Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 20:06, 11 December 2024

Korea朝鮮 Chōsen 조선 Chosŏn
1910–1945
Flag Seal of the Government-General of Chōsen
Anthem: "Kimigayo"
1945 National Geographic map of Korea, showing Japanese placenames and provincial boundaries
Status	Part of the Empire of Japan (colony)
Capitaland largest city	Keijō (now Seoul, South Korea)
Official languages	Japanese Korean
Religion	De jure: None De facto: State Shinto Confucianism Buddhism Shamanism Taoism Christianity Cheondoism
Demonym(s)	Korean
Emperor
• 1910–1912	Meiji
• 1912–1926	Taishō
• 1926–1945	Shōwa
Governor-General
• 1910–1916 (first)	Terauchi Masatake
• 1944–1945 (last)	Nobuyuki Abe
Historical era	Empire of Japan
• Japanese protectorate	17 November 1905
• Annexation treaty signed	22 August 1910
• Annexation by Japan	29 August 1910
• March First Movement	1 March 1919
• Sōshi-kaimei order	10 November 1939
• Surrender of Japan	2 September 1945
• Japanese claim relinquished	28 April 1952
Currency	Korean yen
Preceded by Succeeded by Korean Empire 1919: Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 1945: People's Republic of Korea Soviet Civil Administration United States Army Military Government in Korea
Today part of	South Korea North Korea
Japanese: 京城, romanized: Keijō; Korean: 경성; RR: Gyeongseong; MR: Kyŏngsŏng According to Korean Christians

Part of a series on the
History of Korea
Prehistoric period Palaeolithic 700,000 BC-8000 BC Neolithic 8000 BC–1500 BC * Jeulmun Bronze Age 1500 BC–300 BC * Mumun * Liaoning dagger
Ancient period Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC * Dangun * Gija * Wiman Jin 4th–2nd century BC Yemaek
Proto–Three Kingdoms period Takri Dongye Buyeo Eastern Galsa Okjeo Samhan Ma Byeon Jin Goguryeo Tamna Nakrang Four Commanderies of Han
Three Kingdoms period Goguryeo 37 BC–668 AD Baekje 18 BC–660 AD Silla 57 BC–935 AD Gaya confederacy 42–562 Tamna (Tributary of Baekje) 498–660 Usan 512–930
Northern and Southern period United Silla (Unified Silla) 668–892 Balhae 698–926 Little Goguryeo 699–820 Tamna (Tributary of Silla) 662–925
Later Three Kingdoms period Later Baekje 892–936 Taebong (Later Goguryeo) 901–918 Unified Silla (Later Silla) 892–935 Later Sabeol 919–927 Dongdan Kingdom 926–936 Later Balhae 927–935 Jeongan 938–986
Dynastic period Goryeo 918–1392 Tamna (Vassal of Goryeo) 938–1105 Heungyo 1029–1030 Joseon 1392–1897 Korean Empire 1897–1910
Colonial period Japanese occupation 1910–1945 Provisional Government 1919–1948
Modern period Military governments 1945–1948 North-South division 1945–present * North 1948–present * South 1948–present
By topic Architecture Art Cuisine Currency Education Geography Historiography Language Military (List · Goguryeo) Monarchs (Family tree) Names (Era names) Naval Newspapers Politics (Joseon · North · South) Religion Buddhism Christianity Islam Science and technology Women World Heritage Sites (North · South)
Timeline
Korea portal
v t e

From 1910 to 1945, Korea was ruled by the Empire of Japan under the name Chōsen (朝鮮), the Japanese reading of "Joseon".

Japan first took Korea into its sphere of influence during the late 1800s. Both Korea (Joseon) and Japan had been under policies of isolationism, with Joseon being a tributary state of Qing China. However, in 1854, Japan was forcefully opened by the United States. It then rapidly modernized under the Meiji Restoration, while Joseon continued to resist foreign attempts to open it up. Japan eventually succeeded in opening Joseon with the unequal Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876.

Afterwards, Japan embarked on a decades-long process of defeating its local rivals, securing alliances with Western powers, and asserting its influence in Korea. Japan assassinated the defiant Korean queen and intervened in the Donghak Peasant Revolution. After Japan defeated China in the 1894–1895 First Sino–Japanese War, Joseon became nominally independent and declared the short-lived Korean Empire. Japan then defeated Russia in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, making it the sole regional power. It then moved quickly to fully absorb Korea. It first made Korea a protectorate with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, and then ruled the country indirectly through the Japanese Resident-General of Korea. After forcing the Korean Emperor Gojong to abdicate in 1907, Japan then formally colonized Korea with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910. The territory was then administered by the Governor-General of Chōsen, based in Keijō (Seoul), until the end of the colonial period.

Japan made sweeping changes in Korea. It began a process of Japanization, eventually functionally banning the use of Korean names and the Korean language altogether. Tens of thousands of cultural artifacts were taken to Japan, and hundreds of historic buildings like the royal palaces Gyeongbokgung and Deoksugung were either partially or completely demolished. Japan also built infrastructure and industry. Railways, ports and roads were constructed, although in numerous cases workers were subjected to extremely poor working circumstances and discriminatory pay. While Korea's economy grew under Japan, many argue that many of the infrastructure projects were designed to extract resources from the peninsula, and not to benefit its people. Most of Korea's infrastructure built during this time was destroyed during the 1950–1953 Korean War.

These conditions led to the birth of the Korean independence movement, which acted both politically and militantly sometimes within the Japanese Empire, but mostly from outside of it. Koreans were also subjected to a number of mass murders, including the Gando Massacre, Kantō Massacre, Jeamni massacre, and Shinano River incident. While the international consensus is that these incidents all occurred, various Japanese scholars and politicians, including Tokyo governor Yuriko Koike, either deny completely, attempt to justify, or downplay incidents such as these.

Beginning in 1939 and during World War II, Japan mobilized around 5.4 million Koreans to support its war effort. Many were moved forcefully from their homes, and set to work in generally extremely poor working conditions, although there was a range in what people experienced. Some Japanese politicians and scholars, including former Prime Minister Fumio Kishida, deny that Koreans were forced laborers, and instead claim that they were "requisitioned against their will" to work. Women and girls aged 12–17 were controversially forced into sexual slavery by Japan as "comfort women". A number of modern Japanese scholars and politicians, notably from the far-right nationalist group Nippon Kaigi, of which Fumio Kishida and 57% of his cabinet are members, deny that they were forced to work at all, and claim that even the pubescent girls consented to sex work and were compensated reasonably. After the surrender of Japan at the end of the war, Korea was liberated, although it was immediately divided under the rule of the Soviet Union and of the United States.

The legacy of Japanese colonization was hotly contested even just after its end, and is still extremely controversial. There is a significant range of opinions in both South Korea and Japan, and historical topics regularly cause diplomatic issues. Within South Korea, a particular focus is the role of the numerous ethnic Korean collaborators with Japan, who have been variously punished or left alone. This controversy is exemplified in the legacy of Park Chung Hee, South Korea's most influential and controversial president, who collaborated with the Japanese military and continued to praise it even after the colonial period. Until 1964, South Korea and Japan had no functional diplomatic relations, until they signed the Treaty on Basic Relations, which declared "already null and void" the past unequal treaties, especially those of 1905 and 1910. Despite this, relations between Japan and South Korea have oscillated between warmer and colder periods, often due to conflicts over the historiography of this era.

Terminology

During the period of Japanese colonial rule, Korea was officially known as Chōsen (朝鮮), although the former name continued to be used internationally.

In South Korea, the period is usually described as the "Imperial Japanese compulsive occupation period" (Korean: 일제강점기; Hanja: 日帝强占期; RR: Ilje Gangjeomgi). Other terms, although often considered obsolete, include "Japanese Imperial Period" (일제시대; 日帝時代; Ilje Sidae), "The dark Japanese Imperial Period" (일제암흑기; 日帝暗黑期; Ilje Amheukgi), and "Wae (Japanese) administration period" (왜정시대; 倭政時代; Wae-jeong Sidae).

In Japan, the term "Chōsen of the Japanese-Governed Period" (日本統治時代の朝鮮, Nippon Tōchi-jidai no Chōsen) has been used.

Background

Political turmoil in Korea

Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876

On 27 February 1876, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was signed. It was designed to open up Korea to Japanese trade, and the rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted Western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry in 1854. The treaty ended Korea's status as a protectorate of China, forced opening of three Korean ports to Japanese trade, granted extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens, and was an unequal treaty signed under duress (gunboat diplomacy) of the Ganghwa Island incident of 1875.

Imo Incident

The regent Daewongun, who remained opposed to any concessions to Japan or the West, helped organize the Mutiny of 1882, an anti-Japanese outbreak against Queen Min and her allies. Motivated by resentment of the preferential treatment given to newly trained troops, the Daewongun's forces, or "old military", killed a Japanese training cadre, and attacked the Japanese legation. Japanese diplomats, policemen, students, and some Min clan members were also killed during the incident. The Daewongun was briefly restored to power, only to be forcibly taken to China by Chinese troops dispatched to Seoul to prevent further disorder.

In August 1882, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882 indemnified the families of the Japanese victims, paid reparations to the Japanese government in the amount of 500,000 yen, and allowed a company of Japanese guards to be stationed at the Japanese legation in Seoul.

Gapsin Coup

The struggle between the Heungseon Daewongun's followers and those of Queen Min was further complicated by competition from a Korean independence faction known as the Progressive Party (Gaehwa-dang), as well as the Conservative faction. While the former sought Japan's support, the latter sought China's support.

On 4 December 1884, the Progressive Party, assisted by the Japanese, attempted the Gapsin Coup, in which they attempted to maintain Gojong but replace the government with a pro-Japanese one. They also wished to liberate Korea from Chinese suzerainty. However, this proved short-lived, as conservative Korean officials requested the help of Chinese forces stationed in Korea. The coup was put down by Chinese troops, and a Korean mob killed both Japanese officers and Japanese residents in retaliation. Some leaders of the Progressive Party, including Kim Ok-gyun, fled to Japan, while others were executed. For the next 10 years, Japanese expansion into the Korean economy was approximated only by the efforts of tsarist Russia.

Donghak Revolution and First Sino-Japanese War

The outbreak of the Donghak Peasant Revolution in 1894 provided a seminal pretext for direct military intervention by Japan in the affairs of Korea. In April 1894, Joseon asked for Chinese assistance in ending the revolt. In response, Japanese leaders, citing a violation of the Convention of Tientsin as a pretext, decided upon military intervention to challenge China. On 3 May 1894, 1,500 Qing forces appeared in Incheon. On 23 July 1894, Japan attacked Seoul in defiance of the Korean government's demand for withdrawal, and then occupied it and started the Sino-Japanese War. Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War, and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Among its many stipulations, the treaty recognized "the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea", thus ending Joseon's tributary relationship with Qing, leading to the proclamation of the full independence of Joseon in 1895. At the same time, Japan suppressed the peasant revolt with Korean government forces.

Assassination of Queen Min

The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorō, orchestrated a plot against 43-year-old Queen Min (later given the title of "Empress Myeongseong"), and on 8 October 1895, she was assassinated by Japanese agents. In 2001, Russian reports on the assassination were found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation. The documents included the testimony of King Gojong, several witnesses of the assassination, and Karl Ivanovich Weber's report to Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky, the Foreign Minister of Russia, by Park Jonghyo. Weber was the chargé d'affaires at the Russian legation in Seoul at that time. According to a Russian eyewitness, Seredin-Sabatin, an employee of the king, a group of Japanese agents entered Gyeongbokgung, killed Queen Min, and desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace.

The Heungseon Daewongun returned to the royal palace the same day. On 11 February 1896, Gojong and the crown prince fled for protection at the Russian legation in Seoul, from which he governed for about a year.

Democracy protests and the proclamation of the Korean Empire

In 1896, various Korean activists formed the Independence Club. They advocated a number of societal reforms, including democracy and a constitutional monarchy, and pushed for closer ties to Western countries in order to counterbalance Japanese influence. It went on to be influential in Korean politics for the short time that it operated, to the chagrin of Gojong. Gojong eventually forcefully disbanded the organization in 1898.

In October 1897, Gojong returned to the palace Deoksugung, and proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire at the royal altar Hwangudan. This symbolicly asserted Korea's independence from China, especially as Gojong demolished a reception hall that was once used to entertain Chinese ambassadors in order to build the altar.

Prelude to annexation

Having established economic and military dominance in Korea in October 1904, Japan reported that it had developed 25 reforms which it intended to introduce into Korea by gradual degrees. Among these was the intended acceptance by the Korean Financial Department of a Japanese Superintendent, the replacement of Korean Foreign Ministers and consuls by Japanese and the "union of military arms" in which the military of Korea would be modeled after the Japanese military. These reforms were forestalled by the prosecution of the Russo-Japanese War from 8 February 1904, to 5 September 1905, which Japan won, thus eliminating Japan's last rival to influence in Korea.

Frustrated by this, King Gojong invited Alice Roosevelt Longworth, who was on a tour of Asian countries with William Howard Taft, to the Imperial Palace on 20 September 1905, to seek political support from the United States despite her diplomatic rudeness. However, it was after exchanging opinions through the Taft–Katsura agreement on 27 July 1905, that America and Japan would not interfere with each other on colonial issues.

Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic interest" in Korea.

Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate by the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 and the "reforms" were enacted, including the reduction of the Korean Army from 20,000 to 1,000 men by disbanding all garrisons in the provinces, retaining only a single garrison in the precincts of Seoul. On 6 January 1905, Horace Allen, head of the American Legation in Seoul reported to his Secretary of State, John Hay, that the Korean government had been advised by the Japanese government "that hereafter the police matters of Seoul will be controlled by the Japanese gendarmerie" and "that a Japanese police inspector will be placed in each prefecture". A large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but Japanese dominance in Korea had become a reality.

In June 1907, the Second Peace Conference was held in The Hague. Emperor Gojong secretly sent three representatives to bring the problems of Korea to the world's attention. The three envoys, who questioned the legality of the protectorate convention, were refused access to the public debates by the international delegates. One of these representatives was missionary and historian Homer Hulbert. Out of despair, one of the Korean representatives, Yi Tjoune, committed suicide at The Hague. In response, the Japanese government took stronger measures. On 19 July 1907, Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish his imperial authority and appoint the Crown Prince as regent. Japanese officials used this concession to force the accession of the new Emperor Sunjong following abdication, which was never agreed to by Gojong. Neither Gojong nor Sunjong were present at the 'accession' ceremony. Sunjong was to be the last ruler of the Joseon dynasty, founded in 1392.

On 24 July 1907, a treaty was signed under the leadership of Lee Wan-yong and Ito Hirobumi to transfer all rights of Korea to Japan. This led to a large-scale righteous army movement among Koreans, and disbanded troops joined the resistance forces. Japan's response to this was a scorched earth tactic using division-sized troops, which resulted in the movement of armed resistance organizations in Korea to Manchuria. Amid this confusion, on 26 October 1909, Ahn Jung-geun, a former volunteer soldier, assassinated Ito Hirobumi in Harbin.

Meanwhile, pro-Japanese populist groups such as the Iljinhoe helped Japan by being fascinated by Japan's pan-Asianism, thinking that Korea would have autonomy like Austria-Hungary. It was adopted as a representative consultant for Ryohei Uchida, and was used for propaganda with the support of the Japanese government. On 3 December 1909, he and Lee Wan-yong will issue a statement demanding the annexation of Korea.

However, the merger took place in the form of Japan's annexation of Korean territory and was disbanded by Terauchi Masatake on 26 September 1910.

Militant resistance

During the prelude to the 1910 annexation, a number of irregular civilian militias called "righteous armies" arose. They consisted of tens of thousands of peasants engaged in anti-Japanese armed rebellion. After the Korean army was disbanded in 1907, former soldiers joined the armies and fought the Japanese army at Namdaemun. They were defeated, and largely fled into Manchuria, where they joined the guerrilla resistance movement that persisted until Korea's 1945 liberation.

Military police

As Korean resistance against Japanese rule intensified, Japanese replaced Korean police system with their military police. Infamous Akashi Motojiro was appointed for the commander of Japanese military police forces. Japanese finally replaced Imperial Korean police forces in June 1910, and they combined police forces and military police, firmly establishing the rule of military police. After the annexation, Akashi started to serve as the Chief of Police. These military police officers started to have great authority over Koreans. Not only Japanese but also Koreans served as police officers.

Japan–Korea annexation treaty (1910)

In May 1910, the Minister of War of Japan, Terauchi Masatake, was given a mission to finalize Japanese control over Korea after the previous treaties (the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904 and the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907) had made Korea a protectorate of Japan and had established Japanese hegemony over Korean domestic politics. On 22 August 1910, Japan effectively annexed Korea with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 signed by Ye Wanyong, Prime Minister of Korea, and Terauchi Masatake, who became the first Governor-General of Chōsen.

The treaty became effective the same day and was published one week later. The treaty stipulated:

• Article 1: His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.
• Article 2: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan accepts the concession stated in the previous article and consents to the annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan.

Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared already void in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea.

This period is also known as Military Police Reign Era (1910–19) in which Police had the authority to rule the entire country. Japan was in control of the media, law as well as government by physical power and regulations.

In March 2010, 109 Korean intellectuals and 105 Japanese intellectuals met in the 100th anniversary of Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 and they declared this annexation treaty null and void. They declared these statements in each of their capital cities (Seoul and Tōkyō) with a simultaneous press conference. They announced the "Japanese empire pressured the outcry of the Korean Empire and people and forced by Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 and full text of a treaty was false and text of the agreement was also false". They also declared the "Process and formality of "Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910" had huge deficiencies and therefore the treaty was null and void. This implied the March First Movement was not an illegal movement.

Early years and expansion (1910–1941)

Japanese migration and land ownership

From around the time of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, Japanese merchants started settling in towns and cities in Korea seeking economic opportunity. By 1908 the number of Japanese settlers in Korea was somewhere below the figure of 500,000, comprising one of the nikkei communities in the world at the time.

Many Japanese settlers showed interest in acquiring agricultural land in Korea even before Japanese land-ownership was officially legalized in 1906. Governor-General Terauchi Masatake facilitated settlement through land reform. The Korean land-ownership system featured absentee landlords, only partial owner-tenants and cultivators with traditional (but no legal proof of) ownership. By 1920, 90 percent of Korean land had proper ownership of Koreans. Terauchi's new Land Survey Bureau conducted cadastral surveys that established ownership on the basis of written proof (deeds, titles, and similar documents). The system denied ownership to those who could not provide such written documentation; these turned out to be mostly high-class and impartial owners who had only traditional verbal cultivator-rights . Japanese landlords included both individuals and corporations (such as the Oriental Development Company). Because of these developments, Japanese landownership soared, as did the amount of land taken over by private Japanese companies. Many former Korean landowners, as well as agricultural workers, became tenant farmers, having lost their entitlements almost overnight because they could not pay for the land reclamation and irrigation improvements forced on them. Compounding the economic stresses imposed on the Korean peasantry, the authorities forced Korean peasants to do long days of compulsory labor to build irrigation works; Japanese imperial officials made peasants pay for these projects in the form of heavy taxes, impoverishing many of them and causing even more of them lose their land. Although many other subsequent developments placed ever greater strain on Korea's peasants, Japan's rice shortage in 1918 was the greatest catalyst for hardship. During that shortage, Japan looked to Korea for increased rice cultivation; as Korean peasants started producing more for Japan, however, the amount they took to eat dropped precipitously, causing much resentment among them.

By 1910 an estimated 7 to 8% of all arable land in Korea had come under Japanese control. This ratio increased steadily; as of the years 1916, 1920, and 1932, the ratio of Japanese land ownership increased from 36.8 to 39.8 to 52.7%. The level of tenancy was similar to that of farmers in Japan itself; however, in Korea, the landowners were mostly Japanese, while the tenants were all Koreans. As often occurred in Japan itself, tenants had to pay over half their crop in rent.

By the 1930s the growth of the urban economy and the exodus of farmers to the cities had gradually weakened the hold of the landlords. With the growth of the wartime economy throughout the Second World War, the government recognized landlordism as an impediment to increased agricultural productivity, and took steps to increase control over the rural sector through the formation in Japan in 1943 of the Central Agricultural Association (中央農会, chūō nōkai), a compulsory organization under the wartime command economy.

The Japanese government had hoped emigration to its colonies would mitigate the population boom in the naichi(内地), but had largely failed to accomplish this by 1936. According to figures from 1934, Japanese in Chōsen numbered approximately 561,000 out of a total population of over 21 million, less than 3%. By 1939 the Japanese population increased to 651,000, mostly from Japan's western prefectures. During the same period, the population in Chōsen grew faster than that in the naichi. Koreans also migrated to the naichi in large numbers, especially after 1930; by 1939 there were over 981,000 Koreans living in Japan. Challenges which deterred Japanese from migrating into Chōsen included lack of arable land and population density comparable to that of Japan.

Anthropology and cultural heritage

Japan sent anthropologists to Korea who took photos of the traditional state of Korean villages, serving as evidence that Korea was "backwards" and needed to be modernized.

In 1925, the Japanese government established the Korean History Compilation Committee, and it was administered by the Governor-General and engaged in collecting Korean historical materials and compiling Korean history. According to the Doosan Encyclopedia, some mythology was incorporated. The committee supported the theory of a Japanese colony on the Korean Peninsula called Mimana, which, according to E. Taylor Atkins, is "among the most disputed issues in East Asian historiography."

Japan executed the first modern archaeological excavations in Korea. The Japanese administration also relocated some artifacts; for instance, a stone monument (棕蟬縣神祠碑), which was originally located in the Liaodong Peninsula, then under Japanese control, was taken out of its context and moved to Pyongyang. As of April 2020, 81,889 Korean cultural artifacts are in Japan. According to the Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation, not all the artifacts were moved illegally. Adding to the challenge of repatriating illegally exported Korean cultural properties is the lack of experts in Korean art at overseas museums and institutions, alterations made to artifacts that obscure their origin, and that moving Korean artifacts within what was previously internationally recognized Japanese territory was lawful at the time. The South Korean government has been continuing its efforts to repatriate Korean artifacts from museums and private collections overseas.

The royal palace Gyeongbokgung was partially destroyed beginning in the 1910s, in order to make way for the Japanese General Government Building as well as the colonial Chōsen Industrial Exhibition. Hundreds of historic buildings in Deoksugung were also destroyed to make way for the Yi Royal Family Museum of Fine Art [ko]. The displays in the museum reportedly intentionally contrasted traditional Korean art with examples of modern Japanese art, in order to portray Japan as progressive and legitimize Japanese rule. The National Palace Museum of Korea, originally built as the Korean Imperial Museum in 1908 to preserve the treasures in the Gyeongbokgung, was retained under the Japanese administration but renamed Museum of the Yi Dynasty in 1938.

The Governor-General instituted a law in 1933 in order to preserve Korea's most important historical artifacts. The system established by this law, retained as the present-day National Treasures of South Korea and National Treasures of North Korea, was intended to preserve Korean historical artifacts, including those not yet unearthed. Japan's 1871 Edict for the Preservation of Antiquities and Old Items could not be automatically applied to Korea due to Japanese law, which required an imperial ordinance to apply the edict in Korea. The 1933 law to protect Korean cultural heritages was based on the Japanese 1871 edict.

Anti-Chinese riots of 1931

Due to a waterway construction permit, in the small town of Wanpaoshan in Manchuria near Changchun, "violent clashes" broke out between the local Chinese and Korean immigrants on 2 July 1931. The Chosun Ilbo, a major Korean newspaper, misreported that many Koreans had died in the clashes, sparking a Chinese exclusion movement in urban areas of the Korean Peninsula. The worst of the rioting occurred in Pyongyang on 5 July. Approximately 127 Chinese people were killed, 393 wounded, and a considerable number of properties were destroyed by Korean residents. Republic of China further alleged the Japanese authorities in Korea did not take adequate steps to protect the lives and property of the Chinese residents, and blamed the authorities for allowing inflammatory accounts to be published. As a result of this riot, the Minister of Foreign Affairs Kijūrō Shidehara, who insisted on Japanese, Chinese, and Korean harmony, lost his position.

Order to change names

In 1911, the proclamation "Matter Concerning the Changing of Korean Names" (朝鮮人ノ姓名改称ニ関スル件) was issued, barring ethnic Koreans from taking Japanese names and retroactively reverting the names of Koreans who had already registered under Japanese names back to the original Korean ones. By 1939, however, this position was reversed and Japan's focus had shifted towards cultural assimilation of the Korean people; Imperial Decree 19 and 20 on Korean Civil Affairs (Sōshi-kaimei) went into effect, whereby ethnic Koreans were forced to surrender their traditional use of clan-based Korean family name system, in favor of a new surname to be used in the family register. The surname could be of their own choosing, including their native clan name, but in practice many Koreans received a Japanese surname. There is controversy over whether or not the adoption of a Japanese surname was effectively mandatory, or merely strongly encouraged.

World War II

National Mobilization Law

Forcing of labor and migration

From 1939, labor shortages as a result of conscription of Japanese men for the military efforts of World War II led to organized official recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of the National Mobilization Law to include the conscription of Korean workers for factories and mines in Korea, Manchukuo, and the involuntary relocation of workers to Japan itself as needed.

The combination of immigrants and forced laborers during World War II brought the total to over 2 million Koreans in Japan by the end of the war, according to estimates by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers.

Of the 5,400,000 Koreans conscripted, about 670,000 were taken to mainland Japan (including Karafuto Prefecture, present-day Sakhalin, now part of Russia) for civilian labor. Those who were brought to Japan were often forced to work under conditions that have been described as appalling and dangerous. Although Koreans were reportedly treated better than laborers from other countries, large numbers still died. In Japan, 60,000 of the 670,000 mobilized laborers died. In Korea and Manchuria, estimates of deaths range between 270,000 and 810,000.

Korean laborers were also found as far as the Tarawa Atoll, where during the Battle of Tarawa only 129 of the 1200 laborers survived. According to testimonies in Japanese records, Korean laborers on the Mili Atoll were given "whale meat" to consume, which was actually human flesh from other dead Koreans. They rebelled after learning the truth, and were killed by the dozens in the aftermath. Korean laborers also worked in Korea itself, notably in Jeju where in the later stages of the Pacific War, Korean laborers expanded airfields and built facilities at Altteureu Airfield in order to block a US invasion of the Japanese mainland and in 1945 laborers on Songak Mountain (where several airstrips were located) were ordered to smooth down the slope in order to prevent American tanks being able to go up.

Most Korean atomic-bomb victims in Japan had been drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the name of humanitarian assistance, Japan paid South Korea four billion yen (approx. thirty five million dollars) and built a welfare center for those suffering from the effects of the atomic bomb.

