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{{Short description|Type of vassal state in India under the British Raj}} {{Short description|Indian vassal states under the British Raj}}
{{About|the British-Indian usage|the global concept|Principality}} {{About|states ruled by princes in the British Raj, the Republic of India and Pakistan|the global concept|Principality}}
{{Colonial India}} {{Colonial India}}
{{Princely states of India topics}} {{Princely states of India topics}}
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{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}} {{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}


A '''princely state''' (also called '''native state''' or '''Indian state''') was a nominally sovereign<ref>{{Harvnb|Ramusack|2004|pp=85}} '''Quote:''' "The British did not create the Indian princes. Before and during the European penetration of India, indigenous rulers achieved dominance through the military protection they provided to dependents and their skill in acquiring revenues to maintain their military and administrative organizations. Major Indian rulers exercised varying degrees and types of sovereign powers before they entered treaty relations with the British. What changed during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries is that the British increasingly restricted the sovereignty of Indian rulers. The ] set boundaries; it extracted resources in the form of military personnel, subsidies or tribute payments, and the purchase of commercial goods at favorable prices, and limited opportunities for other alliances. From the 1810s onwards as the British expanded and consolidated their power, their centralized military despotism dramatically reduced the political options of Indian rulers." (p. 85)</ref> entity of the ] that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of ],<ref>{{Harvnb|Ramusack|2004|p=87}} '''Quote:''' "The British system of indirect rule over Indian states ... provided a model for the efficient use of scarce monetary and personnel resources that could be adopted to imperial acquisitions in Malaya and Africa. (p. 87)"</ref> subject to a ] and the ] or ] of the ]. A '''princely state''' (also called '''native state''' or '''Indian state''') was a nominally sovereign<ref>{{Harvnb|Ramusack|2004|pp=85}} '''Quote:''' "The British did not create the Indian princes. Before and during the European penetration of India, indigenous rulers achieved dominance through the military protection they provided to dependents and their skill in acquiring revenues to maintain their military and administrative organizations. Major Indian rulers exercised varying degrees and types of sovereign powers before they entered treaty relations with the British. What changed during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries is that the British increasingly restricted the sovereignty of Indian rulers. The ] set boundaries; it extracted resources in the form of military personnel, subsidies or tribute payments, and the purchase of commercial goods at favorable prices, and limited opportunities for other alliances. From the 1810s onwards as the British expanded and consolidated their power, their centralized military despotism dramatically reduced the political options of Indian rulers." (p. 85)</ref> entity of the ] that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of ],<ref>{{Harvnb|Ramusack|2004|p=87}} '''Quote:''' "The British system of indirect rule over Indian states ... provided a model for the efficient use of scarce monetary and personnel resources that could be adopted to imperial acquisitions in Malaya and Africa."</ref> subject to a ] and the ] or ] of the ].


In 1920, the ] party under the leadership of ] declared '']'' (self-rule) for Indians as its goal and asked the princes of India to establish responsible government.<ref name="Sisson Wolpert"/> ] played a major role in pushing Congress to confront the princely states and declared in 1929 that "only people who have the right to determine the future of the States must be the people of these States".<ref name="o824"/> In 1937, the Congress won in most parts of ] (not including the princely states) in the ], and started to intervene in the affairs of the states.<ref name="o824"/> In the same year, Gandhi played a major role in proposing a federation involving a union between British India and the princely states, with an Indian central government. In 1946, Nehru observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/>
⚫ At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognized in the Indian subcontinent,<ref>{{citation |last=Bhargava |first=R. P. |title=The Chamber of Princes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAQgNE1uSEgC&pg=PA313 |year=1991 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-81-7211-005-5 |pages=312–323}}</ref> apart from thousands of ] and ]s. In 1947, princely states covered 40% of the area of pre-independence India and constituted 23% of its population.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/who-betrayed-sardar-patel/article5366083.ece|title=Who betrayed Sardar Patel?|newspaper=The Hindu|date=2013-11-18|last1=Datar|first1=Arvind P.}}</ref> The most important states had their own British political residencies: ] of the ]s, ], ] and ] in the South, ], and ] in Central India. The most prominent among those – roughly a quarter of the total – had the status of a ], one whose ruler was entitled to a set number of ]s on ceremonial occasions.

⚫ At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognized in the Indian subcontinent,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhargava |first=R. P. |title=The Chamber of Princes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAQgNE1uSEgC&pg=PA313 |year=1991 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-81-7211-005-5 |pages=312–323}}</ref> apart from thousands of ] and ]s. In 1947, princely states covered 40% of the area of pre-independence India and constituted 23% of its population.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/who-betrayed-sardar-patel/article5366083.ece|title=Who betrayed Sardar Patel?|newspaper=The Hindu|date=2013-11-18|last1=Datar|first1=Arvind P.}}</ref> The most important states had their own British political residencies: ] of the ]s, ], ] and ] in the South, ], and ] in Central India. The most prominent among those – roughly a quarter of the total – had the status of a ], one whose ruler was entitled to a set number of ]s on ceremonial occasions.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}


The princely states varied greatly in status, size, and wealth; the premier 21-gun salute states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir were each over {{Convert|200000|km2||abbr=on}} in size. In 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16 million, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million. At the other end of the scale, the non-salute principality of ] covered an area of {{Convert|49|km2||abbr=on}}, with a population of just below 3,000. Some two hundred of the lesser states even had an area of less than {{Convert|25|km2||0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Markovits2004">{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude |title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=386–409|isbn=9781843310044}}</ref><ref name="scale">{{cite book|pages=33–37|title=The India Office and Burma Office List: 1945|publisher=Harrison & Sons, Ltd.|year=1945}}</ref> The princely states varied greatly in status, size, and wealth; the premier 21-gun salute states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir were each over {{Convert|200000|km2||abbr=on}} in size. In 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16 million, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million. At the other end of the scale, the non-salute principality of ] covered an area of {{Convert|49|km2||abbr=on}}, with a population of just below 3,000. Some two hundred of the lesser states even had an area of less than {{Convert|25|km2||0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Markovits2004">{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude |title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=386–409|isbn=9781843310044}}</ref><ref name="scale">{{cite book|pages=33–37|title=The India Office and Burma Office List: 1945|publisher=Harrison & Sons, Ltd.|year=1945}}</ref>


==History== ==History==
] ]
] ]


The Princely states at the time of Indian independence were mostly formed after the disintegration of the Mughal empire. Many Princely states had a foreign origin due to the long period of external migration to India. Some of these were the rulers of ] (]), ] (]), ] (]) and ] (]). Among the Hindu kingdoms, most of the rulers were ]. Only the ] and a scattering of ] could trace their lineage to the pre-Mughal period.<ref name=AZ>{{Cite book |first=John |last=Zubrzycki |title=Dethroned |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |pages=41 |isbn=978-1-80526-053-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYHgEAAAQBAJ&q=dethroned+patel+alexander |quote=Princely States at the time of Indian independence owed their existence to the slow collapse of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. Centuries of foreign domination meant that many of the rulers who carved out their own states were outsiders. The Nizams of Hyderabad were of Turkoman stock. Bhopal was established by one of Aurangzeb's Afghan generals. Rampurs first ruler, Nawab Faizullah Khan, was a Pashtun. Tonk in present day Rajasthan was founded by Pindari freebooters. The seaboard state of Janjira was the creation of an Abysinnian pirate. Among the Hindu kingdoms, most of the rulers were Kshatriya. Only the Rajput states and a scattering of South Indian kingdoms could trace their lineage to the pre-Mughal period. }}</ref> The princely states at the time of Indian independence were mostly formed after the disintegration of the Mughal empire. Many Princely states had a foreign origin due to the long period of external migration to India. Some of these were the rulers of ] (]), ] (]) and ] (]). Among the Hindu kingdoms, most of the rulers were ]. Only the ] and a scattering of ] could trace their lineage to the pre-Mughal period.<ref name=AZ>{{Cite book |first=John |last=Zubrzycki |title=Dethroned |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |pages=41 |isbn=978-1-80526-053-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYHgEAAAQBAJ&q=dethroned+patel+alexander |quote=Princely States at the time of Indian independence owed their existence to the slow collapse of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. Centuries of foreign domination meant that many of the rulers who carved out their own states were outsiders. The Nizams of Hyderabad were of Turkoman stock. Bhopal was established by one of Aurangzeb's Afghan generals. Rampurs first ruler, Nawab Faizullah Khan, was a Pashtun. Tonk in present day Rajasthan was founded by Pindari freebooters. The seaboard state of Janjira was the creation of an Abysinnian pirate. Among the Hindu kingdoms, most of the rulers were Kshatriya. Only the Rajput states and a scattering of South Indian kingdoms could trace their lineage to the pre-Mughal period. }}</ref>


==British relationship with the princely states== ==British relationship with the princely states==
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==Princely status and titles== ==Princely status and titles==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}
], The ] of ].]] ], The ] of ]]]


The Indian rulers bore various titles – including ] or ] ("king"), ], ], ], ], ], ] (used only by the Maharajas of ], meaning "lord"), Agniraj Maharaj for the rulers of Bhaddaiyan Raj, ], ] ("governor"), Nayak, ], ],<ref name="CommissionSimon1930">{{cite book|author1=Great Britain. Indian Statutory Commission|author2=Viscount John Allsebrook Simon Simon|title=Report of the Indian Statutory Commission ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTEoAAAAMAAJ|access-date=9 June 2012|year=1930|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office}}</ref> ]<ref name="All India reporter">{{cite book|title=All India reporter|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.531944|access-date=9 June 2012|year=1938|publisher=D.V. Chitaley}}</ref> and many others. Whatever the literal meaning and traditional prestige of the ruler's actual title, the British government translated them all as "prince", to avoid the implication that the native rulers could be "kings" with status equal to that of the British monarch. The Indian rulers bore various titles including ] or ] ("king"), ], ], ], ], ], ] (used only by the Maharajas of ], meaning "lord"), Agniraj Maharaj for the rulers of Bhaddaiyan Raj, ], ] ("governor"), ], ], ],<ref name="CommissionSimon1930">{{cite book|author1=Great Britain. Indian Statutory Commission|author2=Viscount John Allsebrook Simon Simon|title=Report of the Indian Statutory Commission ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTEoAAAAMAAJ|access-date=9 June 2012|year=1930|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office}}</ref> ]<ref name="All India reporter">{{cite book|title=All India reporter|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.531944|access-date=9 June 2012|year=1938|publisher=D.V. Chitaley}}</ref> and many others. Whatever the literal meaning and traditional prestige of the ruler's actual title, the British government translated them all as "prince", to avoid the implication that the native rulers could be "kings" with status equal to that of the British monarch.
] in the city of ], ]]] ] in the city of ], ]]]


More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "]", ]" or a variant such as ], ], ] "Rao", "Rawat" or Rawal. Also in this 'class' were several ] and a few particular titles, such as ], ] (or Mānkari/Maankari), ], ], Istamuradar, ], Raja Inamdar etc. More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "]", or a variant such as Raje, ], ], ], ], Rawat, or ]. Also in this 'class' were several ] and a few particular titles, such as ], ], ], Sar Desai, Istamuradar, ], Raja Inamdar, etc. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha-" ("great", compare for example "]") in their titles, as in ''Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao'', etc. This was used in many princely states including ], ] and ]. The state of ] also had ] styled ], applied only to ] in ].


