillip|last=Bell|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|page=212|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212|isbn=978-0-7425-4518-2|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001601/https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."<ref name="u458">{{cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Lars|title="The word 'Jew' has several meanings in relation to commerce, but almost all negative": on the evolution of a projection|journal=Jewish Historical Studies|volume=51|issue=1|date=27 April 2020|issn=2397-1290|doi=10.14324/111.444.jhs.2020v51.032}}</ref> The latter position is exemplified by ], who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."<ref>{{cite web|author=schalomlibertad|title=Antisemitism and the (modern) critique of capitalism|date=23 July 2009|website=libcom.org|quote=Adorno, T. (1951), Minima Moralia. Reflexionen aus dem beschädigten Leben, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, p. 141.|url=https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism|access-date=5 December 2023|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180431/https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=]|title=The rumour about the Jews|date=28 January 2020|website=]|quote=Theodor Adorno in 1951 called 'the rumour about Jews'...|url=https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism|access-date=5 December 2023|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180457/https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism|url-status=live}}</ref>
Several anti-Semitic ] from Islamists and ultra-nationalists in Turkey have attempted to demonize Jews and Israel. These theories have been fed in part by ] arms modernization projects, agricultural projects in southeast Turkey connected to the ], which employ Israeli experts; mutual visits of Turkish and Israeli officials; and the alleged role of the ] in northern Iraq (the ] is highly unpopular in Turkey) making statements such as "The Mossad is the boss in Northern Iraq" have all nourished these theories. The common conspiracy theory that Jews, the supposed chosen people who consider themselves superior, are trying to take over the world by creating internal problems has also been cited by Turkish newspapers.


As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by ] questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.<ref> in: {{cite book|title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes|author=Bernard Lazare|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|year=2006|isbn=9781596056015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Brustein|first1=William L.|last2=Roberts|first2=Louisa|title=The Scialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=55|quote=Lazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His bool was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.}}</ref><ref name="q406">{{cite journal|last=Swanson|first=Joel|title=We Spring from that History: Bernard Lazare, between Universalism and Particularism|journal=Religions|volume=9|issue=10|date=21 October 2018|issn=2077-1444|doi=10.3390/rel9100322|doi-access=free|page=322}}</ref> As another example, ] suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in ]) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of ] was operated by Jews.{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} while the ] declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "]",<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hawthorne's secret: an un-told tale|jstor=41398742|journal=The Georgia Review|volume=38|issue=3|pages=664–666|author=Philip Young|year=1984}}</ref> although recent scholarship, such as that of historian ] shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian ] of taboo behaviour on to the minority.<ref name="u458"/><ref name="s525">{{cite journal|last=Cassen|first=Flora|title=Jews and Money: Time for a New Story?|journal=Jewish Quarterly Review|volume=110|issue=2|year=2020|issn=1553-0604|doi=10.1353/jqr.2020.0007|pages=373–382}}</ref><ref name="a817">{{cite journal|last=Mell|first=Julie L.|title=Cultural Meanings of Money in Medieval Ashkenaz: On Gift, Profit, and Value in Medieval Judaism and Christianity|journal=Jewish History|publisher=Springer|volume=28|issue=2|year=2014|issn=0334-701X|jstor=24709715|pages=125–158|doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9212-3|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24709715|access-date=11 July 2024}}</ref>
The well-known Turkish novelist ], often criticized by the Turkish media and accused of being a traitor due to his interpretation of certain events in Turkish history, has been criticized as being "the servant of Jews," and "a Jew-lover" by several nationalistic publications.


In ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (2013), historian ] traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Nirenberg|first=David|author-link=David Nirenberg|title=Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition|publisher=Norton|year=2014|isbn=978-0-393-34791-3|edition=1. publ. as Norton paperb|location=New York}}</ref> Its foundation lies in the early claim of ] and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic ']' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable. It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the ], figures like ] critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the ] frequently ] Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and ]. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.<ref name=":6" />
===Asia===
====Japan====
{{main|Antisemitism in Japan}}
Originally ], with no Jewish population, had no antisemitism; however, Nazi ideology and propaganda left its influence on Japan during World War II, and the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' were subsequently translated into Japanese. Today, antisemitism and belief in Jewish manipulation of Japan and the world remains despite the small size of the Jewish community in Japan. Books about Jewish conspiracies are best sellers. According to a 1988 survey, 8% of Japanese had read one of these books.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>