Korean service in the Japanese military

Japan did not draft ethnic Koreans into its military until 1944 when the tide of World War II turned against it. Until 1944, enlistment in the Imperial Japanese Army by ethnic Koreans was voluntary, and highly competitive. From a 14% acceptance rate in 1938, it dropped to a 2% acceptance rate in 1943 while the raw number of applicants increased from 3000 per annum to 300,000 in just five years during World War II.

While the statistics appear to indicate that Koreans willingly joined the Japanese military, these numbers were artificially inflated using force. Japanese officials pressed illiterate peasants to sign applications and deliberately inflate statistics. This is also known in mainland Japan, and according to a 1941 survey, over half of applications were forced. The remaining applicants voluntarily applied due a variety of reasons, largely economic, while a small number were genuine supporters of Japan.

Other Korean officers who served Japan moved on to successful careers in post-colonial South Korea. Examples include Park Chung Hee, who became president of South Korea; Chung Il-kwon, prime minister from 1964 to 1970; Paik Sun-yup, South Korea's youngest general who was famous for his command of the 1st Infantry Division during the defense of the Pusan Perimeter, and Kim Suk-won, a colonel of the Imperial Japanese Army who subsequently became a general of the South Korean army. The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the Korean Liberation Army.

Officer cadets had been joining the Japanese Army since before the annexation by attending the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun-yup, who served in the Korean War. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule."

Starting in 1944, Japan started the conscription of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean men were drafted to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of September 1944. Before 1944, 18,000 Koreans passed the examination for induction into the army. Koreans provided workers to mines and construction sites around Japan. The number of conscripted Koreans reached its peak in 1944 in preparation for war. From 1944, about 200,000 Korean men were inducted into the army.

During World War II, American soldiers frequently encountered Korean soldiers within the ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army. Most notably was in the Battle of Tarawa, which was considered during that time to be one of the bloodiest battles in U.S. military history. A fifth of the Japanese garrison during this battle consisted of Korean laborers, where on the last night of the battle a combined 300 Japanese soldiers and Korean laborers did a last ditch charge. Like their Japanese counterparts, many of them were killed.

The Japanese, however, did not always believe they could rely on Korean laborers to fight alongside them. In Prisoners of the Japanese, author Gaven Daws wrote, "n Tinian there were five thousand Korean laborers and so as not to have hostiles at their back when the Americans invaded, the Japanese killed them."

After the war, 148 Koreans were convicted of Class B and C Japanese war crimes, 23 of whom were sentenced to death (compared to 920 Japanese who were sentenced to death), including Korean prison guards who were particularly notorious for their brutality during the war. The figure is relatively high considering that ethnic Koreans made up a small percentage of the Japanese military. Judge Bert Röling, who represented the Netherlands at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, noted that "many of the commanders and guards in POW camps were Koreans – the Japanese apparently did not trust them as soldiers – and it is said that they were sometimes far more cruel than the Japanese." In his memoirs, Colonel Eugene C. Jacobs wrote that during the Bataan Death March, "the Korean guards were the most abusive. The Japanese didn't trust them in battle, so used them as service troops; the Koreans were anxious to get blood on their bayonets; and then they thought they were veterans."

Korean guards were sent to the remote jungles of Burma, where Lt. Col. William A. (Bill) Henderson wrote from his own experience that some of the guards overseeing the construction of the Burma Railway "were moronic and at times almost bestial in their treatment of prisoners. This applied particularly to Korean private soldiers, conscripted only for guard and sentry duties in many parts of the Japanese empire. Regrettably, they were appointed as guards for the prisoners throughout the camps of Burma and Siam." The highest-ranking Korean to be prosecuted after the war was Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, who was in command of all the Japanese prisoner-of-war camps in the Philippines.

Comfort women

During World War II, many ethnic Korean girls and women (mostly aged 12–17) were forced by the Japanese military to become sex slaves on the pretext of being hired for jobs, such as a seamstresses or factory workers, and were forced to provide sexual service for Japanese soldiers by agencies or their families against their wishes. These women were euphemistically called "comfort women".

According to an interrogation report by U.S. Army in 1944, comfort women were in good physical health. They were able to have a periodic checkup once a week and to receive treatment in case of spreading disease to the Japanese soldiers, but not for their own health. However, a 1996 United Nations Report detailed that "large numbers of women were forced to submit to prolonged prostitution under conditions which were frequently indescribably traumatic". Documents which survived the war revealed "beyond doubt the extent to which the Japanese forces took direct responsibility for the comfort stations" and that the published practices were "in stark contrast with the brutality and cruelty of the practice." Chizuko Ueno at Kyoto University cautions against the claim that women were not forced as the fact that "no positive sources exist supporting claims that comfort women were forced labor" must be treated with doubt, as "it is well known that the great majority of potentially damaging official documents were destroyed in anticipation of the Allied occupation".

The Asian Women's Fund claimed that during World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army recruited anywhere from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of women from occupied territories to be used as sex slaves. Yoshimi Yoshiaki asserted that possibly hundreds of thousands of girls and women, mainly from China and the Korean Peninsula but also Southeast Asian countries occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army, as well as Australia and the Netherlands, were forced to serve as comfort women. According to testimonies, young women were abducted from their homes in countries under Imperial Japanese rule. In many cases, women were lured with promises of work in factories or restaurants. In some cases propaganda advocated equity and the sponsorship of women in higher education. Other enticements were false advertising for nursing jobs at outposts or Japanese army bases; once recruited, they were incarcerated in comfort stations both inside their nations and abroad.

From the early nineties onward, former Korean comfort women have continued to protest against the Japanese government for apparent historical negationism of crimes committed by the Imperial Japanese Army, and have sought compensation for their sufferings during the war. There has also been international support for compensation, such as from the European Union, the Netherlands, Canada and the Philippines. The United States passed House of Representatives House Resolution 121 on 30 July 2007, asking the Japanese government to redress the situation and to incorporate comfort women into school curriculum. Hirofumi Hayashi at the University of Manchester argues that the resolution has helped to counter the "arguments of ultrarightists flooding the mainstream mass media" and warned against the rationalization of the comfort women system.

Religion and ideology

Protestant Christian missionary efforts in Asia were quite successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. They served as medical and educational missionaries, establishing schools and hospitals in numerous cities. In the years when Korea was under Japanese control, some Koreans adopted Christianity as an expression of nationalism in opposition to the Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. In 1914 of 16 million Koreans, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics. By 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000, respectively. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary rituals.

Korean independence movement

Guerrilla resistance in Manchuria and Russia

Since the early 1900s, Koreans in Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia waged a guerrilla war against the Japanese occupation. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932 and subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo deprived many of these groups of their bases of operation and supplies. Many were forced to either flee elsewhere in China, or to join the Red Army-backed forces in eastern Russia. One of the most prominent guerrilla leaders in this region was the future leader of North Korea, Kim Il Sung. These experiences served as a base for Kim's legitimacy after the liberation of Korea.

March 1st Movement

In January 1919, Emperor Gojong died suddenly, which led to widespread theories that he had been poisoned by Japan [ko]. Anti-Japanese sentiment flared amongst Koreans. In Tokyo, Korean students issued a February 8 Declaration of Independence that declared Korea independent from Japan. Inspired by this, Koreans in Seoul issued their own declaration of independence, which was prominently read aloud in Tapgol Park. This gave rise to the nation-wide March 1 Movement peaceful protests; it is estimated that 2 million people took part in these rallies. However, they were violently suppressed by Japan; according to Korean records, over a year of demonstrations, 46,948 were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded. According to Japanese figures, 8,437 were arrested, 553 killed and 1,409 wounded.

Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea

After the repression of the March 1st Movement protests, Koreans fled the peninsula. A number of them congregated in Shanghai a month after the protests and founded a government-in-exile: the Korean Provisional Government (KPG). The government was highly diverse, with both left- and right-leaning members, and engaged in a range of political and militant efforts that advocated for Korea's independence. In 1931, member Kim Ku founded the Korean Patriotic Organization (KPO), a militant arm of the KPG. The KPO planned a number of attacks on Japanese government and colonial officials, including a 1932 assassination attempt on Emperor Hirohito and a bombing at a military rally in Shanghai. After the Shanghai bombing, they were forced to flee the city, and eventually settled in Chongqing, where they received support from the Chinese government. There, Kim Ku, then the leader of the KPG, founded the Korean Liberation Army (KLA). The army fought in China and Burma, and prepared for its return to Korea as the tide of World War II turned against Japan. This culminated in the Eagle Project, a mission for the KPG and KLA to return to the peninsula and fight the Japanese. Ultimately, with the surprise of the atomic bomb droppings on Nagasaki and Hiroshima and the sudden end of the war, the mission did not come to pass.

Resistance within Korea

Within Korea itself, anti-Japanese rallies continued on occasion. Most notably, the Kōshū Students Anti-Japanese Movement on 3 November 1929 led to the strengthening of Japanese military rule in 1931, after which freedom of the press and freedom of expression were curbed. Many witnesses, including Catholic priests, reported that Japanese authorities dealt with insurgency severely. When villagers were suspected of hiding rebels, entire village populations are said to have been herded into public buildings (especially churches) and massacred when the buildings were set on fire. In the village of Teigan, Suigen District, Keiki Prefecture (now Jeam-ri, Hwaseong, Gyeongggi Province) for example, a group of 29 people were gathered inside a church which was then set afire.

On 10 December 1941, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, under the presidency of Kim Ku, declared war on Japan and Germany.

Independence and division of Korea

Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and the impending overrun of the Korean Peninsula by U.S. and Soviet forces, Japan surrendered to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese colonial rule, though Japanese troops remained in Southern Korea for several more weeks until fully withdrawing by mid-September.

American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945, while the Soviet Army and some Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. U.S. Colonel Dean Rusk proposed to Chischakov, the Soviet military administrator of northern Korea, that Korea should be split at the 38th parallel. This proposal was made at an emergency meeting to determine postwar spheres of influence, which led to the division of Korea.

After the liberation of Korea from Japanese rule, the "Name Restoration Order" was issued on 23 October 1946 by the United States Army Military Government in Korea south of the 38th parallel, enabling Koreans to restore their names if they wished. Many Koreans in Japan chose to retain their Japanese names, either to avoid discrimination, or later, to meet the requirements for naturalization as Japanese citizens.

Administrative divisions

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2022)

There were 13 provinces in Korea during Japanese rule: Keiki-dō, Kōgen-dō, Chūseihoku-dō, Chūseinan-dō, Zenrahoku-dō, Zenranan-dō, Keishōhoku-dō, Keishōnan-dō, Heian'nan-dō, Heianhoku-dō, Kōkai-dō, Kankyōnan-dō, and Kankyōhoku-dō. The administrative capital Keijō was in Keiki-dō.

Economy

Japan encouraged an inflow of Japanese capital to Korea's less developed economy. A large majority of major firms in Korea became Japanese owned and operated as a result, with key positions reserved for Japanese. Koreans were permitted to work in menial roles under harsh labor conditions. Most of Korea's coal, iron, and crop production was shipped to Japan.

Economic output in terms of agriculture, fishery, forestry and industry increased by tenfold from 1910 to 1945 as illustrated on the chart to the right. Princeton's Atul Kohli concluded that the economic development model the Japanese instituted played the crucial role in Korean economic development, a model that was maintained by the Koreans in the post-World War II era.

Randall S. Jones wrote that "economic development during the colonial period can be said to have laid the foundation for future growth in several respects."

A 2017 study found that the gradual removal of trade barriers (almost fully completed by 1923) after Japan's annexation of Korea "increased population growth rates more in the regions close to the former border between Japan and Korea than in the other regions. Furthermore, after integration, the regions close to Korea that specialized in the fabric industry, whose products were the primary goods exported from Japan to Korea, experienced more population growth than other regions close to Korea did."

There were some modernization efforts by the late 19th century prior to annexation. Seoul became the first city in East Asia to have electricity, trolley cars, water, telephone, and telegraph systems all at the same time, but Korea remained a largely backward agricultural economy around the start of the 20th century. "Japan's initial colonial policy was to increase agricultural production in Korea to meet Japan's growing need for rice. Japan also began to build large-scale industries in Korea in the 1930s as part of the empire-wide program of economic self-sufficiency and war preparation." In terms of exports, "Japanese industry as a whole gained little ... and this is certainly true for the most important manufacturing sector, cotton textiles. This export trade had little impact, positive or negative, on the welfare of Japanese consumer." Likewise in terms of the profitability of Japanese investors: colonial Korea made no significant impact.

According to scholar Donald S. Macdonald, "for centuries most Koreans lived as subsistence farmers of rice and other grains and satisfied most of their basic needs through their own labor or through barter. The manufactures of traditional Korea – principally cloth, cooking and eating utensils, furniture, jewelry, and paper – were produced by artisans in a few population centers."

During the early period of Japanese rule, the Japanese government attempted to completely integrate the Korean economy with Japan, and thus introduced many modern economic and social institutions and invested heavily in infrastructure, including schools, railroads and utilities. Most of these physical facilities remained in Korea after the Liberation. The Japanese government played an even more active role in developing Korea than it had played in developing the Japanese economy in the late nineteenth century. Many programs drafted in Korea in the 1920s and 1930s originated in policies drafted in Japan during the Meiji period (1868–1912). The Japanese government helped to mobilize resources for development and provided entrepreneurial leadership for these new enterprises. Colonial economic growth was initiated through powerful government efforts to expand the economic infrastructure, to increase investment in human capital through health and education and to raise productivity.