⚫ ] rulers almost all used the title "]" (the Arabic honorific of ''naib'', "deputy") originally used by Mughal governors, who became ''de facto'' autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire, with the prominent exceptions of the ] of ], the ]/] of ] and the ].
The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha" ("great", compare for example Grand Duke) in their titles, as in ''Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao'', etc. This was used in many princely states including ], ] and ]. The state of ] also had ] styled ], applied only to sister of king in Kerala.
⚫ Other less usual titles included ], ], ], ] (unique to ]) and Mir (from ]).


⚫ The ] princes concentrated at ] usually adopted titles when attaining princely rank. A title at a level of ] was used.
⚫ There were also compound titles, such as (Maha)rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the ]. For example, the addition of the adjective ''Bahadur'' raised the status of the titleholder one level.

⚫ There were also compound titles, such as (Maha)rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the ]. For example, the addition of the adjective ''Bahadur'' (from Persian, literally meaning "brave") raised the status of the titleholder one level.


Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of additional titles such as ] in South India. This should not be confused with various titles and suffixes not specific to princes but used by entire (sub)castes. This is almost analogous to ] title in North India. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of additional titles such as ] in South India. This should not be confused with various titles and suffixes not specific to princes but used by entire (sub)castes. This is almost analogous to ] title in North India.

⚫ The ] princes concentrated at ] usually adopted titles when attaining princely rank; at a level of ] was used.

⚫ ] rulers almost all used the title "]" (the Arabic honorific of ''naib'', "deputy", used of the Mughal governors, who became de facto autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire), with the prominent exceptions of the ] of ], the ]/] of ] and the ].
⚫ Other less usual titles included ], ], Jam, ] (unique to ]) and Mir (from ]).


==Precedence and prestige== ==Precedence and prestige==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}
However, the actual importance of a princely state cannot be read from the title of its ruler, which was usually ''granted'' (or at least recognized) as a favor, often in recognition for loyalty and services rendered to the ]. Although some titles were raised once or even repeatedly, there was no automatic updating when a state gained or lost real power. In fact, princely titles were even awarded to holders of domains (mainly ]s) and even ]s and ]s, which were not states at all. Most of the zamindar who hold the princely titles were in fact erstwhile princely and royal states reduced to zamindari by the British EIC. Various sources give significantly different numbers of states and domains of the various types. Even in general, the definition of titles and domains are clearly not well-established. The actual importance of a princely state could not be read from the title of its ruler, which was usually ''granted'' (or at least recognized) as a favor, often in recognition for loyalty and services rendered to the ]. Although some titles were raised once or even repeatedly, there was no automatic updating when a state gained or lost real power. In fact, princely titles were even awarded to holders of domains (mainly ]) and even ] and ], which were not states at all. Most of the ''zamindars'' who held princely titles were in fact erstwhile princely and royal states reduced to becoming ''zamindars'' by the British East India Company. Various sources give significantly different numbers of states and domains of the various types. Even in general, the definition of titles and domains are clearly not well-established.


], ruler of the ] in ], with his brothers and sisters. In 1799, his grandfather, then aged five, had been granted dominion of Mysore by the British and forced into a ]. The British later directly governed the state between 1831 and 1881.]] ], ruler of the ] in ], with his brothers and sisters. In 1799, his grandfather, then aged five, had been granted dominion of Mysore by the British and forced into a ]. The British later directly governed the state between 1831 and 1881]]
]. The palace which was built as a hunting lodge later became famous for the first ]s that were found in the adjacent jungle and raised in the palace zoo.]] ]. The palace which was built as a hunting lodge later became famous for the first ]s that were found in the adjacent jungle and raised in the palace zoo]]
] Bahadur Khan III (seated centre in an ornate chair) shown in an 1885 photograph with state officials and family.]] ] Bahadur Khan III (seated centre in an ornate chair) shown in an 1885 photograph with state officials and family]]
]. Sikkim was under the ] of the Provincial government of Bengal; its ruler received a 15-gun salute.]] ]. Sikkim was under the ] of the Provincial government of Bengal; its ruler received a 15-gun salute]]


In addition to their titles all princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, the ] and the ]. Women could be appointed as "Knights" (instead of Dames) of these orders. Rulers entitled to 21-gun and 19-gun salutes were normally appointed to the highest rank, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India. In addition to their titles, all princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, the ] and the ]. Women could be appointed as "Knights" (instead of Dames) of these orders. Rulers entitled to 21-gun and 19-gun salutes were normally appointed to the highest rank, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India.


Many Indian princes served in the ], the ], or in local guard or police forces, often rising to high ranks; some even served while on the throne. Many of these were appointed as an ], either to the ruling prince of their own house (in the case of relatives of such rulers) or indeed to the British monarchs. Many saw ], both on the subcontinent and on other fronts, during both World Wars. Many Indian princes served in the ], the ], or in local guard or police forces, often rising to high ranks; some even served while on the throne. Many of these were appointed as an ], either to the ruling prince of their own house (in the case of relatives of such rulers) or to British monarchs. Many saw ], both on the subcontinent and on other fronts, during both World Wars.


Apart from those members of the princely houses who entered military service and who distinguished themselves, a good number of princes received honorary ranks as officers in the British and Indian Armed Forces. Those ranks were conferred based on several factors, including their heritage, lineage, gun-salute (or lack of one) as well as personal character or martial traditions. After the First and Second World Wars, the princely rulers of several of the major states, including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and Hyderabad, were given honorary general officer ranks as a result of their states' contributions to the war effort. Apart from those members of the princely houses who entered military service and who distinguished themselves, a good number of princes received honorary ranks as officers in the British and Indian Armed Forces. Those ranks were conferred based on several factors, including their heritage, lineage, gun-salute (or lack of one) as well as personal character or martial traditions. After the First and Second World Wars, the princely rulers of several of the major states, including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and Hyderabad, were given honorary general officer ranks as a result of their states' contributions to the war effort.
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===Salute states=== ===Salute states===
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}
{{main|Salute state}} {{main|Salute state}}


] of ], General Sir ] (Founder of The ]), with British officers and ] ] (]s, ]s & ]s) in ], ], {{circa|1879}}.]] ] of ], General Sir ] (Founder of The ]), with British officers and ] ] (]s, ]s & ]s) in ], ], {{circa|1879}}]]
The ] system was used to set unambiguously the precedence of the major rulers in the area in which the British East India Company was active, or generally of the states and their dynasties. As heads of a state, certain princely rulers were entitled to be saluted by the firing of an odd number of guns between three and 21, with a greater number of guns indicating greater prestige. Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis. Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion. The states of all these rulers (about 120) were known as ]. The ] system was used to set unambiguously the precedence of the major rulers in the area in which the British East India Company was active, or generally of the states and their dynasties. As heads of a state, certain princely rulers were entitled to be saluted by the firing of an odd number of guns between three and 21, with a greater number of guns indicating greater prestige. Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis. Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion. The states of all these rulers (about 120) were known as ].


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As a rule the majority of gun-salute princes had at least nine, with numbers below that usually the prerogative of Arab Sheikhs of the ], also under British protection. As a rule the majority of gun-salute princes had at least nine, with numbers below that usually the prerogative of Arab Sheikhs of the ], also under British protection.


There were many so-called non-salute states of lower prestige. Since the total of salute states was 117 and there were more than 500 princely states, most rulers were not entitled to any gun salute. Not all of these were minor rulers – ], for example, was both larger and more populous than ], but the Maharaja of Karauli was entitled to a 17-gun salute and the Maharaja of Surguja was not entitled to any gun salute at all.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lethbridge |first=Sir Roper |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Golden_Book_of_India_A_Genealogical.html?id=zykYAAAAYAAJ#v=onepage&q=karauli%20gun%20salute&f=false |title=The Golden Book of India. A Genealogical and Biographical Dictionary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other Personages, Titled Or Decorated, of the Indian Empire. With an Appendix for Ceylon |date=1900 |publisher=S. Low, Marston & Company |pages=132 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Office |first=Great Britain India |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_India_List_and_India_Office_List_for.html?id=HGJPAAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=karauli%20gun%20salute&f=false |title=The India List and India Office List for ... |date=1902 |publisher=Harrison and Sons |pages=172 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hooja |first=Rima |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_Rajasthan.html?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ#karauli%20gun%20salute |title=A History of Rajasthan |date=2006 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-291-0890-6 |pages=856 |language=en}}</ref> There were many so-called non-salute states of lower prestige. Since the total of salute states was 117 and there were more than 500 princely states, most rulers were not entitled to any gun salute. Not all of these were minor rulers – ], for example, was both larger and more populous than ], but the Maharaja of Karauli was entitled to a 17-gun salute and the Maharaja of Surguja was not entitled to any gun salute at all.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lethbridge |first=Sir Roper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zykYAAAAYAAJ&q=karauli+gun+salute |title=The Golden Book of India. A Genealogical and Biographical Dictionary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other Personages, Titled Or Decorated, of the Indian Empire. With an Appendix for Ceylon |date=1900 |publisher=S. Low, Marston & Company |pages=132 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Office |first=Great Britain India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGJPAAAAMAAJ&q=karauli+gun+salute |title=The India List and India Office List for ... |date=1902 |publisher=Harrison and Sons |pages=172 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hooja |first=Rima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ |title=A History of Rajasthan |date=2006 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-291-0890-6 |pages=856 |language=en}}</ref>


A number of princes, in the broadest sense of the term, were not even acknowledged as such.{{example needed|?|date=December 2018}} On the other hand, the dynasties of certain defunct states were allowed to keep their princely status – they were known as ]s, such as the Nawab of ]. There were also certain estates of British India which were rendered as ]s, having equal princely status.<ref name="Patel1957">{{cite book|author=Govindlal Dalsukhbhai Patel|title=The land problem of reorganized Bombay state|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvQCAAAAMAAJ|access-date=9 June 2012|year=1957|publisher=N. M. Tripathi}}</ref> Though none of these princes were awarded gun salutes, princely titles in this category were recognised as a form of ] of salute states, and were not even in direct relation with the paramount power. A number of princes, in the broadest sense of the term, were not even acknowledged as such.{{example needed|?|date=December 2018}} On the other hand, the dynasties of certain defunct states were allowed to keep their princely status – they were known as ]s, such as the Nawab of ]. There were also certain estates of British India which were rendered as ], having equal princely status.<ref name="Patel1957">{{cite book|author=Govindlal Dalsukhbhai Patel|title=The land problem of reorganized Bombay state|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvQCAAAAMAAJ|access-date=9 June 2012|year=1957|publisher=N. M. Tripathi}}</ref> Though none of these princes were awarded gun salutes, princely titles in this category were recognised as a form of ] of salute states, and were not even in direct relation with the paramount power.