British ] ] has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hall|first=Brett|date=1 November 2023|title=Antisemitism: The Sinister Pattern|url=https://quillette.com/2023/11/01/antisemitism-the-sinister-pattern/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]}}</ref> He provides the following examples:
====Pakistan====
There is a general stereotype against Jews in Pakistan. Jews and Hindus are regarded as "miserly".<ref>,''Daily times (Pakistan)</ref>
The founding of the Islamic state of Pakistan immediately prior to the creation of Israel in the Levant created insecurity among Pakistan's Jews. After Israel's independence in 1948, violent incidents occurred against Pakistan's small Jewish community of about 2,000 ] Jews. The synagogue in Karachi was
attacked, as were individual Jews. The persecution of Jews resulted in their exodus to India, Israel, and the UK. The ] Jewish community ceased to exist.<ref name=Pakistan> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>


# The idea that Jews have collectively failed some crucial test (e.g. they rejected Jesus, or Mohammed, or do not have the Aryans' capacity for 'culture', or do not satisfy Stalin's criteria for being a 'nation', or lack a mystical 'connection to the land', etc.);
Pakistani ] icon ]'s marriage to ] in 1996 caused furor in Pakistan and Khan was accused of acting as an agent of the "Jewish Lobby". ] newspapers in Pakistan made other antisemitic accusations against Khan. After Khan complained, the stories were retracted.<ref name=Pakistan> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>
# The idea that Jews cause pollution – for instance that they are ], or that they desecrate holy sites and artefacts – which is often extended, semi-metaphorically, to the idea that Jews are pollution/vermin/rotten/cancer etc.;
# ]s, the classic one being that Jews kidnap and murder non-Jewish children and consume their blood in religious rituals;
# The incorporation of an entity called 'The Jews' deeply into the fabric of many cultures as the eternal enemy bent on destroying whatever that culture values; and
# Conspiracy theories, especially theories that 'The Jews' are secretly 'behind' the events of history and current affairs.


British medievalist historian Richard Landes has further argued that,<blockquote>This Pattern, Deutsch observes, is always present, but is most likely to cause persecution, expulsions and mass murder when there is a serious threat it, to the ''legitimacy'' of hurting Jews. Such a threat appeared when Europeans, previously Pattern-compliant in their belief in Jewish deicide, became 'Enlightened,' and so had difficulty blaming the Jews for killing a God in which they no longer believed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Landes|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Landes|date=2023-11-01|title=Lethal Journalism and the Pattern: Why the World Fell for Hamas' Al Ahli Lie|url=https://fathomjournal.org/fathom-long-read-lethal-journalism-and-the-pattern-why-the-world-fell-for-hamas-al-ahli-lie/|access-date=2024-07-29|website=Fathom Journal}}</ref>
India's establishment of diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992 have given rise to antisemitism in Pakistani media, usually combined with anti-Zionist rhetoric. India has been referred to as a "Zionist Threat".<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>


The key to people's behavior in this regard, he argues, is the need to preserve the legitimacy of hurting Jews, for being Jews. This legitimacy is much more important than actually hurting Jews. And it targets only the Jews. It is not, accordingly, either a hatred or a fear, a form of racism or prejudice in the conventional sense, even though it can lead to those feelings and attitudes. But it is actually unique. No other group can substitute for the Jews as the target whom it is legitimate to hurt.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Landes|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Landes|date=2019-08-30|title=The Small Matter of Malice: Meditations on "the Pattern" of Antisemitism|url=https://isgap.org/flashpoint/the-small-matter-of-malice-the-pattern-of-antisemitism-now-and-then-meditations-on-the-pattern-of-antisemitism/|access-date=2024-07-29|website=]}}</ref></blockquote>Author and scholar ] published an article in '']'' reflecting on her previous published doubts about the effectiveness of ] ] and the rising antisemitism in the wake of the ] in Israel by Palestinians.<ref name=":8" /> In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. In particular, Jewish particularism is perceived as an aggression against a supposedly more enlightened universalism. By rejecting this new universalism, the Jews are thus judged to have failed a crucial moral test. As a result, hatred of Jews becomes a sign of moral righteousness. Historically, this pattern manifests in various ways: Christianity and Islam each claimed to embody a universal truth that Jews rejected, justifying persecution. In the modern era, German ] and ] defined Jews as an inferior race threatening societal progress, while the ] positioned itself as the victim of Nazism, obscuring the Jewish suffering during the Holocaust and framing Jews as oppressors through its ]. Horn concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.<blockquote>This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=Horn|first=Dara|author-link=Dara Horn|date=2024-10-07|title=October 7 Created a Permission Structure for Anti-Semitism|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20241010011236/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/|archive-date=2024-10-10|access-date=2024-10-15|website=]|issn=2151-9463}}</ref></blockquote>
Pakistan-based Islamic terrorist group ] have also expressed antisemitic views. Their propaganda arm has declared the Jews to be "Enemies of Islam", Israel to be the "Enemy of Pakistan".<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>