However, under Japanese rule, many Korean resources were only used for Japan. Economist Suh Sang-chul points out that the nature of industrialization during the period was as an "imposed enclave", so the impact of colonialism was trivial. Another scholar, Song Byung-nak, states that the economic condition of average Koreans deteriorated during the period despite the economic growth. Cha primarily attributed this deterioration to global economic shocks and laissez-faire policies, as well as Chōsen's rapid population growth; the colonial government's attempts to mitigate this problem were inadequate. Most Koreans at the time could access only a primary school education under restriction by the Japanese, and this prevented the growth of an indigenous entrepreneurial class. A 1939 statistic shows that among the total capital recorded by factories, about 94 percent was Japanese-owned. While Koreans owned about 61 percent of small-scale firms that had 5 to 49 employees, about 92 percent of large-scale enterprises with more than 200 employees were Japanese-owned.

Virtually all industries were owned either by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea. As of 1942, indigenous capital constituted only 1.5 percent of the total capital invested in Korean industries. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25 percent higher than their Japanese counterparts, so it was difficult for large Korean enterprises to emerge. More and more farmland was taken over by the Japanese, and an increasing proportion of Korean farmers either became sharecroppers or migrated to Japan or Manchuria as laborers. As greater quantities of Korean rice were exported to Japan, per capita consumption of rice among the Koreans declined; between 1932 and 1936, per capita consumption of rice declined to half the level consumed between 1912 and 1916. Although the government imported coarse grains from Manchuria to augment the Korean food supply, per capita consumption of food grains in 1944 was 35 percent below that of 1912 to 1916.

In addition, 70% of the agricultural workers who made up most of Korea's population at the time were reduced to tenants of Japanese and Korean landlords who purchased land at low prices, and they had to pay high rents of 50–70%. As a result, many Koreans left for Manchuria and settled down, becoming the foundation of Korean in China.

The Japanese government created a system of colonial mercantilism, requiring construction of significant transportation infrastructure on the Korean Peninsula for the purpose of extracting and exploiting resources such as raw materials (timber), foodstuff (mostly rice and fish), and mineral resources (coal and iron ore). The Japanese developed port facilities and an extensive railway system which included a main trunk railway from the southern port city of Pusan through the capital of Seoul and north to the Chinese border. This infrastructure was intended not only to facilitate a colonial mercantilist economy, but was also viewed as a strategic necessity for the Japanese military to control Korea and to move large numbers of troops and materials to the Chinese border at short notice.

From the late 1920s and into the 1930s, particularly during the tenure of Japanese Governor-General Kazushige Ugaki, concentrated efforts were made to build up the industrial base in Korea. This was especially true in the areas of heavy industry, such as chemical plants and steel mills, and munitions production. The Japanese military felt it would be beneficial to have production closer to the source of raw materials and closer to potential front lines for a future war with China.

Lee Young-hoon, a professor at Seoul National University states that less than 10% of arable land actually came under Japanese control and rice was normally traded, not robbed. He also insists that Koreans' knowledge about the era under Japanese rule is mostly made up by later educators. Many of Lee's arguments, however, have been contested.

Alleyne Ireland, a British author, referred to conditions in Korea under Japanese rule in 1926. He wrote in his book The New Korea, "looking forward from 1910, one thing was clear where many things were obscure, namely that Japan, having decided to make Korea part of her Empire, would deem the permanence of her occupation to be a major element of her national policy, to be held intact, at whatever cost, against internal revolt or foreign intrigue. The Japanese refer with pride to their effective protection of life and property throughout a country but recently overrun by bandits, to the enormous increase during the past fifteen years in every branch of production, with its connotation of increased employment for Koreans, to the constantly mounting number of Koreans appointed to the government service are facts, that cannot be gainsaid. However, the Korean nationalists attribute to them a sinister significance."

Drug trade

Korea produced a small amount of opium during the earlier years of the colonial period, but by the 1930s, Korea became a major exporter of both opium and narcotics, becoming a significant supplier to the illicit drug trade, specifically to the opium monopoly created by the Japanese-sponsored Manchukuo government. The Government-General developed facilities dedicated to the production of morphine and heroin. Emigrant Koreans played an extensive role in drug trafficking in China, especially in Manchuria, where they were employed as poppy farmers, drug peddlers, or proprietors of opium dens — disreputable jobs that were at the bottom rung of the drug trafficking ladder. The initiation of opium and narcotic production in Korea was motivated by the worldwide shortage of opium and Japan's unfavorable environment for poppy cultivation, making the Japanese entirely dependent on foreign imports to meet domestic demand for medical opium. The Japanese discovered that Korea provided favorable climate and soil conditions for poppy cultivation; not only were the climate and soil conditions more suitable, but land and labor costs were lower than in Japan. Farmers in Korea were aware of the global demand for opium, and welcomed the idea of increasing the amount of land for poppy cultivation, an idea that was introduced to them by Japanese pharmaceutical companies. The sale and consumption of drugs were pervasive in Korea, where the country faced a substantial domestic drug abuse problem, appearing in the form of opium-smoking and morphine addiction. Within Korea, most illicit narcotics were supplied by Japanese druggists.

Policies

Newspaper censorship

In 1907, the Resident-General of Korea passed the Newspaper Act, which effectively prevented the publication of local papers. Only the English-language The Korea Daily News and its Korean-language counterpart Daehan Maeil Sinbo continued their publication, because they were run by the foreigner Ernest Bethell. However, after continued Japanese pressure on the paper's staff and Bethell's death in 1909, even these papers became owned by the Japanese government. The newspaper's Korean-language successor, Maeil Sinbo, was subordinated to the Japanese-language Keijō Nippō. These two papers, along with the English-language newspaper The Seoul Press, were effectively backed by the colonial government. Concurrently, the colonial government published an official gazette, entitled the Government-General of Chōsen Gazette.

By 1910, the only major privately owned Korean newspaper allowed to publish was the Gyeongnam Ilbo. However, this paper was pressured to close by 1915, leaving only the Maeil Sinbo left. However, restrictions were eased upon the 1919 March First Movement and the cultural rule [ja; ko] policy, which led to the establishment of the historic Korean papers The Chosun Ilbo and The Dong-A Ilbo.

In 1932, Japan relaxed restrictions on the publication of Korean newspapers. Despite this, the government continued to seize newspapers without warning: there are over a thousand recorded seizures between 1920 and 1939. Revocation of publishing rights was relatively rare, and only three magazines had their rights revoked over the entire colonial period. In 1940, as the Pacific War increased in intensity, Japan shut down all Korean language newspapers again.

Education

Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced a public education system modeled after the Japanese school system with a pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, culminating at the Keijō Imperial University in Keijō. As in Japan itself, education was viewed primarily as an instrument of "the Formation of the Imperial Citizen" (황민화; 皇民化; Kōminka) with a heavy emphasis on moral and political instruction. Japanese religious groups such as Protestant Christians willingly supported the Japanese authorities in their effort to assimilate Koreans through education.

During colonial times, elementary schools were known as "Citizen Schools" (국민학교; 国民学校; kokumin gakkō) as in Japan, as a means of forming proper "Imperial Citizens" (황국민; 皇国民; kōkokumin) from early childhood. Elementary schools in South Korea today are known by the name chodeung hakgyo (초등학교; 初等學校) ("elementary school") as the term gukmin hakgyo/kokumin gakkō has recently become a politically incorrect term.

During the colonial period, Japan established an officially equal educational system in Korea, but it strictly limited the rate of coed education. After the Korean Educational Ordinance was published in 1938, this situation changed slightly. "Primary education consisted of a mandated four years of primary school (futsu gakkō). Secondary education included four years of middle school for boys (koto futsu gakkō) and three years for girls (joshi koto futsu gakko) or two to three years of vocational school (jitsugyo gakkō). 1915, the Japanese announced the Regulations for Technical Schools (senmon gakko kisoku), which legalized technical schools (senmon gakkō) as post-secondary educational institutions."

In addition, modernized (for the time) Korean educational institutions were excluded from the colonial system. 1911, Japanese government set The Regulations for Private Schools (Shiritsu gakko kisoku) which was aimed at undermining these facilities, which showed patriotic awakening.

The public curriculum for most of the period was taught by Korean educators under a hybrid system focused on assimilating Koreans into the Japanese Empire while emphasizing Korean cultural education. This focused on the history of the Japanese Empire as well as inculcating reverence for the Imperial House of Japan and instruction in the Imperial Rescript on Education.

Integration of Korean students into Japanese-language schools and Japanese students in Korean-language schools was discouraged but steadily increased over time. While official policy promoted equality between ethnic Koreans and ethnic Japanese, in practice this was rarely the case. Korean history and language studies would be taught side by side with Japanese history and language studies until the early 1940s under a new education ordinance that saw wartime efforts increased and the hybrid system slowly weakened.

One point of view is that, although the Japanese education system in Korea was detrimental towards Korea's cultural identity, its introduction of public education as universal was a step in the right direction to improve Korea's human capital. Towards the end of Japanese rule, Korea saw elementary school attendance at 38 percent. Children of elite families were able to advance to higher education, while others were able to attend technical schools, allowing for "the emergence of a small but important class of well-educated white collar and technical workers ... who possessed skills required to run a modern industrial economy." The Japanese education system ultimately produced hundreds of thousands of educated South Koreans who later became "the core of the postwar political and economic elite."

Another point of view is that it was only after the end of Japanese rule with World War II that Korea saw true, democratic rise in public education as evidenced by the rise of adult literacy rate from 22 percent in 1945 to 87.6 percent by 1970 and 93% by the late 1980s. Though public education was made available for elementary schools during Japanese rule, Korea as a country did not experience secondary-school enrollment rates comparable to those of Japan prior to the end of World War II.

For example, according to the statistics of the Japanese Government-General of Korea in 1944, which was prepared just before independence, only 8.5% of the total population entered elementary school, and the middle school enrollment rate was only 0.9%. The literacy rate was also very low, so only 30% of the population could read letters, compared to a sharp rise to 90% in 1955, 10 years after independence.

Korean language

In the initial phase of Japanese rule, students were taught in Korean in public schools established by ethnic Korean officials who worked for the colonial government. Prior to this period, Korean education relied heavily on Hanja, Chinese characters, for written communication. However, during this time the Korean language transitioned to a mixed Hanja–Korean script influenced by the Japanese writing system, where most lexical roots were written in Hanja and grammatical forms in Korean script. Korean textbooks from this era included excerpts from traditional Korean stories such as Heungbujeon [ko] (興夫伝; Kōfuden).

In 1921, government efforts were strengthened to promote Korean media and literature throughout Korea and also in Japan. The Japanese government also created incentives to educate ethnic Japanese students in the Korean language. In 1928, the Korean Language Society inaugurated Hangul Day (9 October), which was meant to celebrate the Korean alphabet in the face of accelerating Japanization of Korean culture.

Koreans were obliged to take Japanese names by 1932.

In 1933, the foundation of modern South and North Korean spelling was completed.

The Japanese administrative policy shifted more aggressively towards cultural assimilation in 1938 (Naisen ittai) with a new government report advising reform to strengthen the war effort. Under this influence, in 1940, all Korean newspapers except the Japanese government's official newspaper were eliminated. In 1942, Japanese authorities caused the Korean Language Society Incident and closed the society by applying suspicion of rebellion to scholars.

This left less room for Korean language studies and by 1943 all Korean language courses had been phased out. Teaching and speaking of Korean was prohibited. Although the government report advised further, more radical reform, the 10-year plan would never fully go into effect.

Taking of historical artifacts

The Japanese rule of Korea also resulted in the relocation of tens of thousands of cultural artifacts to Japan. This removal of Korean cultural property was against a long tradition of such actions dating at least since the sixteenth century wars between Korea and Japan, though in the 20th century colonial period it was a systematised and regulated activity covered by rules issued 1916–1933.

The issue over where these artifacts should be located began during the U.S. occupation of Japan. In 1965, as part of the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea, Japan returned roughly 1,400 artifacts to Korea, and considered the diplomatic matter to have been resolved. Korean artifacts are retained in the Tōkyō National Museum and in the hands of many private collectors.

The primary building of Gyeongbokgung Palace was demolished and the Japanese General Government Building was built in its exact location. The Japanese colonial authorities destroyed 85 percent of all the buildings in Gyeongbokgung. Sungnyemun, the gate in Gyeongsong that was a symbol of Korea, was altered by the addition of large, Shinto-style golden horns near the roofs, later removed by the South Korean government after independence.

According to the South Korean government, there are 75,311 cultural artifacts that were taken from Korea. Japan has 34,369, the United States has 17,803, and France had several hundred, which were seized in the French campaign against Korea and loaned back to Korea in 2010 without an apology. In 2010, Prime Minister of Japan Naoto Kan expressed "deep remorse" for the removal of artifacts, and arranged an initial plan to return the Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty and over 1,200 other books, which was carried out in 2011.

Religion

As Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, Korea became more vital to the internal communications and defense of the Japanese empire against the Soviet Union. Japan decided in the 1930s to make the Koreans become more loyal to the Emperor by requiring Korean participation in the State Shinto devotions, and by weakening the influences of both Christianity and traditional religion.

Shinto shrines were established throughout the peninsula, including Chōsen Shrine on the mountain Namsan in Seoul and Heijō Shrine in Pyongyang. Shrines such as these were destroyed shortly after Korea was liberated in 1945.