===Largest princely states by area=== ===Largest princely states by area===
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|{{flagicon image|Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg}} ] |{{flagicon image|Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg}} ]
| style="text-align:right"| 84,471 | style="text-align:right"| 84,471
| 4,021,616 ||including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist minority) | 4,021,616 ||including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu and Buddhist minority)
| ] | ]
| ''Maharaja'', ''], Hindu'' | ''Maharaja'', ''], Hindu''
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| style="text-align:right"| 16,338,534 ||(mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population) | style="text-align:right"| 16,338,534 ||(mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population)
| ], ], ] | ], ], ]
| '']'', ''], Sunni Muslim'' | '']'', ''], Muslim''
| style="text-align:center"| 21 | style="text-align:center"| 21
|- |-
| align="left" |{{Flag|Khanate of Kalat}}|| align="right" | 73,278 || align="right" | 250,211 || align="left" | (chiefly Sunni Muslim) || align="left" | ] || align="left" | ''Khan'' or ''Wali'', ], Sunni Muslim || align="center" | 19 | align="left" |{{Flag|Khanate of Kalat}}|| align="right" | 73,278 || align="right" | 250,211 || align="left" | (chiefly Muslim) || align="left" | ] || align="left" | ''Khan'' or ''Wali'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 19
|- |-
| {{flagicon image|Jodhpur.svg}} ] | {{flagicon image|Jodhpur.svg}} ]
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|{{flagicon image|Flag of State of Bahawalpur.svg}} ] |{{flagicon image|Flag of State of Bahawalpur.svg}} ]
| style="text-align:right"|17,726 | style="text-align:right"|17,726
| style="text-align:right"|1,341,209 ||(Chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu, Sikh minority) | style="text-align:right"|1,341,209 ||(Chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu and Sikh minority)
|] |]
|''Nawab Amir, Abbasid, Muslim'' |''Nawab Amir, Abbasid, Muslim''
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==Doctrine of lapse== ==Doctrine of lapse==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}
{{Main|Doctrine of lapse}} {{Main|Doctrine of lapse}}


A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the ], a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir. A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the ], a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir.


The doctrine of lapse was pursued most vigorously by the Governor-General ], 10th Earl (later 1st Marquess) of ]. Dalhousie annexed seven states, including ] (Oudh), whose Nawabs he had accused of misrule, and the ] states of ], ], ], ], and ]. Resentment over the annexation of these states turned to indignation when the heirlooms of the Maharajas of Nagpur were auctioned off in Calcutta. Dalhousie's actions contributed to the rising discontent amongst the upper castes which played a large part in the outbreak of the ]. The last Mughal Badshah (emperor), whom many of the mutineers saw as a figurehead to rally around, was deposed following its suppression. The doctrine of lapse was pursued most vigorously by the Governor-General ], 10th Earl (later 1st Marquess) of ]. Dalhousie annexed seven states, including ] (Oudh), whose Nawabs he had accused of misrule, and the ] states of ], ], ], ], and ]. Resentment over the annexation of these states turned to indignation when the heirlooms of the Maharajas of Nagpur were auctioned off in Calcutta. Dalhousie's actions contributed to the rising discontent amongst the upper castes which played a large part in the outbreak of the ]. The last Mughal ''badshah'' (emperor), whom many of the mutineers saw as a figurehead to rally around, was deposed following its suppression.


In response to the unpopularity of the doctrine, it was discontinued with the end of Company rule and the ]'s assumption of direct power over India. In response to the unpopularity of the doctrine, it was discontinued with the end of Company rule and the ]'s assumption of direct power over India.
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The ] (''Narender Mandal'' or ''Narendra Mandal'') was an institution established in 1920 by a ] of the ] to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the ] in 1947.<ref>Vapal Pangunni Menon (1956) ''The Story of the Integration of the Indian States'', Macmillan Co., pp. 17–19</ref> The ] (''Narender Mandal'' or ''Narendra Mandal'') was an institution established in 1920 by a ] of the ] to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the ] in 1947.<ref>Vapal Pangunni Menon (1956) ''The Story of the Integration of the Indian States'', Macmillan Co., pp. 17–19</ref>


By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose agencies were under the authority of India's provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the governor-general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies: the ], ], ], ], ] and the ]. The ] was combined with the princely states of northern Bombay Presidency into the ]. ] was separated from the Central India Agency and given its own Resident, and the states of ] and ], formerly with Agents under the authority of the United Provinces, were placed under the ] in 1936. The princely states of ] and ] in Mysore Presidency were transferred to the agency of the Mysore Resident in 1939. By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose agencies were under the authority of India's provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the governor-general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies: the ], ], ], ], ] and the ]. The ] was combined with the princely states of northern Bombay Presidency into the ]. ] was separated from the Central India Agency and given its own Resident, and the states of ] and ], formerly with Agents under the authority of the United Provinces, were placed under the ] in 1936. The princely states of ] and ] in Mysore Presidency were transferred to the agency of the Mysore Resident in 1939.