==Prevention through education==
Military leaflets have been dropped over ] to urge the tribesmen to beware of foreigners and their local supporters who had allied themselves with the "Yahood Aur Hanood".Tribesmen who read the leaflets were wondering over the use of the word "Yahood Aur Hanood" to describe the enemy in the leaflets. Most thought it meant the Jews worldwide and the dominant Hindus of India.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>
] plays an important role in addressing and overcoming ] and countering social ].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702|title=Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100274-8|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117130019/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702|url-status=live}}</ref> However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of ] and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by ] and Jewish communities.<ref name=":2" />


Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the ] is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. ] wrote in '']'' that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Horn|first=Dara|author-link=Dara Horn|date=6 June 2019|title=Auschwitz Is Not a Metaphor|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/auschwitz-not-long-ago-not-far-away/591082/|access-date=29 July 2024|website=]|issn=2151-9463}}</ref>
The U.S. State Department's first Report on Global Anti-Semitism finds increase in antisemitism in Pakistan.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref> In Pakistan, a country without Jewish communities, antisemitic sentiment fanned by antisemitic articles in the press is widespread.<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>
Pakistan refuses to recognize Israel as a legitimate state<ref> Accessed October 8, 2006</ref> on account of their sympathies with the Arabs in the ].


Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"<ref>{{Cite news|last=Horn|first=Dara|author-link=Dara Horn|date=3 April 2023|title=Is Holocaust Education Making Anti-Semitism Worse?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/05/holocaust-student-education-jewish-anti-semitism/673488/|access-date=29 July 2024|work=The Atlantic|issn=2151-9463}}</ref>
A substantial number of people in Pakistan believe that the ] attacks on the World Trade Center in New York were a "secret Jewish conspiracy" organized by Israel's ], as were the ], allegedly perpetrated by Jews in order to "discredit Muslims". Such allegations echo traditional antisemitic conspiracy theories.<ref>,''BBC''</ref><ref>,'''PBS.org'''</ref>


==Geographical variation==
Pakistan, an Islamic republic, has declined Israel's offer for humanitarian aid after the 2005 earthquake in the country. ZOA President Morton A. Klein said, "We are deeply disappointed by President Musharraf's snub of Israel's generous offer of aid. It seems to indicate that Pakistan's hatred of Jews is greater than their desire to save Pakistani lives."
{{Main|Geography of antisemitism}}


A March 2008 report by the ] found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315181305/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |date=15 March 2008 }}, ], 14 March 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref> A 2012 report by the U.S. ] also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2012|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|access-date=21 December 2013|archive-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207121457/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ''ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://global100.adl.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015413/http://global100.adl.org/public/ADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016|title=ADL Global 100: A Survey of Attitudes Toward Jews in Over 100 Countries Around the World|website=ADL/Global 100|access-date=14 January 2024|url-status=dead}}</ref> which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".<ref name="TOI-ADL">{{cite web|last=Gur|first=Haviv Rettig|author-link=Haviv Rettig Gur|title=Hating the Jew you've never met|website=The Times of Israel|date=18 May 2014|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/|access-date=26 August 2018|archive-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601140048/https://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/|url-status=live}}</ref>
====India====
India is home to several communities of ]. There have been no antisemitic incidents from the Hindu majority in India in the nearly 3-millennium history of Indian Jewry. Over the course of the twentieth century, several important Hindu leaders, scholars and politicians, such as ], ], ] and others have vocally condemned anti-semitism and have expressed support for Israel and the Jewish right to self-determination.<ref></ref>


In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.<ref name=Diaspora1>{{cite news|last=Starr|first=Michael|date=19 August 2024|title=Can Diaspora Ministry's new monitoring system help better understand antisemitism?|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815377|work=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=20 August 2024}}</ref><ref name=Diaspora2>{{cite news|date=18 August 2024|title=Diaspora Ministry unveils system for monitoring antisemitic discourse online|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815209|work=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=20 August 2024}}</ref> The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends.<ref name=Diaspora1 /> In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.<ref name=Diaspora1 />
Anti-semitism first came to India with the Portuguese Christian Missionaries in the 16th century. ] manifested itself through the ] that resulted in the depopulation of the Jews in ], and the persecution of South Indian Jews by the Portuguese in ]. Contemporary anti-semitism in India comes largely from Muslims through Pakistan-based Islamic terror outfits like ], operating illegally in India, who have declared Jews to be the "enemies of Islam".