Christianity and communism

Protestant missionary efforts in Asia were nowhere more successful than in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. During the Japanese colonial period, Christianity became an expression of Korean nationalist opposition to Japan and its assimilation policies. In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. Catholics tolerated Shinto rites; Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary rituals.

Missionaries expressed alarm at the rise in communist activity during the 1920s. With the enactment of the Peace Preservation Law in 1925, communist literature was banned throughout the Empire of Japan, including Chōsen; in order to avoid suspicion and permit dissemination, it was often disguised as Christian literature addressed to missionaries. Communist concepts, such as class struggle, and its partner nationalist movement were resonating well with some of the peasants and lower-class citizens of Chōsen; this was worrying to some missionaries because of communism's atheist components. At one point, communist students in Keijō held an "anti-Sunday School conference" and loudly protested religion in front of churches. This protest renewed Japanese governmental interest in censorship of communist ideas and language.

Legacy

Korean diaspora

A number of groups in the Korean diaspora formed because of the Japanese colonial period. Zainichi Koreans descend from the population of around 600,000 Koreans who remained in Japan, often not by choice. After Sakhalin was transferred from Japan to the Soviet Union, most of the 43,000 ethnic Koreans there were refused permission to repatriate back to Japan or Korea, and were thus trapped in Sakhalin. Many remained stateless. They now form the Sakhalin Korean population. Many Koreans had also escaped to Russia and the Soviet Union because of Japanese activities, and were eventually forced to move to Central Asia in 1937. They became a part of the population of Koryo-saram throughout the former Soviet Union.

Forced laborers, comfort women, and Unit 731

During World War II, about 450,000 Korean male laborers were involuntarily sent to Japan. Comfort women, who served in Japanese military brothels as a form of sexual slavery, came from all over the Japanese empire. Historical estimates range from 10,000 to 200,000, including an unknown number of Koreans. However, 200,000 is considered to be a conservative number by modern historians, and up to 500,000 comfort women are estimated to be taken. These women faced an average of 29 men and up to 40 men per day, according to one surviving comfort woman. However, of the 500,000, less than 50 are alive today. Comfort women were often recruited from rural locales with the promise of factory employment; business records, often from Korean subcontractees of Japanese companies, showed them falsely classified as nurses or secretaries. There is evidence that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed official records regarding comfort women.

Koreans, along with many other Asians, were experimented on in Unit 731, a secret military medical experimentation unit in World War II. The victims who died in the camp included at least 25 victims from the former Soviet Union and Korea. Some historians estimate up to 250,000 total people were subjected to human experiments. A Unit 731 veteran attested that most that were experimented on were Chinese, Koreans, and Mongolians.

The Tokyo trials convened on 29 April 1946 to try Japanese personnel on Class A, B, and C charges for crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and crimes against humanity respectively. Class C was created mainly to address atrocities committed by Japan against its nationals or allied citizens in times of peace or war since the law of war only covers enemy and neutral nationals in interstate armed conflicts. However, the principal Allied powers realized they had colonies themselves and never pressed on the Class C charges as they did not want to risk their own colonial atrocities being subject to prosecution. This left the Korean and Taiwanese victims of Japanese colonial atrocities without any recourse in the international legal system.

In 2002, South Korea started an investigation of Japanese collaborators. Part of the investigation was completed in 2006 and a list of names of individuals who profited from exploitation of fellow Koreans were posted. The collaborators not only benefited from exploiting their countrymen, but the children of these collaborators benefited further by acquiring higher education with the exploitation money they had amassed.

The "Truth Commission on Forced Mobilization under the Japanese Imperialism Republic of Korea" investigated the received reports of damage from 86 people among the 148 Koreans who were accused of being Class B and C criminals while serving as prison guards for the Japanese military during World War II. The commission, which was organized by the South Korean government, announced that they acknowledged 83 people among them as victims. The commission said that although the people reluctantly served as guards to avoid the draft, they took responsibility for the mistreatment by the Japanese against prisoners of war. Lee Se-il, leader of the investigation, said that examination of the military prosecution reports for 15 Korean prison guards, obtained from The National Archives of the United Kingdom, confirmed that they were convicted without explicit evidence.

Result of the name changes

Although officially voluntary, and initially resisted by the Japanese Colonial Government, 80% of Koreans voluntarily changed their name to Japanese in 1940. Many community leaders urged the adoption of Japanese names to make it easy for their children to succeed in society and overcome discrimination.

A study conducted by the United States Library of Congress states that "the Korean culture was quashed, and Koreans were required to speak Japanese and take Japanese names". This name change policy, called sōshi-kaimei (창씨개명; 創氏改名), was part of Japan's assimilation efforts. This was heavily resisted by the Korean people. Those Koreans who retained their Korean names were not allowed to enroll at school, were refused service at government offices, and were excluded from the lists for food rations and other supplies. Faced with such compulsion, many Koreans ended up complying with the Name Change Order. Such a radical policy was deemed to be symbolically significant in the war effort, binding the fate of Korea with that of the empire.

Discrimination against Korean leprosy patients by Japan

Colonial Korea was subject to the same Leprosy Prevention Laws of 1907 and 1931 as the Japanese home islands. These laws directly and indirectly permitted the quarantine of patients in sanitariums, where forced abortions and sterilization were common. The laws authorized punishment of patients "disturbing the peace", as most Japanese leprologists believed that vulnerability to the disease was inheritable. In Korea, many leprosy patients were also subjected to hard labor. The Japanese government compensated inpatients.

Atomic bomb casualties

Many Koreans were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. According to the secretary-general of a group named Peace Project Network, "there were a total of 70,000 Korean victims in both cities". Japan paid South Korea 4 billion yen and built a welfare center in the name of humanitarian assistance, not as compensation to the victims.

South Korean presidential investigation commission on pro-Japanese collaborators

Collaborators of the Imperial Japanese Army were prosecuted in the postwar period as Chinilpa, or "friendly to Japanese". In 2006 South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun appointed an investigation commission into the issue of locating descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators from the times of the 1890s until the collapse of Japanese rule in 1945.

In 2010, the commission concluded its five-volume report. As a result, the land property of 168 South Korean citizens has been confiscated by the government, these citizens being descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators.

Modern justification of the colonization

Some conservative Japanese nationalists have since attempted to more positively portray the colonization and Japan's intentions. Claims such as "Japan did not want to annex Korea" and "Koreans came to Japan and asked to be annexed" have been forwarded, and efforts are made to highlight Korea's economic development during this period. However, the scholar Mark Caprio writes skeptically of such viewpoints:

While acknowledging that Japanese policy benefited pockets of Korean society, a responsible argument must also acknowledge that Japan's colonial policies systematically excluded the majority of Koreans from these institutions of modernity. Reliance on a minority sample to explain the entirety of Japan's colonial rule grossly neglects the fact that Japan's administrative decisions forced a large number of participants to act against their volition... eo-conservatives neglect to consider that Japan's history of expansion in East Asia did not end with the emperor's declaration on August 15, 1945, nor did it end with treaties of normalization. This history lives within the people it affected. Denial and beautification of this history disturbs the efforts of its surviving victims to distance themselves from this past, and serves as a painful reminder of Japan's unwillingness to accept responsibility for the injustices that Japanese rule inflicted upon them.

List of governors-general of Korea

• Terauchi Masatake (1910–1916)
• Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1916–1919)
• Saitō Makoto (1929–1931)
• Kazushige Ugaki (1931–1936)
• Yamanashi Hanzō (1927–1929)
• Jirō Minami (1936–1942)
• Kuniaki Koiso (1942–1944)
• Nobuyuki Abe (1944–1945)

In popular culture

• Madam Oh, 1965 South Korean film
• Sea of Blood, 1971 North Korean opera
• The Flower Girl, 1972 North Korean film
• Tell O' The Forest!, 1972 North Korean opera
• Femme Fatale: Bae Jeong-ja, 1973 South Korean film
• Mulberry, 1986 South Korean film
• Modern Boy, 2008 South Korean film
• Capital Scandal, 2008 South Korea TV drama
• The Good, the Bad, the Weird, 2008 South Korea film
• My Way, 2011 South Korean film
• Bridal Mask, 2012 South Korean TV drama
• Assassination, 2015 South Korean film
• The Silenced, 2015 South Korean film
• Spirits' Homecoming, 2016 South Korean film
• The Handmaiden, 2016 South Korean film
• The Last Princess, 2016 South Korean film
• The Age of Shadows, 2016 South Korean film
• Love Lies, 2016 South Korean film
• Chicago Typewriter, 2017 South Korean TV show
• Battleship Island, 2017 South Korean film
• Anarchist from Colony, 2017 South Korean film
• Mr. Sunshine, 2018 South Korean TV show
• Pachinko, 2017 novel by Min Jin Lee
• The Hymn of Death, 2018 South Korean TV show
• Different Dreams, 2019 South Korean TV show
• The Battle: Roar to Victory, 2019 South Korean film
• A Resistance, 2019 South Korean film
• Whale Star: The Gyeongseong Mermaid, 2019 webtoon by Na Yoonhee
• Beasts of a Little Land, 2021 novel by Juhea Kim
• Pachinko, 2022 Apple TV+ drama
• Tale of the Nine-Tailed 1938, 2023

See also

• Sōshi-kaimei
• Japanese war crimes
• Hashima Island
• Comfort women
• Japan–Korea disputes
• Taiwan under Japanese rule
• History of Korea

Notes

1. "Chōsen" was recognized as Korea's name internationally until the end of colonial period.

References

• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.