;Principal princely states in 1947 ;Principal princely states in 1947
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|+ Five large princely states in direct political relations with the Central Government in India<ref name=igi-92>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=92}}</ref><ref>"Mysore", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 173, Macmillan & Co.</ref><ref>"Jammu and Kashmir", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 171, Macmillan & Co.</ref><ref>"Hyderabad", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 170, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ Five large princely states in direct political relations with the Central Government in India<ref name=igi-92>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=92}}</ref><ref>"Mysore", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 173, Macmillan & Co.</ref><ref>"Jammu and Kashmir", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 171, Macmillan & Co.</ref><ref>"Hyderabad", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 170, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | {{flag|Baroda State}} || align="center" | 13,866 || align="center" | 3,343,477 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 323.26 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident at Baroda | align="center" | {{flag|Baroda State}} || align="center" | 13,866 || align="center" | 3,343,477 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 323.26 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident at Baroda
|- |-
| align="center" | {{flag|Hyderabad State}} || align="center" | 82,698 || align="center" | 16,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) || align="center" | 1582.43 || align="center" | '']'', ], Sunni Muslim || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Hyderabad | align="center" | {{flag|Hyderabad State}} || align="center" | 82,698 || align="center" | 16,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) || align="center" | 1582.43 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Hyderabad
|- |-
| align="center" | {{flagicon image|Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg}} ] || align="center" | 84,471 || align="center" | 4,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations) || align="center" | 463.95 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Jammu & Kashmir | align="center" | {{flagicon image|Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg}} ] || align="center" | 84,471 || align="center" | 4,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations) || align="center" | 463.95 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Jammu & Kashmir
|- |-
|align="center" | {{flag|Kingdom of Mysore}} || align="center" | 29,458 || align="center" | 7,328,896 (Chiefly Hindu, with sizeable Muslim populations) || align="center" | 1001.38 || align="center" | ''Wodeyar'' (means Owner in ]) and ''Maharaja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in ] |align="center" | {{flag|Kingdom of Mysore}} || align="center" | 29,458 || align="center" | 7,328,896 (chiefly Hindu, with sizeable Muslim populations) || align="center" | 1001.38 || align="center" | ''Wodeyar'' (means Owner in ]) and ''Maharaja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in ]
|- |-
|align="center" | {{flag|Gwalior State}} || align="center" | 26,397 || align="center" | 4,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 356.75 || align="center" | '']'', ], ] || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | ] at Gwalior |align="center" | {{flag|Gwalior State}} || align="center" | 26,397 || align="center" | 4,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 356.75 || align="center" | '']'', ], ] || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | ] at Gwalior
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|+ 88 princely states forming the Central India Agency<ref name=igi-93>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=93}}</ref><ref>"Central India Agency", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 168, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ 88 princely states forming the Central India Agency<ref name=igi-93>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=93}}</ref><ref>"Central India Agency", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 168, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 9,341 || align="center" | 1,513,966 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 304.9 || align="center" | '']'', ], ] || align="center" | 19 (plus 2 local) || align="center" | ] at Indore | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 9,341 || align="center" | 1,513,966 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 304.9 || align="center" | '']'', ], ] || align="center" | 19 (plus 2 local) || align="center" | ] at Indore
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| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 13,000 || align="center" | 1,820,445 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 65 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], ] || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Second largest state in ] | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 13,000 || align="center" | 1,820,445 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 65 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], ] || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Second largest state in ]
|- |-
| align="center" | 85 smaller and minor states (1941) || align="center" | 22,995 (1901) || align="center" | 2.74&nbsp;million (Chiefly Hindu, 1901) || align="center" | 129 (1901) || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | | align="center" | 85 smaller and minor states (1941) || align="center" | 22,995 (1901) || align="center" | 2.74&nbsp;million (chiefly Hindu, 1901) || align="center" | 129 (1901) || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|- |-
! Total !! 77,395 (1901) !! 8.51&nbsp;million (1901) !! 421 (1901) !! colspan="3" | ! Total !! 77,395 (1901) !! 8.51&nbsp;million (1901) !! 421 (1901) !! colspan="3" |
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|+ 42 princely states forming the Eastern States Agency<ref name="igi-93"/><ref>"Eastern States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 168, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ 42 princely states forming the Eastern States Agency<ref name="igi-93"/><ref>"Eastern States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 168, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 1,318 || align="center" | 639,898 (chiefly Hindu and Muslim) || align="center" | 91 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ] (Kshattriya), Brahmo || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Resident for the Eastern States | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 1,318 || align="center" | 639,898 (chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu population) || align="center" | 91 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ] (Kshattriya), Brahmo || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Resident for the Eastern States
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 4,116 || align="center" | 513,010 (chiefly Vaishnavite, with a sizeable ] minority) || align="center" | 54 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ], Vaishnavite (Kshattriya) || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Resident for the Eastern States | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 4,116 || align="center" | 513,010 (chiefly ], with a sizeable ] minority) || align="center" | 54 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', ], Vaishnavite (Kshattriya) || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Resident for the Eastern States
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 4,243 || align="center" | 990,977 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 49 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Kshattriya, Hindu || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Resident for the Eastern States | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 4,243 || align="center" | 990,977 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 49 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Kshattriya, Hindu || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Resident for the Eastern States
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|+ Two states under the suzerainty of the Resident at Gwalior, Gwalior having direct relations with the central government.<ref name="igi-92"/><ref>"Gwalior Residency", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 170, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ Two states under the suzerainty of the Resident at Gwalior, Gwalior having direct relations with the central government.<ref name="igi-92"/><ref>"Gwalior Residency", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 170, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 893 || align="center" | 464,919 (chiefly ] and ], in 1931) || align="center" | 51 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | Political Agent at Rampur | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 893 || align="center" | 464,919 (chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu population in 1931) || align="center" | 51 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | Political Agent at Rampur
|- |-
|align="center" | ] || align="center" | 875 || align="center" | 391,165 (chiefly Hindu, 1931) || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | '']'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 13 (plus 2 local) || align="center" | Political Agent at Benares |align="center" | ] || align="center" | 875 || align="center" | 391,165 (chiefly Hindu, 1931) || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | '']'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 13 (plus 2 local) || align="center" | Political Agent at Benares
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|+ 23 princely states forming the ], with the Resident for Rajputana at Abu<ref name=igi-94-95>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|pp=94–95}}</ref><ref>"Rajputana", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 175, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ 23 princely states forming the ], with the Resident for Rajputana at Abu<ref name=igi-94-95>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|pp=94–95}}</ref><ref>"Rajputana", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 175, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 13,170 || align="center" | 1,926,698 (chiefly ] and ]) || align="center" | 107 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 19 (plus 2 personal) || align="center" | Political Agent for the ] and Southern Rajputana States | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 13,170 || align="center" | 1,926,698 (chiefly Hindu and ]) || align="center" | 107 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 19 (plus 2 personal) || align="center" | Political Agent for the ] and Southern Rajputana States
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 15,610 || align="center" | 3,040,876 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 188.6 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 17 (plus 2 personal) || align="center" | Political Agent at Jaipur | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 15,610 || align="center" | 3,040,876 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 188.6 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 17 (plus 2 personal) || align="center" | Political Agent at Jaipur
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|+ Three princely states forming the Baluchistan Agency<ref name=igi-96>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=96}}</ref><ref>"Baluchistan States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 160, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ Three princely states forming the Baluchistan Agency<ref name=igi-96>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=96}}</ref><ref>"Baluchistan States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 160, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" |]|| align="center" | 73,278 || align="center" | 250,211 (chiefly Sunni Muslim) || align="center" | 21.3 || align="center" | ''Khan'' or ''Wali'', ], Sunni Muslim || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat | align="center" |]|| align="center" | 73,278 || align="center" | 250,211 (chiefly Muslim) || align="center" | 21.3 || align="center" | ''Khan'' or ''Wali'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat
|- |-
| align="center" |]|| align="center" | 7,132 || align="center" | 68,972 (chiefly Sunni Muslim) || align="center" | 6.1 || align="center" | ''Jam'', ], Sunni Muslim || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat | align="center" |]|| align="center" | 7,132 || align="center" | 68,972 (chiefly Muslim) || align="center" | 6.1 || align="center" | ''Jam'', ], Muslim || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat
|- |-
| align="center" |]|| align="center" | 14,210 || align="center" | 33,763 (chiefly Sunni Muslim) || align="center" | 2 || align="center" | ''Nawab'', ], Sunni Muslim || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat | align="center" |]|| align="center" | 14,210 || align="center" | 33,763 (chiefly Muslim) || align="center" | 2 || align="center" | ''Nawab'', ], Muslim || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat
|- |-
! Total !! 94,620 !! 352,946 !! 29.4 !! colspan="3" | ! Total !! 94,620 !! 352,946 !! 29.4 !! colspan="3" |
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|+ 5 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of ]<ref name="igi-96"/> |+ 5 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of ]<ref name="igi-96"/>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand) ]!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 7,091 || align="center" | 2,952,157 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) || align="center" | 100 || align="center" | '']'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler)|| align="center" | Resident in Travancore and Cochin | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 7,091 || align="center" | 2,952,157 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) || align="center" | 100 || align="center" | '']'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler)|| align="center" | Resident in Travancore and Cochin
Line 307: Line 311:
|align="center" | ] || align="center" | 1,362 || align="center" | 812,025 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | ''Raja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 17|| align="center" | Resident in Travancore and Cochin |align="center" | ] || align="center" | 1,362 || align="center" | 812,025 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | ''Raja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 17|| align="center" | Resident in Travancore and Cochin
|- |-
| align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 1,100 || align="center" | 380,440 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | ''Raja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Collector of Trichinopoly (''ex officio'' Political Agent) | align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 1,100 || align="center" | 380,440 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | ''Raja'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Collector of Trichinopoly (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|- |-
| align="center" | 2 minor states (] and ])|| align="center" | 416 || align="center" | 43,464 || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | | align="center" | 2 minor states (] and ])|| align="center" | 416 || align="center" | 43,464 || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
Line 319: Line 323:
|+ 354 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of ]<ref name=igi-97>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref> |+ 354 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of ]<ref name=igi-97>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 2,855 || align="center" | 910,011 (chiefly ]) || align="center" | 48 || align="center" | '']''", Chhtrapati "], Hindu || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Political Agent for Kolhapur | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 2,855 || align="center" | 910,011 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 48 || align="center" | '']''", Chhtrapati "], Hindu || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Political Agent for Kolhapur
|- |-
|align="center" | ] || align="center" | 7,616 || align="center" | 488,022 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 20 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent in Cutch |align="center" | ] || align="center" | 7,616 || align="center" | 488,022 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 20 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent in Cutch
|- |-
| align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 3,284 || align="center" | 395,428 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar | align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 3,284 || align="center" | 395,428 (chiefly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population) || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
|- |-
| align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 3,791 || align="center" | 336,779 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 31 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar | align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 3,791 || align="center" | 336,779 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 31 || align="center" | '']'', ] ], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
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|+ 15 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the ]<ref name=igi-102>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref> |+ 15 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the ]<ref name=igi-102>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 3,745 || align="center" | 284,465 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 4 || align="center" | '']'', Kshatriya, ] || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Political Agent for the ] ] | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 3,745 || align="center" | 284,465 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 4 || align="center" | '']'', Kshatriya, ] || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Political Agent for the ] ]
|- |-
|align="center" | ] || align="center" | 13,062 || align="center" | 306,501 (chiefly Animist) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Kshatriya, Hindu || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent for the ] ] |align="center" | ] || align="center" | 13,062 || align="center" | 306,501 (chiefly ]) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Kshatriya, Hindu || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent for the ] ]
|- |-
| align="center" | 13 other states|| align="center" | 12,628 || align="center" | 1,339,353 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 16 || align="center" | || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | | align="center" | 13 other states|| align="center" | 12,628 || align="center" | 1,339,353 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 16 || align="center" | || align="center" | 11 || align="center" |
Line 355: Line 359:
|+ 45 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the ]<ref name=igi-100>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref><ref>"Punjab States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 174, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ 45 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the ]<ref name=igi-100>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref><ref>"Punjab States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 174, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 16,434 || align="center" | 1,341,209 (chiefly Muslim) || align="center" | 335 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent for ] States and Bahawalpur | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 16,434 || align="center" | 1,341,209 (chiefly Muslim) || align="center" | 335 || align="center" | '']'', ], Muslim || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent for ] States and Bahawalpur
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|+ 26 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of ]<ref name=igi-103>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref><ref>"Assam States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 160, Macmillan & Co.</ref> |+ 26 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of ]<ref name=igi-103>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref><ref>"Assam States", Indian States and Agencies, ''The Statesman's Year Book 1947,'' pg 160, Macmillan & Co.</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1941 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! ] for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] || align="center" | 270.3 || align="center" | 512,069 (chiefly Hindu and Animist) || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | '']'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Political Agent in Manipur | align="center" | ] || align="center" | 270.3 || align="center" | 512,069 (chiefly Hindu and animist) || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | '']'', ], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Political Agent in Manipur
|- |-
|align="center" | ] || align="center" | 3,778 || align="center" | 213,586 (Khasi and Christian) || align="center" | ~1 (1941, approx.) || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | Deputy Commissioner, Khasi and Jaintia Hills |align="center" | ] || align="center" | 3,778 || align="center" | 213,586 (chiefly Khasi and Christian) || align="center" | ~1 (1941, approx.) || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | Deputy Commissioner, Khasi and Jaintia Hills
|- |-
! Total !! 12,416 !! 725,655 !! 20 (1941; approx.) !! colspan="3" | ! Total !! 12,416 !! 725,655 !! 20 (1941; approx.) !! colspan="3" |
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|+ 52 states in ]: all except ], one of the ], were included in British India until 1937<ref name=igi-101>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref> |+ 52 states in ]: all except ], one of the ], were included in British India until 1937<ref name=igi-101>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=}}</ref>
|- |-
! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand ])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer ! Name of princely state !! Area in square miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees)!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-salute for ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|- |-
| align="center" | ] (Thibaw)|| align="center" | 5,086 || align="center" | 105,000 (]) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', ], Buddhist || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Superintendent, ] | align="center" | ] (Thibaw)|| align="center" | 5,086 || align="center" | 105,000 (]) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', ], Buddhist || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Superintendent, ]
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| align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 2,717 || align="center" | 44,000 (Buddhist) || align="center" | 0.5 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', Shan, Buddhist || align="center" | || align="center" | Superintendent Southern Shan States | align="center" | ]|| align="center" | 2,717 || align="center" | 44,000 (Buddhist) || align="center" | 0.5 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', Shan, Buddhist || align="center" | || align="center" | Superintendent Southern Shan States
|- |-
| align="center" | 5 ]|| align="center" | 3,130 || align="center" | 45,795 (Buddhist and Animist) || align="center" | 0.035 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', ], Buddhist|| align="center" | || align="center" | Superintendent Southern Shan States | align="center" | 5 ]|| align="center" | 3,130 || align="center" | 45,795 (Buddhist and animist) || align="center" | 0.035 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', ], Buddhist|| align="center" | || align="center" | Superintendent Southern Shan States
|- |-
| align="center" | 44 other states|| align="center" | 42,198 || align="center" | 792,152 (Buddhist and Animist) || align="center" | 8.5 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | | align="center" | 44 other states|| align="center" | 42,198 || align="center" | 792,152 (Buddhist and animist) || align="center" | 8.5 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|- |-
! Total !! 67,011 !! 1,177,987 !! 13.5 !! colspan="3" | ! Total !! 67,011 !! 1,177,987 !! 13.5 !! colspan="3" |
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{{Main|Indian State Forces}} {{Main|Indian State Forces}}


The armies of the Native States were bound by many restrictions that were imposed by ]s. They existed mainly for ceremonial use and for internal policing, although certain units designated as Imperial Service Troops, were available for service alongside the regular Indian Army upon request by the British government.<ref>Lt. Gen. Sir George MacMunn, page 198 "The Armies of India", {{ISBN|0-947554-02-5}}</ref> The armies of the princely states were bound by many restrictions that were imposed by ]s. They existed mainly for ceremonial use and for internal policing, although certain units designated as Imperial Service Troops, were available for service alongside the regular Indian Army upon request by the British government.<ref>Lt. Gen. Sir George MacMunn, page 198 "The Armies of India", {{ISBN|0-947554-02-5}}</ref>


According to the {{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=85}}, <blockquote>Since a chief can neither attack his neighbour nor fall out with a foreign nation, it follows that he needs no military establishment which is not required either for police purposes or personal display, or for cooperation with the Imperial Government. The treaty made with Gwalior in 1844, and the instrument of transfer given to Mysore in 1881, alike base the restriction of the forces of the State upon the broad ground of protection. The former explained in detail that unnecessary armies were embarrassing to the State itself and the cause of disquietude to others: a few months later a striking proof of this was afforded by the army of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore. The British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organised for the defence not merely of ], but of all the possessions under the ] of the King-Emperor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=85}}</ref></blockquote> According to the {{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=85}}, <blockquote>Since a chief can neither attack his neighbour nor fall out with a foreign nation, it follows that he needs no military establishment which is not required either for police purposes or personal display, or for cooperation with the Imperial Government. The treaty made with Gwalior in 1844, and the instrument of transfer given to Mysore in 1881, alike base the restriction of the forces of the State upon the broad ground of protection. The former explained in detail that unnecessary armies were embarrassing to the State itself and the cause of disquietude to others: a few months later a striking proof of this was afforded by the army of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore. The British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organised for the defence not merely of ], but of all the possessions under the ] of the King-Emperor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=85}}</ref></blockquote>
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==Political integration of princely states== ==Political integration of princely states==


In 1920, Congress declared that attainment of ''swaraj'' for Indians was its goal. It asked "all the sovereign princes of India to establish full responsible government in their states". ] assured the princes that Congress will not intervene in internal affairs of the princely states.<ref name="Sisson Wolpert">{{cite book | last1=Sisson | first1=Richard | last2=Wolpert | first2=Stanley | title=Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-Independence Phase | publisher=University of California Press | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-520-30163-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47jADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA381 | access-date=2023-08-14 | page=381}}</ref> In 1920, Congress under the leadership of ] declared that attainment of ''swaraj'' for Indians was its goal. It asked "all the sovereign princes of India to establish full responsible government in their states". Gandhi assured the princes that Congress will not intervene in internal affairs of the princely states.<ref name="Sisson Wolpert">{{cite book | last1=Sisson | first1=Richard | last2=Wolpert | first2=Stanley | title=Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-Independence Phase | publisher=University of California Press | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-520-30163-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47jADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA381 | access-date=2023-08-14 | page=381}}</ref> Congress reiterated their demand at 1928 Calcutta Congress, "This Congress assures the people of the Indian States of its sympathy with and support in their legitimate and peaceful struggle for the attainment of full responsible government in the States."<ref name="o824">{{cite book | last=Purushotham | first=S. | title=From Raj to Republic: Sovereignty, Violence, and Democracy in India | publisher=Stanford University Press | series=South Asia in Motion | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-5036-1455-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lQMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT40 | access-date=2024-08-11 | page=40}}</ref>