==See also==
In 2006, a restaurant opened in the Indian city of ] named "]" which raised the ire of the small community of Jews in Mumbai. The owner, ], has since changed the name, apologizing to the Mumbai Jewish community and clarifying that he did not intend to offend Indian Jewry.
{{Portal|Jewish|Judaism}}
{{Div col}}
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* ], the 1941 Baghdad pogrom
*"]"
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*"]"
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{{div col end}}


== Notes ==
==Antisemitism in the 21st century==
{{Notelist}}
According to the 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism, antisemitism in Europe has increased significantly in recent years (but see fn.31 below). Beginning in 2000, verbal attacks directed against Jews increased while incidents of vandalism (e.g. graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries) surged. Physical assaults including beatings, stabbings and other violence against Jews in Europe increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death.


== References ==
On ], ], Britain's chief ], Sir ], warned that what he called a "] of antisemitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's ], Sacks said that antisemitism was on the rise in Europe, and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted, synagogues desecrated, and Jewish schools burned to the ground in France. He also said that: "People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable."<ref name=Gillan>Gillan, Audrey. , ''Guardian'', January 2, 2006.</ref>
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}


=== Sources ===
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{{refbegin|32em}}
Much of the new European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running Israeli-Arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities. According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current antisemitism comes from militant Islamist and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside.<ref name=roth>, The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
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* {{cite book|last=Laqueur|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Laqueur|year=2006|title=The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530429-9|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/changingfaceofan00laqu}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Levy|editor-first=Richard S.|year=2005|title=Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution|location=Santa Barbara, CA|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-439-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|year=1999|author-link=Bernard Lewis|title=Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice|publisher=W.&nbsp;W. Norton & Co.|isbn=978-0-393-31839-5|url=https://archive.org/details/semitesantisemit0000lewi_n3m3/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book|last=Lipstadt|first=Deborah|author-link=Deborah Lipstadt|year=2019|title=Antisemitism: Here and Now|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-80524337-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Lipstadt|first=Deborah|author-link=Deborah Lipstadt|year=1994|title=Denying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-452-27274-3|url=https://archive.org/details/denyingholocaust00lips}}
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* {{cite book|last=Majer|first=Diemut|year=2014|title="Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945|publisher=]|isbn=978-0896728370}}
* {{cite book|last1=McLellan|first1=David|title=Marx before Marxism|date=1980|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-27883-3|edition=2d|url=https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Michael|first=Robert|title=A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-61117-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ|access-date=15 March 2021|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=Marvin|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Frederick M.|year=2002|title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yQmyXeNEMQC&pg=PA53|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-16561-1|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001722/https://books.google.com/books?id=9yQmyXeNEMQC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book|last=Rattansi|first=Ali|title=Racism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVOb3MDBmBEC&pg=PA4|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-280590-4|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001645/https://books.google.com/books?id=YVOb3MDBmBEC&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book|title=Aliyah: The People of Israel|last=Sachar|first=Howard Morley|author-link=Howard Sachar|publisher=World Publishing Company|year=1961}}
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* ] (2015). Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (14 August 2015). Available at {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161159/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2600825 |date=20 February 2021 }} or {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161944/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2600825 |date=17 November 2022 }}
* ] (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (14 January 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at or {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161945/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2549654 |date=17 November 2022 }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Ury|first1=Scott|title=Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of "the Jews"|journal=The American Historical Review|year=2018|volume=123|issue=4|pages=1151–1171|doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy030}}
{{refend}}


'''Attribution'''
Similarly, in the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders — for instance, comparing Israel's treatment of the Palestinians to Nazi Germany's treatment of Jews. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.
{{refbegin}}
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers
|publisher=UNESCO
| page numbers =
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702
| license statement URL =
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}
{{refend}}


== Further reading ==
On ], ], the ] announced its finding that incidents of antisemitism are a "serious problem" on college campuses throughout the United States. The Commission recommended that the ]'s ] protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of ] of the ] and further recommended that ] clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.<ref>]: {{PDFlink|}}. April 3, 2006</ref>''
{{refbegin|32em}}

* Brustein, William I., and Ryan D. King. "Anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust." ''International Political Science Review'' 25.1 (2004): 35–53. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407035009/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0192512104038166 |date=7 April 2022 }}
On ], ], ] founded ], the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its ]. Director ] of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of this disease".<ref>'' Associated Press, September 19, 2006</ref>''
* Bitton, Israel B., A Brief and Visual History of Antisemitism, Jerusalem : Gefen Publishing, 2022.

Far-right groups have been on the rise in Germany, and especially in the formerly communist Eastern Germany. Israeli Ambassador Shimon Stein warned in October 2006 that Jews in Germany feel increasingly "unsafe," stating that they "are not able to live a normal Jewish life" and that heavy security surrounds most synagogues or Jewish community centers .

==See also==
{{Wiktionarypar|anti-Semitism}}
{{commonscat|Antisemitism}}
* ]s and ]
** ]
* Other articles on antisemitism:
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
* Related topics:
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
* Topics related to religious antisemitism:
** ]
** ]
** ]
*** ] in Russia
** ]
** ]
* Antisemitic laws, policies, and government actions
** ]s in Russia
** ] in Russia
** ]
** ] in France
** ] in Iraq
** ] of ]
** ]
* ] Germany and the ]
** ]
** ]
* Antisemitic websites
** ]
** ]
** ]
* Organizations working against antisemitism
** ]
** ]
** ]

==Notes==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references/>
</div>

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* ]. ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-393-05824-6}}
* Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.
* {{cite book|title=Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity|last=Richardson|first=Peter|year=1986|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-88920-167-5}}
* Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X.
* Porat, Dina. , '']'', 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
* Selzer, Michael (ed.). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.
* Small, Charles Asher ed. ''The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective'' (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003014435/https://isgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Yale-Papers-Complete-071315-Reprinted.pdf#page=417 |date=3 October 2021 }}, scholarly studies.
* Stav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-229-215-X}}.
* Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-674-02205-X}}.
* ]. ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979). {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". '']''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online * Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". '']''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* {{cite SSRN|last1=Tausch|first1=Arno|title=The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council|year=2018|ssrn=3098079}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2549654|title=The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data|journal=Middle East Review of International Affairs|last=Tausch|first=Arno|ssrn=2549654|volume=18|issue=3 (Fall 2014)|date=14 January 2015|s2cid=59022284}}
* {{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf|title=Contemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United States Congress|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=21 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121171610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf|url-status=live}}&nbsp;{{small|(7.4&nbsp;MB)}}, ], 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804184602/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/102406.htm |date=4 August 2019 }}.
* Vital, David. ''People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939'' (1999); 930pp highly detailed
*], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721141312/http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id=18&page=all |date=21 July 2011 }}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107014155/http://azure.org.il/ |date=7 January 2009 }}, Spring 2008.
* Antisemitism on Social Media.&nbsp;United Kingdom,&nbsp;Taylor & Francis,&nbsp;2022. (Editors: Monika Hübscher, Sabine von Mering {{ISBN|9781000554298}})
{{refend}}


'''Bibliographies, calendars, etc.'''
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|32em}}
* (ADL compilation of modern day anti-semitism happening around the world.)
*] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120080724/http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm |date=20 January 2013 }}
*
* hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
* Stav, Arieh (1999).'''Peace: The Arabian Caricature''' ''A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House.
*
* (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today)
{{refend}}
* hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
*
* hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report)
*
*
*
*
*
*
* - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media.
* at Zionism and Israel Information Center.
* A mini study with extensive links and resources.
* : Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
*


==External links== ==External links==
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* Op-ed piece by a Jewish columnist, arguing that hating Jews hurts the haters: they lose the benefits that come via cooperation
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* Dr. Rivka Shafek Lissak
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Latest revision as of 10:36, 8 December 2024

Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews Not to be confused with anti-Judaism.

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Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, Jews. This sentiment is a form of racism, and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism. In the former case, usually presented as racial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions. The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by the concept of anti-Judaism, which is distinct from antisemitism itself.

There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of pogroms or genocide, which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the Rhineland massacres in 1096; the Edict of Expulsion in 1290; the European persecution of Jews during the Black Death, between 1348 and 1351; the massacre of Spanish Jews in 1391, the crackdown of the Spanish Inquisition, and the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492; the Cossack massacres in Ukraine, between 1648 and 1657; various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, between 1821 and 1906; the Dreyfus affair, between 1894 and 1906; the Holocaust by Nazi Germany during World War II; and various Soviet anti-Jewish policies. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Christian Europe. However, since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world, largely due to the surge in Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories, which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of European antisemitic conspiracy theories.

In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "new antisemitism" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since Israel is a Jewish state, expressions of anti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments. Natan Sharansky describes the "3D" test to determine the existence of such antisemitism: demonizing Israel, the double standard of criticizing Israel disproportionately to other countries, and delegitimizing Israel's right to exist.

Due to the root word Semite, the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who incorrectly assert (in an etymological fallacy) that it refers to racist hatred directed at "Semitic people" in spite of the fact that this grouping is an obsolete historical race concept. Likewise, such usage is erroneous; the compound word antisemitismus was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a "scientific-sounding term" for Judenhass (lit. 'Jew-hatred'), and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.

Origin and usage

Etymology

1879 statute of the Antisemitic League

The word "Semitic" was coined by German orientalist August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781 to designate the Semitic group of languagesAramaic, Arabic, Hebrew and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure Sem, son of Noah.

The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist Moritz Steinschneider to the views of orientalist Ernest Renan. Historian Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' ." Psychologist Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races'".

Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria.

According to philologist Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."

Cover page of Marr's The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism, 1880 edition

In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even the highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped".

This followed his 1862 book Die Judenspiegel (A Mirror to the Jews) in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity". In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of Der Judenspiegel, Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble."

This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.

The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country.

So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte, and Wilhelm Scherer used the term Antisemiten in the January issue of Neue Freie Presse.

The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'"

The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. Oxford English Dictionary editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!" The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881.

Usage

From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g., Arabs, Ethiopians, and Arameans) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.

The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that." Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to " the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."

Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historian Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".

The Associated Press and its accompanying AP Stylebook adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021. Style guides for other news organizations such as the New York Times and Wall Street Journal later adopted this spelling as well. It has also been adopted by many Holocaust museums, such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Yad Vashem.

Definition

Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.

Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."

Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."

For Swiss historian Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.

A caricature by C. Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the world in his hands

In 2003, Israeli politician Natan Sharansky developed what he called the "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving delegitimization, demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former.

Bernard Lewis, writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.

There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, the United States Department of State stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."

In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC, now the Fundamental Rights Agency), an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.

The EUMC working definition was adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010, by the United States Department of State in 2017, in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing in 2014 and by the UK's Campaign Against Antisemitism. In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. IHRA's Working definition of antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel. In response to the perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the Nexus Document in February 2021 and the Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism in March 2021.

1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" Adolphe Willette: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)

Evolution of usage

In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.

The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.

Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.

In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."

After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term antisemitism acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."

Eternalism–contextualism debate

The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism. The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust. Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility." Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge. Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.

The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges. Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon. Historian David Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination. Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.

Manifestations

Jews (identified by the mandatory Jewish badge and Jewish hat) being burned.

Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."

These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare, writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism. William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:

Europe has blamed the Jews for an encyclopedia of sins.
The Church blamed the Jews for killing Jesus; Voltaire blamed the Jews for inventing Christianity. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were usurers and well-poisoners and spreaders of disease. Jews were the creators of both communism and capitalism; they were clannish but also cosmopolitan; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.
Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.

Jeffrey Goldberg, 2015.

Louis Harap, writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".

  • Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
  • Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
  • Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
  • Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
  • Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
  • Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).

Religious antisemitism

Main article: Religious antisemitism See also: Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism in Christianity, and Antisemitism in Islam
The execution of Mariana de Carabajal (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, Mexico City, 1601

Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Marranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.

Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like." William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism. From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."

Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the Protocols, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism. Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France.

Economic antisemitism

Main article: Economic antisemitism
Man kissing feet of another man with hooked nose, dropping money on his head
A World War II-era Slovak propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".

The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.

Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and later repeated by Henry Ford and his The Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam and on the internet.

Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards:

a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"

Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:

  1. All Jews are wealthy
  2. Jews are stingy and greedy
  3. Powerful Jews control the business world
  4. Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism
  5. It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews
  6. Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"

Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as " control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate ".

Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".

An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."

Racial antisemitism

Main article: Racial antisemitism
A Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.

Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion.

Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.

Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.

In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–1855. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.

Political antisemitism

The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.

Friedrich Nietzsche, 1886,

William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms." Derek J. Penslar wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized modernity."

According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.

Cultural antisemitism

Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture." Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation." Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live." An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.

Conspiracy theories

See also: List of conspiracy theories § Antisemitic conspiracy theories

Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.

New antisemitism

Main article: New antisemitism
A sign held at a protest in Edinburgh, Scotland, January 2009

Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.

Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews". It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.

Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.

History

Main article: History of antisemitism For a chronological guide, see Timeline of antisemitism.
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Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:

  1. Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
  2. Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
  3. Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
  4. Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
  5. Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
  6. Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism

Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

Ancient world

The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat. One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.

In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis. Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.

Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."

There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.

The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.

Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened.

James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."

Persecutions during the Middle Ages

Main article: Jews in the Middle Ages
The massacre of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627

In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments", ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.

From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as dhimmis and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.

The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.

In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did the Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394, and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.

In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.

As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.

Reformation

Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism

Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust."

17th century

Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614

During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr.

European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.

In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.

Enlightenment

In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as malke-geld ("queen's money" in Yiddish). In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.

In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

Voltaire

According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative". Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France." Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.

Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution

The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.

Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians. Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows. Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.

Imperial Russia

The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)

Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns. A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.

Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (r. 1855–1881). However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".

Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century

Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."

In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."

In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.

At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".

Secular or racial antisemitism

Title page of the second edition of Das Judenthum in der Musik, published in 1869
Antisemitic agitators in Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during the Dreyfus affair

In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism" – published Das Judenthum in der Musik (roughly "Jewishness in Music") under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:

According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.

Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.

Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn").

The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.

Even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.

The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.

Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.

Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay "On The Jewish Question" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it.

Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."

David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians". According to McLellan, Marx used the word Judentum colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".

20th century

See also: Jewish Bolshevism, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, and Soviet anti-Semitism
Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper Der Stürmer, Worms, Germany, 1935

Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms.

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".

A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated Buchenwald concentration camp, 1945

In Germany, shortly after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.

In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as Rassenschande ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state"). It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched. Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.

In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany. Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings – his letters and diary – to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to Kristallnacht by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem". An article by Jonathan Marwil in Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.

In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom. After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.

Contemporary antisemitism

Post-WWII antisemitism

See also: Soviet anti-Zionism and Soviet anti-Semitism

There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the 'Doctors' Plot' in 1952.

In the 20th century, Soviet and Russian antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the Bolsheviks initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with Marxist ideology. However, under Joseph Stalin's regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "rootless cosmopolitans". The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s. The Doctors' plot of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.

In that same year, the antisemitic Slánský show trial alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies." In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified.In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the State of Israel and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David." The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book Judaism Without Embellishment, written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed Nazi propaganda, alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union. It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.

The Six-Day War in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states. This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements." The Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public shut down and expropriated synagogues, yeshivas, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of Hebrew. It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the KGB and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.

Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion and sometimes relied upon Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf as a source of information about Zionism. Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV." The still-extant Novosti Press Agency, a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the CPSU in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 Prague Spring. According to historian William Korey, "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"

Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country. After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours.

21st-century European antisemitism

Further information: Antisemitism in Europe § 21st century

Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."

This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.

In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)". He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."

Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.

According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed. While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.

21st-century Arab antisemitism

Main article: Antisemitism in the Arab world
Graffiti of a swastika on a building in the Palestinian city of Nablus, 2022

Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".

In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably.

According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."

Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.

According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.

21st-century antisemitism at universities

Main article: Universities and antisemitism

After the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly. Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism. On 1 May 2024, the United States House of Representatives voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance definition of antisemitism into law. The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the American Jewish Committee and World Jewish Congress generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses. An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.

Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism

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Further information: Black Hebrew Israelites
4% of African-Americans self-identified as Black Hebrew Israelites in 2019. Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.

In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential". Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion. Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.

Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity. Black Hebrew Israelites promote the Khazar theory about Ashkenazi Jewish origins. In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites.

Antisemitism on the internet

Antisemitism on the internet involves a complex interplay between social media dynamics, conspiracy theories, and the broader socio-political context. Social media platforms have proved fertile for breeding antisemitic rhetoric, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, during which a notable rise in antisemitic conspiracy theories emerged. The role of social media in amplifying these sentiments is underscored by analyses of comment sections on major media outlets, which reveal a significant presence of antisemitic discourse, often framed within the context of political events and international relations. Furthermore, the emergence of TikTok as a new platform has raised concerns about the proliferation of antisemitic content, with studies highlighting the challenges of moderating such material effectively. The intersection of antisemitism with broader themes of populism and right-wing extremism is also evident, as these ideologies often utilize antisemitic narratives to galvanize support and create a sense of otherness. Additionally, the phenomenon of subtle hate speech has been identified, where antisemitic sentiments are recontextualized in ways that may evade direct detection yet still perpetuate harmful stereotypes. Antisemitic bias appears even in ostensibly neutral sources such as on the Misplaced Pages platform. Overall, the digital landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for combating antisemitism, necessitating a multifaceted approach that includes community engagement and technological solutions to monitor and counteract hate speech effectively.

Causes

Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, conspiracy theory, and the search for a scapegoat.

Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other." The latter position is exemplified by Theodor W. Adorno, who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."

As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by Bernard Lazare questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today. As another example, Walter Laqueur suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews. Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions, while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury", although recent scholarship, such as that of historian Julie Mell shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian projection of taboo behaviour on to the minority.

In Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (2013), historian David Nirenberg traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society. Its foundation lies in the early claim of Jewish deicide and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic 'other' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable. It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the Enlightenment, figures like Voltaire critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the Soviet Union frequently portrayed Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and communism. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.

British quantum physicist David Deutsch has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews." He provides the following examples:

  1. The idea that Jews have collectively failed some crucial test (e.g. they rejected Jesus, or Mohammed, or do not have the Aryans' capacity for 'culture', or do not satisfy Stalin's criteria for being a 'nation', or lack a mystical 'connection to the land', etc.);
  2. The idea that Jews cause pollution – for instance that they are poisoning the water supply, or that they desecrate holy sites and artefacts – which is often extended, semi-metaphorically, to the idea that Jews are pollution/vermin/rotten/cancer etc.;
  3. Blood libels, the classic one being that Jews kidnap and murder non-Jewish children and consume their blood in religious rituals;
  4. The incorporation of an entity called 'The Jews' deeply into the fabric of many cultures as the eternal enemy bent on destroying whatever that culture values; and
  5. Conspiracy theories, especially theories that 'The Jews' are secretly 'behind' the events of history and current affairs.

British medievalist historian Richard Landes has further argued that,

This Pattern, Deutsch observes, is always present, but is most likely to cause persecution, expulsions and mass murder when there is a serious threat it, to the legitimacy of hurting Jews. Such a threat appeared when Europeans, previously Pattern-compliant in their belief in Jewish deicide, became 'Enlightened,' and so had difficulty blaming the Jews for killing a God in which they no longer believed. The key to people's behavior in this regard, he argues, is the need to preserve the legitimacy of hurting Jews, for being Jews. This legitimacy is much more important than actually hurting Jews. And it targets only the Jews. It is not, accordingly, either a hatred or a fear, a form of racism or prejudice in the conventional sense, even though it can lead to those feelings and attitudes. But it is actually unique. No other group can substitute for the Jews as the target whom it is legitimate to hurt.

Author and scholar Dara Horn published an article in The Atlantic reflecting on her previous published doubts about the effectiveness of Holocaust education pedagogy and the rising antisemitism in the wake of the October 7th Massacre in Israel by Palestinians. In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. In particular, Jewish particularism is perceived as an aggression against a supposedly more enlightened universalism. By rejecting this new universalism, the Jews are thus judged to have failed a crucial moral test. As a result, hatred of Jews becomes a sign of moral righteousness. Historically, this pattern manifests in various ways: Christianity and Islam each claimed to embody a universal truth that Jews rejected, justifying persecution. In the modern era, German pseudo-scientific racism and Social Darwinism defined Jews as an inferior race threatening societal progress, while the Soviet Union positioned itself as the victim of Nazism, obscuring the Jewish suffering during the Holocaust and framing Jews as oppressors through its propaganda about Zionism. Horn concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.

This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.

Prevention through education

Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination. However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities.

Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the Holocaust is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. Dara Horn wrote in The Atlantic that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."

Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"

Geographical variation

Main article: Geography of antisemitism

A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism. In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism, which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".

In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project. The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends. In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.

See also

Notes

  1. Also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "Semitism" is a valid concept.
  2. Whether it is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought, see the § Eternalism–contextualism debate paragraph.

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism" (PDF). International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. April 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2019. The unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.
  2. "Jew-hatred". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/2854443694. Retrieved 2 September 2024. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. "anti-Semitism". Oxford Dictionaries – English. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  4. ^ "anti-Semitism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived from the original on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  5. See, for example:
  6. "Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance" (PDF). United Nations. 1 March 1999. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  7. Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). "2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia" (PDF). Executive Council of Australian Jewry. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  8. "Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2023. These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial eugenics, they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in Central Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure Aryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious Jewish plan for world domination.
  9. Novak, David (February 2019). "Supersessionism hard and soft". firstthings.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  10. Sandra Toenies Keating (2014). "Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān". Nicholas of Cusa and Islam. Brill. pp. 202–217. doi:10.1163/9789004274761_014. ISBN 9789004274761. S2CID 170395646. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
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  16. "What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?". BBC News. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  17. Malik, Kenan (24 February 2019). "Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  18. "3D Test of Anti-Semitism: Demonization, Double Standards, Delegitimization". Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs. 11 November 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  19. Bein (1990), p. 595.
  20. ^ Lipstadt (2019), pp. 22–25.
  21. Chanes (2004), p. 150.
  22. Rattansi (2007), pp. 4–5.
  23. Johnston (1983), p. 27.
  24. Laqueur (2006), p. 21.
  25. Johnson (1987), p. 133.
  26. ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Anti-Semites". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2018.. Extract from Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973.
  27. Vermeulen, H.F. (2015). Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment. Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7738-0. Retrieved 7 October 2022. Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."
  28. Kiraz (2001), p. 25; Baasten (2003), p. 67
  29. Bein (1990), p. 594.
  30. Falk (2008), p. 21.
  31. Poliakov, Léon (2003). The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From Voltaire to Wagner. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-8122-1865-7.
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  • Marcus, Ivan G. How the West Became Antisemitic: Jews and the Formation of Europe, 800–1500 (Princeton University Press, 2024) online review of this book

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