1. Sarah Thal. "A Religion That Was Not a Religion: The Creation of Modern Shinto in Nineteenth-Century Japan". In The Invention of Religion., eds. Peterson and Walhof (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002). pp. 100–114.
2. Hitoshi Nitta. "Shintō as a 'Non-Religion': The Origins and Development of an Idea". In Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami, eds. Breen and Teeuwen (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i, 2000).
3. John Breen, "Ideologues, Bureaucrats and Priests", in Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami.
4. Hitoshi Nitta. The Illusion of "Arahitogami" "Kokkashintou". Tokyo: PHP Kenkyūjo, 2003.
5. ^ Wi Jo Kang (1997). Christ and Caesar in Modern Korea: A History of Christianity and Politics. SUNY Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0791432488. Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
6. "Imperial Edict No. 318: National Name of Korea to be Changed to Chōsen". Wikisource. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
7. ^ "Yi-Syek Bids Farewell to Korea, Now Cho-Sen". Washington Post. 29 August 1910. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
8. ^ "News Jottings: Korea Now Cho-Sen". Brooklyn Times Union. No. 29 August 1910. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
9. ^ "Aero Meet for Fleet". Los Angeles Times. 29 October 1910. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
10. Donald Keene, Emperor of Japan: Meiji and his World, 1852–1912 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), p. 517. Archived 4 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine
11. Mori, Mayuko (2012). "The Outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War and the Issue of Suzerain-Vassal as Viewed from the Standpoint of Chosŏn". International Journal of Korean History. 17 (1): 62–63. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
12. ^ Lee, J ong-Wha. "Economic Growth and human Production in the Republic of Korea, 1945–1992" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
13. ^ Cha, Myung Soo (September 1998). "Imperial Policy or World Price Shocks? Explaining Interwar Korean Consumption Trend". The Journal of Economic History. 58 (3): 751. doi:10.1017/S0022050700021148. JSTOR 2566622. S2CID 154798459. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
14. Lee, Jong-won (2001). "The Impact of the Korean War on the Korean Economy" (PDF). International Journal of Korean Studies. 5 (1): 97–118.
15. Robinson 2007, pp. 119–120.
16. Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
17. Florick, Davis (18 June 2017). "Strategic Bombing during the Korean War: The Good and the Bad". Human Security Centre. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
18. =「明治日本の産業革命遺産 製鉄・製鋼，造船，石炭産業」のユネスコ世界遺産一覧表への記載決定（第39回世界遺産委員会における7月5日日本代表団発言について） [Inscription of the "Sites of Japan's Meiji Industrial Revolution: Iron and Steel, Shipbuilding and Coal Mining" on the UNESCO's World Heritage List (Statement by the Japanese Delegation at the 39th Session of the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO)]. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan) (in Japanese and English). 14 July 2015. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
19. "Japan: "Forced to Work" Isn't "Forced Labor"". SNA Japan. 7 July 2015. Archived from the original on 2 August 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
20. "S. Korea and Japan debate comments about being "forced to work"". The Hankyoreh. 7 July 2015. Archived from the original on 3 August 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
21. "What is the Aim of Nippon Kaigi, the Ultra-Right Organization that Supports Japan's Abe Administration?". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. November 2017. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
22. Mark, Craig (29 September 2021). "Who is Fumio Kishida, Japan's new prime minister?". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
23. "Kase Hideaki's Revisionist Vision for Twenty-First-Century Japan: A Final Interview and Obituary". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 15 January 2023. Archived from the original on 13 September 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
24. Hook, Glenn D. (2001). Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics, and Security. Psychology Press. p. 491. ISBN 978-0415240970. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2021. Article II. It is confirmed that all treaties or agreements concluded between the Empire of Japan and the Empire of Korea on or before August 22, 1910 are already null and void.
25. "Treaty of Annexation". USC–UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
26. "Old Time Miners Rally 'Round in Reno". Reno Gazette-Journal. 8 May 1940. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
27. "Japan's Progress in China". The Gazette (Montreal). 13 October 1937. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
28. 신, 용하. 일제강점기 (日帝强占期). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Academy of Korean Studies. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
29. 특집 – 일제시대 문화재 수난사를 되새기다. Cultural Heritage Administration. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
30. Young, Sek-won (November 2010). 일제 암흑기 만보산사건과 소설적 재현 양상 연구 [A Study on the Manbosan Affair under the Japanese Colonial Dark Ages and Novelistic Reproduction Aspects]. 통일인문학. 50: 147–173.
31. Kim Jeong-in ed. (2005). 왜정시대, 일제식민지시대, 일제강점기 Archived 6 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information.
32. ^ A reckless adventure in Taiwan amid Meiji Restoration turmoil, The Asahi Shimbun, Retrieved on 22 July 2007. Archived 31 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Marius B. Jansen (April 1989). The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 5 The Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-22356-3.
34. Japanese Cabinet Meeting document Nov, 1882 Archived 13 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine p. 6 left 陸軍外務両者上申故陸軍工兵中尉堀本禮造外二名並朝鮮国二於テ戦死ノ巡査及公使館雇ノ者等靖国神社ヘ合祀ノ事
35. Japanese Cabinet Meeting document Nov. 1882 Archived 13 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine p. 2 left
36. 国立公文書館 アジア歴史資料センター. Archived from the original on 16 January 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
37. ^ Park Jong-hyo (박종효) former professor at Lomonosov Moscow State University (1 January 2002). 일본인 폭도가 가슴을 세 번 짓밟고 일본도로 난자했다. The Dong-A Ilbo (in Korean) (508): 472–485. Archived from the original on 14 March 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
38. See Russian eyewitness account of surrounding circumstances at "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 3 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) by Gari Ledyard, Sejong Professor of Korean History Emeritus at Columbia University
39. 이, 원순. 고종 (高宗). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
40. 독립협회 (獨立協會). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Retrieved 26 January 2024.
41. 환구단에서 황제에 오르다. 우리역사넷. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
42. Neff, Robert (15 October 2022). "The emperor is crowned: Part 1". The Korea Times. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
43. Anglo-Japanese Gazette; London, October 1904
44. ^ Hadar, Oren. "South Korea; The Choson Dynasty". Library of Congress Country Studies. Archived from the original on 21 September 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2007.
45. Cornell University Library Archived 13 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine-Willard Dickerman Straight
46. "Alice Roosevelt's Visit to Joseon Korea In 1905". 2 July 2014. Archived from the original on 2 November 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
47. Dept of State Correspondence #856 dtd 6 January 1905
48. Hulbert, H. B. (1999). History of Korea. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-0700-3.
49. Keene, D. (2005). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12340-2.
50. 統監府文書7 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF KOREAN HISTORY Archived 6 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
51. Veritable Records of the Joseon DynastyAnnals of King Sunjong3 4 December 1909 Archived 6 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
52. "Populist collaborators : the Ilchinhoe and the Japanese colonization of Korea, 1896-1910/Yumi Moon 2013". JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt1xx4cs. Archived from the original on 6 October 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
53. (A) study on the Ilchinhoe at the end of the Great Han EmpireJongjun Kim. Archived 6 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
54. "(1) 헌병경찰체제". 우리역사넷. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
55. "韓日 지식인 "1910년 한일병합조약 무효"..공동선언". Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
56. '한일병합 무효' 입증 문건 처음으로 확인. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
57. [인터뷰] '한일병합 무효' 근거 제공 이태진 서울대 명예교수. 12 May 2010. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
58. Millard, Thomas F. (26 March 2024). "Japanese Immigration into Korea". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 34 (2): 183–189. doi:10.1177/000271620903400222. JSTOR 1011225.
59. 토지 조사 사업(土地調査事業) – 부산역사문화대전. busan.grandculture.net. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
60. The Historical Experience of Agrarian Reform in Our Country. Pyongyang. 1974. pp. 6–7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
61. McCune, Shannon (1964). Korea's Heritage. Rutland: Charles Tuttle. p. 86.
62. McCune, Shannon (1974). The Historical Experience of Agrarian Reform in Our Country. Pyongyang. p. 7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
63. Grajdanzev, Andrew J. (1944). Modern Korea. New York. p. 118.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
64. Nozaki, Yoshiko; Hiromitsu Inokuchi; Tae-young Kim. "Legal Categories, Demographic Change and Japan's Korean Residents in the Long Twentieth Century". Archived from the original on 25 January 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
65. ^ Kimura, Mitsuhiko (August 1995). "The Economics of Japanese Imperialism in Korea, 1910–1939". The Economic History Review. 48 (3). Wiley: 564–566. doi:10.2307/2598181. JSTOR 2598181. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
66. ^ Porter, Catherine (22 April 1936). "Korea and Formosa as Colonies of Japan". Far Eastern Survey. 5 (9). Institute of Pacific Relations: 87–88. doi:10.2307/3021667. JSTOR 3021667. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
67. Youn, Hyun-Chul; Ryoo, Seong-Lyong (20 November 2021). "VR and AR Restoration of Urban Heritage: A Virtual Platform Mediating Disagreement from Spatial Conflicts in Korea". Buildings. 11 (11): 561. doi:10.3390/buildings11110561. ISSN 2075-5309.
68. 노, 형석 (31 May 2018). 왕실묘→골프장→유원지→독립투사 묘지 '영욕의 232년' [Royal Tombs -> Golf Course -> Amusement Park -> Independence Activist Cemetery '232 Years of Honor and Disgrace']. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
69. 신, 병주 (8 February 2023). '옷소매' 성덕임과 그의 아들의 묘가 '효창공원'에? ['Sleeves' Uibin Seong and Her Son Are Buried in 'Hyochang Park'?]. mediahub.seoul.go.kr (in Korean). Seoul Metropolitan Government. Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
70. Atkins, E. Taylor (2010). Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze, 1910–1945. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26674-2.
71. "Hakoishi report" 韓国・国史編纂委員会所蔵 (in Japanese). Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo. Archived from the original on 25 November 2006. Retrieved 8 September 2008. 第一条 朝鮮史編修会ハ朝鮮総督ノ管理ニ属シ朝鮮史料ノ蒐集及編纂並朝鮮史ノ編修ヲ掌ル
72. ^ 조선사편수회. Naver/Doosan Encyclopedia (in Korean). Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
73. E. Taylor Atkins (10 July 2010). Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze, 1910–1945. University of California Press. pp. 177–180. ISBN 978-0-520-94768-9. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
74. Metropolitan Museum of Art Archived 3 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
75. 리순진 (2001). 평양일대 락랑무덤에 대한 연구 [A Research about the Tombs of Nangnang around Pyongyang]. 서울: 중심. ISBN 978-89-89524-05-2.
76. ^ "Korea ramps up efforts to bring back looted treasures". The Korea Times. 16 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
77. "Recovering South Korea's Lost Treasures". The Los Angeles Times. 5 December 2010. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
78. "Korea: A Tussle Over Treasures". Newsweek. 20 February 2005. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
79. Christine Kim (July 2017). "Colonial Plunder and the Failure of Restitution in Postwar Korea". Journal of Contemporary History. 52 (3): 607–624. doi:10.1177/0022009417692410. JSTOR 44504065. S2CID 159549648. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
80. ^ Lee, Yunah; Rajguru, Megha (20 October 2022). Design and Modernity in Asia: National Identity and Transnational Exchange 1945–1990. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-350-09146-7.
81. "history of the museum" (in Korean). National Palace Museum of Korea website. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
82. Ohashi Toshihiro. "A Study on the Development of the Cultural Properties Policy in Korea from 1902 until 1962 Archived 13 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine". Sogo Seisaku Ronso 8 (2004)
83. 日本外交文書デジタルアーカイブ 昭和期I第1部 第5巻 p248
84. ^ Em, Henry (2013). The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea, Part 2. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0822353720. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
85. Mizuno, Naoki, 植民地支配と「人の支配」 [Colonial control and "human control"] (PDF), Kyoto University, archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2007, retrieved 20 February 2007
86. 윤해동. 황국신민화정책자료해설 (in Korean). Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
87. 水野直樹「『創氏改名』の実施過程について」『朝鮮史研究会会報』154号、2004年 (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
88. 朝鮮総督府法務局「第79回朝鮮総督府帝国議会説明資料」｣
89. Myers, Brian R. (2011). The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves – And Why It Matters (Paperback ed.). Melville House. pp. 26–29.
90. Ryang, Sonia (2000). "The North Korean homeland of Koreans in Japan". In Ryang, Sonia (ed.). Koreans in Japan: Critical Voices from the Margin. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-35312-3. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
91. Rummel, R. J., Death by Government, pg.150
92. Rummel, R. J. (1999). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1990. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5. Available online: "Statistics of Democide: Chapter 3 – Statistics Of Japanese Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 1 March 2006.
93. "HyperWar: The Battle for Tarawa [Appendix C: Japanese Casualties]". www.ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
94. Lee, Hyeong-Ju (8 June 2024). "218 victims of 'Mili Atoll incident' disclosed". The Dong-A Ilbo. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
95. Choi, Jeong-yoon (7 June 2024). "Japanese researcher reveals 'massacre' of Koreans in Mili Atoll". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
96. "Gov't report confirms Japan's massacre of forced Korean laborers at Marshall Islands". Yonhap News Agency. 5 October 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
97. "[Reporter's notebook] Vestiges of forced labor still remain on Jeju Island". The Hankyoreh. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
98. ^ "Japan compensates Korean A-bomb victim". BBC News. 1 June 2001. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
99. ^ Andreas Hippin (2 August 2005). "The end of silence: Korea's Hiroshima, Korean A-bomb victims seek redress". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
100. 太平洋戦争下の朝鮮及び台湾、友邦協会､1961, p. 191.
101. Kratoska, Paul H. (2006). Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire. NUS Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-9971693336. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
102. "Current state of Korea and Taiwan: Imperial Army Special volunteer system". administrative bureau. October 1943. p. 13. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015.
103. JACAR(Japan Center for Asian Historical Records)Ref.B02031288800、本邦内政関係雑纂／植民地関係 第四巻(A-5-0-0-1_1_004)(外務省外交史料館) Archived 11 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine, July 1944.
104. "第81回帝国議会 貴族院 予算委員第三分科会（内務省、文部省、厚生省）第2号 昭和18年2月26日(1943. 2. 26)". Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
105. Brandon Palmer, Fighting for the Enemy: Koreans in Japan's war 1937~1945
106. 朝鮮總督府(1941.12), ｢第79回帝國議會說明資料｣
107. 육군 참모총장, The Republic of Korea Army (in Korean). Retrieved 19 February 2007.
108. 초기 육군 총장들은 일본 육사 출신, 여야 설전. CBS Nocut News/Naver (in Korean). 26 September 2005. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
109. Philip S. Jowett (2004). Rays of the Rising Sun. West Midlands: Helion & Company Limited. p. 34.
110. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
111. "Pride and Patriotism: Stamford's Role in World War II: The Battle of Tarawa". Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
112. "The Battle of Tarawa, November 20–24, 1943". World War II Multimedia Database. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
113. Gavan Daws (1994). Prisoners of the Japanese: POWs of World War II in the Pacific. New York: William Morrow & Company. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-688-11812-9.
114. B. V. A Roling and Antonio Cassese (1993). The Tokyo Trial and Beyond. Oxford, UK: Polity Press. p. 76.
115. "Blood Brothers A Medic's Sketch Book / Jacobs, Colonel Eugene C." Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 6 May 2008.
116. Jacobs, Eugene C. (1985). Blood brothers: a medic's sketch book. Carlton Press. ISBN 978-0-8062-2300-1.
117. "Bridge Over the River Kwai – Chapter 8". Mekong Express. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008.
118. The Dong-a Ilbo 5 May 1933　"民籍을僞造　醜業을强制　악마 길은 유팍업자의 소행　犯人은警察 에被逮"
119. The Dong-a Ilbo 30 June 1933 "路上에少女掠取　醜業中人에賣渡　金神通 팔아먹은 男女檢擧 判明 된誘引魔手段"
120. The Dong-a Ilbo 16 July 1934 "팔린養女 눈물로 呼称　十一歳少女賣春强要"
121. "Ko Bunyu's Defining History – Entire translation". sdh-fact.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
122. Morgan, Jason (24 March 2018). "How Beijing weaponizes 'comfort women' as propaganda tool". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
123. Japanese Prisoner of War Interrogation Report 49. Archived from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
124. "UN Commission on Human Rights – Report on mission to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Jan 96)". hrlibrary.umn.edu. Archived from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
125. Chizuko, Ueno; Sand, Jordan (1999). "The Politics of Memory: Nation, Individual and Self". History and Memory. 11 (2): 129–152. doi:10.2979/his.1999.11.2.129. ISSN 0935-560X. JSTOR 10.2979/his.1999.11.2.129. PMID 21268430. S2CID 1765052. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
126. The "Comfort Women" Issue and the Asian Women's Fund https://www.awf.or.jp/pdf/0170.pdf Archived 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
127. Yoshimi, Yoshiaki (2000), Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II, Asia Perspectives, translation: Suzanne O'Brien, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-12033-3
128. "An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", BBC 2000-12-08;"Historians say thousands of women; as many as 200,000 by some accounts; mostly from Korea, China and Japan worked in the Japanese military brothels", Irish Examiner 2007-03-08;AP 2007-03-07;CNN 2001-03-29.
129. Japan court rules against 'comfort women' Archived 2006-09-22 at the Wayback Machine, CNN, 2001-03-29.
130. Congress backs off of wartime Japan rebuke Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, The Boston Globe, 2006-10-15.
131. "Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues, Inc". Archived from the original on 3 November 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
132. "Texts adopted – Thursday, 13 December 2007 – Comfort women – P6_TA(2007)0632". www.europarl.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
133. Open Letter: House Resolution 124 Calling on the Government of Japan to Apologize for the System of Military Sexual Slavery Before and During World War I Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine
134. "Passage of H.Res. 121 on "Comfort Women", the US Congress and Historical Memory in Japan". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. August 2007. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
135. Hayashi, Hirofumi (2008). "Disputes in Japan over the Japanese Military "Comfort Women" System and Its Perception in History". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 617: 123–132. doi:10.1177/0002716208314191. ISSN 0002-7162. JSTOR 25098017. S2CID 145678875. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