In his presidential address at Lahore session in 1929, ] declared: "The Indian states cannot live apart from the rest of the (sic) India".<ref name="Phadnis">{{cite book | last=Phadnis | first=Urmila | title=Towards the Integration of Indian States, 1919-1947 | publisher=Asia Publishing House | series=Thesis Phil. Banaras Hindu University | year=1968 | isbn=978-0-210-31180-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvYDAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2023-08-14 | page=90}}</ref> ] played a major role in pushing Congress to confront the princely states.<ref name="o824"/> In his presidential address at Lahore session in 1929, ] declared: "The Indian states cannot live apart from the rest of the (sic) India".<ref name="Phadnis">{{cite book | last=Phadnis | first=Urmila | title=Towards the Integration of Indian States, 1919-1947 | publisher=Asia Publishing House | series=Thesis Phil. Banaras Hindu University | year=1968 | isbn=978-0-210-31180-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvYDAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2023-08-14 | page=90}}</ref> Nehru added he is "no believer in kings or princes" and that "the only people who have the right to determine the future of the States must be the people of these States. This Congress which claims self-determination cannot deny it to the people of the states."<ref name="o824"/>


In 1937, Gandhi played a major role in formation of federation involving a union between British India and the princely states with an Indian central government.<ref name="Singh 2017">{{cite book | last=Singh | first=R. | title=Gandhi and the Nobel Peace Prize | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-03612-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SitEDwAAQBAJ | access-date=2023-08-14 | page=4}}</ref> After the Congress's electoral victory ], protests, sometimes violent, and '']'' against the princely states were organised and were supported by the Congress's ministries. Gandhi fasted in ] to demand "full responsible government" and added that "the people" were "the real rulers of Rajkot under the paramountcy of the Congress". Gandhi termed this protest as struggle against "the disciplined hordes of the British empire". Gandhi proclaimed that the Congress had now every right to intervene in "the states which are the vassals of the British".<ref name="o824"/> In 1937, Gandhi played a major role in formation of federation involving a union between British India and the princely states with an Indian central government.<ref name="Singh 2017">{{cite book | last=Singh | first=R. | title=Gandhi and the Nobel Peace Prize | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-03612-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SitEDwAAQBAJ | access-date=2023-08-14 | page=4}}</ref>


In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/> In 1939, Nehru challenged the existence of the princely states and added that "the states in modern India are anachronistic and do not deserve to exist."<ref name="o824"/> In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/>


] took funding from the ] and supported them to remain independent even after the ]. ] particularly hailed the Hindu dominated states as the 'bedrock of Hindu power' and defended their despotic powers, referring to them as the 'citadels of organised Hindu power'. He particularly hailed the princely states such as ], ], ] and ] as 'progressive Hindu states'.<ref name="c565">{{cite book | last=Bapu | first=P. | title=Hindu Mahasabha in Colonial North India, 1915-1930: Constructing Nation and History | publisher=Routledge | series=Online access with subscription: Proquest Ebook Central | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-415-67165-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUFalxUFFWkC&pg=PA32 | access-date=2024-10-12 | page=32-33}}</ref><ref name="w584">{{cite book | last=Chhibber | first=P.K. | last2=Verma | first2=R. | title=Ideology and Identity: The Changing Party Systems of India | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-19-062390-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJRqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT248 | access-date=2024-10-12 | page=248}}</ref>
⚫ The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947; by 1950, almost all of the principalities had ] to either India or Pakistan.<ref>Ravi Kumar Pillai of Kandamath in the Journal of the Royal Society for Asian Affairs, pages 316–319 https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2016.1171621</ref> The accession process was largely peaceful, except in the cases of ] (whose ruler decided to accede to India following an ] by Pakistan-based forces, resulting in a long-standing ] between the two countries),<ref>{{cite book|last=Bajwa|first=Kuldip Singh|title=Jammu and Kashmir War, 1947–1948: Political and Military Perspectiv|year=2003|publisher=Hari-Anand Publications Limited|location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bREjE5yXNMC&q=dogra+1948+tribal+pakistan+invasion&pg=PA21|isbn=9788124109236}}</ref> ] (whose ruler opted for independence in 1947, followed a year later by ] of the state by India), ] and its vassal ] (whose rulers acceded to Pakistan, but were ] by India),<ref name="Pande2011">{{cite book|author=Aparna Pande|title=Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPWrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|date=16 March 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-81893-6|pages=31–}}</ref> and ] (whose ruler declared independence in 1947, followed in 1948 by the state's accession to Pakistan).<ref>{{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |title=The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87VnBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-74499-8 |ref={{sfnref|Jalal, Struggle for Pakistan|2014}} |page=72}}: "Equally notorious was his high-handed treatment of the state of Kalat, whose ruler was made to accede to Pakistan on threat of punitive military action."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samad |first1=Yunas |author-link=Yunas Samad |title=Understanding the insurgency in Balochistan |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=52 |issue=2 |year=2014 |pages=293–320 |doi=10.1080/14662043.2014.894280 |s2cid=144156399 |ref={{sfnref|Samad, Understanding the insurgency in Balochistan|2014}}}}: "When Mir Ahmed Yar Khan dithered over acceding the Baloch-Brauhi confederacy to Pakistan in 1947 the centre's response was to initiate processes that would coerce the state joining Pakistan. By recognising the feudatory states of Las Bela, Kharan and the district of Mekran as independent states, which promptly merged with Pakistan, the State of Kalat became land locked and reduced to a fraction of its size. Thus Ahmed Yar Khan was forced to sign the instrument of accession on 27 March 1948, which immediately led to the brother of the Khan, Prince Abdul Karim raising the banner of revolt in July 1948, starting the first of the Baloch insurgencies."</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Harrison |first=Selig S. |author-link=Selig S. Harrison |title=In Afghanistan's Shadow: Baluch Nationalism and Soviet Temptations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLnCAAAAIAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |isbn=978-0-87003-029-1 |ref={{sfnref|Selig Harrison, In Afghanistan's Shadow|1981}} |page=24}}: "Pakistani leaders summarily rejected this declaration, touching off a nine-month diplomatic tug of war that came to a climax in the forcible annexation of Kalat.... it is clear that Baluch leaders, including the Khan, were bitterly opposed to what happened."</ref>

⚫ The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947; by 1950, almost all of the principalities had ] to either India or Pakistan.<ref>Ravi Kumar Pillai of Kandamath in the Journal of the Royal Society for Asian Affairs, pages 316–319 https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2016.1171621</ref> The accession process was largely peaceful, except in the cases of ] (whose ruler decided to accede to India following an ] by Pakistan-based forces, resulting in a long-standing ]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Bajwa|first=Kuldip Singh|title=Jammu and Kashmir War, 1947–1948: Political and Military Perspectiv|year=2003|publisher=Hari-Anand Publications Limited|location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bREjE5yXNMC&q=dogra+1948+tribal+pakistan+invasion&pg=PA21|isbn=9788124109236}}</ref> ] (whose ruler opted for independence in 1947, followed a year later by ] of the state by India), ] and its vassal ] (whose rulers acceded to Pakistan, but were ] by India),<ref name="Pande2011">{{cite book|author=Aparna Pande|title=Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPWrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|date=16 March 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-81893-6|pages=31–}}</ref> and ] (whose ruler declared independence in 1947, followed in 1948 by the state's accession to Pakistan).<ref>{{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |title=The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87VnBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-74499-8 |ref={{sfnref|Jalal, Struggle for Pakistan|2014}} |page=72}}: "Equally notorious was his high-handed treatment of the state of Kalat, whose ruler was made to accede to Pakistan on threat of punitive military action."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samad |first1=Yunas |author-link=Yunas Samad |title=Understanding the insurgency in Balochistan |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=52 |issue=2 |year=2014 |pages=293–320 |doi=10.1080/14662043.2014.894280 |s2cid=144156399 |ref={{sfnref|Samad, Understanding the insurgency in Balochistan|2014}}}}: "When Mir Ahmed Yar Khan dithered over acceding the Baloch-Brauhi confederacy to Pakistan in 1947 the centre's response was to initiate processes that would coerce the state joining Pakistan. By recognising the feudatory states of Las Bela, Kharan and the district of Mekran as independent states, which promptly merged with Pakistan, the State of Kalat became land locked and reduced to a fraction of its size. Thus Ahmed Yar Khan was forced to sign the instrument of accession on 27 March 1948, which immediately led to the brother of the Khan, Prince Abdul Karim raising the banner of revolt in July 1948, starting the first of the Baloch insurgencies."</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Harrison |first=Selig S. |author-link=Selig S. Harrison |title=In Afghanistan's Shadow: Baluch Nationalism and Soviet Temptations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLnCAAAAIAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |isbn=978-0-87003-029-1 |ref={{sfnref|Selig Harrison, In Afghanistan's Shadow|1981}} |page=24}}: "Pakistani leaders summarily rejected this declaration, touching off a nine-month diplomatic tug of war that came to a climax in the forcible annexation of Kalat.... it is clear that Baluch leaders, including the Khan, were bitterly opposed to what happened."</ref>
===India=== ===India===
{{Main|Political integration of India}} {{Main|Political integration of India}}
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As the final step, in 1971, the 26th amendment<ref>{{Citation|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm|title=The Constitution (26 Amendment) Act, 1971|publisher=Government of India|work=indiacode.nic.in|year=1971|access-date=9 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206041333/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm|archive-date=6 December 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> to the ] withdrew recognition of the princes as rulers, took away their remaining privileges, and abolished the remuneration granted to them by ]. As the final step, in 1971, the 26th amendment<ref>{{Citation|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm|title=The Constitution (26 Amendment) Act, 1971|publisher=Government of India|work=indiacode.nic.in|year=1971|access-date=9 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206041333/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm|archive-date=6 December 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> to the ] withdrew recognition of the princes as rulers, took away their remaining privileges, and abolished the remuneration granted to them by ].



As per the terms of accession, the erstwhile Indian princes received ] (government allowances), and initially retained their statuses, privileges, and autonomy in internal matters during a transitional period which lasted until 1956. During this time, the former princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of ''Rajpramukh'' (ruling chief), equivalent to a state governor.<ref>Wilhelm von Pochhammer, ''India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent'' (1982) ch 57</ref> In 1956, the position of ''Rajpramukh'' was abolished and the federations dissolved, the former principalities becoming part of Indian states. The states which acceded to Pakistan retained their status until the promulgation of a new constitution in 1956, when most became part of the province of ]; a few of the former states retained their autonomy until 1969 when they were fully integrated into Pakistan. The Indian government abolished the privy purses in 1971, followed by the government of Pakistan in 1972.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} As per the terms of accession, the erstwhile Indian princes received ] (government allowances), and initially retained their statuses, privileges, and autonomy in internal matters during a transitional period which lasted until 1956. During this time, the former princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of ''Rajpramukh'' (ruling chief), equivalent to a state governor.<ref>Wilhelm von Pochhammer, ''India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent'' (1982) ch 57</ref> In 1956, the position of ''Rajpramukh'' was abolished and the federations dissolved, the former principalities becoming part of Indian states. The states which acceded to Pakistan retained their status until the promulgation of a new constitution in 1956, when most became part of the province of ]; a few of the former states retained their autonomy until 1969 when they were fully integrated into Pakistan. The Indian government abolished the privy purses in 1971, followed by the government of Pakistan in 1972.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Princely State}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Princely State}}
] ]
] ]
] ]
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] ]
] ]
]

Latest revision as of 17:28, 9 December 2024

Indian vassal states under the British Raj This article is about states ruled by princes in the British Raj, the Republic of India and Pakistan. For the global concept, see Principality.
Colonial India
Colonial IndiaMap of colonial India, distributed by the British Information Services (1942)
Austrian India 1778–1785
Swedish India 1731–1813
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(1505–1961)
Casa da Índia 1434–1833
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(1600–1947)
EIC in India 1600–1757
Company rule in India 1757–1858
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Princely states 1721–1949
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Princely state
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A princely state (also called native state or Indian state) was a nominally sovereign entity of the British Indian Empire that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule, subject to a subsidiary alliance and the suzerainty or paramountcy of the British crown.

In 1920, the Indian National Congress party under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi declared swaraj (self-rule) for Indians as its goal and asked the princes of India to establish responsible government. Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in pushing Congress to confront the princely states and declared in 1929 that "only people who have the right to determine the future of the States must be the people of these States". In 1937, the Congress won in most parts of British India (not including the princely states) in the provincial elections, and started to intervene in the affairs of the states. In the same year, Gandhi played a major role in proposing a federation involving a union between British India and the princely states, with an Indian central government. In 1946, Nehru observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.

At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognized in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindari estates and jagirs. In 1947, princely states covered 40% of the area of pre-independence India and constituted 23% of its population. The most important states had their own British political residencies: Hyderabad of the Nizams, Mysore, Pudukkottai and Travancore in the South, Jammu and Kashmir, and Indore in Central India. The most prominent among those – roughly a quarter of the total – had the status of a salute state, one whose ruler was entitled to a set number of gun salutes on ceremonial occasions.

The princely states varied greatly in status, size, and wealth; the premier 21-gun salute states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir were each over 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi) in size. In 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16 million, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million. At the other end of the scale, the non-salute principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km (19 sq mi), with a population of just below 3,000. Some two hundred of the lesser states even had an area of less than 25 km (10 sq mi).

History

1765–1805 map of India, shown with a territorial division between Hindus, Muslims and the British
Political subdivisions of the Indian Empire in 1909 with British India (pink) and the princely states (yellow)

The princely states at the time of Indian independence were mostly formed after the disintegration of the Mughal empire. Many Princely states had a foreign origin due to the long period of external migration to India. Some of these were the rulers of Hyderabad (Turks), Bhopal (Afghans) and Janjira (Abyssinian). Among the Hindu kingdoms, most of the rulers were Kshatriya. Only the Rajput states and a scattering of South Indian kingdoms could trace their lineage to the pre-Mughal period.

British relationship with the princely states

India under the British Raj (the "Indian Empire") consisted of two types of territory: British India and the native states or princely states. In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:

(4.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.
(5.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.

In general the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858.

The British Crown's suzerainty over 175 princely states, generally the largest and most important, was exercised in the name of the British Crown by the central government of British India under the Viceroy; the remaining approximately 400 states were influenced by Agents answerable to the provincial governments of British India under a governor, lieutenant-governor, or chief commissioner. A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the legislation enacted by the British Parliament, and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the princely states existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.

Princely status and titles

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Sayajirao Gaekwad III, The Maharaja of Baroda State

The Indian rulers bore various titles including Maharaja or Raja ("king"), Sultan, Nawab, Emir, Raje, Nizam, Wadiyar (used only by the Maharajas of Mysore, meaning "lord"), Agniraj Maharaj for the rulers of Bhaddaiyan Raj, Chogyal, Nawab ("governor"), Nayak, Wāli, Inamdar, Saranjamdar and many others. Whatever the literal meaning and traditional prestige of the ruler's actual title, the British government translated them all as "prince", to avoid the implication that the native rulers could be "kings" with status equal to that of the British monarch.

An old image of the British Residency in the city of Quilon, Kerala

More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "Raja", or a variant such as Raje, Rai, Rana, Babu, Rao, Rawat, or Rawal. Also in this 'class' were several Thakurs or Thai ores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari, Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Istamuradar, Saranjamdar, Raja Inamdar, etc. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha-" ("great", compare for example "grand duke") in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. This was used in many princely states including Mewar, Travancore and Cochin. The state of Travancore also had queens regent styled Maharani, applied only to the sister of the ruler in Kerala.

Muslim rulers almost all used the title "Nawab" (the Arabic honorific of naib, "deputy") originally used by Mughal governors, who became de facto autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire, with the prominent exceptions of the Nizam of Hyderabad & Berar, the Wali/Khan of Kalat and the Wali of Swat. Other less usual titles included Darbar Sahib, Dewan, Jam, Mehtar (unique to Chitral) and Mir (from Emir).

The Sikh princes concentrated at Punjab usually adopted titles when attaining princely rank. A title at a level of Maharaja was used.

There were also compound titles, such as (Maha)rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur (from Persian, literally meaning "brave") raised the status of the titleholder one level.

Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of additional titles such as Varma in South India. This should not be confused with various titles and suffixes not specific to princes but used by entire (sub)castes. This is almost analogous to Singh title in North India.

Precedence and prestige

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The actual importance of a princely state could not be read from the title of its ruler, which was usually granted (or at least recognized) as a favor, often in recognition for loyalty and services rendered to the British Raj. Although some titles were raised once or even repeatedly, there was no automatic updating when a state gained or lost real power. In fact, princely titles were even awarded to holders of domains (mainly jagirs) and even taluqdars and zamindars, which were not states at all. Most of the zamindars who held princely titles were in fact erstwhile princely and royal states reduced to becoming zamindars by the British East India Company. Various sources give significantly different numbers of states and domains of the various types. Even in general, the definition of titles and domains are clearly not well-established.

An 1895 group photograph of the eleven-year-old Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV, ruler of the princely state of Mysore in South India, with his brothers and sisters. In 1799, his grandfather, then aged five, had been granted dominion of Mysore by the British and forced into a subsidiary alliance. The British later directly governed the state between 1831 and 1881
The Govindgarh Palace of the Maharaja of Rewa. The palace which was built as a hunting lodge later became famous for the first white tigers that were found in the adjacent jungle and raised in the palace zoo
The Nawab of Junagarh Bahadur Khan III (seated centre in an ornate chair) shown in an 1885 photograph with state officials and family
Photograph (1900) of the Maharani of Sikkim. Sikkim was under the suzerainty of the Provincial government of Bengal; its ruler received a 15-gun salute

In addition to their titles, all princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India and the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. Women could be appointed as "Knights" (instead of Dames) of these orders. Rulers entitled to 21-gun and 19-gun salutes were normally appointed to the highest rank, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India.

Many Indian princes served in the British Army, the Indian Army, or in local guard or police forces, often rising to high ranks; some even served while on the throne. Many of these were appointed as an aide-de-camp, either to the ruling prince of their own house (in the case of relatives of such rulers) or to British monarchs. Many saw active service, both on the subcontinent and on other fronts, during both World Wars.

Apart from those members of the princely houses who entered military service and who distinguished themselves, a good number of princes received honorary ranks as officers in the British and Indian Armed Forces. Those ranks were conferred based on several factors, including their heritage, lineage, gun-salute (or lack of one) as well as personal character or martial traditions. After the First and Second World Wars, the princely rulers of several of the major states, including Gwalior, Patiala, Nabha, Faridkort, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad, were given honorary general officer ranks as a result of their states' contributions to the war effort.

  • Lieutenant/Captain/Flight Lieutenant or Lieutenant-Commander/Major/Squadron Leader (for junior members of princely houses or for minor princes)
  • Commander/Lieutenant-Colonel/Wing Commander or Captain/Colonel/Group Captain (granted to princes of salute states, often to those entitled to 15-guns or more)
  • Commodore/Brigadier/Air Commodore (conferred upon princes of salute states entitled to gun salutes of 15-guns or more)
  • Major-General/Air Vice-Marshal (conferred upon princes of salute states entitled to 15-guns or more; conferred upon rulers of the major princely states, including Baroda, Kapurthala, Travancore, Bhopal and Mysore)
  • Lieutenant-General (conferred upon the rulers of the largest and most prominent princely houses after the First and Second World Wars for their states' contributions to the war effort.)
  • General (very rarely awarded; the Maharajas of Gwalior and Jammu & Kashmir were created honorary Generals in the British Army in 1877, the Maharaja of Bikaner was made one in 1937, and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1941)

It was also not unusual for members of princely houses to be appointed to various colonial offices, often far from their native state, or to enter the diplomatic corps.

Salute states

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Main article: Salute state
HH Maharaja Sir Jayaji Rao Scindia of Gwalior State, General Sir Henry Daly (Founder of The Daly College), with British officers and Maratha nobility (Sardars, Jagirdars & Mankaris) in Indore, Holkar State, c. 1879

The gun salute system was used to set unambiguously the precedence of the major rulers in the area in which the British East India Company was active, or generally of the states and their dynasties. As heads of a state, certain princely rulers were entitled to be saluted by the firing of an odd number of guns between three and 21, with a greater number of guns indicating greater prestige. Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis. Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion. The states of all these rulers (about 120) were known as salute states.

After Indian Independence, the Maharana of Udaipur displaced the Nizam of Hyderabad as the most senior prince in India, because Hyderabad State had not acceded to the new Dominion of India, and the style Highness was extended to all rulers entitled to 9-gun salutes. When the princely states had been integrated into the Indian Union their rulers were promised continued privileges and an income (known as the Privy Purse) for their upkeep. Subsequently, when the Indian government abolished the Privy Purse in 1971, the whole princely order ceased to be recognised under Indian law, although many families continue to retain their social prestige informally; some descendants of the rulers are still prominent in regional or national politics, diplomacy, business and high society.

At the time of Indian independence, only five rulers – the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Maharaja of Mysore, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir state, the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda and the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior – were entitled to a 21-gun salute. Six more – the Nawab of Bhopal, the Maharaja Holkar of Indore, the Maharaja of Bharatpur, the Maharana of Udaipur, the Maharaja of Kolhapur, the Maharaja of Patiala and the Maharaja of Travancore – were entitled to 19-gun salutes. The most senior princely ruler was the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was entitled to the unique style Exalted Highness and 21-gun salute. Other princely rulers entitled to salutes of 11 guns (soon 9 guns too) or more were entitled to the style Highness. No special style was used by rulers entitled to lesser gun salutes.

As paramount ruler, and successor to the Mughals, the British King-Emperor of India, for whom the style of Majesty was reserved, was entitled to an 'imperial' 101-gun salute—in the European tradition also the number of guns fired to announce the birth of an heir (male) to the throne.

Non-salute states

Coinage of king Manak Pal (1772-1804), Princely State of Karauli. Karauli mint. Struck in the name of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II. Dated 1784-5 CE

There was no strict correlation between the levels of the titles and the classes of gun salutes, the real measure of precedence, but merely a growing percentage of higher titles in classes with more guns. As a rule the majority of gun-salute princes had at least nine, with numbers below that usually the prerogative of Arab Sheikhs of the Aden protectorate, also under British protection.

There were many so-called non-salute states of lower prestige. Since the total of salute states was 117 and there were more than 500 princely states, most rulers were not entitled to any gun salute. Not all of these were minor rulers – Surguja State, for example, was both larger and more populous than Karauli State, but the Maharaja of Karauli was entitled to a 17-gun salute and the Maharaja of Surguja was not entitled to any gun salute at all.

A number of princes, in the broadest sense of the term, were not even acknowledged as such. On the other hand, the dynasties of certain defunct states were allowed to keep their princely status – they were known as political pensioners, such as the Nawab of Oudh. There were also certain estates of British India which were rendered as political saranjams, having equal princely status. Though none of these princes were awarded gun salutes, princely titles in this category were recognised as a form of vassals of salute states, and were not even in direct relation with the paramount power.

Largest princely states by area

Eleven largest princely states in terms of area
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Present State Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler
Jammu and Kashmir 84,471 4,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu and Buddhist minority) Jammu and Kashmir Maharaja, Dogra, Hindu 21
 Hyderabad State 82,698 16,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population) Telangana, Maharashtra, Karnataka Nizam, Turkic, Muslim 21
 Khanate of Kalat 73,278 250,211 (chiefly Muslim) Balochistan, Pakistan Khan or Wali, Baloch, Muslim 19
Jodhpur State 36,071 2,125,000 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population) Rajasthan Maharaja, Rathore, Hindu 17
 Kingdom of Mysore 29,458 7,328,896 (Chiefly Hindu, with pockets of Muslim populations) Karnataka Wodeyar dynasty; Maharaja; Kannadiga; Hindu Kshattriya (Urs/Arasu in Kannada) 21
 Gwalior State 26,397 4,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) Madhya Pradesh Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21
Bikaner State 23,317 936,218 (chiefly Hindu, with a low Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Rathore, Hindu 17
Bahawalpur State 17,726 1,341,209 (Chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu and Sikh minority) Punjab (Pakistan) Nawab Amir, Abbasid, Muslim 17
Jaisalmer State 16,100 76,255 (Chiefly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population) Rajasthan Maharaja, Bhati, Hindu 15
Jaipur State 15,601 2,631,775 (Chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) Rajasthan Maharaja, Kachhwaha, Hindu 17
Bastar State 13,062 306,501 (Chiefly Hindu, with a low Muslim population) Chhattisgarh Maharaja, Kakatiya - Bhanj, Hindu -

Doctrine of lapse

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Main article: Doctrine of lapse

A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the doctrine of lapse, a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir.

The doctrine of lapse was pursued most vigorously by the Governor-General Sir James Ramsay, 10th Earl (later 1st Marquess) of Dalhousie. Dalhousie annexed seven states, including Awadh (Oudh), whose Nawabs he had accused of misrule, and the Maratha states of Nagpur, Jhansi, Satara, Sambalpur, and Thanjavur. Resentment over the annexation of these states turned to indignation when the heirlooms of the Maharajas of Nagpur were auctioned off in Calcutta. Dalhousie's actions contributed to the rising discontent amongst the upper castes which played a large part in the outbreak of the Indian mutiny of 1857. The last Mughal badshah (emperor), whom many of the mutineers saw as a figurehead to rally around, was deposed following its suppression.

In response to the unpopularity of the doctrine, it was discontinued with the end of Company rule and the British Parliament's assumption of direct power over India.

Imperial governance

Main articles: Agencies of British India and Residencies of British India
Photograph (1894) of the 19-year-old Shahaji II Bhonsle Maharajah of Kolhapur visiting the British resident and his staff at the Residency

By treaty, the British controlled the external affairs of the princely states absolutely. As the states were not British possessions, they retained control over their own internal affairs, subject to a degree of British influence which in many states was substantial.

By the beginning of the 20th century, relations between the British and the four largest states – Hyderabad, Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir, and Baroda – were directly under the control of the governor-general of India, in the person of a British resident. Two agencies, for Rajputana and Central India, oversaw twenty and 148 princely states respectively. The remaining princely states had their own British political officers, or Agents, who answered to the administrators of India's provinces. The agents of five princely states were then under the authority of Madras, 354 under Bombay, 26 of Bengal, two under Assam, 34 under Punjab, fifteen under the Central Provinces and Berar and two under the United Provinces.

Chamber of Princes meeting in March 1941

The Chamber of Princes (Narender Mandal or Narendra Mandal) was an institution established in 1920 by a royal proclamation of the King-Emperor to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the British Raj in 1947.

By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose agencies were under the authority of India's provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the governor-general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies: the Eastern States Agency, Punjab States Agency, Baluchistan Agency, Deccan States Agency, Madras States Agency and the Northwest Frontier States Agency. The Baroda Residency was combined with the princely states of northern Bombay Presidency into the Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency. Gwalior was separated from the Central India Agency and given its own Resident, and the states of Rampur and Benares, formerly with Agents under the authority of the United Provinces, were placed under the Gwalior Residency in 1936. The princely states of Sandur and Banganapalle in Mysore Presidency were transferred to the agency of the Mysore Resident in 1939.

Principal princely states in 1947

The native states in 1947 included five large states that were in "direct political relations" with the Government of India. For the complete list of princely states in 1947, see lists of princely states of India.

In direct relations with the central government

Five large princely states in direct political relations with the Central Government in India
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
 Baroda State 13,866 3,343,477 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 323.26 Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21 Resident at Baroda
 Hyderabad State 82,698 16,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) 1582.43 Nizam, Turkic, Muslim 21 Resident in Hyderabad
Jammu and Kashmir 84,471 4,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations) 463.95 Maharaja, Dogra, Hindu 21 Resident in Jammu & Kashmir
 Kingdom of Mysore 29,458 7,328,896 (chiefly Hindu, with sizeable Muslim populations) 1001.38 Wodeyar (means Owner in Kannada) and Maharaja, Kannadiga, Hindu 21 Resident in Mysore
 Gwalior State 26,397 4,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 356.75 Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21 Resident at Gwalior
Total 236,890 35,038,682 3727.77

Central India Agency, Gwalior Residency, Baluchistan Agency, Rajputana Agency, Eastern States Agency

88 princely states forming the Central India Agency
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Indore State 9,341 1,513,966 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 304.9 Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 19 (plus 2 local) Resident at Indore
Bhopal 6,924 785,322 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 119.82 Nawab(m)/Begum(f), Afghan, Muslim 19 (plus 2 local) Political Agent in Bhopal
Rewah 13,000 1,820,445 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 65 Maharaja, Baghel Rajput, Hindu 17 Second largest state in Baghelkhand
85 smaller and minor states (1941) 22,995 (1901) 2.74 million (chiefly Hindu, 1901) 129 (1901)
Total 77,395 (1901) 8.51 million (1901) 421 (1901)
42 princely states forming the Eastern States Agency
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Cooch Behar 1,318 639,898 (chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu population) 91 Maharaja, Koch (Kshattriya), Brahmo 13 Resident for the Eastern States
Tripura State 4,116 513,010 (chiefly Vaishnavite, with a sizeable Sanamahi minority) 54 Maharaja, Tripuri, Vaishnavite (Kshattriya) 13 Resident for the Eastern States
Mayurbhanj State 4,243 990,977 (chiefly Hindu) 49 Maharaja, Kshattriya, Hindu 9 Resident for the Eastern States
39 smaller and minor states (1941) 56,253 6,641,991 241.31
Total 65,930 8,785,876 435.31

Gwalior Residency (two states)

Two states under the suzerainty of the Resident at Gwalior, Gwalior having direct relations with the central government.
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Rampur 893 464,919 (chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu population in 1931) 51 Nawab, Jat, Muslim 15 Political Agent at Rampur
Benares State 875 391,165 (chiefly Hindu, 1931) 19 Maharaja, Bhumihar Brahmin, Hindu 13 (plus 2 local) Political Agent at Benares
Total 1,768 856,084 (1941, approx.) 70
23 princely states forming the Rajputana Agency, with the Resident for Rajputana at Abu
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Udaipur (Mewar) 13,170 1,926,698 (chiefly Hindu and Bhil) 107 Maharana, Sisodia Rajput, Hindu 19 (plus 2 personal) Political Agent for the Mewar and Southern Rajputana States
Jaipur 15,610 3,040,876 (chiefly Hindu) 188.6 Maharaja, Kachwaha Rajput, Hindu 17 (plus 2 personal) Political Agent at Jaipur
Jodhpur (Marwar) 36,120 2,555,904 (chiefly Hindu) 208.65 Maharaja, Rathor Rajput, Hindu 17 Political Agent for the Western States of Rajputana
Bikaner 23,181 1,292,938 (chiefly Hindu) 185.5 Maharaja, Rathor Rajput, Hindu 17 Political agent for the Western States of Rajputana
17 salute states, 1 chiefship, 1 zamindari 42,374 3.64 million (chiefly Hindu, 1901) 155 (1901)
Total 128,918 (1901) 9.84 million (1901) 320 (1901)
Three princely states forming the Baluchistan Agency
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Kalat 73,278 250,211 (chiefly Muslim) 21.3 Khan or Wali, Baloch, Muslim 19 Political Agent in Kalat
Las Bela 7,132 68,972 (chiefly Muslim) 6.1 Jam, Baloch, Muslim Political Agent in Kalat
Kharan 14,210 33,763 (chiefly Muslim) 2 Nawab, Baloch, Muslim Political Agent in Kalat
Total 94,620 352,946 29.4

Other states under provincial governments

Madras (5 states)

5 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Madras
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Travancore 7,091 2,952,157 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) 100 Maharaja, Kshatriya-Samanthan, Hindu 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler) Resident in Travancore and Cochin
Cochin 1,362 812,025 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) 27 Raja, Samanta-Kshatriya, Hindu 17 Resident in Travancore and Cochin
Pudukkottai 1,100 380,440 (chiefly Hindu) 11 Raja, Kallar, Hindu 11 Collector of Trichinopoly (ex officio Political Agent)
2 minor states (Banganapalle and Sandur) 416 43,464 3
Total 9,969 4,188,086 141

Bombay (354 states)

354 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Bombay
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Kolhapur 2,855 910,011 (chiefly Hindu) 48 Maharaja", Chhtrapati "Maratha, Hindu 19 Political Agent for Kolhapur
Cutch 7,616 488,022 (chiefly Hindu) 20 Maharao, Jadeja Rajput, Hindu 17 Political Agent in Cutch
Junagarh 3,284 395,428 (chiefly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim population) 27 Nawab, Pathan, Muslim 11 Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
Navanagar 3,791 336,779 (chiefly Hindu) 31 Jam Sahib, Jadeja Rajput, Hindu 11 Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
349 other states 42,165 4,579,095 281
Total 65,761 6,908,648 420

Central Provinces (15 states)

15 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the Central Provinces
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Kalahandi 3,745 284,465 (chiefly Hindu) 4 Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu 9 Political Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatories
Bastar 13,062 306,501 (chiefly animist) 3 Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu Political Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatories
13 other states 12,628 1,339,353 (chiefly Hindu) 16 11
Total 29,435 1,996,383 21

Punjab (45 states)

45 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the Punjab
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Bahawalpur State 16,434 1,341,209 (chiefly Muslim) 335 Nawab, Daudputra, Muslim 17 Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Patiala State 5,942 1,936,259 (chiefly Sikh) 302.6 Maharaja, Sikh 17 (and 2 personal) Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Nabha State 947 340,044 (chiefly Sikh) 38.7 Maharaja, Sikh 13 (and 2 local) Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Jind State 1,299 361,812 (chiefly Sikh) 37.4 Maharaja, Sikh 13 (and 2 personal) Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Kapurthala State 645 378,380 (chiefly Sikh) 40.5 Maharaja, Ahuluwalia, Sikh 13 (and 2 personal) Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (ex officio Political Agent)
Faridkot State 638 199,283 (chiefly Sikh) 22.7 Raja, Sikh 11 Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (ex officio Political Agent)
Garhwal State 4,500 397,369 (chiefly Hindu) 26.9 Maharaja, Rajput Hindu 11 Commissioner of Kumaun (ex officio Political Agent)
Khayrpur State 6,050 305,387 (chiefly Muslim) 15 (plus 2 local) Mir, Talpur Baloch, Muslim 37.8 Political Agent for Khairpur
25 other states 12,661 (in 1901) 1,087,614 (in 1901) 30 (in 1901)
Total 36,532 (in 1901) 4,424,398 (in 1901) 155 (in 1901)

Assam (26 states)

26 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Assam
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Manipur 270.3 512,069 (chiefly Hindu and animist) 19 Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu 11 Political Agent in Manipur
25 Khasi States 3,778 213,586 (chiefly Khasi and Christian) ~1 (1941, approx.) Deputy Commissioner, Khasi and Jaintia Hills
Total 12,416 725,655 20 (1941; approx.)

Burma

See also: Shan States and Wa States
Burma (52 states)
52 states in Burma: all except Kantarawadi, one of the Karenni States, were included in British India until 1937
Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer
Hsipaw (Thibaw) 5,086 105,000 (Buddhist) 3 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist 9 Superintendent, Northern Shan States
Kengtung 12,000 190,000 (Buddhist) 1 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist 9 Superintendent Southern Shan States
Yawnghwe 865 95,339 (Buddhist) 2.13 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist 9 Superintendent Southern Shan States
Mongnai 2,717 44,000 (Buddhist) 0.5 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist Superintendent Southern Shan States
5 Karenni States 3,130 45,795 (Buddhist and animist) 0.035 Sawbwa, Karenni, Buddhist Superintendent Southern Shan States
44 other states 42,198 792,152 (Buddhist and animist) 8.5
Total 67,011 1,177,987 13.5

State military forces

Main article: Indian State Forces

The armies of the princely states were bound by many restrictions that were imposed by subsidiary alliances. They existed mainly for ceremonial use and for internal policing, although certain units designated as Imperial Service Troops, were available for service alongside the regular Indian Army upon request by the British government.

According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 85,

Since a chief can neither attack his neighbour nor fall out with a foreign nation, it follows that he needs no military establishment which is not required either for police purposes or personal display, or for cooperation with the Imperial Government. The treaty made with Gwalior in 1844, and the instrument of transfer given to Mysore in 1881, alike base the restriction of the forces of the State upon the broad ground of protection. The former explained in detail that unnecessary armies were embarrassing to the State itself and the cause of disquietude to others: a few months later a striking proof of this was afforded by the army of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore. The British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organised for the defence not merely of British India, but of all the possessions under the suzerainty of the King-Emperor.

In addition, other restrictions were imposed:

The treaties with most of the larger States are clear on this point. Posts in the interior must not be fortified, factories for the production of guns and ammunition must not be constructed, nor may the subject of other States be enlisted in the local forces. ... They must allow the forces that defend them to obtain local supplies, to occupy cantonments or positions, and to arrest deserters; and in addition to these services they must recognise the Imperial control of the railways, telegraphs, and postal communications as essential not only to the common welfare but to the common defence.

The Imperial Service Troops were routinely inspected by British army officers and had the same equipment as soldiers in the British Indian Army. Although their numbers were relatively small, the Imperial Service Troops were employed in China and British Somaliland in the first decade of the 20th century, and later saw action in the First World War and Second World War .

Political integration of princely states

In 1920, Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi declared that attainment of swaraj for Indians was its goal. It asked "all the sovereign princes of India to establish full responsible government in their states". Gandhi assured the princes that Congress will not intervene in internal affairs of the princely states. Congress reiterated their demand at 1928 Calcutta Congress, "This Congress assures the people of the Indian States of its sympathy with and support in their legitimate and peaceful struggle for the attainment of full responsible government in the States."

Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in pushing Congress to confront the princely states. In his presidential address at Lahore session in 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru declared: "The Indian states cannot live apart from the rest of the (sic) India". Nehru added he is "no believer in kings or princes" and that "the only people who have the right to determine the future of the States must be the people of these States. This Congress which claims self-determination cannot deny it to the people of the states."

After the Congress's electoral victory in 1937 elections, protests, sometimes violent, and satyagrahas against the princely states were organised and were supported by the Congress's ministries. Gandhi fasted in Rajkot State to demand "full responsible government" and added that "the people" were "the real rulers of Rajkot under the paramountcy of the Congress". Gandhi termed this protest as struggle against "the disciplined hordes of the British empire". Gandhi proclaimed that the Congress had now every right to intervene in "the states which are the vassals of the British". In 1937, Gandhi played a major role in formation of federation involving a union between British India and the princely states with an Indian central government.

In 1939, Nehru challenged the existence of the princely states and added that "the states in modern India are anachronistic and do not deserve to exist." In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.

Hindu Mahasabha took funding from the princely states and supported them to remain independent even after the independence of India. V. D. Savarkar particularly hailed the Hindu dominated states as the 'bedrock of Hindu power' and defended their despotic powers, referring to them as the 'citadels of organised Hindu power'. He particularly hailed the princely states such as Mysore State, Travancore, Oudh and Baroda State as 'progressive Hindu states'.

The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947; by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan. The accession process was largely peaceful, except in the cases of Jammu and Kashmir (whose ruler decided to accede to India following an invasion by Pakistan-based forces, resulting in a long-standing dispute between the two countries), Hyderabad State (whose ruler opted for independence in 1947, followed a year later by the invasion and annexation of the state by India), Junagarh and its vassal Bantva Manavadar (whose rulers acceded to Pakistan, but were annexed by India), and Kalat (whose ruler declared independence in 1947, followed in 1948 by the state's accession to Pakistan).

India

Main article: Political integration of India

At the time of Indian independence on 15 August 1947, India was divided into two sets of territories, the first being the territories of "British India", which were under the direct control of the India Office in London and the governor-general of India, and the second being the "princely states", the territories over which the Crown had suzerainty, but which were under the control of their hereditary rulers. In addition, there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal. The integration of these territories into Dominion of India, that had been created by the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British Parliament, was a declared objective of the Indian National Congress, which the Government of India pursued over the years 1947 to 1949. Through a combination of tactics, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon in the months immediately preceding and following the independence convinced the rulers of almost all of the hundreds of princely states to accede to India. In a speech in January 1948, Vallabhbhai Patel said:

As you are all aware, on the lapse of Paramountcy every Indian State became a separate independent entity and our first task of consolidating about 550 States was on the basis of accession to the Indian Dominion on three subjects. Barring Hyderabad and Junagadh all the states which are contiguous to India acceded to Indian Dominion. Subsequently, Kashmir also came in... Some Rulers who were quick to read the writing on the wall, gave responsible government to their people; Cochin being the most illustrious example. In Travancore, there was a short struggle, but there, too, the Ruler soon recognised the aspiration of his people and agreed to introduce a constitution in which all powers would be transferred to the people and he would function as a constitutional Ruler.

Although this process successfully integrated the vast majority of princely states into India, it was not as successful in relation to a few states, notably the former princely state of Kashmir, whose Maharaja delayed signing the instrument of accession into India until his territories were under the threat of invasion by Pakistan, and the state of Hyderabad, whose ruler decided to remain independent and was subsequently defeated by the Operation Polo invasion.

Having secured their accession, Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon then proceeded, in a step-by-step process, to secure and extend the central government's authority over these states and to transform their administrations until, by 1956, there was little difference between the territories that had formerly been part of British India and those that had been princely states. Simultaneously, the Government of India, through a combination of diplomatic and economic pressure, acquired control over most of the remaining European colonial exclaves on the subcontinent. Fed up with the protracted and stubborn resistance of the Portuguese government; in 1961 the Indian Army invaded and annexed Portuguese India. These territories, like the princely states, were also integrated into the Republic of India.

As the final step, in 1971, the 26th amendment to the Constitution of India withdrew recognition of the princes as rulers, took away their remaining privileges, and abolished the remuneration granted to them by privy purses.

As per the terms of accession, the erstwhile Indian princes received privy purses (government allowances), and initially retained their statuses, privileges, and autonomy in internal matters during a transitional period which lasted until 1956. During this time, the former princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh (ruling chief), equivalent to a state governor. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the former principalities becoming part of Indian states. The states which acceded to Pakistan retained their status until the promulgation of a new constitution in 1956, when most became part of the province of West Pakistan; a few of the former states retained their autonomy until 1969 when they were fully integrated into Pakistan. The Indian government abolished the privy purses in 1971, followed by the government of Pakistan in 1972.

In July 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India. In January 1947, Nehru said that independent India would not accept the divine right of kings. In May, 1947, he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state. There were officially 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, but the great majority had contracted with the British viceroy to provide public services and tax collection. Only 21 had actual state governments, and only four were large (Hyderabad State, Mysore State, Jammu and Kashmir State, and Baroda State). They acceded to one of the two new independent countries between 1947 and 1949. All the princes were eventually pensioned off.

Pakistan

Main article: Princely states of Pakistan

During the period of the British Raj, there were four princely states in Balochistan: Makran, Kharan, Las Bela and Kalat. The first three acceded to Pakistan. However, the ruler of the fourth princely state, the Khan of Kalat Ahmad Yar Khan, declared Kalat's independence as this was one of the options given to all princely states. The state remained independent until it was acceded on 27 March 1948. The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision in July 1948, causing an ongoing and still unresolved insurgency.

Bahawalpur from the Punjab Agency joined Pakistan on 5 October 1947. The princely states of the North-West Frontier States Agencies. included the Dir Swat and Chitral Agency and the Deputy Commissioner of Hazara acting as the Political Agent for Amb and Phulra. These states joined Pakistan on independence from the British.

See also


References

  1. Ramusack 2004, pp. 85 Quote: "The British did not create the Indian princes. Before and during the European penetration of India, indigenous rulers achieved dominance through the military protection they provided to dependents and their skill in acquiring revenues to maintain their military and administrative organizations. Major Indian rulers exercised varying degrees and types of sovereign powers before they entered treaty relations with the British. What changed during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries is that the British increasingly restricted the sovereignty of Indian rulers. The Company set boundaries; it extracted resources in the form of military personnel, subsidies or tribute payments, and the purchase of commercial goods at favorable prices, and limited opportunities for other alliances. From the 1810s onwards as the British expanded and consolidated their power, their centralized military despotism dramatically reduced the political options of Indian rulers." (p. 85)
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  10. Zubrzycki, John (2024). Dethroned. Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-80526-053-0. Princely States at the time of Indian independence owed their existence to the slow collapse of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. Centuries of foreign domination meant that many of the rulers who carved out their own states were outsiders. The Nizams of Hyderabad were of Turkoman stock. Bhopal was established by one of Aurangzeb's Afghan generals. Rampurs first ruler, Nawab Faizullah Khan, was a Pashtun. Tonk in present day Rajasthan was founded by Pindari freebooters. The seaboard state of Janjira was the creation of an Abysinnian pirate. Among the Hindu kingdoms, most of the rulers were Kshatriya. Only the Rajput states and a scattering of South Indian kingdoms could trace their lineage to the pre-Mughal period.
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Gazetteers

  • Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. II (1908), The Indian Empire, Historical, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxxv, 1 map, 573. online
  • Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III (1907), The Indian Empire, Economic (Chapter X: Famine, pp. 475–502, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxxvi, 1 map, 520. online
  • Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV (1907), The Indian Empire, Administrative, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552. online

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