136. ^ Danielle Kane, and Jung Mee Park, "The Puzzle of Korean Christianity: Geopolitical Networks and Religious Conversion in Early Twentieth-Century East Asia", American Journal of Sociology (2009) 115#2 pp 365–404
137. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity: Volume VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations (1945) 7:401–407
138. French, Paul. North Korea: The Paranoid Peninsula – A Modern History. 2nd ed. New York: Zed Books, 2007. 50–51. Print.
139. 박, 성수. "2·8독립선언 (二八獨立宣言)" [February 8 Declaration of Independence]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
140. 김, 진봉. "3·1운동 (三一運動)". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
141. "March First Movement". Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. Archived from the original on 11 December 2007. Retrieved 1 March 2006.
142. ^ Lee, Ki-Baik (1999). A New History of Korea (韓国史新論). Translated by Wagner, Edward W. with Edwar J. Shultz. Ilchorak/Harvard University Press. pp. 344 1080. ISBN 978-0-674-61575-5.
143. Robinson (2007), pp. 52–53.
144. 김구[金九] [Kim Ku], Historynet (in Korean), National Institute of Korean History, archived from the original on 25 June 2023, retrieved 24 June 2023
145. ^ 윤, 상원. 한인애국단 (韓人愛國團). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
146. ^ 박, 성수, 한국광복군 (韓國光復軍) [Korea Liberation Army], Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean), Academy of Korean Studies, archived from the original on 4 April 2023, retrieved 29 March 2023
147. 윤, 시원. 독수리작전 (禿수리作戰). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
148. Wells, Kenneth M. (1989). Background to the March First Movement: Koreans in Japan, 1905–1919. Korean Studies, V. 13, 1989. pp. 1–21.
149. Lee, Ki-Baik (1999). A New History of Korea (韓国史新論). Translated by Wagner. with Edwar J. Shultz. Ilchorak/Harvard University Press. pp. 344. ISBN 978-0-674-61575-5.
150. 우리역사넷 :: 한국 근ㆍ현대사 사진 모음. contents.history.go.kr. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
151. Myers, Brian Reynolds (16 December 2023). "The Power to Mystify". Sthele Press. Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks?
152. "Surrender of Japan in Korea".
153. Fukuoka, Yasunori (1996). "Beyond Assimilation and Dissimilation: Diverse Resolutions to Identity Crises among Younger Generation Koreans in Japan". Saitama University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2006. Retrieved 27 November 2006. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
154. ^ Li, Xiaobing (2018). The Cold War in East Asia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65179-1.
155. "朝鮮総督府統計年報 昭和１７年 [Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1942]". Governor-General of Korea. March 1944. Archived from the original on 16 January 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
156. Kohli, Atul (2004). State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 27, 56. he Japanese made extensive use of state power for their own economic development and then used the same state power to pry open and transform Korea in a relatively short period of time. . . . The highly cohesive and disciplining state that the Japanese helped to construct in colonial Korea turned out to be an efficacious economic actor. The state utilised its bureaucratic capacities to undertake numerous economic tasks: collecting more taxes, building infrastructure, and undertaking production directly. More important, this highly purposive state made increasing production one of its priorities and incorporated property-owning classes into production-oriented alliances.
157. Randall S. Jones. The economic development of colonial Korea. University of Michigan, 1984. p. 168.
158. Nakajima, Kentaro; Okazaki, Tetsuji (2018). "The expanding Empire and spatial distribution of economic activity: the case of Japan's colonization of Korea during the prewar period". The Economic History Review. 71 (2): 593–616. doi:10.1111/ehr.12535. ISSN 1468-0289. S2CID 157334108.
159. "Summer Institute Summaries". Archived from the original on 12 August 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
160. ^ Savada, Andrea Matles; Shaw, William, eds. (1990). "A Country Study: South Korea, The Japanese Role in Korea's Economic Development". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2009.
161. ^ Savada, Andrea Matles; Shaw, William, eds. (1990). "Korea Under Japanese Rule". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 3 November 2016. Retrieved 2 October 2004.
162. Kimura, Mitsuhiko (1995). "The Economics of Japanese Imperialism in Korea, 1910–1939". The Economic History Review. 48 (3): 555–574. doi:10.2307/2598181. JSTOR 2598181. See p. 558: "Japan faced shortages of rice as domestic production lagged behind demand. The government had three alternatives to deal with this problem: (a) increasing productivity of domestic agriculture, (b) importing foreign rice (gaimai) from south-east Asia, and (c) importing colonial rice. The first was most costly and its success was not assured. The second implied loss of foreign exchange and also dependence on foreign producers for the imperial staple, which would seriously weaken the political power of the empire vis-à-vis the West. It also involved a quality problem in that foreign rice of the indica variety did not suit Japanese taste. The third alternative seemed best to the Japanese administration."
163. Kimura (1995), p. 557.
164. Kimura (1995), p. 564.
165. Cyhn, Jin W. (2002). Technology Transfer and International Production: The Development of the Electronics Industry in Korea. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 78.
166. Suh, Sang-Chul (1978), Growth and Structural Changes in the Korean Economy, 1910–1940: The Korean. Economy under the Japanese Occupation, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-36439-2
167. Song, Byung-Nak (1997) The Rise of the Korean Economy. 2nd ed. Hong Kong; Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-590049-9
168. Kim, yong-dalment, The Korean peasants movement and agriculture policies of the Japanese govern(2007)
169. Pratt, Keith (2007). Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-335-2.
170. Lee, Yong Hoon. "ソウル大教授「日本による収奪論は作られた神話」["It is a Myth Made up afterward that Japan Deprived Korea of Land and Food" Professor at Seoul University]". Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2013. Registration required.
171. 일제 토지ㆍ식량 수탈론은 상상된 신화. Hankooki.com. 18 November 2004. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013.
172. Lee, Yong Hoon. "李栄薫教授「厳格なジャッジなき学界が歴史を歪曲」["Congress without Strict Judgment Distorts History" Lee Yong Hoon Professor]". Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2013. Registration required.
173. 정치 지도자의 잘못된 역사관이 나라 망치고있다. The Chosun Ilbo. 31 May 2007. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
174. "Economic Growth and Human Development in the Republic of Korea, 1945–1992 – Human Development Reports". hdr.undp.org. January 1997. Archived from the original on 30 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
175. Alleyne Ireland The New Korea E. P. Dutton. 1926 Chapter I Introductory pp. 2
176. Alleyne Ireland The New Korea E. P. Dutton. 1926 Chapter I Introductory pp. 6
177. ^ Jennings, John M. (1995). "The Forgotten Plague: Opium and Narcotics in Korea under Japanese Rule, 1910–1945". Modern Asian Studies. 29 (4): 795–815. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00016188. JSTOR 312805. S2CID 145267716. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
178. 최, 준. 대한매일신보 (大韓每日申報). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
179. ^ Neff, Robert (2 May 2010). "UK journalist Bethell established newspapers in 1904". The Korea Times. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
180. Han, Jeon (June 2019). "Fighting Injustice with the Pen". Korean Culture and Information Service. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
181. ^ 정, 진석; 최, 진우. 신문 (新聞). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
182. "京城日報" [Keijo Nippo]. The Archives of Korean History. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
183. 조선총독부 관보: 일자별 보기. db.history.go.kr. National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 22 March 2024.
184. Robinson, Michael E. (1987). Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie (ed.). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945. Princeton University Press.
185. 朝鮮総督府 (31 March 1929). 朝鮮総督府統計年報 昭和2年 [Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1936] (in Japanese). Governor-General of Korea. pp. 654–655. doi:10.11501/1443598. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
186. 朝鮮総督府 (31 March 1938). 朝鮮総督府統計年報 昭和11年 [Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1936] (in Japanese). Governor-General of Korea. pp. 296–297. doi:10.11501/1452382. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
187. 朝鮮総督府 (31 March 1944). 朝鮮総督府統計年報 昭和17年 [Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1942] (in Japanese). Governor-General of Korea. pp. 264–265. doi:10.11501/1454691. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
188. Inoue, Kaoru (June 1997). "日本統治下末期の朝鮮における日本語普及・強制政策 : 徴兵制度導入に至るまでの日本語常用・全解運動への動員" [Language Policy in Korea under the Last Stage of Japanese Occupation: The Mobilization to the Movement for Daily Use and Understanding of Japanese before the Introduction of a Draft System]. The Annual Reports on Educational Science (in Japanese). 73. Hokkaido University: 111. hdl:2115/29532. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
189. ABE, Hiroshi (1971). "Higher Learning in Korea Under Japanese Rule". The Developing Economies. 9 (2): 175. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1049.1971.tb00468.x.
190. Neuhaus, Dolf-Alexander (2016). "Assimilating Korea: Japanese Protestants, "East Asian Christianity" and the education of Koreans in Japan, 1905–1920". Paedagogica Historica. 52 (6): 614–628. doi:10.1080/00309230.2016.1224262. S2CID 151584389.
191. Solomon, Deborah B. (August 2014). Lee, Hong Yung; Ha, Yong-Chool; Sorensen, Clark W. (eds.). "Colonial Rule and Social Change in Korea, 1910–1945". The Journal of Asian Studies. 73 (3). Seattle University of Washington Press, 2013. 350 pp.: 827–829. doi:10.1017/s0021911814000837. ISSN 0021-9118. S2CID 162206825.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
192. Lee, Jeong-Kyu (7 March 2002). "Japanese Higher Education Policy in Korea (1910–1945)". Education Policy Analysis Archives. 10: 14. doi:10.14507/epaa.v10n14.2002. ISSN 1068-2341.
193. Caprio, Mark E (2009). "Post-March First Policy Reform and Assimilation". Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. University of Washington Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-0-295-98900-6.
194. Caprio, Mark E (2009). "Radical Assimilation under Wartime Conditions". Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. University of Washington Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-295-98900-6.
195. 1944 人口調査結果報告 其ノ二, ｢第79回帝國議會說明資料｣
196. "Statistics Korea". Archived from the original on 6 October 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
197. ed. Duus, Peter, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945, Princeton University Press (1996), p. 326
198. Andrea Matles Savada and William Shaw, editors. South Korea: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1990.
199. "KOSIS". Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
200. Huh, Soo-Youl, Some issues on the theory of colonial modernization(2007)
201. Pratt, Rutt, Hoare, 1999. Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Routledge.
202. Hyŏng-gyu Pak. "Na ŭi midŭm ŭn kil wi e itta : Pak Hyŏng-gyu hoegorok" Archived 14 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Seoul: Ch'angbi, 2010. ISBN 978-8936471866
203. Caprio, Mark E (2009). "Post-March First Policy Reform and Assimilation". Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. University of Washington Press. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-0-295-98900-6.
204. Shin, Gi-Wook (2006). "Colonial Racism and Nationalism". Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy. Stanford University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8047-5408-8.
205. Hopfner, Jonathan (2009). Moon Living Abroad in South Korea. Berkeley, CA: Moon Publications. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-59880-250-4. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
206. Caprio, Mark E (2009). "Radical Assimilation under Wartime Conditions". Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. University of Washington Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-295-98900-6.
207. Kim, Jongsok (2018). Museums and cultural heritage: to examine the loss of cultural heritage during colonial and military occupations with special reference to the Japanese occupation of Korea, and the possibilities for return and restitution. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/161512289.pdf Retrieved 3 December 2023
208. Macintyre, Donald (28 January 2002). "A Legacy Lost". TIME. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 26 January 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2009.
209. Japan, Seoul sign deal on artifact returns Archived 12 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine 14 November 2010
210. Itoi, Kay; Lee, B.J. (21 February 2005). "Korea: A Tussle Over Treasures". Newsweek. ISSN 0028-9604. Archived from the original on 23 January 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
211. Peter Bartholomew, 'Choson Dynasty Royal Compounds: Windows to a Lost Culture', in Transactions: Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch Vol. 68 (Seoul: RAS, 1993)
212. Kim Hak-won (김학원) (17 October 2006). 해외 유출된 한국문화재 총 75,311점...문화재가 조국의 눈길한번 받지 못해. The Chosun Ilbo / newswire (in Korean). Archived from the original on 8 July 2011.
213. Glionna, John M. (5 December 2010). "Recovering South Korea's lost treasures". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 16 January 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
214. Japan to Return Korea Artifacts in Occupation Apology Archived 15 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Business Week 2010 08 10,
215. Yoshihiro Makino. "Japan returns Korean royal archives after a century Archived 21 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine". Asahi Shimbun. 8 December 2011.
216. Kenneth Scott Latourette, Christianity in a revolutionary age: A history of Christianity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, volume 5: The 20th Century Outside Europe (1962) pp 415–417
217. Kōji, Suga; 𳜳𨀉𠄈 (2010). "A Concept of "Overseas Shinto Shrines": A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 37 (1): 47–74. ISSN 0304-1042. JSTOR 27822899. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
218. ^ "神社참배 거부 18개교 日帝, 가차 없이 폐교｜주간동아". 주간동아 (in Korean). 26 October 2005. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
219. Grayson, James H (1993). "Christianity and State Shinto in Colonial Korea: A Clash of Nationalisms and Religious Beliefs". Diskus. 1 (2): 13–30. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
220. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A history of the expansion of Christianity Volume VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations (1945) 7:401–407
221. Shin, Seung-yop (5 September 2022). "Living with the Enemies: Japanese Imperialism, Protestant Christianity, and Marxist Socialism in Colonial Korea, 1919–1945". Religions. 13 (9): 824. doi:10.3390/rel13090824.
222. Suh, Dae-sook (1967), The Korean Communist Movement 1918–1948, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 66–68
223. Moon, Rennie (2010). "Koreans in Japan". Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education. Archived from the original on 23 June 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2023.
224. Lankov, Andrei (5 January 2006). "Stateless in Sakhalin". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 21 February 2006. Retrieved 26 November 2006.
225. Pohl, J. Otto (1999), Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949, Greenwood, pp. 10, 13, ISBN 0-313-30921-3
226. Lankov, Andrei (21 August 2012). "Korean carrot". Russia Beyond the Headlines. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
227. Kim Seong-hwan (2004). 일제의 침략 전쟁과 병참기지화. SaKyejul. p. 173. ISBN 978-89-5828-032-3.
228. "U.S. playwright takes up 'comfort women' cause". The Japan Times. 2005. Archived from the original on 21 April 2005. Retrieved 1 March 2006.
229. "Japan court rules against 'comfort women'". CNN.com. 29 March 2001. Archived from the original on 22 September 2006. Retrieved 1 March 2006.
230. "Life as a "comfort woman": Survivors remember a WWII atrocity that was ignored for decades". 29 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
231. Yun-deok, Kim (11 January 2005). "Military Record of 'Comfort Woman' Unearthed". The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
232. Horsley, William (9 August 2005). "Korean World War II sex slaves fight on". BBC News. Archived from the original on 15 January 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
233. "Japan Boiled Comfort Woman to Make Soup". The Seoul Times. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
234. "Archives give up secrets of Japan's Unit 731". China Daily (published by People's Daily Online). 3 August 2005. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. The files include full descriptions of 318 cases, including at least 25 people from the former Soviet Union and Korea.
235. McCurry, Justin (21 February 2011). "Japan unearths site linked to human experiments". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
236. Kristof, Nicholas D. (17 March 1995). "Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
237. Dieter Fleck, Terry D. Gill, ed. (2015). The Handbook of the International Law of Military Operations. Oxford University Press. pp. 548–549. ISBN 978-0-1987-4462-7. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
238. Madoka Futamura (11 October 2007). War Crimes Tribunals and Transitional Justice: The Tokyo Trial and the Nuremberg Legacy. Taylor & Francis. p. 116. ISBN 9-7811-3409-1317. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
239. Henry F. Carey, Stacey M. Mitchell, ed. (14 February 2013). Trials and Tribulations of International Prosecution. Lexington Books. p. 169. ISBN 9-7807-3916-9414. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
240. "List of Japanese Collaborators Released". Archived from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
241. "Government to Seize Assets of Collaborators in Colonial Era". Archived from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
242. Choe, Gwang-Suk (최광숙) (13 November 2006). 강제동원 '조선인 전범' 오명 벗었다 [The forcefully mobilized Koreans cleared their disgrace as the war criminals.] (in Korean). Naver / Seoul Sinmun. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
243. Eckert, Carter J., Ki-baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson, Edward W. Wagner, Korea Old and New: A History, p. 318
244. "North Korea; The Rise of Korean Nationalism and Communism". June 1993. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
245. "Part III: The problem from a historical perspective". Archived from the original on 31 December 2004. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
246. Fukuoka, Yasunori. "Koreans in Japan: Past and Present". Saitama University Review. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
247. "Japan's minorities yet to find their place in the sun". SAHRDC. Archived from the original on 15 April 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
248. Stearns, Peter N. "The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001". Houghton Mifflin Company. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
249. Pak, Soon-Yong; Hwang, Keumjoong (2011). "Assimilation and segregation of imperial subjects: "educating" the colonised during the 1910–1945 Japanese colonial rule of Korea". Paedagogica Historica. 47 (3): 377–397. doi:10.1080/00309230.2010.534104. S2CID 145280988.
250. Michio Miyasaka, A Historical and Ethical Analysis of Leprosy Control Policy in Japan, "Leprosy Control Policy in Japan". Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
251. Korean Hansens patients seek redress, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20040226a4.html Archived 5 June 2012 at archive.today
252. 일제강점기 소록도 수용 한센인 590명, 日정부서 보상받아 – 연합뉴스. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
253. Ko Wŏn-Sŏp. Panminnja Choesanggi (A record of charges against the anti-nationalists). Seoul: Paegyŏp Munhwasa, 1949.
254. "South Korea targets Japanese collaborators' descendants" Archived 28 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine The Telegraph, 14 July 2010
255. ^ Caprio, Mark (1 November 2010). "Neo-Nationalist Interpretations Of Japan's Annexation Of Korea: The Colonization Debate In Japan And South Korea". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 8 (44).

Sources

• Robinson, Michael E. (30 April 2007), Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey: A Short History, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3174-5

Further reading

• Brudnoy, David. "Japan's experiment in Korea." Monumenta Nipponica 25.1/2 (1970): 155–195. online
• Eckert, Carter J. (1996), Offspring of Empire: The Koch'ang Kims and the Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876–1945, Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies (Paperback ed.), Seattle: University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-97533-7, archived from the original on 30 July 2013
• Ireland, Alleyne (1926). The New Korea.
• Hildi, Kang (2001), Under the Black Umbrella: Voices from Colonial Korea, 1910–1945, Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8014-7270-1
• McKenzie, F.A. (1920). Korea's Fight for Freedom. New York, Chicago Fleming H. Revell company.
• Stucke, Walter (2011). The Direct and Indirect Contributions of Western Missionaries to Korean Nationalism During the Late Choson and Early Japanese Annexation Periods, 1884–1920.
• Uchida, Jun (2011). Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945. Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06253-5.

External links

• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Isabella Lucy Bird (1898), Korea and Her Neighbours: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country
• Horace Newton Allen (1908), Things Korean: A Collection of Sketches and Anecdotes, Missionary and Diplomatic
• Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Consumer Prices and Real Wages in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 13(1): 40–56
• Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Economic Growth of Korea under the Japanese Occupation – Background of Industrialization of Korea 1911–1940" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 20(1): 1–19
• Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Foreign Trade in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 14(2): 37–53
• Kim, Young-Koo, The Validity of Some Coerced Treaties in the Early 20th Century: A Reconsideration of the Japanese Annexation of Korea in Legal Perspective
• Matsuki Kunitoshi, "Japan's Annexation of Korea" Society the Dissemination of Historical Fact
• Walter Stucke (2011), The Direct and Indirect Contributions of Western Missionaries to Korean Nationalism During the Late Choson and Early Japanese Annexation Periods, 1884–1920

37°34′39″N 126°58′37″E / 37.57750°N 126.97694°E / 37.57750; 126.97694

v t e Korea under Japanese rule
Colony of the Empire of Japan from 1910 to 1945
Government	Governor-General of Chōsen (list) Japanese Korean Army
Cultural policies	Chōsen Art Exhibition (1922–1944) Chosun Exhibition (1929) Colored Clothes Campaign (1920–1945) Office of the Yi Dynasty Sōshi-kaimei (1939–1945) Shinto in Korea State Shinto
Economy	Bank of Chōsen Hwacheon Dam Korean yen Sup'ung Dam Companies Chōsen Anthracite Company Chōsen Government Railway Chosen Railway Oriental Development Company
Controversies	Comfort women (list) Sakhalin Koreans Forced labor Aso Mining forced labor controversy Hashima Island Korean Women's Volunteer Labour Corps Sado Island Slavery during World War II Utoro, Uji Events 105-Man Incident (1911) March First Movement (1919) Jeamri Massacre (1919) Battle of Fengwudong (1920) Battle of Samdunja Battle of Qingshanli (1920) Gando Massacre (1920–1921) Shinano River incident (1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) June Tenth Movement (1926) Gwangju Student Independence Movement (1929) Hongkou Park Incident (1932) Battle of Pochonbo (1937) Korean Language Society Incident (1942) Collaborators Five Eulsa Traitors Hong Sa-ik Iljinhoe Korean History Compilation Committee Park Yeong-hyo Refrain Club Park Jung-yang Song Byeong-jun Yi Yun-yong Independence movement Declaration of Independence Independence Club Korean National Association List of militant independence organizations List of independence activists Provisional Government
Places and structures	Altteureu Airfield Gyeongbokgung Government-General Museum of Chōsen Heijō Shrine Hyochang Park Japanese General Government Building, Seoul Keijō (Seoul) Keijō Post Office Keijō Shrine Keijō Imperial University Seodaemun Prison
Legacy	Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine Japan–Korea disputes Japan–North Korea relations Japan–South Korea relations Japanese history textbook controversies List of war apology statements issued by Japan Division of Korea (1945–) Koreans in Japan (1945–) Hibakusha (1945–) Treaty of San Francisco (1952) Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea (1965) Independence Hall of Korea (1987–) Murayama Statement (1995) Special Law to Redeem Pro-Japanese Collaborators' Property (2005) Museum of Japanese Colonial History in Korea (2018–) Comfort women Futsukaichi Rest Home (1946–1947) The Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan (1990–) Wednesday demonstration (1992–) Kono Statement (1993) Asian Women's Fund (1994) Shimonoseki Trial (1998) Women's International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan's Military Sexual Slavery (2000) United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121 (2007) Japan–South Korea Comfort Women Agreement (2015)

v t e Empire of Japan
Overview	Agriculture Censorship Demographics Economy Economic history Education System Eugenics Foreign commerce and shipping Industrial production Militarism Nationalism Essentialism Politics Statism State Shinto Kazoku
Emperors	Meiji (Mutsuhito) Taishō (Yoshihito) Shōwa (Hirohito)
Symbols	Flag of Japan Rising Sun Flag National seals of Japan Imperial Seal Government Seal State Seal Privy Seal Kimigayo
Policies	Constitution Charter Oath Foreign relations Imperial Rescript on Education Imperial Rule Assistance Association Yokusan Sonendan Great Japan Youth Party Kokutai Mokusatsu National Spiritual Mobilization Movement Peace Preservation Law Political parties Supreme Court of Judicature Tokkō Tonarigumi Greater East Asia Conference Senbu Imperial Japanese Airways
Government	Administration (ministries) Imperial Household Home Ministry War Army Navy Treasury Foreign Affairs Agriculture and Commerce Commerce and Industry Munitions Colonial Affairs Greater East Asia East Asia Development Board (Kōain) Legislative and deliberative bodies Daijō-kan Privy Council Gozen Kaigi Imperial Diet Peers Representatives
Military	Armed Forces Imperial General Headquarters Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors Senjinkun military code Nuclear weapons program Kamikaze War crimes Supreme War Council Conscription Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Air Service Railways and Shipping Imperial Guard Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha) Japanese holdout Taiwan Army of Japan Control Faction (Tōseiha) Kempeitai Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff Air Service Marines Tokkeitai Fleet Faction Treaty Faction
History	Meiji era Meiji Restoration Beipu uprising Boshin War Two Lords Incident Satsuma Rebellion First Sino-Japanese War Triple Intervention Boxer Rebellion Anglo–Japanese Alliance Russo-Japanese War Invasion of Taiwan (1874) Invasion of Taiwan (1895) Taishō era World War I Entry Siberian Intervention General Election Law Washington Naval Treaty Manchuria–Mongolia problem Taishō Democracy Taishō Roman Tapani incident Truku War Racial Equality Proposal Shōwa era Shōwa financial crisis Jinan incident London Naval Treaty Musha Incident Pacification of Manchukuo January 28 incident Motherland controversy Anti-Comintern Pact Second Sino-Japanese War Soviet–Japanese border conflicts Rape of Nanking Tripartite Pact Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact Japan during World War II Pacific War Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Soviet–Japanese War Surrender (Potsdam Declaration, Hirohito surrender broadcast) Occupation
Territories	Colonies Karafuto (naichi after 1943) Chōsen Kantō-shū Nan'yō Taiwan Puppet states Manchukuo Mengjiang Wang Jingwei regime Second Philippine Republic Empire of Vietnam State of Burma Azad Hind Occupied territories Borneo Burma Dutch East Indies French Indochina Hong Kong Malaya Philippines Singapore Thailand Ideology Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Yen bloc
Other topics	Sonnō jōi Fukoku kyōhei Hakkō ichiu Japanese settlers in Manchuria Internment camps German pre–World War II industrial co-operation Shinmin no Michi Shōwa Modan Socialist thought Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman Yasukuni Shrine International Military Tribunal for the Far East Political dissidence

• Korea under Japanese rule
• States and territories established in 1910
• States and territories disestablished in 1945
• Japan–Korea relations
• Former colonies in Asia
• Military occupations of Korea
• Annexation
• 1910 establishments in Korea
• 1910 establishments in the Japanese colonial empire
• 1945 disestablishments in the Japanese colonial empire
• 1945 disestablishments in Korea
• Former Japanese colonies
• Japanese military occupations
• Former countries of the interwar period
• Japanese imperialism and colonialism
• Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
• Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan