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{{short description|Group of fraternal organizations}}
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{{use British English|date=March 2016}}<!-- By consensus stating that Freemasonry originated in the UK and is therefore a Commonwealth-related topic, this article uses Commonwealth (or British) English spelling. Please do not change it to American usage. See MOS:RETAIN. Note also MOS:TIES regarding Oxford English (noting that -ize spelling is acceptable in as it predates the more recent spelling usage of -ise in British English), q.v.-->
] of the Freemasons.]]
{{Freemasonry}}
'''Freemasonry''' (sometimes spelled '''Free-Masonry''')<ref>{{cite web |title=Jachin and Boaz; or, an Authentic Key to the Door of Free-Masonry, Both Ancient and Modern. |url=https://linfordresearch.info/fordownload/Other%20Books/J%20and%20B%20exposure%201797%20edn.pdf |website=Linford Lodge of Research |access-date=10 October 2024 |date=September 1797}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Free Masonry |url=https://www.mtnebo91wv.org/history-of-free-masonry |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=mtnebo91wv.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Paine |first=Thomas |date=1818-01-02 |title=Thomas Paine Origin Free Masonry » Internet Infidels |url=https://infidels.org/library/historical/thomas-paine-origin-free-masonry/ |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Internet Infidels |language=en-US}}</ref> or simply '''Masonry''' includes various ] that trace their origins to the local ]s of ] that, from the end of the 14th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients. Freemasonry is the oldest fraternity in the world and among the oldest continued organizations in history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Freemasonry {{!}} United Grand Lodge of England |url=https://www.ugle.org.uk/discover-freemasonry/history-freemasonry |access-date=2024-09-06 |website=www.ugle.org.uk}}</ref>


Modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups: ], which insists that a “volume of sacred law”, such as the ], the ], or other religious ] be open in a working lodge, that every member professes belief in a ], that no women be admitted, and that the discussion of religion and politics do not take place within the lodge; and ], which consists of the jurisdictions that have removed some, or all, of these restrictions.
'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide ]. Its members are joined together by shared ideals of both a moral and ] nature, and, in most of its branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being. Freemasonry is an ], in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and that the system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols."


The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the ]. These private Lodges are usually supervised at the regional level (usually coterminous with a state, province, or national border) by a ] or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate. Lodges are found around the world and on all populated continents; however due to ] and laws that effectively ban the tradition, it does not have a presence in every country. In the spirit of brotherhood and hopefulness, however, Freemasons usually presume that clandestine lodges may nonetheless exist in those countries in which it is banned, even if they may not actually exist.
== Organizational structure ==
{{main|Grand Lodge}}


{{Anchor|degrees}}The degrees of Freemasonry are the three grades of medieval craft ]s: ], ] or Fellow of the craft<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=The Second Degree: Fellow Craft |url=https://www.freemason.com/fellow-craft/ |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Freemasonry |language=en-US}}</ref> (now called either “Fellowcraft” or “Fellow Craft”<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fellow Craft Degree Fee (NewMember) |url=https://www.paulreveremasons.org/product-page/fellow-craft-degree-fee |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Paul Revere Lodge |language=en}}</ref> in English speaking jurisdictions, and “Companion” in non-English speaking jurisdictions), and ]. The candidate of these three degrees is progressively taught the meanings of the symbols of Freemasonry and entrusted with grips, signs, and words to signify to other members that he has been so initiated. The degrees are part allegorical ] and part lecture. These three degrees form Craft (or Blue Lodge) Freemasonry, and members of any of these degrees are known as '''Free-Masons''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=General Regulations of a Free Mason 1723 – The Square Magazine |url=https://www.thesquaremagazine.com/mag/article/202303general-regulations-of-a-free-mason-1723/ |access-date=2024-11-07 |language=en-GB}}</ref> '''Freemasons''' or '''Masons'''. Once the Craft degrees have been conferred upon a Mason, he is qualified to join various "Concordant bodies" which offer additional degrees. These organisations are usually administered separately from the Grand Lodges who administer the Craft degrees. The extra degrees vary with locality and ]. In addition to these bodies, there are further organizations outside of the more traditional ] of Freemasonry, that require an individual to be a Master Mason before they can join (such as the ]).
There are many different jurisdictions of governance of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. Thus there is no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally ''recognizes''. If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be ''in amity'', which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for ''regularity''. This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the ''ancient landmarks'' of Freemasonry&mdash;the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.


Throughout its history, Freemasonry has received ] on religious and political grounds. The Catholic Church, some Protestant denominations, and certain Islamic countries or entities have expressed opposition to or banned membership in Free-Masonry. Opposition to Freemasonry is sometimes rooted in ] or ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Freemasonry |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/freemasonry |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schreiber |first=Jean-Philippe |date=2010-11-09 |title=Jews and Freemasonry in the nineteenth century: An overview of current knowledge |url=https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_AJ_432_0030--jews-and-freemasonry-in-the-nineteenth.htm |journal=Archives Juives |language=fr |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=30–48 |issn=0003-9837}}</ref> and Freemasons have historically been persecuted by authoritarian states.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Önnerfors |first=Andreas |title=Freemasonry: A Very Short Introduction |date=2017-01-24 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198796275 |pages=105 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ruiz |first=Julius |date=June 2011 |title=Fighting the International Conspiracy: The Francoist Persecution of Freemasonry, 1936–1945 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21567689.2011.591981 |journal=Politics, Religion & Ideology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=179–196 |doi=10.1080/21567689.2011.591981 |issn=2156-7689}}</ref>
Freemasonry is often said to consist of two different branches: the Anglo and the Continental traditions. In reality, there is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into distinct camps like this. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.


==Masonic lodge==
]
{{Main|Masonic lodge}}
The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a '']'', or sometimes a ''Grand Orient''. These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that. (In North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge.) The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the (GLE) (the ''Moderns''), founded in ]. This later became the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) when it joined with another English Grand Lodge (the ''Antients'') in 1813. It is today the largest jurisdiction in England, and generally considered to be the oldest in the world. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch, and the largest jurisdiction in France, is the ] (GOdF), founded in ]. At one time, the Anglo and Continental branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF around the time it started unreservedly admitting atheists, in ]. In most Latin countries, and in ], the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.
], set out for French (Premiere Grand Lodge) ritual]]
The ] is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chevalierramsay.be/what-is-freemasonry/|title=What is Freemasonry|website=www.chevalierramsay.be|access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref> The Lodge meets regularly and conducts the usual formal business of any small organisation (approve ], elect new members, appoint officers and take their reports, consider correspondence, bills and annual accounts, organise social and charitable events, etc.). In addition to such business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a ]<ref name="UGLEFAQ"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022154544/http://ugle.org.uk/what-is-freemasonry/frequently-asked-questions |date=22 October 2013 }} ''United Grand Lodge of England'' retrieved 30 October 2013</ref> or receive a lecture, which is usually on some aspect of Masonic history or ritual.<ref name=":5"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111133930/http://www.pglel.co.uk/Education%26Development/materials/MasonicLecturersAndTopics.asp |date=11 November 2016 }} ''Provincial Grand Lodge of East Lancashire'', retrieved 30 October 2013</ref> At the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge may hold a ], or ''festive board'', sometimes involving toasting and song.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Toasts for the Festive Board |url=https://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/toasts.html |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=freemasonry.bcy.ca}}</ref> These meetings are typically held in a ], though other venues may occasionally be used.


The bulk of ] consists of degree ceremonies. Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively ''initiated'' into Freemasonry, first in the degree of '''Entered Apprentice'''. At some later time, in separate ceremonies, they will be ''passed'' to the degree of '''Fellowcraft'''; and then ''raised'' to the degree of '''Master Mason'''. In each of these ceremonies, the candidate must first take the new obligations of the degree, and is then entrusted with secret knowledge including passwords, signs and grips (]s) confined to his new rank.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Symbolical Masonry: Part One: The First Step: Chapter XVIII. Words, Grips and Tokens |url=https://sacred-texts.com/mas/syma/syma22.htm |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=sacred-texts.com}}</ref> Although these symbols and gestures are nominally secret, they are readily found in public sources, including those published by Masonic organizations themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AAONMS Ritual Book |url=https://www.shrinersinternational.org/en/news-and-events/news/2022/05/aaonms-ritual-book |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=www.shrinersinternational.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Learn about freemasonry: What is the freemason handshake? |url=https://museumfreemasonry.org.uk/blog/learn-about-freemasonry-what-freemason-handshake |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Museum of Freemasonry |language=en}}</ref>
Most jurisdictions require their members to check with the local Grand Lodge before visiting lodges abroad to confirm amity.


Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master of the Lodge and his appointed or elected officers.<ref name="UGLEFAQ"/> In some jurisdictions, an ''Installed Master'' elected, obligated, and invested to preside over a Lodge, is valued as a separate rank with its own secrets and distinctive title and attributes; after each full year in the chair the Master invests his elected successor and becomes a Past Master with privileges in the Lodge and Grand Lodge.<ref>{{usurped|1=}} ''Masonic Dictionary'', retrieved 31 October 2013</ref> In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004062533/http://www.gadlu.info/macon-celebre-le-maitre-installe.html |date=4 October 2018 }} ''GADLU blog Maçonnique'', 3 March 2013, retrieved 2 November 2013</ref>
===Lodges===


Most Lodges have some sort of social functions, allowing members, their partners, and non-Masonic guests to meet openly.<ref>For instance {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109023055/http://www.pglherts.org/about-freemasonry/introduction/ |date=9 November 2013 }}, ''Provincial Grand Lodge of Hertfordshire'', retrieved 8 November 2013</ref> Often coupled with these events is the discharge of every Mason's and Lodge's collective obligation to contribute to charity. This occurs at many levels, including in annual dues, subscriptions, fundraising events, Lodges and Grand Lodges. Masons and their charities contribute for the relief of need in many fields, such as education, health and old age.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022081813/http://www.ugle.org.uk/charity |date=22 October 2013}}, ''UGLE'', retrieved 8 November 2013</ref><ref>(editors) John Hamill and Robert Gilbert, ''Freemasonry'', Angus, 2004, pp 214–220</ref>
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ] and not ''in'' a lodge.


Private Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, with the sole right to elect their own candidates for initiation as Masons or admission as joining Masons, and sometimes with exclusive rights over residents local to their premises. There are non-local Lodges where Masons meet for wider or narrower purposes, such or in association with some hobby, sport, Masonic research, business, profession, regiment or college. The rank of Master Mason also entitles a Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees, administered separately from the basic Craft or "Blue Lodge" degrees described here, but generally having a similar structure and meetings.<ref name="Johnstone">Michael Johnstone, ''The Freemasons'', Arcturus, 2005, pp. 101–120</ref>
According to Masonic legend (see ]), the '''operative lodges''' (the Medieval lodges of actual stonemasons) constructed a lodge building adjacent to their work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.


There is much diversity and little consistency in Freemasonry because each Masonic jurisdiction is independent and sets its own rules and procedures while Grand Lodges have limited jurisdiction over their constituent member Lodges, which are ultimately private clubs. The wording of the ritual, the number of officers present, the layout of the meeting room, etc. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.<ref name="Johnstone"/><ref name="Maconnieke"> ''Maconnieke Encyclopedie'', retrieved 31 October 2013</ref>
Early '''speculative lodges''' (which included members who were not actual stonemasons) purportedly met in ]s and other convenient public meeting places, and it is presently said they employed a ] to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people. This could also be a revision of the word ], used to tie the door closed.


Almost all ] are elected or appointed annually. Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a treasurer and a secretary. There is also always a ], or outer guard, outside the door of a working Lodge, who may be paid to secure its privacy. Other offices vary between jurisdictions.<ref name="Johnstone" />
Lodge buildings have for many years been known as '''temples'''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by '''Masonic Centre'''. (See also ] and their temples.)


Each Masonic Lodge exists and operates according to ancient principles known as the ], which elude any universally accepted definition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PS Review of Freemasonry |url=http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/bernheim27.html |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=PS Review of Freemasonry |language=en-US}}</ref>
In North America, the lodge in which a member becomes a Master Mason is known as his "Blue Lodge". The Blue Lodge is the foundation of a collection of further appendant Masonic groups or bodies, such as the ] and ]. To be a member of these other bodies, a man must pay dues to a regular Masonic Lodge. The Blue Lodge and its ceremonies establish the fundamental bond which makes all Masons "brothers", and is the cement which binds all other appendant Masonic bodies together.


===Joining a lodge===
There are also specialist lodges within many Masonic jurisdictions. The most obvious are the specially constituted Lodges of "Research and Instruction" (R&I). These are associated with a world-wide organization of Masonic research, typically specialising in discovering and interpreting historical records and the meanings of Masonic symbolism left unrecorded, and for preserving and developing Masonic ritual. Membership in these Lodges is typically open to interested members of other, normally-constituted Lodges. However, this is by no means a standard practice, given that every Grand Lodge maintains its own jurisdiction as it sees fit.
] as Master of his Lodge]]


Candidates for Freemasonry will usually have met the most active members of the Lodge they are joining before being elected for initiation. The process varies among Grand Lodges, but in modern times interested people often look up a local Lodge through the Internet and will typically be introduced to a Lodge social function or open evening. The onus is upon candidates to ask to join; while they may be encouraged to ask, they may not be invited. Once the initial inquiry is made, a formal application may be proposed and seconded or announced in open Lodge and a more or less formal interview usually follows. If the candidate wishes to proceed, references are taken up during a period of notice so that members may enquire into the candidate's suitability and discuss it. Finally, the Lodge takes an officially secret ballot on each application before a candidate is either initiated or rejected.<ref name="MLoE">, ''Masonic Lodge of Education'', retrieved 20 November 2013</ref> The exact number of adverse ballots ("blackballs") required to reject a candidate varies between Masonic jurisdictions. As an example, the ] only requires a single "blackball", while the ] requires three.
There are also Lodges formed by groupings of persons with similar interests or background, such as "old boy" Lodges associated with certain schools, universities, military units, or businesses.


A minimum requirement of every body of Freemasons is that each candidate must be "free and of good reputation".<ref>, Grande Loge de Luxembourg, retrieved 23 November 2013</ref> The question of freedom, a standard feudal requirement of mediaeval guilds, is nowadays one of independence: the object is that every Mason should be a proper and responsible person.<ref name="MLoE"/> Thus, each Grand Lodge has a standard minimum age, varying greatly and often subject to dispensation in particular cases. (For example, in England the standard minimum age to join is 18, but university lodges are given dispensations to initiate undergraduates below that age.)
===Concordant and Appendant Bodies===
Freemasonry is associated with several ''appendant bodies'', such as the ], which is a system of Freemasonry developed on the Continent (particularly in France), and the ], which includes three sovereign and distinct rites: the Holy Royal Arch, Royal and Select Masters (aka Cryptic Masonry), and ]. (In regard to the (Masonic) Templars, this particular organization is limited to Cryptic Masons of the Christian faith and does not in any way impose this requirement on the entire York Rite system, as is commonly and erroneously believed.)
Additionally, most Grand Lodges require a candidate to declare a belief in a ] (although every candidate must interpret this condition in his own way, as all religious discussion is commonly prohibited). In a few cases, the candidate may be required to be of a specific religion. The form of Freemasonry most common in ] (known as the ]), for example, accepts only Christians.<ref>, ''Grand Lodge of British Columbia & Yukon'', Accessed 19 November 2013</ref> At the other end of the spectrum, "Liberal" or ], exemplified by the ], does not require a declaration of belief in any deity and accepts atheists (the cause of the distinction from the rest of Freemasonry).<ref name=":1"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928021420/http://www.godf.org/index.php/pages/details/slug/foire-aux-questions |date=28 September 2013 }}, Foire aux Questions, ''Grand Orient de France'', Retrieved 23 November 2013</ref><ref name="Buta">, ''Pietre-Stones'', retrieved 23 November 2013</ref>


During the ceremony of initiation, the candidate is required to undertake an obligation, swearing on the religious volume sacred to his personal faith to do good as a Mason. In the course of three degrees, Masons will promise to keep the secrets of their degree from lower degrees and outsiders, as far as practicality and the law permit, and to support a fellow Mason in distress.<ref name="Johnstone"/> There is formal instruction as to the duties of a Freemason, but on the whole, Freemasons are left to explore the craft in the manner they find most satisfying. Some will simply enjoy the dramatics, or the management and administration of the lodge, others will explore the history, ritual and symbolism of the craft, others will focus their involvement on their Lodge's sociopolitical side, perhaps in association with other lodges, while still others will concentrate on the lodge's charitable functions.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109021223/http://www.hampshirefreemasonry.com/social-events-and-activities |date=9 January 2014 }}, ''Hampshire Province'', retrieved 20 November 2013</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104220210/http://www.masonic-lodges.com/masons.html |date=4 January 2020 }}, ''MasonicLodges.com'', retrieved 20 November 2013</ref>
Other groups include the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (]), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (]), the ], and others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Craft or Blue Lodge Freemasonry&mdash;often with additional so-called higher degrees&mdash;while improving their members and society as a whole. The Shrine and Grotto tend to emphasise fun and philanthropy and are largely a North American phenomenon.


==Organisation==
Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies, if at all. Some may give them some sort of formal recognition, while others may consider them wholly outside of Freemasonry proper. Not all such bodies will be universally considered as ''appendant bodies'', some being simply considered as more or less separate organizations that happen to require Masonic affiliation for membership. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "]"), since they approach Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.


===Grand Lodges===
There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the ] (for boys aged 12&ndash;21), ] (for girls aged 10-20 with proper Masonic relationship) and the ] (for girls 11&ndash;20 who have Masonic sponsorship). The ] is not a Masonic organization, but was first nationally commissioned by Freemason ]. Beard exemplified the Masonic ideals throughout the Scouting program.
{{Main|Grand Lodge}}
], London, home of the ]]]
]]]
Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are independent and sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state or geographical area (termed a ''jurisdiction''). There is no single overarching governing body that presides over worldwide Freemasonry; connections between different jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognition.<ref>(editors) John Hamill and Robert Gilbert, ''Freemasonry'', Angus, 2004, Glossary, p. 247</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603033856/http://mastermason.com/rfire/masonry/difficult.html |date=3 June 2015 }} ''MasterMason.com'', retrieved 18 November 2013</ref>


Estimates of the worldwide membership of Freemasonry in the early 21st century ranged from about two million to more than six million.<ref>{{cite web |title=Freemasonry {{!}} Definition, History, Stages, Lodges, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Freemasonry |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=17 December 2023 |language=en |date=16 November 2023}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=November 2024}}
==Membership Requirements==
Freemasonry accepts members from almost any religion, including ], ], ], ], and so forth. While atheists and agnostics are unreservedly accepted in Lodges working in the Continental tradition, most Masonic Lodges have required, since the early ], that a candidate must profess a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase ''Supreme Being'' is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing ] and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of ] and ] (himself a Freemason), or views of ] or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western ] (or for that matter, in modern ]). This leads some to suggest that even Anglo Freemasonry will, in practice, end up accepting certain kinds of atheists&mdash;those willing to adopt a certain brand of spiritual language. Such claims are difficult to evaluate, since many Anglo jurisdictions consider any further enquiry into a prospective member's religion, beyond the "Supreme Being" question, to be off limits. However, in some Anglo jurisdictions (mostly English-speaking), Freemasonry is actually less tolerant of naturalism than it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more ] and orthodox overtones have been added since the early ], including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in ], known as the ], accepts only Christians.


The fraternity is administratively organised <!-- NOTE: THIS ARTICLE USES UK SPELLING ... which spells this word with an "s" and not a "z". --> into independent ]s (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or ''constituent'') Lodges.
Generally, to be a Freemason, one must:


The ] remains the largest Masonic jurisdiction worldwide. However, its membership has declined dramatically - from about 500,000 members in the 1960s to approximately 175,000 in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who we are {{!}} United Grand Lodge of England |url=https://www.ugle.org.uk/about-us/about-ugle |website=www.ugle.org.uk |access-date=17 December 2023}}</ref><ref>https://www.cheshiremasons.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/UGLE-Annual-Report-2021-2.pdf</ref> The organization is structured into various Provincial Grand Lodges at the local level. Similarly, the ] has experienced a steep decline, with membership falling from 100,000 in 1960 to around 19,000 members currently.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Grand Lodge {{!}} Grand Lodge of Ireland |url=https://freemason.ie/about-grand-lodge/ |access-date=17 December 2023}}</ref>
# be a man who comes of his own free will
# believe in a Supreme Being, or, in some jurisdictions, a ''Creative Principle'' (unless joining a jurisdiction with no religious requirement, as in the Continental tradition),
# be at least the minimum age (18&ndash;25 years depending on the jurisdiction, but commonly 21),
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a ] or bondsman),
# have one or two references from current Masons (depending on jurisdiction).


In the ], Masonic membership is organized in two systems, first through 51 Conservative Grand Lodges - one for each state plus the ]. While these Grand Lodges once boasted over 4 million members in 1957, membership has declined sharply. According to the Masonic Service Association of North America, current combined membership across these jurisdictions stands at approximately 875,000 members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jurisdictional Membership Statistics – Masonic Service Association of North America |url=https://msana.com/services/jurisdictional-totals/ |website=msana.com |access-date=17 December 2023}}</ref>
The "free born" requirement is moot in modern Lodges; it remains for purely historical reasons. The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean "physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals", and most Lodges today are quite flexible when it comes to accommodating disabled candidates.


Additionally, there are 46 Prince Hall Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE, operating across various U.S. states. ] Masonry is a historically ] branch of Freemasonry that maintains its own separate Grand Lodge system parallel to the state Grand Lodge system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Membership Statistics – Masonic Service Association of North America |url=https://msana.com/services/u-s-membership-statistics/ |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=msana.com}}</ref>
{{see also|List of famous Freemasons}}


Together, these two systems - the conservative Grand Lodges and Prince Hall Grand Lodges make up for a total of 97 ] recognized Grand Lodges, sharing jurisdictions in the United States. They represent the main bodies of Masonic governance in the United States, though both have experienced significant membership declines since their mid-20th century peaks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hodapp |first=Christopher |date=2022-03-26 |title=Freemasons For Dummies: Flash! GL of Louisiana Votes in Favor of Prince Hall Recognition... Sort Of |url=https://freemasonsfordummies.blogspot.com/2022/03/flash-gl-of-louisiana-votes-in-favor-of.html |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Freemasons For Dummies}}</ref>
=== Women in Freemasonry ===
The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. While this has been slowly changing, especially over the past century, there were exceptions to the rule as early as the ]. Perhaps the most authoritative account of a woman being admitted to Freemasonry in these early years surrounds ] (nee St. Leger), who is reported to have viewed the proceedings of a Lodge meeting held at Doneraile House, the house of her father, first ] Doneraile, a resident of ], ]. In the early part of the ], it was customary for Lodges to be regularly held in private houses; this Lodge was duly warranted as number 150 on the register of the ]. Apparently, she removed a brick and saw the ceremony in the room beyond. After being discovered, Elizabeth's situation was discussed by the Lodge, and it was decided that she should be initiated into Freemasonry. The story is supported by other accounts that record how she was a subscriber to the Irish Book of Constitutions of 1744 and that she frequently attended, wearing her Masonic ], entertainments that were given under Masonic auspices for the benefit of the poor and distressed. She afterwards married Mr. Richard Aldworth of Newmarket. It is also reported that when she died she was accorded the honour of a Masonic burial.


], the largest jurisdiction in Continental or Liberal Freemasonry in terms of membership, is over 53,000 members spread across approximately 1,381 lodges for an average of 38 members per Lodges. The Grand Orient de France has been growing in membership since the ] from 33,000 in 1960 to 53,000 in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=BOISSELIER |first=Alexis |date=2023-11-08 |title=Emmanuel Macron se rend au Grand Orient de France : trois questions sur cette loge maçonnique |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/societe/emmanuel-macron-visite-le-grand-orient-de-france-trois-questions-sur-la-loge-maconnique-52d15996-7d7e-11ee-9e40-5131acac1bc0 |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Ouest-France.fr |language=fr}}</ref>
While Mrs. Aldworth's situation was a very irregular (and perhaps unique) one, the admission of women was systematized when International ] began in ] in 1882 with the initiation of ] into the Loge Libre Penseurs (Freethinkers Lodge), a men's Lodge under the Grande Loge Symbolique de France. In 1893, along with activist Georges Martin, Maria Deraismes oversaw the initiation of sixteen women into the first Lodge in the world to have both men and women as members, creating the jurisdiction ] (LDH).


===Recognition, amity and regularity===
In the ] and ], and most other countries, women still generally join co-Masonic Lodges, such as those under LDH, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In ], it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, such as the ] (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the ], there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the ] (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.
Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of ''Recognition''. Each Grand Lodge maintains a list of other Grand Lodges that it recognises.<ref>{{Cite book
| title = Handbook for Candidate's Coaches
| first = Donald G.
| last = Campbell
| author2 = Committee on Ritual
| publisher = Grand Lodge F.&A.M. of California
| url = http://mastersjewel.com/masons/mm/MM07.htm
| format = excerpt
| chapter = The Master Mason; Irregular and Clandestine Lodges
| access-date = 8 May 2007
| archive-date = 21 August 2007
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070821165005/http://www.mastersjewel.com/masons/mm/MM07.htm
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> When two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic communication with each other, they are said to be '']'', and the brethren of each may visit each other's Lodges and interact Masonically. When two Grand Lodges are not in amity, inter-visitation is not allowed. There are many reasons one Grand Lodge will withhold or withdraw recognition from another, but the two most common are ''Exclusive Jurisdiction'' and ''Regularity''.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314135120/http://www.pilarlodge3freemasonry.freeservers.com/about_1.html |date=14 March 2008 }}, Masonic Short Talk, ''Pilar lodge'', 2007, retrieved 25 November 2013</ref>


====Exclusive Jurisdiction====
The GOdF and other Continental jurisdictions give full formal recognition to co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE and other Anglo jurisdictions do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women, although in many countries they have an understanding and a kind of informal acceptance that such bodies are part of Freemasonry in a larger sense. The UGLE, for instance, has recognized (since ]) two local women's jurisdictions as regular in practice, ''except'' for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry. Thus, the position of women in Freemasonry is rapidly changing in the English-speaking world. While in many cases North America is following England's lead on the issue of women, the remaining resistance to women in Freemasonry is mostly concentrated there.
Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby normally only one Grand Lodge will be recognised in any geographical area. If two Grand Lodges claim jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same one. (In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two rival factions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge. Other Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.<ref>, 1922, pp. 135–140, ''Masonic Trowel eBooks'', {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201003501/http://www.themasonictrowel.com/ebooks/fm_freemasonry/Lang_-_History_Of_Freemasonry_in_NewYork_1922_raw.pdf|date=1 December 2010}}</ref>) Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two overlapping Grand Lodges are themselves in amity and agree to share jurisdiction. For example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in amity with the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002511/http://www.bessel.org/exclartl.htm |date=3 December 2013 }}, ''Paul M. Bessel'', 1998, retrieved 25 November 2013</ref> Likewise, the five distinct kinds of lodges in Germany have nominally united under one Grand Lodge in order to obtain international recognition.


=== Prince Hall Masonry === ==== Modern Challenges and Evolution ====
The concept of Exclusive Jurisdiction has been significantly challenged in the United States with the increasing recognition of ], a branch of Freemasonry created for African Americans. Historically, many "mainstream" or conservative U.S. Grand Lodges refused to recognize Prince Hall Grand Lodges operating in their states, citing Exclusive Jurisdiction. However, this began to change in 1989 when the ] extended recognition to its Prince Hall counterpart.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Sueanna Smith |title=Reimagining Prince Hall: Race, Freemasonry, and Material Culture In Boston, 1775-1870 |url=https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7385&context=etd |website=] |access-date=4 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut |url=https://mwphgl-ct.org/ |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut |language=en-US}}</ref>
{{main|Prince Hall Freemasonry}}
In ], an ] named ] was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge, along with fourteen other African Americans, all of whom were free by birth. When the Military Lodge left the area, the African Americans were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees nor to do other Masonic Work. These individuals applied for, and obtained, a Warrant for Charter from the Grand Lodge of England in ] and formed African Lodge #459. Despite being stricken from the rolls (like all American Grand Lodges after the ] merger of the Antients and the Moderns) the Lodge restyled itself as the African Lodge #1 (not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of ]), and separated itself from UGLE-recognised Masonry. This led to a tradition of separate, predominantly African American jurisdictions in North America, known collectively as Prince Hall Freemasonry. Widespread ] and ] in North America made it impossible for African Americans to join many so-called "mainstream" Lodges, and many mainstream Grand Lodges in North America refused to recognize as legitimate the Prince Hall Lodges and Prince Hall Masons in their territory.


This initial recognition created a precedent for "shared jurisdiction" between mainstream and Prince Hall Grand Lodges, effectively modifying the traditional interpretation of Exclusive Jurisdiction. By 2024, most U.S. Grand Lodges have recognized their Prince Hall counterparts, establishing a new norm where two Grand Lodges can legitimately operate within the same geographical area, provided they maintain mutual recognition and amity.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=The Grand Lodge of Connecticut |url=https://gwmemorial.org/blogs/gl-of-the-month/the-grand-lodge-of-connecticut |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=GWMNMA |language=en}}</ref>
Presently, Prince Hall Masonry is recognized by some UGLE-recognized Grand Lodges and not by others, and appears to be working its way toward full recognition (see ). It is also no longer unusual for traditional lodges to have significant numbers of African-American members.


The evolution of this practice demonstrates how traditional Masonic principles can adapt to accommodate social progress while maintaining the fundamental aims of regular Freemasonry. Some jurisdictions have formalized this arrangement through written agreements that specifically outline the terms of shared jurisdiction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prince Hall Freemasonry archives |url=https://bmrc.lib.uchicago.edu/portal/view/?id=BMRC.HARSH.PRINCE_HALL.xml#:~:text=Today,%20Prince%20Hall%20Lodges%20are,their%20names%20to%20avoid%20confusion |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=bmrc.lib.uchicago.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=John B. Williams Web Page |url=https://thephylaxis.org/williams/recognition.php |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=thephylaxis.org}}</ref>
==Principles and activities==
Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasonry is also widely involved in charity and community service, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.


====Regularity====
While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated: the separation of Church and State, the replacement of religiously-affiliated schools with secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (such as the ] and ] on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, Greece, Poland and repeatedly in Italy). In some places, especially Continental Europe and Mexico, Freemasonry has at times taken on an anti-Catholic and anti-clerical overtone.
{{Main|Regular Masonic jurisdictions}}
]
Regularity is a concept based on adherence to ], the basic membership requirements, tenets and rituals of the craft. Each Grand Lodge sets its own definition of what these landmarks are, and thus what is Regular and what is Irregular (and the definitions do not necessarily agree between Grand Lodges). Essentially, every Grand Lodge will hold that ''its'' landmarks (its requirements, tenets and rituals) are Regular, and judge other Grand Lodges based on those. If the differences are significant, one Grand Lodge may declare the other "Irregular" and withdraw or withhold recognition.<ref>, ''Grand Lodge of Latvia'', retrieved 25 November 2013</ref><ref>, from ''Freemasonry Universal'', by Kent Henderson & Tony Pope, 1998, ''Pietre Stones'' website, retrieved 25 November 2013</ref>


The most commonly shared rules for Recognition (based on Regularity) are those given by the United Grand Lodge of England in 1929:
Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant ] and the ] Italian ], which pursued ] and ]. Many other purely ]s, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.
* The Grand Lodge should be established by an existing regular Grand Lodge, or by at least three regular Lodges.
* A belief in a supreme being and scripture is a condition of membership.
* Initiates should take their vows on that scripture.
* Only men can be admitted, and no relationship exists with mixed Lodges.
* The Grand Lodge has complete control over the first three degrees and is not subject to another body.
* All Lodges shall display a volume of scripture with the square and compasses while in session.
* There is no discussion of politics or religion.
* "Ancient landmarks, customs and usages" observed.<ref name=":0">''UGLE Book of Constitutions'', "Basic Principles for Grand Lodge Recognition", any year since 1930, page numbers may vary.</ref>


==Other degrees, orders, and bodies==
Freemasonry is often called a ], and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are usually clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In countries where Freemasonry has been more recently (or even currently), suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practised more earnestly. Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip (by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light"); however, Masons acknowledge that these "secrets" have been widely available in printed exposés and anti-Masonic literature for, literally, centuries.
{{See also|Masonic bodies|List of Masonic rites}}
Blue Lodges, known as Craft Lodges in the United Kingdom, offer only the three traditional degrees. In most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master is also conferred in Blue/Craft Lodges. Master Masons are able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further degrees, in appendant or other bodies whether or not approved by their own Grand Lodge.<ref>Robert L.D. Cooper, ''Cracking the Freemason's Code'', Rider 2006, p. 229</ref>


The Ancient and Accepted ] is a system of 33 degrees, including the three Blue Lodge degrees administered by a local or national Supreme Council. This system is popular in North America, South America and in ]. In America, the ], with a similar range, administers three orders of Masonry, namely the ], ], and ].<ref>Michael Johnstone, ''The Freemasons'', Arcturus, 2005, pp. 95–98</ref>
== Ritual and symbols ==


In Britain, separate bodies administer each order. Freemasons are encouraged to join the ], which is linked to ] in Scotland and Ireland, but completely separate in England. In England, the Royal Arch is closely associated with the Craft, automatically having many Grand Officers in common, including H.R.H the ] as both Grand Master of the Craft and First Grand Principal of the Royal Arch. The English Knights Templar and Cryptic Masonry share the Mark Grand Lodge offices and staff at Mark Masons Hall.<ref>, ''Pietre Stones'', retrieved 11 November 2013</ref> The Ancient and Accepted Rite (similar to the Scottish Rite), requires a member to proclaim the Trinitarian Christian faith, and is administered from Duke Street in London.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Supreme Council|url=http://www.sc33.org.uk/|access-date=2021-06-17|website=www.sc33.org.uk}}</ref> Conversely, the ] is a fully independent ] organization that requires members be ] ].
The Freemasons rely heavily on the ] symbolism of the ] ''operative'' Masons who actually worked in ]. One of their principal symbols is the ''square and ]es'', tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). Often the compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter ''G'' placed there, usually said to represent ] and/or ].


In the ], the ] is dominant; a variation of it is also used in parts of Germany.
The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open ''Volume of the Sacred Law'' (or ''Lore'') (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a ], but it can be whatever book(s) of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on&mdash;whether the Bible, the ], or other Volumes. A candidate for a degree will normally be given his choice of VSL, regardless of the Lodge's usual VSL. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and spiritual revelation, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.


==Ritual and symbolism==
Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as ], ], ], ], ], ] and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the ], from ], and from early modern ].
{{Main|Masonic ritual and symbolism}}
] noble ] dressed in full Masonic attire in 1925]]
] Poland]]
]
{{Esotericism}}
Freemasonry describes itself as a "beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109020434/http://www.mhebf.com/freemasonry.html |date=9 January 2014 }} ''Grand Lodge of Alberta'' retrieved 7 November 2013</ref> The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the tools of stonemasons – the ], the level and plumb rule, the ], the rough and smooth ]s, among others. Moral lessons are attributed to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning of the symbolism is taught and explored through ritual,<ref name="Johnstone" /> and in lectures and articles by individual Masons who offer their personal insights and opinions.


According to the ] Jan A. M. Snoek: "the best way to characterize Freemasonry is in terms of what it is not, rather than what it is".<ref name="Theokritoff 2016">{{cite book |author-last=Snoek |author-first=Jan A. M. |year=2016 |chapter=Part III: The Renaissance and Early Modernity – Freemasonry |editor-last=Magee |editor-first=Glenn A. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Western Mysticism and Esotericism |location=] and New York City |publisher=] |pages=200–210 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139027649.018 |isbn=978-1139027649}}</ref> All Freemasons begin their journey in the "craft" by being progressively "initiated", "passed" and "raised" into the three degrees of Craft, or Blue Lodge Masonry. During these three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught the Masonic symbols, and entrusted with grips or tokens, signs, and words to signify to other Masons which degrees he has taken. The dramatic allegorical ceremonies include explanatory lectures and revolve around the construction of the ], and the artistry and death of the chief architect, ]. The degrees are those of "Entered apprentice", "Fellowcraft" and "Master Mason". While many different versions of these rituals exist, with various lodge layouts and versions of the Hiramic legend, each version is recognizable to any Freemason from any jurisdiction.<ref name="Johnstone" />
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as the ''Grand Geometer'', or the ''Great Architect of the Universe'' (GAOTU). Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.


In some jurisdictions, the main themes of each degree are illustrated by ]s. These painted depictions of Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge according to which degree is being worked and are explained to the candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.<ref>, ''Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon'', 1999, retrieved 7 November 2013</ref>
===Degrees===
There are three initial '']'' of Freemasonry:


The idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends from a 16th-century legal definition of a "brother" as one who has taken an oath of mutual support to another. Accordingly, Masons swear at each degree to support and protect their brethren unless they have broken the law.<ref>Robert L.D. Cooper, ''Cracking the Freemason's Code'', Rider 2006, p. 79</ref> In most Lodges, the oath or obligation is taken on a '']'', whichever book of divine revelation is appropriate to the religious beliefs of the individual brother (usually the Bible in the Anglo-American tradition). In ''Progressive'' continental Freemasonry, books other than scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between Grand Lodges.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410074658/http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm |date=10 April 2006 }}, ''Paul M. Bessel''. retrieved 8 November 2013</ref>
# Entered Apprentice
# Fellow Craft
# Master Mason


==History==
As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure&mdash;speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes&mdash;provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Especially in Europe, Freemasons working through the degrees are asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present these papers in an open Lodge, where others may judge the suitability of the candidates' ascension through the higher degrees.
{{Main|History of Freemasonry}}


===Freemasonry in the arts=== ===Origins===
Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic historians have sought the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as the ], dating from the ] in about 1425<ref>, from Transactions of the Lodge of Research No. 2429 (Leicester), 2006, ''Pietre-Stones Masonic Papers'', retrieved 12 October 2013</ref> to the beginning of the 18th century. Alluding to the membership of a lodge of ], they relate it to a ] of the craft, the duties of its grades, and the manner in which oaths of fidelity are to be taken on joining.<ref>A. F. A. Woodford, preface to William James Hughan, ''The Old Charges of British Freemasons'', London, 1872</ref> The 15th century also sees the first evidence of ceremonial regalia.<ref>{{Cite book | author = John Yarker | title = The Arcane Schools | location = Manchester | year = 1909 | pages = 341–342}}</ref>


There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade organisations became today's Masonic Lodges. The earliest rituals and passwords known, from operative lodges around the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, show continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th century by accepted or speculative Masons, as those members who did not practice the physical craft gradually came to be known.<ref>Robert L.D. Cooper, ''Cracking the Freemason's Code'', Rider 2006, Chapter 4, p. 53</ref> The minutes of the ] in Scotland show a continuity from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative Lodge.<ref>David Murray Lyon, ''History of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No 1'', Blackwood 1873, Preface</ref> It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic Lodge in the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=David|title=The Origins of Freemasonry|year=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521396549|pages=38–44}}</ref>
* ] was a Freemason, and his opera, '']'', makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:
], Suffolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocation]]
Alternatively, ] in his work titled ''Rosicrucians and Freemasonry'' put forward the theory that suggested that Freemasonry may have been an outgrowth of ]. The theory had also been postulated in 1803 by German professor; ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.masonicdictionary.com/rosicrucian.html|title=Rosicrucians and Freemasonry {{!}} Masonic Dictionary |last=Dafoe|first=Stephen|website=www.masonicdictionary.com|language=en|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128202245/http://www.masonicdictionary.com/rosicrucian.html|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ffW5P6NW1kC&q=Freemasonry+is+an+outgrowth+of+rosicrucians&pg=PA395|title=The Secret Teachings of All Ages: An Encyclopedic Outline of Masonic, Hermetic, Qabbalistic and Rosicrucian Symbolical Philosophy|last=Hall|first=Manly P.|date=2010|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0486471433|language=en}}</ref>


The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the ], was founded on ], 24 June 1717,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ugle.org.uk/about-freemasonry/history-of-freemasonry |title=History of Freemasonry timeline |publisher=United Grand Lodge of England |access-date=12 June 2018}}</ref> when four existing London Lodges met for a joint dinner. Over the next decade, most of the existing Lodges in England joined the new regulatory body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion. New lodges were created, and the fraternity began to grow.
# ''Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol'' by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, ].
# ''Symbols of Freemasonry'' by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, ].


During the course of the 18th century, as aristocrats and artists crowded out the craftsmen originally associated with the organization, Freemasonry became fashionable throughout Europe and the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greer |first=John Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-T7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |title=Druidry Handbook: Spiritual Practice Rooted in the Living Earth |date=2021|publisher=Weiser Books |isbn=978-1-63341-224-8 |pages=26 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergreen |first=Laurence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3B6zCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |title=Casanova: The World of a Seductive Genius |date=2016 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4767-1652-7 |page=119 |language=en}}</ref>
* One of the main characters in ]'s '']'' is a mason.


Between 1730 and 1750, the Grand Lodge endorsed several significant changes that some Lodges could not endorse. A rival Grand Lodge was formed on 17 July 1751, which called itself the "]" to signify that, in their opinion, these lodges were maintaining older traditions and rejected changes that the Premiere Grand Lodge had adopted. As an insult, the self proclaimed "Antient Grand Lodge" coined the term "modern" to designate the Premiere Grand Lodge (historians now use Premiere Grand Lodge and Antient Grand Lodge – to differentiate the two bodies).<ref>{{cite web |title=Ars Quatuor Coronatorum – A Revised Style Guide |url=https://www.quatuorcoronati.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/AQC-Revised-Style-Guide-5-August-2011-2.pdf |website=] |access-date=19 November 2024 |pages=12–13}}</ref> These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Premiere Grand Lodge made a ] with the antient Grand Lodge to return to a ritual that worked for both Grand Lodges. They re-united on 27 December 1813 to form the ].<ref>{{Cite book|author=]|title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry|publisher=Alpha/Penguin Books|isbn=1-59257-490-4|page=|year=2006|url=https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00morr/page/27}}</ref><ref name="Clarke">, Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, vol 79 (1966), pp. 270–273, ''Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon'', retrieved 28 June 2012</ref>
* The British author ] also made use of Masonic symbolism and myth in his story, "]", which was later made into a film. Two adventurers are taken to be representatives of ] because of their Masonic emblems.


The ] and the ] were formed in 1725 and 1736, respectively, although neither persuaded all of the existing lodges in their countries to join for many years.<ref>, ''The Builder'', vol X no 5, May 1924, ''Pietre Stones'' website, retrieved 9 January 2014</ref><ref>Robert L.D. Cooper, ''Cracking the Freemason's Code'', Rider 2006, Chapter 1, p. 17</ref>
===Freemasonry in the language===
An expression often used in Masonic circles is ''to be on the square'', meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Another phrase from Freemasonry in common use is ''meeting on the level'' (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as ''the Craft'', a term also used to distinguish the basic level of Freemasonry from other Masonic orders.
A Mason who has served as Worshipful Master is known as a ''Past Master'', which has passed into common use to indicate an expert in a subject.
Masons use the phrase "It is raining" to refer to a Mason that non-Masons exist around them.


===North America===
== History of Freemasonry==
], first Freemason in present-day Canada, ]]]
{{main|History of Freemasonry}}
The earliest known American lodges were in ]. The collector for the port of Pennsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending lodges there in 1715, two years before the putative formation of the first Grand Lodge in London. The ] appointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America in 1731, based in Pennsylvania,<ref>, ''Pietre-Stones'', retrieved 15 November 2013</ref> leading to the creation of the ].


In Canada, ] became a Freemason while working on a commission to resolve boundaries in ] and, in 1739, he became provincial Grand Master for ]; Philipps founded the first Masonic lodge in Canada at ].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.grandlodgens.org/content/chapter-1-beginnings| title = History of Freemasons in Nova Scotia}}</ref>
Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the ] ]s of ]s (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the ]) (2), an offshoot of the ancient ] (1), an administrative arm of the ] (3), the Roman ] (1), the ] (1), intellectual descendants of ] (1), and many other various and sundry origins. Others claim that it dates back only to the late ] in England, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:


Other lodges in the colony of Pennsylvania obtained authorisations from the later ], the ], and the ], which was particularly well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army.<ref>, ''St. John's Lodge No. 1, A.Y.M.'', 2012, retrieved 16 November 2013</ref><ref>M. Baigent and R. Leigh, ''The Temple and the Lodge'', Arrow 1998, Appendix 2, pp. 360–362, "Masonic Field Lodges in Regiments in America", 1775–77</ref> Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge, applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were confident of their own survival.<ref>Robert L.D. Cooper, ''Cracking the Freemason's Code'', Rider 2006, p. 190</ref>
Much of the content of these books is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may very well be lost in either an unwritten or a created history. It is thought by many that Freemasonry cannot be a straightforward outgrowth of medieval ]s of ]s. Amongst the reasons given for this conclusion, well documented in ''Born in Blood'', are the fact that stonemasons' guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a stonemasons' guild.


After the ], independent U.S. Grand Lodges developed within each state. Some thought was briefly given to organising<!-- NOTE: THIS ARTICLE USES UK SPELLING ... which spells this word with an "s" and not a "z." --> an overarching "Grand Lodge of the United States," with ], who was a member of a Virginian lodge, as the first Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived. The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book
Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the ], to have existed at the time of King ] of England, in the ] C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in ], and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).
| title = Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840
| first1 = Steven C.
| last1 = Bullock
| author2 = Institute of Early American History and Culture (Williamsburg, Va.)
| location = Chapel Hill
| publisher = University of North Carolina Press
| year = 1996
| isbn = 978-0-8078-4750-3
| oclc = 33334015 }}</ref>


On April 30, 1789, George Washington took his ] at his ] upon a bible belonging to ] of New York. Originally, it was expected that Washington would bring his own Bible upon which to swear his oath of office, and there was some consternation when it turned out that no one had informed Washington to bring one. Thinking quickly, ], the Marshal of the Inauguration (and Master of St. John's Lodge), borrowed the Lodge's Bible for use in the ceremony. That bible has been known since as the ], and is still in possession of St. John's Lodge No. 1 of the Grand Lodge of New York.<ref>{{Cite web |title=George Washington Inaugural Bible |url=https://stjohns1.org/the-lodge/george-washington-inaugural-bible/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=St. John's Lodge No. 1 A.Y.M. |language=en-US}}</ref> ], ] of the State of New York, also the first ], administered the oath.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-18 |title=President George Washington's First Inaugural Speech (1789) |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/president-george-washingtons-first-inaugural-speech |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=National Archives |language=en}}</ref> This event effectuated the establishment of the Executive Branch of the Federal Government of the United States, which had until then existed only virtually after the US Constitution become operational almost two months earlier, on March 4, 1789.<ref>{{Cite web |title=On this day, government begins under our Constitution |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics-2 |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Today in History - March 4 |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/march-04/ |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>
A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the ], or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' ], and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.


====Jamaican Freemasonry====
There is also the Cooke Manuscript, which is said to be dated 1430 and contained the Constitution of German stonemasons(4), but the first appearance of the word 'Freemason' occurs in the Statutes of the Realm enacted in 1495 by Henry VII, however, most other documentary evidence prior to the 1500s apeears to relate entirely to operative Masons rather than speculative ones.


Freemasonry was imported to ] by British immigrants who colonized the island for over 300 years. In 1908, there were eleven recorded Masonic lodges, which included three Grand Lodges, two Craft lodges, and two Rose Croix chapters.<ref name="Handbook of Jamaica">{{cite book |date=1908 |title=Handbook of Jamaica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-LwCAAAAYAAJ |location=Google Books |publisher=Jamaica Government |page=449 }}</ref> During slavery, the lodges were open to all "freeborn" men. According to the Jamaican 1834 census, that potentially included 5,000 free black men and 40,000 free people of colour (mixed race).<ref>{{cite book |date=1908 |title=Handbook of Jamaica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-LwCAAAAYAAJ |location=Google Books |publisher=Jamaica Government |page=33 }}</ref> After the ], the Lodges were open to all Jamaican men of any race.<ref name="Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper">{{cite news |date=10 December 2017 |title=Charting The History Of Freemasons In Jamaica |url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/art-leisure/20171210/charting-history-freemasons-jamaica |work=Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper}}</ref> Jamaica also kept close relationships with Masons from other countries. Jamaican Freemasonry historian Jackie Ranston, noted that:
1583 is the date of the Grand Lodge manuscript(4), and more frequent mention of lodges is made in documents from this time onwards. The Schaw Statues of 1598-9(4) are the source used to declare the precedence of Kilwinning Lodge in ], ] over St. Mary's (or Principal) Lodge. As a side note, Kilwinning is called Kilwinning #0 because of this very conundrum. Quite soon thereafter, a charter was granted to Sir William St. Clair (later Sinclair) of Roslin (Rosslyn), allowing him to purchase jurisdiction over a number of lodges in Edinburgh and environs (4), which is the basis of the Templar myth surrounding ].


{{Blockquote
Another key figure in Masonic history was ] (1617-1692), who was made a Mason in 1646, although Speculative Masons were being admitteed into Lodges as early as 1634. There appears to be a general spread of the Craft during this time, but the next key date is 1717.
|text=Jamaica served as an arms depot for the revolutionary forces when two Kingston Freemasons, Wellwood and Maxwell Hyslop, financed the campaigns of Simón Bolívar, the Liberator, to whom six Latin American Republics owe their independence". Bolívar himself was a Mason, enjoying contacts with Brethren in Spain, England, France, and Venezuela until after gaining power in Venezuela, he prohibited all secret societies in 1828 and included the Freemasons.<ref name="Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper"/> }}


On 25 May 2017, Masons around the world celebrated the 300th anniversary of the fraternity. Jamaica hosted one of the regional gatherings for this celebration.<ref>{{cite news |date=18 April 2017 |title=English Freemasons To Celebrate Their 300th Year In Jamaica |url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20170418/english-freemasons-celebrate-their-300th-year-jamaica |work=Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper}}</ref><ref name="Handbook of Jamaica"/>
In ], four Lodges which met, respectively, at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in ], England (as recounted in (2)) joined together and formed the first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of England (GLE). The years following saw new Grand Lodges open throughout England and Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret Lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The GLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around ].


====Prince Hall Freemasonry====
{{Main|Prince Hall Freemasonry}}


Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit African Americans. In 1775, an African American named ],<ref>
# In ''A History of Freemasonry'' by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''ca'' ]
{{cite web
# In '']'' by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. ]
| url = http://www.mindspring.com/~johnsonx/whoisph.htm
# In ''Born in Blood'' by John Robinson, pub. ]
| title = Who is Prince Hall? And other well known Prince Hall Masons
# In Waite, Arthur Edward. "Masonic Chronology" ''A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry'' v. 2, pp 40-89. Wings Books, 1996. Reprint of 1970 University Books Edition, two volumes in one.
| first = Lawrence
| last = Johnson
| year = 1996
| access-date = 14 November 2005
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070602065851/http://www.mindspring.com/~johnsonx/whoisph.htm
| archive-date = 2 June 2007
| url-status=dead
| df = dmy-all
}}
</ref> along with 14 other African American men, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the ], having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in ]. When the British military Lodge left North America after the end of the Revolution, those 15 men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons. In 1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Grand Lodge of England (Premiere Grand Lodge) and formed ]. When the two English grand lodges united in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls&nbsp;– largely because of the ]. Thus, separated from both English jurisdiction and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge retitled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1&nbsp;– and became a ''de facto'' Grand Lodge. (This lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges in Africa.) As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised <!-- NOTE: THIS ARTICLE USES UK SPELLING ... which spells this word with an "s" and not a "z". --> on a Grand Lodge system for each state.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223554/http://www.princehall.org/History/Ray%20Colemans%20History.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }} retrieved 13 October 2013</ref>


Unlike other fraternal orders, there was never any blanket rule against the admission of men based on their race. Each lodge and grand lodge had their own rules, both written and unwritten. A few non-Prince Hall lodges did admit Blacks, with ] being one notable Masonic personality of African descent. Nonetheless, widespread ] in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it difficult for African Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions. Even if a lodge was willing to entertain non-White applicants, generally only a single anonymous vote could prevent someone from being admitted. Inter-jurisdiction recognition between traditional and Prince Hall U.S. Masonic authorities was also not forthcoming. As demonstrated by the case of the famous black boxer ], if word spread that a mainstream lodge had admitted a Black person, that lodge could potentially face sanction from other discriminatory lodges.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
=== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (] and ]) ===
The GLE (Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the ''Moderns'', to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the ''Antients''. The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in ], prompted by the GLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. The Antients tended to be more working class in membership, and probably more Christian, while the Moderns were more aristocratic and educated, and less religiously orthodox. ] was a Modern and a ], for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone Antient, and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see ''Revolutionary Brotherhood'', by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, ]). It has been speculated that the Antients desired a more Christian style of Masonry, since they made popular a higher degree, called the "Holy Royal Arch", which is generally thought of as having a more Christian flavour than the first three degrees.


Today most (but not all) U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince Hall counterparts, and the authorities of both traditions are working towards full recognition.<ref>{{cite web
The schism was healed in the years following ], when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated into the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE), by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, and kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see ). This compromise, along with subsequent changes made in ] (see below), left English Masonry still clearly not Christian, but at the same time somewhat less comfortable for unorthodox members, such as Deists and Pantheists. The merger also marked a levelling of the Masonic membership, in terms of social class and education.
| url = http://bessel.org/masrec/phamapshistorical.htm
| title = Prince Hall Masonry Recognition details: Historical Maps
| first = Paul M.
| last = Bessel
| access-date = 14 November 2005 }}</ref> The United Grand Lodge of England has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand Lodges.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022100731/http://ugle.org.uk/about/foreign-grand-lodges |date=22 October 2013 }}, ''UGLE Website'', retrieved 25 October 2013</ref> While celebrating their heritage as lodges of African Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men regardless of race or religion.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119011047/http://www.princehall-pa.org/grandlodge/glhist.htm |date=19 November 2013 }}, ''Most Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge Free and Accepted Masons Jurisdiction of Pennsylvania'', retrieved 25 October 2013</ref>


===Emergence of Continental Freemasonry===
Because both the Antients and the Moderns had ''daughter'' Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single Rite, such as the York Rite (which is popular in the United States; not to be confused with ]), or the Canadian Rite (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the Antients and Moderns).
]
English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, first as lodges of expatriates and exiled ], and then as distinctively French lodges that still follow the ritual of the ]. From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental Europe during the course of the 18th century. The Grande Loge de France was formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised only nominal authority. His successor, the ], reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773. Briefly eclipsed during the ], French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century,<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226065508/http://www.godf.org/index.php/pages/details/slug/histoire-de-la-franc-maconnerie |date=26 December 2015 }}, Grand Orient de France, retrieved 12 November 2013</ref> at first under the leadership of ], Comte de Grassy-Tilly. A career Army officer, he lived with his family in ] from 1793 to the early 1800s, after leaving ], now Haiti, during the years of the ].


=== Freemasonry in the Middle East ===
The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following ], when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see ). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the ] when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see ).
{{Further|History of Freemasonry#Freemasonry in the Middle East|label1=Freemasonry in the Middle East}}
After the failure of the ], a number of Italian Freemasons were forced to flee. They secretly set up an approved chapter of ] in ], a town already inhabited by a large Italian community. Meanwhile, the French Freemasons publicly organised a local chapter in Alexandria in 1845.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=M. Landau|first=Jacob|date=1965|title=Prolegomena to a study of secret societies in modern Egypt|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206508700010?journalCode=fmes20|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|publisher=Routledge|volume=1|issue=2|page=139|doi=10.1080/00263206508700010|via=Tandfonline | issn = 0026-3206}}</ref> During the 19th and 20th century ], Masonic lodges operated widely across all parts of the empire and numerous ] shared a close relationship with them. Many ] affiliated with the ] were members and patrons of Freemasonry. They were also closely allied against ]. Many Ottoman intellectuals believed that ] and Freemasonry shared close similarities in doctrines, spiritual outlook and mysticism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Poli|first=Barbara|title=Freemansonry and the Orient: Esotericisms between the East and the West|publisher=Edizioni Ca' Foscari-Digital publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-8869693397|pages=75–86|chapter=Chapter 6: Sufi and Freemasons in the Ottoman Empire 6.1 ʿAbd Al-Qādir Al-Jazāʾirī}}</ref>


=== Schism ===
Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, ]) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine " if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" (). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In ], the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.
The ritual form on which the Grand Orient of France was based was abolished in England in the events leading to the formation of the ] in 1813. However, the two jurisdictions continued in amity, or mutual recognition, until events of the 1860s and 1870s drove a seemingly permanent wedge between them. In 1868 the ''Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana'' appeared in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, recognised by the Grand Orient de France, but regarded by the older body as an invasion of their jurisdiction. The new Scottish Rite body admitted Black people. The resolution of the Grand Orient the following year that neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from Masonry prompted the Grand Lodge to withdraw recognition, and it persuaded other American Grand Lodges to do the same.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410074658/http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm |date=10 April 2006 }}, from ''Heredom: The Transactions of the Scottish Rite Research Society'', vol 5, 1996, pp. 221–244, ''Paul Bessel'' website, retrieved 12 November 2013</ref>


A dispute during the ] prompted the Grand Orient de France to commission a report by a Protestant pastor, which concluded that, as Freemasonry was not a religion, it should not require a religious belief. The new constitutions read, "Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience and human solidarity", the ] and the ] being struck out. It is possible that the immediate objections of the United Grand Lodge of England were at least partly motivated by the political tension between France and Britain at the time. The result was the withdrawal of recognition of the Grand Orient of France by the United Grand Lodge of England, a situation that continues today.<ref name="Buta"/>
In ], the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in ], by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in ] they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of ] as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)


Not all French lodges agreed with the new wording. In 1894, lodges favouring the compulsory recognition of the ] formed the ].<ref>, Grande Loge de France, retrieved 14 November 2013</ref> In 1913, the United Grand Lodge of England recognised a new Grand Lodge of Regular Freemasons, a Grand Lodge that follows a similar rite to Anglo-American Freemasonry with a mandatory belief in a deity.<ref>, Manchester 2011, ''Pietre-Stones'', retrieved 14 November 2013</ref>
==Freemasonry and anticlericalism==


There are now three strands of Freemasonry in France, which extend into the rest of Continental Europe: –
Historically, Freemasonry has been identified with 19th-century ] ], and Freemasons have often tended to regard traditional ] as allied to ] powers defending the status quo against the advance of human ]. Masonic Lodges of this period were often associated with ], and were part of a broader movement, as is pointed out by Ralph Gibson: "The republican enemies of the Church did not simply attack it on the grounds of its political alignment, but also in terms of more positive ideologies: to the old traditions of the ] were added first ], and then ]. ] was supposed to be the key to the understanding of the universe, and even to enable men to grasp its essential meaning. ] was believed to be able to provide the basis for an ]. This new faith was ardently preached under the ] in Masonic lodges and circles of ''libre pens&eacute;e'', in learned journals, and in educated republican society in general" (''A Social History of French Catholicism, 1789-1914'' , pp.237-38).
* Liberal, also called adogmatic or progressive – Principles of liberty of conscience, and laicity, particularly the separation of the Church and State.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120051953/http://www.frenchfreemasonry.org/grand-lodges/liberal-freemasonry |date=20 January 2015 }}, ''French Freemasonry'', retrieved 14 November 2013</ref>
* Traditional – Old French ritual with a requirement for a belief in a Supreme Being.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714115355/http://www.frenchfreemasonry.org/grand-lodges/traditional-grand-lodges |date=14 July 2014 }}, ''French Freemasonry'', retrieved 14 November 2013</ref> (This strand is typified by the ]).
* Regular – Standard Anglo-American ritual, mandatory belief in Supreme Being.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120052209/http://www.frenchfreemasonry.org/grand-lodges/regular-grand-lodges |date=20 January 2015 }}, ''French Freemasonry'', retrieved 14 November 2013</ref>


The term ] was used in Mackey's 1873 ''Encyclopedia of Freemasonry'' to "designate the Lodges on the Continent of Europe which retain many usages which have either been abandoned by, or never were observed in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and Scotland, as well as the United States of America".<ref>,''Mackey's Encyclopedia of Freemasonry'', retrieved 30 November 2013</ref> Today, it is frequently used to refer to only the Liberal jurisdictions typified by the Grand Orient de France.<ref>For instance , ''Corn Wine and Oil'', June 2009, retrieved 30 November 2013</ref>
Controversies over the historical involvements of Freemasonry and anticlericalism reach a peak in attempting to understand the role of Freemasonry in the history of anticlericalism in ], ], and ]. Freemasons were prominent in the foundation of the modern Mexican state and the ] (PRI) and the writing of its anticlerical constitution. Under the regime of ], the enforcement of anticlerical laws provoked the ]. These animosities persist. As recently as ], of Mexico at a conference in ] denounced the influence of Freemasonry.


The majority of Freemasonry considers the Liberal (Continental) strand to be Irregular, and thus withhold recognition. The Continental lodges, however, did not want to sever masonic ties. In 1961, an umbrella organisation, ] (CLIPSAS) was set up, which today provides a forum for most of these Grand Lodges and Grand Orients worldwide. Included in the list of over 70 Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are representatives of all three of the above categories, including mixed and women's organisations. The United Grand Lodge of England does not communicate with any of these jurisdictions and expects its allies to follow suit. This creates the distinction between Anglo-American and Continental Freemasonry.<ref>, Presented to Waikato Lodge of Research No 445 at Rotorua, New Zealand, on 9 November 2004, as the annual Verrall Lecture, and subsequently published in the ''Transactions'' of the lodge, vol 14 #1, March 2005, ''Pietre-Stones'', retrieved 13 November 2013</ref><ref> ''CLIPSAS'', retrieved 14 November 2014</ref>
==Criticism, persecution, and prosecution==


===Freemasonry and women===
Because of the sometimes secret nature of its rituals and activities, Freemasonry has long been suspected by both church and state of engaging in subversive activities.
{{Main|Freemasonry and women|Co-Freemasonry}}


The status of women in the old guilds and corporations of medieval masons remains uncertain. The principle of "femme sole" allowed a widow to continue the trade of her husband, but its application had wide local variations, such as full membership of a trade body or limited trade by deputation or approved members of that body.<ref>Antonia Frazer, ''The Weaker Vessel'', Mandarin paperbacks, 1989, pp. 108–109</ref> In masonry, the small available evidence points to the less empowered end of the scale.<ref>for example, see David Murray Lyon, ''History of the lodge of Edinburgh'', Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1873, pp. 121–123</ref>
In modern ], Freemasonry is sometimes accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of ] and illegal dealings take place. In 1826, ] disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons.


At the dawn of the ], during the 1720s, ] composed the ], the basis for most subsequent constitutions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry.<ref name=AndersonCharge3>
In ], from the ] to the ], the ] has been investigated in the wake of a financial scandal that nearly bankrupted the ] in the late 1970s, as well as on suspicion of involvement in numerous murders, including the head of Banco Ambrosiano, Roberto Calvi, who was found hanging under Blackfriars bridge in London, England, with five kilos of stone in his pockets. The trial of some of Calvi's alleged killers will begin in the autumn of 2005.
{{cite book
|url= http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&context=libraryscience
|access-date= 12 August 2013
|title= The Constitutions of the Free-Masons
|first= James
|last= Anderson
|publisher= ]
|location= ], Pennsylvania
|editor= Paul Royster
|edition= Philadelphia
|year= 1734
|orig-year= 1723
|page= 49
|quote= The Persons admitted Members of a Lodge must be good and true Men, free-born, and of mature and discreet Age, no Bondmen, no Women, no immoral or scandalous Men, but of good Report.
}}</ref> As Freemasonry spread, women began to be added to the ] by their husbands who were continental masons, which worked three degrees with the same names as the men's but different content. The French officially abandoned the experiment in the early 19th century.<ref> Entry from ''Mackey's Lexicon of Freemasonry''</ref><ref name="Thames">, ''Phoenix Masonry'', retrieved 5 March 2013</ref> Later organisations with a similar aim emerged in the United States but distinguished the names of the degrees from those of male masonry.<ref>{{usurped|1=}} ''Masonic Dictionary'', retrieved 9 January 2013</ref>


] was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, then resigned to allow her lodge to rejoin their Grand Lodge. Having failed to achieve acceptance from any masonic governing body, she and ] started a mixed masonic lodge that worked masonic ritual.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004224129/http://www.droithumain-france.org/node/151 |date=4 October 2013 }}, ''Droit Humain'', retrieved 5 March 2013. (French Language)</ref> ] spread the phenomenon to the English-speaking world.<ref>, 1999, ''Phoenix Masonry'', retrieved 12 August 2013</ref> Disagreements over ritual led to the formation of exclusively female bodies of Freemasons in England, which spread to other countries. Meanwhile, the French had re-invented Adoption as an all-female lodge in 1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935. The lodges, however, continued to meet, which gave rise, in 1959, to a body of women practising continental Freemasonry.<ref name="Thames" />
The scandal brought down the Italian government at the time and a full blown parliamentary inquiry ruled that P2 was 'a state within a state' &mdash; it listed as members the heads of all the branches of the Italian military and intelligence services, and many corporate titans, including the present Prime Minister, Silvio Berlusconi. The Grand Lodge of England and many North American Grand Lodges have claimed that P2 was expelled from the Grand Orient of Italy. Additionally, the Grand Master of P2, Lucio Gelli, was implicated in terrorist bombings throughout southern Europe as part of the ''strategy of tension''. Police found paintings of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini on the walls of his Tuscan mansion when they searched it.


In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry among women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the 33rd degree of the ] to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of that Rite.<ref name="DHHistoire">, ''Droit Humain'', retrieved 12 August 2013</ref> The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999 recognising the two women's grand lodges there, The Order of Women Freemasons<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Order of Women Freemasons {{!}} Womens Freemasonry {{!}} Nationwide|url=https://www.owf.org.uk/|access-date=2021-06-17|website=www.owf.org.uk|language=en-gb}}</ref> and The Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons,<ref>{{Cite web|title=HFAF {{!}} Freemasonry for Women|url=https://hfaf.org/|access-date=2021-06-17|language=en}}</ref> to be regular in all but the participants. While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular, they were part of Freemasonry "in general".<ref name="UGLEFAQ" /><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604174900/http://www.hfaf.org/ugle.htm |date=4 June 2013 }}, ''Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons – Freemasonry For Women'', retrieved 12 August 2012</ref> The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.<ref>Karen Kidd, ''Haunted Chambers: the Lives of Early Women Freemasons'', Cornerstone, 2009, pp. 204–205</ref>
Gelli ran the infamous ''Rat-line'' that spirited numerous Nazi Party Members to Argentina, on behalf of both U.S. and Italian intelligence agencies. Gelli was charged with war crimes by the Italian Government Commission for his involvement with atrocities committed by the Herman Goering Division, where he served as a liaison officer. Lucio Gelli fled to Switzerland, then to France, but he was later extradited back to Italy. After posting bail, he fled again, but was returned to live under house arrest at his villa. In the summer of 2005, Gelli, now well into his 80's, found himself once again under investigation by Italian authorities, this time in connection with the trial of the murder of Roberto Calvi.


In 2018, guidance was released by the ] stating that, in regard to transgender women, "A Freemason who after initiation ceases to be a man does not cease to be a Freemason".<ref name="trans">{{cite news|author=Damien Gayle |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/aug/01/freemasons-to-admit-women-but-only-if-they-first-joined-as-men |title=Freemasons to admit women – but only if they first joined as men {{pipe}} UK news |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2018 |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> The guidance also states that transgender men are allowed to apply to become Freemasons.<ref name="trans"/>
While P2 is the most famous incident cited by critics of Freemasonry, there are other instances in other countries as well: in ], ], the head ] accused some ]s and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons, and in ], the ] government is currently planning to pass a law requiring all public officials who are members of any fraternal organization to make their affiliation public.


==Development and expansion==
===Religious tolerance===
===18th century Enlightenment===
], was founded.]]
During the ] in the 18th century, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. British Freemasonry offered a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals. It fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality"<ref>Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob, ''Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49.</ref> Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.<ref>Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment", in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds. ''The Enlightenment World'' (Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–287.</ref> Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were between 50,000 and 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.<ref>Daniel Roche, ''France in the Enlightenment'' (Harvard U.P. 1998)) p. 436.</ref>


Jacob argues that Masonic lodges probably had an effect on society as a whole, for they "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives". In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid-1720s was composed of English ] exiles.<ref>Jacob, ''Living the Enlightenment,'' pp. 20, 73, 89.</ref> Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe made reference to the Enlightenment in general in the 18th century. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". Many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.<ref>Jacob, ''Living the Enlightenment,'' pp. 145–147.</ref>
Opinions about Freemasonry around the world may differ from place to place, but Freemasons always stress the Masonic principle of non-dogmatism and tolerance. This openness has led to friction between Freemasonry and organizations which hold a negative view of ], or are themselves intolerant towards other forms of belief and worship. Masons have been opposed throughout history by various religious groups, such as ], some ], and certain ].


On the other hand, historian ] noted that lodges operated separately and Masons politically did not act together as a group.<ref>Robert R. Palmer, ''The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The struggle'' (1970) p. 53</ref> American historians note that ] and ] were leading Masons, but the significance of freemasonry in the revolution is a topic of debate.<ref>Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution", ''The Historian'' 55#2 (1993), pp 315+.</ref> Daniel Roche contests freemasonry's claims for egalitarianism, writing that "the real equality of the lodges was elitist", only attracting men of similar social backgrounds.<ref>Roche, 437.</ref>
In general, there are two doctrinal objections to Freemasonry made by established Christian denominations, Catholic and non-Catholic alike:


In long-term historical perspective, ] has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe, as well as the European colonies in the New World and Asia. Davies states, "In the nineteenth century and beyond it would be strongly associated with the cause of Liberalism."<ref>{{cite book|author=Norman Davies|title=Europe: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA634|year=1996|publisher=Oxford UP|pages=634|isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 }}</ref> In Catholic lands it was anti-clerical and came under heavy attack from the Catholic Church. In the 20th century, it was suppressed by Fascist and Communist regimes. It was especially attractive to royalty, aristocrats and politicians and businessmen, as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. Davies notes that prominent members included ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>Davis, ''Europe'' p. 634.</ref> Steven Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, English lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian lodges by king ], and French lodges by royal princes. Emperor Napoleon selected his own brother as the Grand Master of France.<ref>Steven C. Bullock, "Initiating the enlightenment?: recent scholarship on European freemasonry." ''Eighteenth-Century Life'' 20#1 (1996): 80–92. </ref>
:*The ecumenical nature of Masonic membership, which is at odds with the claims of exclusivity of belief that distinguish the various religious denominations.


===France===
:*The ] aspect of Masonic ritual, which is seen as synonymous with ], was declared ] and suppressed by the early Christian church. (Some believe that manifestations of Gnosticism also appeared in the Jewish and Muslim communities, as ] and ] respectively; however, these movements have survived within those religions.)
{{Further|Freemasonry in France}}
In the 18th century, liberal French politicians met together in Masonic lodges to develop some of the ] ideas that dominated the ] of 1789.<ref>Margaret C. Jacob, ''Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry & Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe'' (1992).</ref> Avner Halpern has traced French Freemasonry's major role in building France's first modern political party in 1901, ]. It used two Masonic devices: the "civil leadership model", which Freemasonry developed in late 19th century France, and the local Masonic congresses of the Grand Orient of France federations.<ref>Avner Halpern, "Freemasonry and party building in late 19th-Century France." ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 10.2 (2002): 197–210.</ref>


===Russia===
The most vigorous opposition to the fraternity has come from the ]. The Catholic Church is openly hostile to Freemasonry, deeming it at least partly responsible for the ] and the resulting decline of the church in Europe. The ] and other Catholic fraternal organizations were established to provide alternatives to Freemasonry for observant Catholics. Ironically, some Catholic organizations (not fraternal organizations) such as the ] and ] have more recently been the target of anti-masonic libels. Although most Freemasons in the English-speaking world are Protestant, some Protestant churches hold that Freemasonry is incompatible with being a member of a community of Christian faith, based on the scriptural holding that "no man can serve two masters".
{{Further|History of Freemasonry in Russia}}
Freemasons had been active in Russia in the 18th century, working to introduce ]; however, they were increasingly suppressed by the government.<ref>Douglas Smith, "Freemasonry and the public in eighteenth-century Russia." ''Eighteenth-century studies'' 29.1 (1995): 25–44.</ref> According to Ludwick Hass, Freemasonry was officially illegal in Tsarist Russia, but would later be introduced by exiles who returned after the 1905 revolution. These individuals had been active Masons in Paris, where lodges were politically active in the new Radical Party. In Russia, the Freemasons supported constitutional liberalism, and maintained ties with France while simplifying many of the ceremonial rituals. Their secret meetings became a centre of progressive ideals, attracting politicians and activists. The lodges initially supported World War I, promoting close ties with France. ] was an important Masonic activist who came to political power with the overthrow of the tsars, in 1917. The organization collapsed as the Bolsheviks took power and was again outlawed.<ref>Ludwik Hass, "The Russian Masonic Movement in the Years 1906–1918." ''Acta Poloniae Historica'' 48 (1983): 95–131.</ref>


===Italy===
The first papal condemnation of Freemasonry came in 1738 from ] in his papal bull '']'', repeated by several later popes, notably ] in the encyclical '']'' (1884).
{{Further|Freemasonry in Italy}}
According to Adrian Lyttelton, in the early 20th century, Freemasonry was an influential but semi-secret force in Italian politics; with a strong presence among professionals and the middle class across Italy, its appeal spread to the leadership of the parliament, public administration, and the army. The two main organisations were the Grand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Italy. They had around 25,000 members in some 500 lodges. Freemasons typically espoused ] and promoted unification. The Catholic Church was a vigorous opponent of unification, and thus of the Freemasons; various national governments would repeatedly alternate and backpedal between the anticlerical side and the Church side.<ref>Adrian Lyttelton, "An Old Church and a New State: Italian Anticlericalism 1876–1915." ''European Studies Review'' 13.2 (1983): 225–248.</ref> Politically, they promoted ] focused on unification and undermining the power of the Catholic Church. Freemasons took on the challenge of mobilizing the press, encouraging public opinion and the leading political parties in support of ] of the First World War in 1914–1915. In 1919, they favoured a ] to promote a new post-war, universal order based upon the peaceful coexistence of independent and democratic nations.<ref>Fulvio Conti, "From Universalism to Nationalism: Italian Freemasonry and the Great War." ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' 20.5 (2015): 640–662.</ref> In the early 1920s, many of ]'s collaborators, especially the leaders in organizing the ], were Masons. The lodges hailed ] as the saviour of Italy from ]; however, Mussolini decided he needed to come to terms with the Catholic Church, in the mid-1920s, outlawing Freemasonry.<ref>Martin Clark, ''Modern Italy 1871–1995'' (1996) p. 254.</ref>
The 1917 Code of ] explicitly declares that joining ] entailed automatic ]; the revised code issued in 1983 does not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies condemned in canon 1374. According to some interpretations of canon law, ]s are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics and it is not unusual to find Catholic members. However, in a letter to the ] bishops from the ], the interpretation was made clear &mdash; the prohibition against ] joining Masonic orders remains. Many Catholic Masons in the United States choose to rely on the letter of the law.


===Latin America===
The Eastern Orthodox church forbids its members from becoming Masons.
The Spanish government outlawed Freemasonry in its overseas empire in the mid-18th century, and energetically enforced the ban. Nevertheless, many Freemasons were active in planning and plotting for independence.<ref>Miriam Erickson, "Don José Rossi y Rubí and Spanish Freemasonry in the Revolutionary Atlantic, 1785–1798." ''Latin Americanist'' 63.1 (2019): 25–47.</ref> Leaders with Freemason membership included Grand Master ], ], ], ], and many others.<ref>Karen Racine, "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture'' (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) 1:538–540.</ref> The movement was important after independence was achieved in the 1820s.<ref>Bogdan and Snoek, eds., ''Handbook of Freemasonry'' (2014) pp. 439–440.</ref> In ], many prominent men were Freemasons, and they played a leading role in the abolition of slavery.<ref>Renata Ribeiro Francisco, "Os heróis maçônicos na historiografia da abolição em São Paulo" ''História da Historiografia'' (2020), 13#34 pp. 271–302.</ref>


====Mexico====
One reason the ] was founded in the 1860s was that its founders believed the ] was being influenced by Freemasons and members of ]. The Free Methodist Church continues to prohibit its members from also joining societies such as the Freemasons. Recently the ], the largest association of ]s in the United States, also stated that participation in Freemasonry is inconsistent with its beliefs.
Freemasons were leaders in liberalism and anti-clericalism in 19th and 20th-century Mexico. Members included numerous top leaders.<ref>Karen Racine, "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Mexico'' (1997) 1:538–540.</ref> The Freemasons were divided regarding relations with the United States, with a pro-U.S. faction supported by the American ambassador ] known as the "Yorkinos."<ref>Lillian Estelle Fisher, "Early Masonry in Mexico (1806–1828)." ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 42.3 (1939): 198–214. </ref><ref>Watson Smith, "Influences from the United States on the Mexican Constitution of 1824." ''Arizona and the West'' 4.2 (1962): 113–126.</ref> According to historian Karen Racine, Freemasons in ] included: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>Racine, p. 1:540.</ref>


=== China ===
This form of criticism has been markedly reduced in recent times, since nation-states like the ] are founded on religious tolerance. Many adherents of the religions that formally oppose Masons do not disagree with the main Masonic principles.
The first lodge formed in China was the Amity Lodge which constituted at Canton in 1767. In 1875, District Grand Lodge of China split into two Districts, Northern China, and Hong Kong and South China. During the second world war, All Masonic activity in Hong Kong was brought to a halt due to the Japanese invasion. After the 1949, the new China government (Communist) established, some lodges in China moved to Hong Kong or closed due to lack of new candidates.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamill |first=John |title=The Craft: a history of English freemasonry |date=1986 |publisher=Crucible |isbn=978-0-85030-460-2 |location=Wellingborough, GB}}</ref>


==== Hong Kong ====
===Political conspiracy theories involving the Masons===
Royal Sussex Lodge No. 501 was the first lodge established in ] of Hong Kong on 29 April 1844.
Freemasonry has been a long-time target of ], which see it as an ] and ] power, often associated with the ] and other "agents," such as the ] and Jews &mdash; either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.


For the English Constitution, Provincial or District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Chinese Masonic Society |url=http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/chinese-masonic-society.html |access-date=2024-09-02 |website=www.freemasons-freemasonry.com}}</ref>
Nowadays, the main theme of anti-Masonic criticism involves the idea that Masons involve their organization in covert political activities. This assumption has been influenced by the assertion of Masons that many political figures in the past 300 years have been Masons. Opinions vary concerning this: some say the Masons constantly plot to increase their power and wealth, while others say the Masonic Brotherhood is engaged in a plot to produce a ] of a type different (and usually more sinister) than the existing world order. These theories would be possible to apply to almost any secret society (since a society with secret meetings allows secret coordination, the very essence of a conspiracy). However, Masonry has been the largest target because of its size and notable membership.


* 1847–1866, Provincial Grand Lodge of China
===Criticisms of alleged Masonic cronyism===
* 1866–1875, District Grand Lodge of China
* 1875–1963, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and South China
* 1963–present, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and the Far East


For the Scottish Constitution, District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:<ref name=":4" />
Another criticism that may or may not have to do with the specific nature of Freemasonry, but may be applied generally to any type of organization or ], is the practice of ], or giving favors to fellow members. For example, many people have the impression that one increases chances for employment by joining the Masons. This type of cronyism can be seen in the movie '']'', where the general idea is alluded to. Some Masons have been known to claim they can get out of driving tickets because of Masonic logos on their car.
* 1905–1958, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and South China
* 1958–present, District Grand Lodge of the Far East


For the Irish Constitution, Provincial or District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:<ref name=":4" />
===Criticisms based on the moral faults of known Masons===
* 1933–1938, District Grand Inspector
* 1938–1947, Grand Inspector
* 1947–1954, Grand Inspector for Hong Kong and China
* 1954–1967, Grand Inspector for Hong Kong, China and Malaya
* 1967–1988, Grand Inspector for the Far East
* 1988–present, Provincial Grand Lodge of the Far East


Now, there are 19 (English Constitution) lodges under the District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East, United Grand Lodge of England and meet at ], Hong Kong:<ref>{{Cite web |title=HOME |url=https://www.zetlandhall.com/ |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Zetland Hall Website |language=en}}</ref>
Although any institution with moral overtones, religious or secular, can be criticized for the moral faults of some of their members, Freemasonry is especially vulnerable to criticism because amongst its aims is the drive to improve its members' ] above and beyond whatever religion the individual member believes in.


* Cathay Lodge No. 4373
A general fault ascribed to the Masons is that a Freemason would be charitable mainly to other Masons, an assumption which is made worse by the accusations of classism and racism sometimes leveled against Masonic Lodges. The phrase "] begins at home" goes some way towards justifying this natural proclivity.
* Corinthian Lodge of Amoy No. 1806
* Foochow Lodge No. 1912
* Harriers Lodge No. 9882
* Hong Kong and Far East District Grand Stewards Lodge No. 9879
* Lodge of Lu Pan No. 9387
* Lodge Star of Southern China No. 2013
* Paul Chater Lodge of Installed Masters No. 5391
* Perseverance Lodge of Hong Kong No. 1165
* Rotarian Lodge of Hong Kong No. 9378
* Royal Sussex Lodge No. 501
* St. Paul's Lodge No. 9718
* St Joseph's & La Salle No. 10050
* Swatow Lodge No. 3705
* The Club Lodge No. 9880
* United Service Lodge No. 1341
* University Lodge of Hong Kong No. 3666
* Victoria Lodge of Hong Kong No. 1026
* Zetland Lodge No. 525
The Rising Sun Lodge No. 1401 is the lodge meeting in Kobe, Japan and under the jurisdiction of District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East rather than Grand Lodge of Japan. As a result, there are 20 lodges currently under the District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East.


==Anti-Masonry==
Critics also attack what they perceive as a preoccupation with ritual minutiae and personal status within the hierarchy of the organization. Some critics also argue that the Freemasons are primarily a social club.
{{Main|Anti-Masonry}}
], one of the few Masonic temples that survived the ] in Spain]]
''Anti-Masonry'' (alternatively called ''Anti-Freemasonry'') has been defined as "opposition to Freemasonry",<ref>"Anti-Masonry" – ''Oxford English Dictionary (Compact Edition)'', Oxford University Press, 1979, p. 369</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webster-dictionary.net/d.aspx?w=Antimasonry |title= Definition of Antimasonry |publisher=Webster Dictionary |access-date=8 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928031636/http://www.webster-dictionary.net/d.aspx?w=Antimasonry |archive-date= Sep 28, 2011 }}</ref> but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry consists of widely differing criticisms from diverse (and often incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and ], in particular, those espousing ] or the ]. Certain prominent Anti-Masons, such as ], exclusively criticized "Continental Masonry", while considering "Regular Masonry" to be an honourable association.<ref>{{Cite book
| first1 = S. Craig
| last1 = Heimbichner
| first2 = Adam
| last2 = Parfrey
| title = Ritual America: Secret Brotherhoods and Their Influence on American Society: A Visual Guide
| publisher = Feral House
| year = 2012
| pages = 187
| isbn = 978-1936239153
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVRjCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187
}}</ref>


There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the 18th century. These often lack context,<ref>{{Cite book
===Allegations that Freemasonry is a new religion===
| first = S. Brent
| last = Morris
| title = The Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry
| location = New York
| publisher = Alpha Books
| year = 2006
| pages =
| isbn = 978-1-59257-490-2
| oclc = 68042376
| url = https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00morr/page/85
}}</ref> may be outdated for various reasons,<ref name="changes">{{Cite book
| first = John J.
| last = Robinson
| title = A Pilgrim's Path
| publisher = M. Evans
| location = New York
| year = 1993
| page =
| isbn = 978-0-87131-732-2
| oclc = 27381296
| url = https://archive.org/details/pilgrimspathfree00robi/page/129
}}</ref> or could be outright ]es on the part of the author, as in the case of the ].<ref>{{cite web
| first = Arturo
| last = de Hoyos
| date = 18 August 2002
|author2=S. Brent Morris
| url = http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/taxilhoax.html
| title = Leo Taxil Hoax&nbsp;–Bibliography
| publisher = Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon
| access-date = 7 July 2007 }} Lists many books which perpetuate Masonic ritual hoaxes.</ref>


These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition that arose after the American "]" in 1826 gave rise to the term ''Anti-Masonry'', which is still in use in America today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.<ref> ''infoplease.com'' retrieved 9 January 2014</ref>
In a sectarian age many hold that Freemasonry is a new religion. Externally, to some at least, it has many similarities to a religion:
*it has an altar and a sacred book (VSL-The Volume of the Sacred Law, in most cases the Holy Bible)
*it has its own way of saying "amen" ("So mote it be," a literal translation of "Amen")
*it has far more developed rituals than many organized religions
*some groups of Masons (especially the Scottish Rite) call their meeting places "temples", (a lodge is a group of Freemasons operating under a charter or dispensation. The place where they meet is often called a temple, but usually, several lodges use the same temple.)
*it has a large amount of iconography and symbolism.


===Religious opposition===
Many Masons argue in response that the ritual observances of Masons should be seen in the same context as rituals maintained in the military services, in government, and civil authorities; they impress no religious obligation whatsoever on the participants. The symbolism that Masonry uses is not indicative of any one religion, but more of universal symbols. In another sense, it has been argued that any organized system of morality (which the Masons claim to be) is a religion; the ] might thus qualify as such.
Freemasonry has attracted criticism from ] states and organised religions that believe it is in competition with religion or perceive the fraternity's views or practices as ]; it has also long been the target of ] that assert Freemasonry to be an ] and evil power.<ref>Morris, S. Brent; ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry,'' Alpha books, 2006, p. 204.</ref>


===Claims that Freemasonry is Satanism=== ====Christianity and Freemasonry====
{{Main|Christian attitudes towards Freemasonry}}


Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain Christian ] have had high-profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons. The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the ]. The objections raised by the Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic ] religion which is in conflict with Church ].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=5285 | title = Letter of 19 April 1985 to U.S. Bishops Concerning Masonry | last = Cardinal Law | first = Bernard | author-link = Bernard Francis Law | access-date = 9 July 2007 | date = 19 April 1985 | work = CatholicCulture.org }}</ref> More than 600 Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ansa.it/oltretevere/notizie/2023/06/26/da-clemente-xii-a-ratzinger-i-papi-contro-la-massoneria_8f26e8e6-17c6-4e6a-b0ab-8ae0e21d039a.html|title=From Clement XII to Ratzinger, the Popes and Freemasonry|author=Emanuela Tulli|language=it|author2=Angela Pellicciari|author2-link=:it:Angela Pellicciari|publisher=]|date=26 June 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231209224543/https://www.ansa.it/oltretevere/notizie/2023/06/26/da-clemente-xii-a-ratzinger-i-papi-contro-la-massoneria_8f26e8e6-17c6-4e6a-b0ab-8ae0e21d039a.html|archive-date=9 December 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> The first was ]'s ''],'' 28 April 1738; the most recent was ] in a letter by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith 13 November 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2023-11/vatican-catholics-still-forbidden-masonic-lodge.html | title = Vatican confirms Catholics still forbidden to join Masonic lodges| date = 15 November 2023}}</ref>
While the practice of any given magical or mystical system is not specifically associated with Freemasonry, (mainstream ] has always tended as much to ] as it does to ]). There are some groups of Masons, such as Masonic ]s, that may interpret Masonic ritual magically (or "hermetically"), which is their right as Masons, given the fraternity's non-dogmatic stance, but is by no means indicative of the fratermity as a whole.


The '']'' explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic ] and banned books favouring Freemasonry.<ref name="canon2335">Canon 2335, 1917 Code of Canon Law from {{cite web| url = http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/canon.html | title = Canon Law regarding Freemasonry, 1917–1983 | publisher = Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon }}</ref>
However, the very existence of the possibility of hermetic interpretations within Masonry has led some Christians to label Freemasonry as ]. This charge is commonly made about any ] society that has ritualistic practices reserved for the initated and also against any beliefs other than the religion of the person making the accusation.


In 1983, the Church issued a new code of ]. Unlike its predecessor, the '']'' did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the ] it condemns. It states: "A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with an ]." This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of ].<ref name="RCLaw">{{Cite journal| last = McInvale | first = Reid | year = 1991 | title = Roman Catholic Church Law Regarding Freemasonry | journal = Transactions of Texas Lodge of Research | volume = 27 | pages = 86–97 | url = http://bessel.org/cathtlor.htm | oclc = 47204246 }}</ref> However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later ]), ] of the ], issued a ], which states: "...&nbsp;the Church's negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive ]."<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010314042333/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19831126_declaration-masonic_en.html |date=14 March 2001 }}, 26 November 1983, retrieved 26 November 2015</ref> In 2023, ] reaffirmed the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons stating the « irreconcilability between Catholic doctrine and Freemasonry »<ref>''Franciscus'', : Note for the audience with the Holy Father, Vatican City, 13 November 2023.</ref> in response to ], ] ], who stated concerns over the growing number of Freemasons in the ].<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date=15 November 2023 |title=Vatican confirms Catholics still forbidden to join Masonic lodges |work=Vatican News |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2023-11/vatican-catholics-still-forbidden-masonic-lodge.html }}</ref> The renewed ban cited both the ''1983 Code of Canon Law'', as well as the ''Guidelines'' made by a Bishops Conference in 2003.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rojas |first=Jose R. |date=20 February 2020 |title=Pastoral guidelines in dealing with individual Catholics – members of Masonry |work=CBCPNews |url=https://cbcpnews.net/cbcpnews/pastoral-guidelines-in-dealing-with-individual-catholics-members-of-masonry/}}</ref> For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with the United Grand Lodge of England deny the Church's claims, stating that "Freemasonry does not seek to replace a Mason's religion or provide a substitute for it."<ref name="UGLEFAQ" />
Many Anti-Masonic activists quote ] '']'' to try to show that Masons worship Lucifer. The oft-quoted section (Chapt. XIX; p.321) reads:


In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of ], ], and even ].<ref name=Satanism >{{cite web|url=http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0093/0093_01.asp |title=The Curse of Baphomet |access-date=29 September 2007 |author=Jack Chick }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Chick is a primary source for Protestant beliefs and may not represent all Protestants, causing reliability and due weight issues|date=June 2024}} Masonic scholar ] is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues.<ref>{{cite book|author=Arturo de Hoyos and S. Brent Morris|title=Is it True What They Say About Freemasonry, 2nd edition (revised), chapter 1|publisher=M. Evans & Company|year=2004|url=http://204.3.136.66/web/SRpublications/DeHoyos.htm#i8|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202094337/http://204.3.136.66/web/SRpublications/DeHoyos.htm#i8|archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Book was written by Freemasons in defense of Freemasonry, leading to risk of bias; should be replaced with neutral academic source|date=June 2024}} However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was also controversial among Freemasons in general. His writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore, an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the US. Notably, his book carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Pike | first1 = Albert | author-link1 = Albert Pike | author2 = T. W. Hugo; Scottish Rite (Masonic order). Supreme Council of the Thirty-Third Degree for the Southern Jurisdiction | title = Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry | location = Washington, DC | publisher = House of the Temple | year = 1950 | orig-year = 1871 | oclc = 12870276 | quote = In preparing this work has been about equally Author and Compiler. (p. iii.) ... The teachings of these Readings are not sacramental, so far as they go beyond the realm of Morality into those of other domains of Thought and Truth. The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite uses the word "Dogma" in its true sense of doctrine, or teaching; and is not dogmatic in the odious sense of that term. Everyone is entirely free to reject and dissent from whatsoever herein may seem to him to be untrue or unsound (p. iv) }}</ref>
The Apocalypse is, to those who receive the nineteenth Degree,
the Apotheosis of that Sublime Faith which aspires to God alone,
and despises all the pomps and works of Lucifer. LUCIFER, the
''Light-bearer!'' Strange and mysterious name to give to the Spirit
of Darknesss! Lucifer, the Son of the Morning! Is it ''he'' who
bears the ''Light'', and with its splendors intolerable blinds feeble,
sensual or selfish Souls ? Doubt it not! for traditions are full of
Divine Revelations and Inspirations: and Inspiration is not of
one Age nor of one Creed. Plato and Philo, also, were inspired.


In 1993, the ]'s Home Mission Board determined that some parts of freemasonry are incompatible with Christianity, while others are compatible, concluding that participation in freemasonry should be considered "a matter of personal conscience".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://jeffstraub.net/baptists-and-freemasonry-can-a-christian-be-a-faithful-believer-and-be-a-freemason/ | title=Baptists and Freemasonry? Can a Christian be a Faithful Believer and be a Freemason? &#124; Jeff Straub }}</ref> The topic of Freemasonry remains controversial within the convention. James L. Holly, president of Mission and Ministry to Men, published a three volume book series titled "The Southern Baptist Convention and Freemasonry," critiquing the report to the ] in addition to the influence of Gary Leazer, then Director of the Interfaith Witness Department of the ].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ericbarger.com/articles/fmasonry-sbc.2.htm | title=FREEMASONRY AND THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST CHURCH Part 2 }}</ref> Gary Leazer published "Fundamentalism and Freemasonry", arguing that the convention's discussion of Freemasonry was influenced by ].
Some Masons counter that the critics who cite this as evidence of Freemasonry's Satanic leanings ignore the first part of the passage emphasizing the association of Lucifer with Light. Alternatively, the argument is made that because Pike claims the works of ] and ] were as divinely inspired as ], and because Plato and Philo were pre-Christian ], and that all pagan beliefs are Satanic, therefore that Pike and other Freemasons are Satan worshippers.


] founder ] was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century. Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, "The god of the lodge is not the ]." Roberts believed Freemasonry was a "]" or "alternate" religion and encouraged his church not to support ministers who were Freemasons. Freedom from secret societies is one of the "frees" upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Snyder | first = Howard | title = Populist Saints | location = ]| publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | year = 2006| page = 727}}</ref>
Masons counter simply by pointing out that Masonry is non-dogmatic, and hence Pike's opinions about it are his own personal (and now somewhat out-dated) interpretations. Furthermore, Pike himself admits that his book is culled more from other sources than it is his original work.


Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of the ] have been Freemasons, including ] ].<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Beresiner | first = Yasha |date=July 2006 | title = Archbishop Fisher&nbsp;– A Godly man and a Brother | journal = Masonic Quarterly Magazine | issue = 18 | url = http://www.mqmagazine.co.uk/issue-18/p-07.php?PHPSESSID=c59cd231db419873a6a6 | access-date = 7 May 2007 }}</ref> In the past, few members of the Church of England would have seen any incongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and practising Freemasonry. In recent decades, however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing prominence of the evangelical wing of the church. The former ], ], appeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic ritual, while being anxious to avoid causing offence to Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freemasons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was Bishop of Monmouth.<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/04/20/nmason20.xml&sSheet=/news/2003/04/20/ixhome.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071123132655/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2003%2F04%2F20%2Fnmason20.xml&sSheet=%2Fnews%2F2003%2F04%2F20%2Fixhome.html | archive-date = 23 November 2007 | title = Rowan Williams apologises to Freemasons | first = Chris | last = Hastings | author2 = Elizabeth Day | work = ] | date = 20 April 2003 | access-date = 9 July 2007 | url-status=dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref>
===Criticism of alleged Masonic blood oaths===


In 1933, the ] ] officially declared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of ] and thus, until he repents, the person involved with Freemasonry cannot partake of the ]. This has been generally affirmed throughout the whole Eastern Orthodox Church. The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Catholic and Protestant versions: "Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible with Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, acting and teaching in mystery and secret and deifying rationalism."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ecumenism/masonry.aspx |title=Freemasonry: Official Statement of the Church of Greece (1933) |publisher=Orthodoxinfo.com |date=12 October 1933 |access-date=15 January 2011}}</ref>
The traditional Masonic obligations sworn by a candidate during the initiation ritual are sometimes called ''blood oaths'', particularly by those critical of the fraternity. The candidate wishes severe physical punishment upon himself should he ever reveal the secrets of Freemasonry to a non-Mason. While many non-Masons are horrified by this, Masons defend the traditional obligations as no more literal than the commonplace childhood blood oaths, like "cross my heart and hope to die" &mdash; a very psychologically powerful way to express a serious bond or promise.
By the early 1980s, however, the oaths had become quite problematic from a public relations standpoint, and many Masonic jurisdictions replaced them with more politically correct ''bloodless oaths''. The only real penalties awaiting someone who behaves contrary to the rules of the fraternity are reprimand, suspension, or expulsion.


Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims, beyond the often-repeated statement that Freemasonry explicitly adheres to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry."<ref name="a religion?">{{cite web|url=http://grandlodgeofiowa.org/docs/Freemasonry_Religion/FreemasonryAndReligion.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105085828/http://grandlodgeofiowa.org/docs/Freemasonry_Religion/FreemasonryAndReligion.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-05 |url-status=live |title=Freemasonry and Religion |access-date=2 November 2013 |publisher=United Grand Lodge of England}}</ref>
===Criticisms of the process of becoming a Freemason===


Christian men, who were discouraged from joining the Freemasons by their Churches or who wanted a more religiocentric society, joined similar fraternal organisations, such as the ] and ] for Catholics, and the ] for Protestants,<ref name="Fields1980">{{cite book|last=Fields|first=Rona M.|title=Northern Ireland: Society Under Siege|date=1980|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1412845090|page=113}}<!--|access-date=11 August 2015--></ref> although these fraternal organisations have been "organized in part on the style of and use many symbols of Freemasonry".<ref name="Fields1980"/>
It is commonly held that individuals become Freemasons through invitation, patrimony, or other non-democratic means, but officially an individual must ask freely and without persuasion to become a Freemason in order to join the fraternity. This arrangement is said by some to conflict with the Freemasons' mission to "make good men better", on the basis that a hidden society cannot promote itself publicly. If the society is secret, it is argued, how is a good man supposed to be attracted to it?

===Support for liberty===

It has been said that "''the Freemason builds his life around the moral principles that lie at the heart of the Craft, and becomes in his every word and deed the epitome of brotherly love, relief and truth ~ he will thus respect the rights of others to hold beliefs and attitudes that differ radically from his own, for he knows that tolerance is an essential part of brotherly love.''"

''(Freemasonry, A Celebration of the Craft'~ 1993. Edited by Hamill & Gilbert for Terry Allan)''.

Freemasons consider the need for vigilance in the defense of human liberty to be as great in society as it is within the Craft. It is a general source of pride within the fraternity that society's aims and values have increasingly come into line with those of Freemasonry, and they view their Order as having helped laid the foundations for many of the cultural norms and values prevalent in the western world today.

The legend at the heart of Masonic Ritual &mdash; the story of the building and reconstruction of ]'s Temple &mdash; is generally seen as an allegory for the creation of a new, just and tolerant society.
The duty of Masons to "give to the cause of Charity" was stressed by ], in his ''Illustrations of Masonry'' of 1772, when he wrote: "To relieve the distressed is a duty incumbent on all men, but particularly on Freemasons, who are linked together by an indissoluble chain of sincere affection.


There are some elements of Freemasonry within the ] ] of ].
"''To soothe the unhappy, to sympathize with their misfortunes, to compassionate their miseries and to restore their troubled minds, is the great aim we have in view.''"


====Islam and Freemasonry====
A Mason's duty is also in his loyalty, as a peaceful subject, to the civil authority found wherever he resides or works, and it is on these grounds, restrained from pursuing any means of disrupting the established rule of law, that Freemasonry is itself a reformist institution, its members abstaining from any thought of association with rebellion. This may seem at odds with the support given by many Masons over the years to democratic revolutions. This is usually explained by the fact that Masons tend to view their obligations, while of utmost importance, to be in a kind of hierarchy of priority: firstly to God, then to country, then to family and only then to Masonry, for example. So, if one's highest religious and moral principles are violated by an obligation to one's country, only then can that obligation be broken, in favour of the higher principle.
{{Unreliable sources section|date=December 2022}}


Ottoman Caliph ] outlawed Freemasonry in the ] in 1748 CE and since that time Freemasonry was equated with ] in the ] and the broader Islamic world.<ref name=FitIW>Layiktez, Cecil "", Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry, 1996</ref>
==Contemporary challenges==


Many ] anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to ], though other criticisms are made, such as linking Freemasonry to ] (the false Messiah in Islamic Scripture).<ref name="freemasonryinSHIraq"/><ref name="SFMNAD">{{Cite book| url = http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/prescott03.html| title = The Study of Freemasonry as a New Academic Discipline | pages = 13–14 | first = Andrew | last = Prescott | access-date = 18 December 2008 }}</ref> ]-] Islamic theologian ] (1865–1935) played the crucial role in leading the opposition to Freemasonry across the ] during the early twentieth century.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rickenbacher|first=Daniel|date=6 December 2019|title=The 'War Against Islam': How a Conspiracy Theory Drove and Shaped the Islamist Movement|url=https://eeradicalization.com/the-war-against-islam-how-a-conspiracy-theory-drove-and-shaped-the-islamist-movement/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818054514/https://eeradicalization.com/the-war-against-islam-how-a-conspiracy-theory-drove-and-shaped-the-islamist-movement/|archive-date=18 August 2021}}</ref> Influenced by Rida, Islamic anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the ] in order to rebuild the ] in ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329180953/http://wakeupfromyourslumber.com/node/4119 |date=29 March 2014 }} ''Wake up from your slumber'', 2007, retrieved 8 January 2014</ref> Through his popular ] journal '']'', Rashid Rida spread anti-Masonic ideas which would directly influence the ] and subsequent Islamist movements, such as ].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rickenbacher|first=Daniel|date=6 December 2019|title=The 'War Against Islam': How a Conspiracy Theory Drove and Shaped the Islamist Movement|url=https://eeradicalization.com/the-war-against-islam-how-a-conspiracy-theory-drove-and-shaped-the-islamist-movement/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818054514/https://eeradicalization.com/the-war-against-islam-how-a-conspiracy-theory-drove-and-shaped-the-islamist-movement/|archive-date=18 August 2021 }}</ref> In article 28 of its Covenant, ] states that Freemasonry, ], and other similar groups "work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ..."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp |title=Hamas Covenant 1988 |publisher=Avalon.law.yale.edu |date=18 August 1988 |access-date=15 January 2011}}</ref>
Like many other fraternal organizations in the post-World War II era, Freemasonry in some districts of the United States, the UK and other Anglo jurisdictions has been losing members, through attrition, faster than it can replenish its rolls. In the United States, the average age of members is around 45. In contrast, the number of Masons is generally on the rise in South America and Continental Europe.


Several predominantly Muslim countries have banned Freemasonry within their borders, while others have not. ] and ] have established Grand Lodges,<ref>Leyiktez, Celil. , ''Pietre-Stones'' Retrieved 2 October 2007.</ref> while in countries such as ]<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109161530/http://dglea.org/ |date=9 January 2014 }}, retrieved 9 January 2014</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/Story.aspx/?file=%2F2005%2F4%2F17%2Ffocus%2F10649415&sec=focus |date=17 April 2005 |access-date=13 February 2014 |title=Mystery unveiled |work=The Star Online |archive-date=27 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227051801/http://www.thestar.com.my/Story.aspx/?file=%2F2005%2F4%2F17%2Ffocus%2F10649415&sec=focus |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ],<ref> Lodges linked to the Grand Lodge of Scotland, retrieved 22 August 2013</ref> there are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an established Grand Lodge. In 1972, in ], ], then ], placed a ban on Freemasonry. Lodge buildings were confiscated by the government.<ref>, December 2009, ''Dawn.com'' (News site), retrieved 3 January 2012</ref>
Many Grand Lodges in the U.S. have tried a variety of often-controversial measures to address declining membership, including "one-day" ceremonies of the three degrees for large groups of candidates (as opposed to individual degree conferrals taking months or years to complete), advertising on billboards, and even active recruitment of new candidates by members (as opposed to the tradition of considering only those who actively seek membership for themselves). Some Masons object to the traditions and principles of Freemasonry being diluted by these changes, feeling that the Fraternity has survived centuries of social change without changing itself; others cite a need for Freemasonry to modernize and make itself relevant to new generations.


Masonic lodges existed in ] as early as 1917, when the first lodge under the ] (UGLE) was opened. Nine lodges under UGLE existed by the 1950s, and a Scottish lodge was formed in 1923. However, the position changed following the revolution, and all lodges were forced to close in 1965.<ref>, 2007 paper, ''Pietre Stones'', retrieved 4 January 2014</ref> This position was later reinforced under ]; the death penalty was "prescribed" for those who "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or who associate with Zionist organisations."<ref name="freemasonryinSHIraq" />
U.S. Freemasonry also faces an image problem because some people perceive it as being ]. This is due in part to the fact that only three Grand Lodges in the states that were part of the ] during the ] era now recognize their ] counterparts (all those in the Northern part of the U.S., including ] and ], recognize their Prince Hall counterparts; see ).


===Political opposition===
In ], Freemasons are strongly associated with the various police forces throughout the island. In ], they have long been accused of being anti-]. Scotland has a large Catholic minority.
{{See also|Anti-Masonry}}


In 1799, English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the ], the ] banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an ] or obligation.<ref name="USA1799">, First published in M. D. J. Scanlan, ed., ''The Social Impact of Freemasonry on the Modern Western World'', The Canonbury Papers I (London: Canonbury Masonic Research Centre, 2002), pp. 116–34, ''Pietre-Stones'' website, retrieved 9 January 2014</ref>
Anti-masonry in ] is connected with ] and ].


The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on Prime Minister ] (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result, Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each private lodge's Secretary placed with the local "Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his lodge once a year. This continued until 1967, when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by ].<ref name="USA1799" />
==Cultural references==
* ] used masonic symbols and characters in some of his writings, most notably '']''.


Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of ] by Freemasons and his subsequent disappearance. Reports of the "Morgan Affair", together with opposition to ] (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason), helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement. The short-lived ] was formed, which fielded candidates for the presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.<ref>, Reprinted from ''The Short Talk Bulletin'' – Vol. XI, March 1933 No. 3, ''Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon'', retrieved 4 January 2014</ref>
* One of the main characters in ] '']'' becomes a Freemason.


]
* The plot of the opera "]" ("The Magic Flute") contains several references to Masonic ideals and ceremonies. ] and his librettist ] were brothers in the same Masonic lodge--Lodge of the Nine Muses.
In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the ] lodge (a.k.a. P2). This lodge was chartered by the ] in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under ]'s leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the ]. However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled Gelli in 1976.<ref>{{cite web | first = Edward L. | last = King | url = http://www.masonicinfo.com/p2_lodge.htm | title = P2 Lodge | year = 2007 | access-date = 31 October 2006 | archive-date = 3 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210203135205/http://www.masonicinfo.com/p2_lodge.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref>


] have long associated Freemasonry with the ] and the ], and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics. Historically Freemasonry has attracted criticism, and suppression from both the politically far right (e.g., ])<ref>{{Cite book | first = James | last = Wilkenson | author2 = H. Stuart Hughes | title = Contemporary Europe: A History | location = Englewood Cliffs, NJ | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 1995 | page = | isbn = 978-0-13-291840-4 | oclc = 31009810 | url = https://archive.org/details/contemporaryeuro00wilk/page/237 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | first = Otto | last = Zierer | title = Concise History of Great Nations: History of Germany | location = New York | publisher = Leon Amiel Publisher | year = 1976 | page = | isbn = 978-0-8148-0673-9 | oclc = 3250405 | url = https://archive.org/details/germany0000zier/page/104 }}</ref> and the far left (e.g., the former ]s in Eastern Europe).<ref>Michael Johnstone, ''The Freemasons'', Arcturus, 2005, pp 73–75</ref>
*], the founder of the ] religion was a Freemason as were the first five presidents of ]: Smith, ], ], ], and ]. When the Mormons first settled ], the entire church hierarchy was composed of Freemasons. Many Mormon symbols and rituals bear a striking similarity to Masonic ceremonies.


Freemasonry is viewed with distrust even in some modern democracies.<ref name=Hodapp86>Hodapp, Christopher. ''Freemasons for Dummies''. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 86.</ref> In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police officers, were required to disclose their membership from 1999 to 2009.<ref name=GuardianMP>Bright, Martin (12 June 2005). "", '']''</ref> While a parliamentary inquiry found that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing, the government believed that Masons' potential loyalties to support fellow Masons should be transparent to the public.<ref name=Hodapp86 /><ref name=GuardianMP /><ref>Cusick, James (27 December 1996). , '']''</ref> The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership by applicants for judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in 2009 by ] ] (who had initiated the requirement in the 1990s). Straw stated that the rule was considered disproportionate since no impropriety or malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being Freemasons.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/blog/2009/nov/05/jack-straw-judges-masons |title=Jack Straw scraps rule saying judges must declare if they are masons |work=guardian.co.uk |date=5 November 2009 |author=Sparrow, Andrew |access-date=7 November 2009}}</ref>
*The ] was a filial society founded by at least one Mason who also was a member of an affilate society to the Masons, ] (a research and study group focusing on symbollic ], the mystical ], ], and Christian Symbolism). The Golden Dawn, however, was open to membership from non-masons and ].


Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in France. As of the early 21st century, membership is rising, but reporting of it in popular media is often negative.<ref name=Hodapp86 />
* Freemasons, along with the ], the ], and the ], feature heavily in ]'s and ]'s satire, '']'', a trilogy that has been compared to an uncharacteristically long ] novel written in the style of ], with trite comparisons to the works of ]. However, ] by Robert Anton Wilson, are largely deemed more approachable to the casual reader than the co-authored trilogy aforementioned.


In some countries, anti-Masonry is often related to ] and anti-]. For example, in 1980, the Iraqi ] and ] was changed by ]'s ruling ], making it a felony to "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate with Zionist organisations".<ref name="freemasonryinSHIraq">{{Cite news| url = http://washingtontimes.com/world/20040701-120129-6565r.htm | title = Saddam to be formally charged | first = David R | last = Sands | work = ] | date = 1 July 2004 | access-date = 18 June 2006 }}</ref> Professor Andrew Prescott of the ] writes: "Since at least the time of the ], antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that ] was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order".<ref>Prescott, pp. 13–14, 30, 33.</ref>
* Some ] try to link the Freemasons to the ] murders. The most well known of these claims is that ], the royal household's personal physician, covered up the love child of a Catholic shop girl and ], a Mason, by killing all the women who knew about the baby. The theory depends on the assumption that such figures as the Marquess of Salisbury, Sir William Gull and Sir Robert Anderson were Freemasons, but in fact none of these gentlemen were; or at least there is no record of their initiation or association with Freemasonry. The ] '']'' by ] and the movie based upon it feature this storyline as the basic premise.


====The Holocaust====
* The Freemasons are ]ed in an episode of '']'' as ], a secret organization that controls everything from ] to the ] (thereby securing ]'s stardom).
{{Main|Holocaust victims#Freemasons}}
{{See also|Liberté chérie|Suppression of Freemasonry}}
]|]]]


The preserved records of the '']'' (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons during ].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/persecution.htm | title = World War II Documents showing the persecution of Freemasonry | publisher = Mill Valley Lodge #356 | access-date = 21 May 2006 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121210071945/http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/persecution.htm | archive-date = 10 December 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> RSHA Amt VII (Written Records), overseen by Professor ], was responsible for "ideological" tasks, by which was meant the creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number of victims is not accurately known, historians estimate that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the ].<ref name="holocaust">''Freemasons for Dummies'', by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p. 85, sec. "Hitler and the Nazi"</ref> Masonic concentration camp inmates were classified as political prisoners and wore an inverted ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust | page = | last = Katz | year = 1990 | editor = Israel Gutman | article = Jews and Freemasons in Europe | isbn = 978-0-02-897166-7 | oclc = 20594356 | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofho0000unse_l4l4/page/ }}</ref> Hitler believed Freemasons had succumbed to Jews conspiring against Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007186|title=Freemasonry}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/hitler.html|title=Hitler and Freemasonry|first=Trevor W.|last=McKeown}}</ref>
* ]'s bestselling books '']'' and '']'' draw heavily on Masonic lore and symbolism.


The small blue ] flower was first used by the Grand Lodge ''Zur Sonne'' in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in ], Germany. In 1938, a forget-me-not badge, made by the same factory as the Masonic badge, was chosen for the Nazi Party's '']'', the annual charity drive of the ] (the welfare branch of the Nazi party). This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of membership.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.internetloge.de/arst/forgetd.htm | title = Das Vergißmeinnicht-Abzeichen und die Freimaurerei, Die wahre Geschichte | language = de | publisher = Internetloge.de | access-date = 8 July 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/bernheim3.html | first = Alain | last = Bernheim | title = The Blue Forget-Me-Not: Another Side Of The Story | work = Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry | date = 10 September 2004 | access-date = 8 July 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title = Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslogen 1737–1972 | first = Karl Heinz | last = Francke |author2=Ernst-Günther Geppert | location = Bayreuth | publisher = Quatuor Coronati | year = 1974 | language = de | edition = Second rev.}}Also in: {{Cite book| title = Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslogen 1737–1985 : Matrikel und Stammbuch; Nachschlagewerk über 248 Jahre Geschichte der Freimaurerei in Deutschland | first = Karl Heinz | last = Francke |author2=Ernst-Günther Geppert | location = Bayreuth | publisher = Quatuor Coronati | year = 1988 | language = de | isbn = 978-3-925749-05-6 | oclc = 75446479 }}</ref>
* '']'' by ] also deals with Masonry.


After ], the forget-me-not flower was used again as a Masonic emblem in 1948 at the first Annual Convention of the ] in 1948. The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi era.<ref name=Galen_forget-me-not>{{cite news|title=The Story Behind Forget Me Not Emblem!|url=http://www.masonicnetwork.org/blog/2009/the-story-behind-forget-me-not-emblem/|newspaper=Masonic Network|date=11 December 2009|access-date=19 May 2013|archive-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306011314/http://www.masonicnetwork.org/blog/2009/the-story-behind-forget-me-not-emblem/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ] films by ] use Masonic imagery.


==See also==
* The plot of the ] movie '']'' revolves heavily around the Freemasons and is somewhat unusual in that it depicts them in a benign light.
* {{annotated link|List of Freemasons}}
* ]
* {{annotated link|Fraternal order}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ], Masonic youth organization


==References==
* In ] Italian writer ] includes Masonry lodges branching out into the lands of Ombrosa with the protagonist of the novel, Cosimo di Rondo, mysteriously and supposedly involved with them.
{{Reflist}}


==Further reading==
* ] and ] use Freemasonry in ] series, most notably in "The Adept Book Two: The Lodge of the Lynx."
{{Further|Freemasonry in France#Bibliography}}
* Belton, John L., et al. ''Freemasonry in context: history, ritual, controversy'' (Lexington Books, 2004) .
* Berger, Joachim. "The great divide: Transatlantic brothering and masonic internationalism, c. 1870–c. 1930." ''Atlantic Studies'' 16.3 (2019): 405–422.
* Dickie, John. ''The Craft: How the Freemasons Made the Modern World'' (PublicAffairs, 2020).
* Fozdar, Vahid. " 'That Grand Primeval and Fundamental Religion': The Transformation of Freemasonry into a British Imperial Cult." ''Journal of World History'' 22#3 (2011), pp.&nbsp;493–525.
* Hamill, John. ''The Craft: A History of English Freemasonry'' (1986)
* Harland-Jacobs, Jessica L. ''Builders of Empire: Freemasons and British Imperialism, 1717–1927'' (2007)
* Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig. ''Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840–1918'' (U of Michigan Press, 2007).
* Jacob, Margaret C. ''Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe'' (1991)
* Jacob, Margaret C. ''The Origins of Freemasonry: Facts and Fictions'' (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
* Jacob, Margaret, and Matthew Crow. "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment." in ''Handbook of Freemasonry'' (Brill, 2014) pp.&nbsp;100–116.
* Loiselle, Kenneth. "Freemasonry and the Catholic Enlightenment in Eighteenth-Century France." ''Journal of Modern History'' 94.3 (2022): 499–536.
* Önnerfors, Andreas. ''Freemasonry: a very short introduction'' (Oxford University Press, 2017) .
* Racine, Karen. "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture'' (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) 1:538–540.
* Ridley, Jasper. ''The Freemasons'' (1999), wide-ranging global popular history.
* Snoek Jan A.M. and Henrik Bogdan. "The History of Freemasonry: An Overview" in Bogdan and Snoek, eds. ''Handbook of Freemasonry'' (Brill, 2014) ch. 2 pp 13–32.
* Stevenson, David. "Four Hundred Years of Freemasonry in Scotland." ''Scottish Historical Review,'' 90#230 (2011), pp.&nbsp;280–295.
* Stevenson, David. ''The First Freemasons. Scotland's Early Lodges and Their Members'' (1988)
* Weisberger, R. William et al.'' Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico'' (2002), 969 pp
* Weisberger, R. William. ''Speculative Freemasonry and the Enlightenment: A Study of the Craft in London, Paris, Prague and Vienna'' (Columbia University Press, 1993) 243 pp.


== See also == ===United States===
* Bullock, Steven C. ''Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840'' (UNC Press Books, 2011).
* Formisano, Ronald P., and Kathleen Smith Kutolowski. "Antimasonry and Masonry: The Genesis of Protest, 1826–1827." ''American Quarterly'' 29.2 (1977): 139–165.
* Hackett, David G. ''That Religion in Which All Men Agree : Freemasonry in American Culture'' (U of California Press, 2015)
* Hinks, Peter P. et al. ''All Men Free and Brethren: Essays on the History of African American Freemasonry'' (Cornell UP, 2013).
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. " 'Intended for the Better Government of Man': The Political History of African American Freemasonry in the Era of Emancipation." ''Journal of American History'' 96#4, (2010), pp.&nbsp;1001–1026. .
* Weisberger, R. William et al. ''Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico'' (2002), 969pp
* York, Neil L. "Freemasons and the American Revolution." ''Historian'' 55#2 (1993), pp.&nbsp;315–330.


===Historiography and memory===
* ]
* Jacob, Margaret. "The Radical Enlightenment and Freemasonry: where we are now." ''REHMLAC: Revista de Estudios Históricos de la Masonería Latinoamericana y Caribeña'' 1 (2013): 11–25..
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


==External links== ==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Freemasonry |short=x}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929054435/http://www.brad.ac.uk/webofhiram/ |date=29 September 2007 }} at the University of Bradford. A database of donated Masonic material.
* of the ''Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry''
* (1734), James Anderson, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Royster. Hosted by the Libraries at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln
* , by William Morgan, from ]
* {{Internet Archive|alegislativeinv00hallgoog|A Legislative Investigation into Masonry (1832)}}, {{oclc|1560509}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527152317/https://www.ugle.org.uk/library-museum/ |date=27 May 2019 }}, London
*
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519134436/http://www.masonicinfo.com/ |date=19 May 2019 }} – Edward L. King's Masonic website
*


{{Freemasonry footer}}
* (Article by Fr. William P. Saunders of the Diocese of Arlington Virgina)
* (Article from New York Times)
* (Article from Washington Post )
* (Article from U.S. News)
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* - A comprehensive site, the world's oldest Masonic website
* Links to 15 Masonic related on-line books
* Thousands of Masonic related pictures and images
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* This site contains an online book on freemasonry with many references (go to the 'Books' section and look for 'Global Freemasonry').
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* An Anti-Masonic site.
* Anti-Masonic study detailing the occult nature of Freemasonry.
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* by a conservative religious group accusing Masons of witchcraft
* ] accusing Masons of Satanism (images, ~561Kb)
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Latest revision as of 15:10, 21 December 2024

Group of fraternal organizations "Masonic" and "Freemason" redirect here. For the ghost town, see Masonic, California. For other uses, see Freemason (disambiguation). "Freemasons" redirects here. For the house music producers, see Freemasons (DJs).

Standard image of masonic square and compasses
The main emblem of the Freemasons.
Part of a series on
Freemasonry
Overview
History
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Side degrees
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People and places
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By country

Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) or simply Masonry includes various fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 14th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients. Freemasonry is the oldest fraternity in the world and among the oldest continued organizations in history.

Modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups: Regular Freemasonry, which insists that a “volume of sacred law”, such as the Bible, the Quran, or other religious scripture be open in a working lodge, that every member professes belief in a Supreme Being, that no women be admitted, and that the discussion of religion and politics do not take place within the lodge; and Continental Freemasonry, which consists of the jurisdictions that have removed some, or all, of these restrictions.

The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. These private Lodges are usually supervised at the regional level (usually coterminous with a state, province, or national border) by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate. Lodges are found around the world and on all populated continents; however due to anti-Masonry and laws that effectively ban the tradition, it does not have a presence in every country. In the spirit of brotherhood and hopefulness, however, Freemasons usually presume that clandestine lodges may nonetheless exist in those countries in which it is banned, even if they may not actually exist.

The degrees of Freemasonry are the three grades of medieval craft guilds: Entered Apprentice, Journeyman or Fellow of the craft (now called either “Fellowcraft” or “Fellow Craft” in English speaking jurisdictions, and “Companion” in non-English speaking jurisdictions), and Master Mason. The candidate of these three degrees is progressively taught the meanings of the symbols of Freemasonry and entrusted with grips, signs, and words to signify to other members that he has been so initiated. The degrees are part allegorical morality play and part lecture. These three degrees form Craft (or Blue Lodge) Freemasonry, and members of any of these degrees are known as Free-Masons, Freemasons or Masons. Once the Craft degrees have been conferred upon a Mason, he is qualified to join various "Concordant bodies" which offer additional degrees. These organisations are usually administered separately from the Grand Lodges who administer the Craft degrees. The extra degrees vary with locality and jurisdiction. In addition to these bodies, there are further organizations outside of the more traditional Rites of Freemasonry, that require an individual to be a Master Mason before they can join (such as the Rosicrucian Society of England).

Throughout its history, Freemasonry has received criticism and opposition on religious and political grounds. The Catholic Church, some Protestant denominations, and certain Islamic countries or entities have expressed opposition to or banned membership in Free-Masonry. Opposition to Freemasonry is sometimes rooted in anti-Semitism or conspiracy theories, and Freemasons have historically been persecuted by authoritarian states.

Masonic lodge

Main article: Masonic lodge
Italian lodge at Palazzo Roffia, Florence
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia, Florence, set out for French (Premiere Grand Lodge) ritual

The Masonic lodge is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly and conducts the usual formal business of any small organisation (approve minutes, elect new members, appoint officers and take their reports, consider correspondence, bills and annual accounts, organise social and charitable events, etc.). In addition to such business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, which is usually on some aspect of Masonic history or ritual. At the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge may hold a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. These meetings are typically held in a Masonic temple, though other venues may occasionally be used.

The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies. Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. At some later time, in separate ceremonies, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft; and then raised to the degree of Master Mason. In each of these ceremonies, the candidate must first take the new obligations of the degree, and is then entrusted with secret knowledge including passwords, signs and grips (secret handshakes) confined to his new rank. Although these symbols and gestures are nominally secret, they are readily found in public sources, including those published by Masonic organizations themselves.

Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master of the Lodge and his appointed or elected officers. In some jurisdictions, an Installed Master elected, obligated, and invested to preside over a Lodge, is valued as a separate rank with its own secrets and distinctive title and attributes; after each full year in the chair the Master invests his elected successor and becomes a Past Master with privileges in the Lodge and Grand Lodge. In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge.

Most Lodges have some sort of social functions, allowing members, their partners, and non-Masonic guests to meet openly. Often coupled with these events is the discharge of every Mason's and Lodge's collective obligation to contribute to charity. This occurs at many levels, including in annual dues, subscriptions, fundraising events, Lodges and Grand Lodges. Masons and their charities contribute for the relief of need in many fields, such as education, health and old age.

Private Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, with the sole right to elect their own candidates for initiation as Masons or admission as joining Masons, and sometimes with exclusive rights over residents local to their premises. There are non-local Lodges where Masons meet for wider or narrower purposes, such or in association with some hobby, sport, Masonic research, business, profession, regiment or college. The rank of Master Mason also entitles a Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees, administered separately from the basic Craft or "Blue Lodge" degrees described here, but generally having a similar structure and meetings.

There is much diversity and little consistency in Freemasonry because each Masonic jurisdiction is independent and sets its own rules and procedures while Grand Lodges have limited jurisdiction over their constituent member Lodges, which are ultimately private clubs. The wording of the ritual, the number of officers present, the layout of the meeting room, etc. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

Almost all officers of a Lodge are elected or appointed annually. Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a treasurer and a secretary. There is also always a Tyler, or outer guard, outside the door of a working Lodge, who may be paid to secure its privacy. Other offices vary between jurisdictions.

Each Masonic Lodge exists and operates according to ancient principles known as the Landmarks of Freemasonry, which elude any universally accepted definition.

Joining a lodge

Worshipful Master George Washington
Print from 1870 portraying George Washington as Master of his Lodge

Candidates for Freemasonry will usually have met the most active members of the Lodge they are joining before being elected for initiation. The process varies among Grand Lodges, but in modern times interested people often look up a local Lodge through the Internet and will typically be introduced to a Lodge social function or open evening. The onus is upon candidates to ask to join; while they may be encouraged to ask, they may not be invited. Once the initial inquiry is made, a formal application may be proposed and seconded or announced in open Lodge and a more or less formal interview usually follows. If the candidate wishes to proceed, references are taken up during a period of notice so that members may enquire into the candidate's suitability and discuss it. Finally, the Lodge takes an officially secret ballot on each application before a candidate is either initiated or rejected. The exact number of adverse ballots ("blackballs") required to reject a candidate varies between Masonic jurisdictions. As an example, the United Grand Lodge of England only requires a single "blackball", while the Grand Lodge of New York requires three.

A minimum requirement of every body of Freemasons is that each candidate must be "free and of good reputation". The question of freedom, a standard feudal requirement of mediaeval guilds, is nowadays one of independence: the object is that every Mason should be a proper and responsible person. Thus, each Grand Lodge has a standard minimum age, varying greatly and often subject to dispensation in particular cases. (For example, in England the standard minimum age to join is 18, but university lodges are given dispensations to initiate undergraduates below that age.)

Additionally, most Grand Lodges require a candidate to declare a belief in a Supreme Being (although every candidate must interpret this condition in his own way, as all religious discussion is commonly prohibited). In a few cases, the candidate may be required to be of a specific religion. The form of Freemasonry most common in Scandinavia (known as the Swedish Rite), for example, accepts only Christians. At the other end of the spectrum, "Liberal" or Continental Freemasonry, exemplified by the Grand Orient de France, does not require a declaration of belief in any deity and accepts atheists (the cause of the distinction from the rest of Freemasonry).

During the ceremony of initiation, the candidate is required to undertake an obligation, swearing on the religious volume sacred to his personal faith to do good as a Mason. In the course of three degrees, Masons will promise to keep the secrets of their degree from lower degrees and outsiders, as far as practicality and the law permit, and to support a fellow Mason in distress. There is formal instruction as to the duties of a Freemason, but on the whole, Freemasons are left to explore the craft in the manner they find most satisfying. Some will simply enjoy the dramatics, or the management and administration of the lodge, others will explore the history, ritual and symbolism of the craft, others will focus their involvement on their Lodge's sociopolitical side, perhaps in association with other lodges, while still others will concentrate on the lodge's charitable functions.

Organisation

Grand Lodges

Main article: Grand Lodge
Freemason's Hall, London
Freemasons Hall, London, home of the United Grand Lodge of England
The Historical Grand Lodge of the Grand Orient de France

Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are independent and sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state or geographical area (termed a jurisdiction). There is no single overarching governing body that presides over worldwide Freemasonry; connections between different jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognition.

Estimates of the worldwide membership of Freemasonry in the early 21st century ranged from about two million to more than six million.

The fraternity is administratively organised into independent Grand Lodges (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or constituent) Lodges.

The United Grand Lodge of England remains the largest Masonic jurisdiction worldwide. However, its membership has declined dramatically - from about 500,000 members in the 1960s to approximately 175,000 in 2021. The organization is structured into various Provincial Grand Lodges at the local level. Similarly, the Grand Lodge of Ireland has experienced a steep decline, with membership falling from 100,000 in 1960 to around 19,000 members currently.

In the United States, Masonic membership is organized in two systems, first through 51 Conservative Grand Lodges - one for each state plus the District of Columbia. While these Grand Lodges once boasted over 4 million members in 1957, membership has declined sharply. According to the Masonic Service Association of North America, current combined membership across these jurisdictions stands at approximately 875,000 members.

Additionally, there are 46 Prince Hall Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE, operating across various U.S. states. Prince Hall Masonry is a historically African-American branch of Freemasonry that maintains its own separate Grand Lodge system parallel to the state Grand Lodge system.

Together, these two systems - the conservative Grand Lodges and Prince Hall Grand Lodges make up for a total of 97 UGLE recognized Grand Lodges, sharing jurisdictions in the United States. They represent the main bodies of Masonic governance in the United States, though both have experienced significant membership declines since their mid-20th century peaks.

Grand Orient de France, the largest jurisdiction in Continental or Liberal Freemasonry in terms of membership, is over 53,000 members spread across approximately 1,381 lodges for an average of 38 members per Lodges. The Grand Orient de France has been growing in membership since the second world war from 33,000 in 1960 to 53,000 in 2023.

Recognition, amity and regularity

Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of Recognition. Each Grand Lodge maintains a list of other Grand Lodges that it recognises. When two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic communication with each other, they are said to be in amity, and the brethren of each may visit each other's Lodges and interact Masonically. When two Grand Lodges are not in amity, inter-visitation is not allowed. There are many reasons one Grand Lodge will withhold or withdraw recognition from another, but the two most common are Exclusive Jurisdiction and Regularity.

Exclusive Jurisdiction

Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby normally only one Grand Lodge will be recognised in any geographical area. If two Grand Lodges claim jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same one. (In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two rival factions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge. Other Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.) Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two overlapping Grand Lodges are themselves in amity and agree to share jurisdiction. For example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in amity with the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both. Likewise, the five distinct kinds of lodges in Germany have nominally united under one Grand Lodge in order to obtain international recognition.

Modern Challenges and Evolution

The concept of Exclusive Jurisdiction has been significantly challenged in the United States with the increasing recognition of Prince Hall Grand Lodges, a branch of Freemasonry created for African Americans. Historically, many "mainstream" or conservative U.S. Grand Lodges refused to recognize Prince Hall Grand Lodges operating in their states, citing Exclusive Jurisdiction. However, this began to change in 1989 when the Grand Lodge of Connecticut extended recognition to its Prince Hall counterpart.

This initial recognition created a precedent for "shared jurisdiction" between mainstream and Prince Hall Grand Lodges, effectively modifying the traditional interpretation of Exclusive Jurisdiction. By 2024, most U.S. Grand Lodges have recognized their Prince Hall counterparts, establishing a new norm where two Grand Lodges can legitimately operate within the same geographical area, provided they maintain mutual recognition and amity.

The evolution of this practice demonstrates how traditional Masonic principles can adapt to accommodate social progress while maintaining the fundamental aims of regular Freemasonry. Some jurisdictions have formalized this arrangement through written agreements that specifically outline the terms of shared jurisdiction.

Regularity

Main article: Regular Masonic jurisdictions
First Freemason's Hall, 1809
Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809

Regularity is a concept based on adherence to Masonic Landmarks, the basic membership requirements, tenets and rituals of the craft. Each Grand Lodge sets its own definition of what these landmarks are, and thus what is Regular and what is Irregular (and the definitions do not necessarily agree between Grand Lodges). Essentially, every Grand Lodge will hold that its landmarks (its requirements, tenets and rituals) are Regular, and judge other Grand Lodges based on those. If the differences are significant, one Grand Lodge may declare the other "Irregular" and withdraw or withhold recognition.

The most commonly shared rules for Recognition (based on Regularity) are those given by the United Grand Lodge of England in 1929:

  • The Grand Lodge should be established by an existing regular Grand Lodge, or by at least three regular Lodges.
  • A belief in a supreme being and scripture is a condition of membership.
  • Initiates should take their vows on that scripture.
  • Only men can be admitted, and no relationship exists with mixed Lodges.
  • The Grand Lodge has complete control over the first three degrees and is not subject to another body.
  • All Lodges shall display a volume of scripture with the square and compasses while in session.
  • There is no discussion of politics or religion.
  • "Ancient landmarks, customs and usages" observed.

Other degrees, orders, and bodies

See also: Masonic bodies and List of Masonic rites

Blue Lodges, known as Craft Lodges in the United Kingdom, offer only the three traditional degrees. In most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master is also conferred in Blue/Craft Lodges. Master Masons are able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further degrees, in appendant or other bodies whether or not approved by their own Grand Lodge.

The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is a system of 33 degrees, including the three Blue Lodge degrees administered by a local or national Supreme Council. This system is popular in North America, South America and in Continental Europe. In America, the York Rite, with a similar range, administers three orders of Masonry, namely the Royal Arch, Cryptic Masonry, and Knights Templar.

In Britain, separate bodies administer each order. Freemasons are encouraged to join the Holy Royal Arch, which is linked to Mark Masonry in Scotland and Ireland, but completely separate in England. In England, the Royal Arch is closely associated with the Craft, automatically having many Grand Officers in common, including H.R.H the Duke of Kent as both Grand Master of the Craft and First Grand Principal of the Royal Arch. The English Knights Templar and Cryptic Masonry share the Mark Grand Lodge offices and staff at Mark Masons Hall. The Ancient and Accepted Rite (similar to the Scottish Rite), requires a member to proclaim the Trinitarian Christian faith, and is administered from Duke Street in London. Conversely, the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia is a fully independent esoteric organization that requires members be United Grand Lodge of England Master Masons.

In the Nordic countries, the Swedish Rite is dominant; a variation of it is also used in parts of Germany.

Ritual and symbolism

Main article: Masonic ritual and symbolism
Ottoman noble Ahmad Nami dressed in full Masonic attire in 1925
Example of Masonic symbols in Szprotawa Poland
Freemasonry structure showing the symbols associated with the organization
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Freemasonry describes itself as a "beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols". The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the tools of stonemasons – the square and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the trowel, the rough and smooth ashlars, among others. Moral lessons are attributed to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning of the symbolism is taught and explored through ritual, and in lectures and articles by individual Masons who offer their personal insights and opinions.

According to the scholar of Western esotericism Jan A. M. Snoek: "the best way to characterize Freemasonry is in terms of what it is not, rather than what it is". All Freemasons begin their journey in the "craft" by being progressively "initiated", "passed" and "raised" into the three degrees of Craft, or Blue Lodge Masonry. During these three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught the Masonic symbols, and entrusted with grips or tokens, signs, and words to signify to other Masons which degrees he has taken. The dramatic allegorical ceremonies include explanatory lectures and revolve around the construction of the Temple of Solomon, and the artistry and death of the chief architect, Hiram Abiff. The degrees are those of "Entered apprentice", "Fellowcraft" and "Master Mason". While many different versions of these rituals exist, with various lodge layouts and versions of the Hiramic legend, each version is recognizable to any Freemason from any jurisdiction.

In some jurisdictions, the main themes of each degree are illustrated by tracing boards. These painted depictions of Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge according to which degree is being worked and are explained to the candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.

The idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends from a 16th-century legal definition of a "brother" as one who has taken an oath of mutual support to another. Accordingly, Masons swear at each degree to support and protect their brethren unless they have broken the law. In most Lodges, the oath or obligation is taken on a Volume of Sacred Law, whichever book of divine revelation is appropriate to the religious beliefs of the individual brother (usually the Bible in the Anglo-American tradition). In Progressive continental Freemasonry, books other than scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between Grand Lodges.

History

Main article: History of Freemasonry

Origins

Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic historians have sought the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as the Old Charges, dating from the Regius Poem in about 1425 to the beginning of the 18th century. Alluding to the membership of a lodge of operative masons, they relate it to a mythologised history of the craft, the duties of its grades, and the manner in which oaths of fidelity are to be taken on joining. The 15th century also sees the first evidence of ceremonial regalia.

There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade organisations became today's Masonic Lodges. The earliest rituals and passwords known, from operative lodges around the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, show continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th century by accepted or speculative Masons, as those members who did not practice the physical craft gradually came to be known. The minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No. 1 in Scotland show a continuity from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative Lodge. It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic Lodge in the world.

Royal Arch Chapter in England, beginning of c20
View of room at the Masonic Hall, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocation

Alternatively, Thomas De Quincey in his work titled Rosicrucians and Freemasonry put forward the theory that suggested that Freemasonry may have been an outgrowth of Rosicrucianism. The theory had also been postulated in 1803 by German professor; J. G. Buhle.

The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the Grand Lodge of England, was founded on St John's Day, 24 June 1717, when four existing London Lodges met for a joint dinner. Over the next decade, most of the existing Lodges in England joined the new regulatory body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion. New lodges were created, and the fraternity began to grow.

During the course of the 18th century, as aristocrats and artists crowded out the craftsmen originally associated with the organization, Freemasonry became fashionable throughout Europe and the American colonies.

Between 1730 and 1750, the Grand Lodge endorsed several significant changes that some Lodges could not endorse. A rival Grand Lodge was formed on 17 July 1751, which called itself the "Antient Grand Lodge of England" to signify that, in their opinion, these lodges were maintaining older traditions and rejected changes that the Premiere Grand Lodge had adopted. As an insult, the self proclaimed "Antient Grand Lodge" coined the term "modern" to designate the Premiere Grand Lodge (historians now use Premiere Grand Lodge and Antient Grand Lodge – to differentiate the two bodies). These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Premiere Grand Lodge made a compromise with the antient Grand Lodge to return to a ritual that worked for both Grand Lodges. They re-united on 27 December 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England.

The Grand Lodge of Ireland and the Grand Lodge of Scotland were formed in 1725 and 1736, respectively, although neither persuaded all of the existing lodges in their countries to join for many years.

North America

Erasmus James Philipps, first Freemason in present-day Canada, Old Burying Ground (Halifax, Nova Scotia)

The earliest known American lodges were in Pennsylvania. The collector for the port of Pennsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending lodges there in 1715, two years before the putative formation of the first Grand Lodge in London. The Grand Lodge of England appointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America in 1731, based in Pennsylvania, leading to the creation of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania.

In Canada, Erasmus James Philipps became a Freemason while working on a commission to resolve boundaries in New England and, in 1739, he became provincial Grand Master for Nova Scotia; Philipps founded the first Masonic lodge in Canada at Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia.

Other lodges in the colony of Pennsylvania obtained authorisations from the later Antient Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was particularly well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army. Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge, applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were confident of their own survival.

After the American Revolution, independent U.S. Grand Lodges developed within each state. Some thought was briefly given to organising an overarching "Grand Lodge of the United States," with George Washington, who was a member of a Virginian lodge, as the first Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived. The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.

On April 30, 1789, George Washington took his oath of office at his first inauguration upon a bible belonging to St. John's Lodge No. 1 of New York. Originally, it was expected that Washington would bring his own Bible upon which to swear his oath of office, and there was some consternation when it turned out that no one had informed Washington to bring one. Thinking quickly, Jacob Morton, the Marshal of the Inauguration (and Master of St. John's Lodge), borrowed the Lodge's Bible for use in the ceremony. That bible has been known since as the George Washington Inaugural Bible, and is still in possession of St. John's Lodge No. 1 of the Grand Lodge of New York. Robert Livingston, Chancellor of the State of New York, also the first Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the State of New York, administered the oath. This event effectuated the establishment of the Executive Branch of the Federal Government of the United States, which had until then existed only virtually after the US Constitution become operational almost two months earlier, on March 4, 1789.

Jamaican Freemasonry

Freemasonry was imported to Jamaica by British immigrants who colonized the island for over 300 years. In 1908, there were eleven recorded Masonic lodges, which included three Grand Lodges, two Craft lodges, and two Rose Croix chapters. During slavery, the lodges were open to all "freeborn" men. According to the Jamaican 1834 census, that potentially included 5,000 free black men and 40,000 free people of colour (mixed race). After the full abolition of slavery in 1838, the Lodges were open to all Jamaican men of any race. Jamaica also kept close relationships with Masons from other countries. Jamaican Freemasonry historian Jackie Ranston, noted that:

Jamaica served as an arms depot for the revolutionary forces when two Kingston Freemasons, Wellwood and Maxwell Hyslop, financed the campaigns of Simón Bolívar, the Liberator, to whom six Latin American Republics owe their independence". Bolívar himself was a Mason, enjoying contacts with Brethren in Spain, England, France, and Venezuela until after gaining power in Venezuela, he prohibited all secret societies in 1828 and included the Freemasons.

On 25 May 2017, Masons around the world celebrated the 300th anniversary of the fraternity. Jamaica hosted one of the regional gatherings for this celebration.

Prince Hall Freemasonry

Main article: Prince Hall Freemasonry

Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit African Americans. In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall, along with 14 other African American men, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the Grand Lodge of Ireland, having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in Boston. When the British military Lodge left North America after the end of the Revolution, those 15 men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons. In 1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Grand Lodge of England (Premiere Grand Lodge) and formed African Lodge, Number 459. When the two English grand lodges united in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls – largely because of the War of 1812. Thus, separated from both English jurisdiction and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge retitled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 – and became a de facto Grand Lodge. (This lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges in Africa.) As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state.

Unlike other fraternal orders, there was never any blanket rule against the admission of men based on their race. Each lodge and grand lodge had their own rules, both written and unwritten. A few non-Prince Hall lodges did admit Blacks, with Angelo Soliman being one notable Masonic personality of African descent. Nonetheless, widespread racial segregation in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it difficult for African Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions. Even if a lodge was willing to entertain non-White applicants, generally only a single anonymous vote could prevent someone from being admitted. Inter-jurisdiction recognition between traditional and Prince Hall U.S. Masonic authorities was also not forthcoming. As demonstrated by the case of the famous black boxer Jack Johnson, if word spread that a mainstream lodge had admitted a Black person, that lodge could potentially face sanction from other discriminatory lodges.

Today most (but not all) U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince Hall counterparts, and the authorities of both traditions are working towards full recognition. The United Grand Lodge of England has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand Lodges. While celebrating their heritage as lodges of African Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men regardless of race or religion.

Emergence of Continental Freemasonry

Masonic initiation, Paris, 1745
Masonic initiation, Paris, 1745

English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, first as lodges of expatriates and exiled Jacobites, and then as distinctively French lodges that still follow the ritual of the Moderns. From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental Europe during the course of the 18th century. The Grande Loge de France was formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised only nominal authority. His successor, the Duke of Orléans, reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773. Briefly eclipsed during the French Revolution, French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century, at first under the leadership of Alexandre Francois Auguste de Grasse, Comte de Grassy-Tilly. A career Army officer, he lived with his family in Charleston, South Carolina from 1793 to the early 1800s, after leaving Saint-Domingue, now Haiti, during the years of the Haitian Revolution.

Freemasonry in the Middle East

Further information: Freemasonry in the Middle East

After the failure of the 1830 Italian revolution, a number of Italian Freemasons were forced to flee. They secretly set up an approved chapter of Scottish Rite in Alexandria, a town already inhabited by a large Italian community. Meanwhile, the French Freemasons publicly organised a local chapter in Alexandria in 1845. During the 19th and 20th century Ottoman Empire, Masonic lodges operated widely across all parts of the empire and numerous Sufi orders shared a close relationship with them. Many Young Turks affiliated with the Bektashi order were members and patrons of Freemasonry. They were also closely allied against European imperialism. Many Ottoman intellectuals believed that Sufism and Freemasonry shared close similarities in doctrines, spiritual outlook and mysticism.

Schism

The ritual form on which the Grand Orient of France was based was abolished in England in the events leading to the formation of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813. However, the two jurisdictions continued in amity, or mutual recognition, until events of the 1860s and 1870s drove a seemingly permanent wedge between them. In 1868 the Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana appeared in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, recognised by the Grand Orient de France, but regarded by the older body as an invasion of their jurisdiction. The new Scottish Rite body admitted Black people. The resolution of the Grand Orient the following year that neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from Masonry prompted the Grand Lodge to withdraw recognition, and it persuaded other American Grand Lodges to do the same.

A dispute during the Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875 prompted the Grand Orient de France to commission a report by a Protestant pastor, which concluded that, as Freemasonry was not a religion, it should not require a religious belief. The new constitutions read, "Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience and human solidarity", the existence of God and the immortality of the soul being struck out. It is possible that the immediate objections of the United Grand Lodge of England were at least partly motivated by the political tension between France and Britain at the time. The result was the withdrawal of recognition of the Grand Orient of France by the United Grand Lodge of England, a situation that continues today.

Not all French lodges agreed with the new wording. In 1894, lodges favouring the compulsory recognition of the Great Architect of the Universe formed the Grande Loge de France. In 1913, the United Grand Lodge of England recognised a new Grand Lodge of Regular Freemasons, a Grand Lodge that follows a similar rite to Anglo-American Freemasonry with a mandatory belief in a deity.

There are now three strands of Freemasonry in France, which extend into the rest of Continental Europe: –

  • Liberal, also called adogmatic or progressive – Principles of liberty of conscience, and laicity, particularly the separation of the Church and State.
  • Traditional – Old French ritual with a requirement for a belief in a Supreme Being. (This strand is typified by the Grande Loge de France).
  • Regular – Standard Anglo-American ritual, mandatory belief in Supreme Being.

The term Continental Freemasonry was used in Mackey's 1873 Encyclopedia of Freemasonry to "designate the Lodges on the Continent of Europe which retain many usages which have either been abandoned by, or never were observed in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and Scotland, as well as the United States of America". Today, it is frequently used to refer to only the Liberal jurisdictions typified by the Grand Orient de France.

The majority of Freemasonry considers the Liberal (Continental) strand to be Irregular, and thus withhold recognition. The Continental lodges, however, did not want to sever masonic ties. In 1961, an umbrella organisation, Centre de Liaison et d'Information des Puissances maçonniques Signataires de l'Appel de Strasbourg (CLIPSAS) was set up, which today provides a forum for most of these Grand Lodges and Grand Orients worldwide. Included in the list of over 70 Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are representatives of all three of the above categories, including mixed and women's organisations. The United Grand Lodge of England does not communicate with any of these jurisdictions and expects its allies to follow suit. This creates the distinction between Anglo-American and Continental Freemasonry.

Freemasonry and women

Main articles: Freemasonry and women and Co-Freemasonry

The status of women in the old guilds and corporations of medieval masons remains uncertain. The principle of "femme sole" allowed a widow to continue the trade of her husband, but its application had wide local variations, such as full membership of a trade body or limited trade by deputation or approved members of that body. In masonry, the small available evidence points to the less empowered end of the scale.

At the dawn of the Grand Lodge era, during the 1720s, James Anderson composed the first printed constitutions for Freemasons, the basis for most subsequent constitutions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry. As Freemasonry spread, women began to be added to the Lodges of Adoption by their husbands who were continental masons, which worked three degrees with the same names as the men's but different content. The French officially abandoned the experiment in the early 19th century. Later organisations with a similar aim emerged in the United States but distinguished the names of the degrees from those of male masonry.

Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, then resigned to allow her lodge to rejoin their Grand Lodge. Having failed to achieve acceptance from any masonic governing body, she and Georges Martin started a mixed masonic lodge that worked masonic ritual. Annie Besant spread the phenomenon to the English-speaking world. Disagreements over ritual led to the formation of exclusively female bodies of Freemasons in England, which spread to other countries. Meanwhile, the French had re-invented Adoption as an all-female lodge in 1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935. The lodges, however, continued to meet, which gave rise, in 1959, to a body of women practising continental Freemasonry.

In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry among women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of that Rite. The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999 recognising the two women's grand lodges there, The Order of Women Freemasons and The Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons, to be regular in all but the participants. While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular, they were part of Freemasonry "in general". The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.

In 2018, guidance was released by the United Grand Lodge of England stating that, in regard to transgender women, "A Freemason who after initiation ceases to be a man does not cease to be a Freemason". The guidance also states that transgender men are allowed to apply to become Freemasons.

Development and expansion

18th century Enlightenment

Goose and Gridiron, where the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the Grand Lodge of England, was founded.

During the Age of the Enlightenment in the 18th century, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. British Freemasonry offered a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals. It fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were between 50,000 and 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.

Jacob argues that Masonic lodges probably had an effect on society as a whole, for they "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives". In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid-1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe made reference to the Enlightenment in general in the 18th century. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". Many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.

On the other hand, historian Robert Roswell Palmer noted that lodges operated separately and Masons politically did not act together as a group. American historians note that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were leading Masons, but the significance of freemasonry in the revolution is a topic of debate. Daniel Roche contests freemasonry's claims for egalitarianism, writing that "the real equality of the lodges was elitist", only attracting men of similar social backgrounds.

In long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe, as well as the European colonies in the New World and Asia. Davies states, "In the nineteenth century and beyond it would be strongly associated with the cause of Liberalism." In Catholic lands it was anti-clerical and came under heavy attack from the Catholic Church. In the 20th century, it was suppressed by Fascist and Communist regimes. It was especially attractive to royalty, aristocrats and politicians and businessmen, as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. Davies notes that prominent members included Montesquieu, Voltaire, Sir Robert Walpole, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Steven Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, English lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian lodges by king Frederick the Great, and French lodges by royal princes. Emperor Napoleon selected his own brother as the Grand Master of France.

France

Further information: Freemasonry in France

In the 18th century, liberal French politicians met together in Masonic lodges to develop some of the Enlightenment ideas that dominated the French Revolution of 1789. Avner Halpern has traced French Freemasonry's major role in building France's first modern political party in 1901, the Radical Party. It used two Masonic devices: the "civil leadership model", which Freemasonry developed in late 19th century France, and the local Masonic congresses of the Grand Orient of France federations.

Russia

Further information: History of Freemasonry in Russia

Freemasons had been active in Russia in the 18th century, working to introduce Enlightenment ideals; however, they were increasingly suppressed by the government. According to Ludwick Hass, Freemasonry was officially illegal in Tsarist Russia, but would later be introduced by exiles who returned after the 1905 revolution. These individuals had been active Masons in Paris, where lodges were politically active in the new Radical Party. In Russia, the Freemasons supported constitutional liberalism, and maintained ties with France while simplifying many of the ceremonial rituals. Their secret meetings became a centre of progressive ideals, attracting politicians and activists. The lodges initially supported World War I, promoting close ties with France. Alexander Kerensky was an important Masonic activist who came to political power with the overthrow of the tsars, in 1917. The organization collapsed as the Bolsheviks took power and was again outlawed.

Italy

Further information: Freemasonry in Italy

According to Adrian Lyttelton, in the early 20th century, Freemasonry was an influential but semi-secret force in Italian politics; with a strong presence among professionals and the middle class across Italy, its appeal spread to the leadership of the parliament, public administration, and the army. The two main organisations were the Grand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Italy. They had around 25,000 members in some 500 lodges. Freemasons typically espoused anticlericalism and promoted unification. The Catholic Church was a vigorous opponent of unification, and thus of the Freemasons; various national governments would repeatedly alternate and backpedal between the anticlerical side and the Church side. Politically, they promoted Italian nationalism focused on unification and undermining the power of the Catholic Church. Freemasons took on the challenge of mobilizing the press, encouraging public opinion and the leading political parties in support of Italy's joining of the Allies of the First World War in 1914–1915. In 1919, they favoured a League of Nations to promote a new post-war, universal order based upon the peaceful coexistence of independent and democratic nations. In the early 1920s, many of Mussolini's collaborators, especially the leaders in organizing the March on Rome, were Masons. The lodges hailed fascism as the saviour of Italy from Bolshevism; however, Mussolini decided he needed to come to terms with the Catholic Church, in the mid-1920s, outlawing Freemasonry.

Latin America

The Spanish government outlawed Freemasonry in its overseas empire in the mid-18th century, and energetically enforced the ban. Nevertheless, many Freemasons were active in planning and plotting for independence. Leaders with Freemason membership included Grand Master Francisco de Miranda, José de San Martin, Simón Bolivar, Bernardo O'Higgins, and many others. The movement was important after independence was achieved in the 1820s. In Brazil, many prominent men were Freemasons, and they played a leading role in the abolition of slavery.

Mexico

Freemasons were leaders in liberalism and anti-clericalism in 19th and 20th-century Mexico. Members included numerous top leaders. The Freemasons were divided regarding relations with the United States, with a pro-U.S. faction supported by the American ambassador Joel Poinsett known as the "Yorkinos." According to historian Karen Racine, Freemasons in the presidency of Mexico included: Guadalupe Victoria, Valentín Gómez Farías, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Benito Juárez, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Porfirio Díaz, Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Plutarco Elías Calles, Lázaro Cárdenas, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Abelardo L. Rodríguez, and Miguel Alemán Valdés.

China

The first lodge formed in China was the Amity Lodge which constituted at Canton in 1767. In 1875, District Grand Lodge of China split into two Districts, Northern China, and Hong Kong and South China. During the second world war, All Masonic activity in Hong Kong was brought to a halt due to the Japanese invasion. After the 1949, the new China government (Communist) established, some lodges in China moved to Hong Kong or closed due to lack of new candidates.

Hong Kong

Royal Sussex Lodge No. 501 was the first lodge established in Victoria City of Hong Kong on 29 April 1844.

For the English Constitution, Provincial or District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:

  • 1847–1866, Provincial Grand Lodge of China
  • 1866–1875, District Grand Lodge of China
  • 1875–1963, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and South China
  • 1963–present, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and the Far East

For the Scottish Constitution, District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:

  • 1905–1958, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and South China
  • 1958–present, District Grand Lodge of the Far East

For the Irish Constitution, Provincial or District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:

  • 1933–1938, District Grand Inspector
  • 1938–1947, Grand Inspector
  • 1947–1954, Grand Inspector for Hong Kong and China
  • 1954–1967, Grand Inspector for Hong Kong, China and Malaya
  • 1967–1988, Grand Inspector for the Far East
  • 1988–present, Provincial Grand Lodge of the Far East

Now, there are 19 (English Constitution) lodges under the District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East, United Grand Lodge of England and meet at Zetland Hall, Hong Kong:

  • Cathay Lodge No. 4373
  • Corinthian Lodge of Amoy No. 1806
  • Foochow Lodge No. 1912
  • Harriers Lodge No. 9882
  • Hong Kong and Far East District Grand Stewards Lodge No. 9879
  • Lodge of Lu Pan No. 9387
  • Lodge Star of Southern China No. 2013
  • Paul Chater Lodge of Installed Masters No. 5391
  • Perseverance Lodge of Hong Kong No. 1165
  • Rotarian Lodge of Hong Kong No. 9378
  • Royal Sussex Lodge No. 501
  • St. Paul's Lodge No. 9718
  • St Joseph's & La Salle No. 10050
  • Swatow Lodge No. 3705
  • The Club Lodge No. 9880
  • United Service Lodge No. 1341
  • University Lodge of Hong Kong No. 3666
  • Victoria Lodge of Hong Kong No. 1026
  • Zetland Lodge No. 525

The Rising Sun Lodge No. 1401 is the lodge meeting in Kobe, Japan and under the jurisdiction of District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East rather than Grand Lodge of Japan. As a result, there are 20 lodges currently under the District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East.

Anti-Masonry

Main article: Anti-Masonry
Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, one of the few Masonic temples that survived the Franco dictatorship in Spain

Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) has been defined as "opposition to Freemasonry", but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry consists of widely differing criticisms from diverse (and often incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and conspiracy theorists, in particular, those espousing Masonic conspiracy theories or the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory. Certain prominent Anti-Masons, such as Nesta Helen Webster, exclusively criticized "Continental Masonry", while considering "Regular Masonry" to be an honourable association.

There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the 18th century. These often lack context, may be outdated for various reasons, or could be outright hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the Taxil hoax.

These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition that arose after the American "Morgan Affair" in 1826 gave rise to the term Anti-Masonry, which is still in use in America today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.

Religious opposition

Freemasonry has attracted criticism from theocratic states and organised religions that believe it is in competition with religion or perceive the fraternity's views or practices as heterodox; it has also long been the target of conspiracy theories that assert Freemasonry to be an occult and evil power.

Christianity and Freemasonry

Main article: Christian attitudes towards Freemasonry

Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain Christian denominations have had high-profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons. The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the Catholic Church. The objections raised by the Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic deistic religion which is in conflict with Church doctrine. More than 600 Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry. The first was Pope Clement XII's In eminenti apostolatus, 28 April 1738; the most recent was Pope Francis in a letter by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith 13 November 2023.

The 1917 Code of Canon Law explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic excommunication and banned books favouring Freemasonry.

In 1983, the Church issued a new code of canon law. Unlike its predecessor, the 1983 Code of Canon Law did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies it condemns. It states: "A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with an interdict." This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of Vatican II. However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued a Declaration on Masonic Associations, which states: "... the Church's negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion." In 2023, Pope Francis reaffirmed the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons stating the « irreconcilability between Catholic doctrine and Freemasonry » in response to Julito Cortes, Bishop of Dumanguete, who stated concerns over the growing number of Freemasons in the Philippines. The renewed ban cited both the 1983 Code of Canon Law, as well as the Guidelines made by a Bishops Conference in 2003. For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with the United Grand Lodge of England deny the Church's claims, stating that "Freemasonry does not seek to replace a Mason's religion or provide a substitute for it."

In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of mysticism, occultism, and even Satanism. Masonic scholar Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues. However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was also controversial among Freemasons in general. His writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore, an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the US. Notably, his book carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.

In 1993, the Southern Baptist Convention's Home Mission Board determined that some parts of freemasonry are incompatible with Christianity, while others are compatible, concluding that participation in freemasonry should be considered "a matter of personal conscience". The topic of Freemasonry remains controversial within the convention. James L. Holly, president of Mission and Ministry to Men, published a three volume book series titled "The Southern Baptist Convention and Freemasonry," critiquing the report to the Southern Baptist Convention in addition to the influence of Gary Leazer, then Director of the Interfaith Witness Department of the North American Mission Board. Gary Leazer published "Fundamentalism and Freemasonry", arguing that the convention's discussion of Freemasonry was influenced by Southern Baptist Convention conservative resurgence.

Free Methodist Church founder B.T. Roberts was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century. Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, "The god of the lodge is not the God of the Bible." Roberts believed Freemasonry was a "mystery" or "alternate" religion and encouraged his church not to support ministers who were Freemasons. Freedom from secret societies is one of the "frees" upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.

Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of the Church of England have been Freemasons, including Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher. In the past, few members of the Church of England would have seen any incongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and practising Freemasonry. In recent decades, however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing prominence of the evangelical wing of the church. The former archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, appeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic ritual, while being anxious to avoid causing offence to Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freemasons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was Bishop of Monmouth.

In 1933, the Orthodox Church of Greece officially declared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of apostasy and thus, until he repents, the person involved with Freemasonry cannot partake of the Eucharist. This has been generally affirmed throughout the whole Eastern Orthodox Church. The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Catholic and Protestant versions: "Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible with Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, acting and teaching in mystery and secret and deifying rationalism."

Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims, beyond the often-repeated statement that Freemasonry explicitly adheres to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry."

Christian men, who were discouraged from joining the Freemasons by their Churches or who wanted a more religiocentric society, joined similar fraternal organisations, such as the Knights of Columbus and Knights of Peter Claver for Catholics, and the Royal Black Institution for Protestants, although these fraternal organisations have been "organized in part on the style of and use many symbols of Freemasonry".

There are some elements of Freemasonry within the temple rituals of Mormonism.

Islam and Freemasonry

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Ottoman Caliph Mahmud I outlawed Freemasonry in the Ottoman Empire in 1748 CE and since that time Freemasonry was equated with atheism in the Ottoman Empire and the broader Islamic world.

Many Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to antisemitic conspiracy theories, though other criticisms are made, such as linking Freemasonry to Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (the false Messiah in Islamic Scripture). Syrian-Egyptian Islamic theologian Mūhammād Rashīd Ridâ (1865–1935) played the crucial role in leading the opposition to Freemasonry across the Islamic world during the early twentieth century. Influenced by Rida, Islamic anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in order to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Through his popular pan-Islamic journal Al-Manar, Rashid Rida spread anti-Masonic ideas which would directly influence the Muslim Brotherhood and subsequent Islamist movements, such as Hamas. In article 28 of its Covenant, Hamas states that Freemasonry, Rotary, and other similar groups "work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ..."

Several predominantly Muslim countries have banned Freemasonry within their borders, while others have not. Turkey and Morocco have established Grand Lodges, while in countries such as Malaysia and Lebanon, there are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an established Grand Lodge. In 1972, in Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, then Prime Minister of Pakistan, placed a ban on Freemasonry. Lodge buildings were confiscated by the government.

Masonic lodges existed in Iraq as early as 1917, when the first lodge under the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) was opened. Nine lodges under UGLE existed by the 1950s, and a Scottish lodge was formed in 1923. However, the position changed following the revolution, and all lodges were forced to close in 1965. This position was later reinforced under Saddam Hussein; the death penalty was "prescribed" for those who "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or who associate with Zionist organisations."

Political opposition

See also: Anti-Masonry

In 1799, English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the French Revolution, the Unlawful Societies Act banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an oath or obligation.

The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result, Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each private lodge's Secretary placed with the local "Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his lodge once a year. This continued until 1967, when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by Parliament.

Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of William Morgan by Freemasons and his subsequent disappearance. Reports of the "Morgan Affair", together with opposition to Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason), helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement. The short-lived Anti-Masonic Party was formed, which fielded candidates for the presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.

Erlangen Lodge revival, meeting in 1948
Lodge in Erlangen, Germany. First meeting after World War II with guests from US, France and Czechoslovakia, 1948.

In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the Propaganda Due lodge (a.k.a. P2). This lodge was chartered by the Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under Licio Gelli's leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the Vatican Bank. However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled Gelli in 1976.

Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the New World Order and the Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics. Historically Freemasonry has attracted criticism, and suppression from both the politically far right (e.g., Nazi Germany) and the far left (e.g., the former Communist states in Eastern Europe).

Freemasonry is viewed with distrust even in some modern democracies. In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police officers, were required to disclose their membership from 1999 to 2009. While a parliamentary inquiry found that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing, the government believed that Masons' potential loyalties to support fellow Masons should be transparent to the public. The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership by applicants for judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in 2009 by Justice Secretary Jack Straw (who had initiated the requirement in the 1990s). Straw stated that the rule was considered disproportionate since no impropriety or malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being Freemasons.

Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in France. As of the early 21st century, membership is rising, but reporting of it in popular media is often negative.

In some countries, anti-Masonry is often related to antisemitism and anti-Zionism. For example, in 1980, the Iraqi legal and penal code was changed by Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party, making it a felony to "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate with Zionist organisations". Professor Andrew Prescott of the University of Sheffield writes: "Since at least the time of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that 11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order".

The Holocaust

Main article: Holocaust victims § Freemasons See also: Liberté chérie and Suppression of Freemasonry
Forget-me-not
Forget-me-not

The preserved records of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons during the Holocaust. RSHA Amt VII (Written Records), overseen by Professor Franz Six, was responsible for "ideological" tasks, by which was meant the creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number of victims is not accurately known, historians estimate that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the Nazi regime. Masonic concentration camp inmates were classified as political prisoners and wore an inverted red triangle. Hitler believed Freemasons had succumbed to Jews conspiring against Germany.

The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in Bremen, Germany. In 1938, a forget-me-not badge, made by the same factory as the Masonic badge, was chosen for the Nazi Party's Winterhilfswerk, the annual charity drive of the National Socialist People's Welfare (the welfare branch of the Nazi party). This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of membership.

After World War II, the forget-me-not flower was used again as a Masonic emblem in 1948 at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948. The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi era.

See also

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Further reading

Further information: Freemasonry in France § Bibliography
  • Belton, John L., et al. Freemasonry in context: history, ritual, controversy (Lexington Books, 2004) online.
  • Berger, Joachim. "The great divide: Transatlantic brothering and masonic internationalism, c. 1870–c. 1930." Atlantic Studies 16.3 (2019): 405–422.
  • Dickie, John. The Craft: How the Freemasons Made the Modern World (PublicAffairs, 2020).
  • Fozdar, Vahid. " 'That Grand Primeval and Fundamental Religion': The Transformation of Freemasonry into a British Imperial Cult." Journal of World History 22#3 (2011), pp. 493–525. online
  • Hamill, John. The Craft: A History of English Freemasonry (1986)
  • Harland-Jacobs, Jessica L. Builders of Empire: Freemasons and British Imperialism, 1717–1927 (2007)
  • Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig. Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840–1918 (U of Michigan Press, 2007).
  • Jacob, Margaret C. Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (1991)
  • Jacob, Margaret C. The Origins of Freemasonry: Facts and Fictions (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
  • Jacob, Margaret, and Matthew Crow. "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment." in Handbook of Freemasonry (Brill, 2014) pp. 100–116. online
  • Loiselle, Kenneth. "Freemasonry and the Catholic Enlightenment in Eighteenth-Century France." Journal of Modern History 94.3 (2022): 499–536. online
  • Önnerfors, Andreas. Freemasonry: a very short introduction (Oxford University Press, 2017) excerpt.
  • Racine, Karen. "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) 1:538–540.
  • Ridley, Jasper. The Freemasons (1999), wide-ranging global popular history.
  • Snoek Jan A.M. and Henrik Bogdan. "The History of Freemasonry: An Overview" in Bogdan and Snoek, eds. Handbook of Freemasonry (Brill, 2014) ch. 2 pp 13–32. online
  • Stevenson, David. "Four Hundred Years of Freemasonry in Scotland." Scottish Historical Review, 90#230 (2011), pp. 280–295. online
  • Stevenson, David. The First Freemasons. Scotland's Early Lodges and Their Members (1988)
  • Weisberger, R. William et al. Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002), 969 pp
  • Weisberger, R. William. Speculative Freemasonry and the Enlightenment: A Study of the Craft in London, Paris, Prague and Vienna (Columbia University Press, 1993) 243 pp.

United States

  • Bullock, Steven C. Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840 (UNC Press Books, 2011).
  • Formisano, Ronald P., and Kathleen Smith Kutolowski. "Antimasonry and Masonry: The Genesis of Protest, 1826–1827." American Quarterly 29.2 (1977): 139–165. online
  • Hackett, David G. That Religion in Which All Men Agree : Freemasonry in American Culture (U of California Press, 2015)
  • Hinks, Peter P. et al. All Men Free and Brethren: Essays on the History of African American Freemasonry (Cornell UP, 2013).
  • Kantrowitz, Stephen. " 'Intended for the Better Government of Man': The Political History of African American Freemasonry in the Era of Emancipation." Journal of American History 96#4, (2010), pp. 1001–1026. online.
  • Weisberger, R. William et al. Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002), 969pp
  • York, Neil L. "Freemasons and the American Revolution." Historian 55#2 (1993), pp. 315–330. online

Historiography and memory

  • Jacob, Margaret. "The Radical Enlightenment and Freemasonry: where we are now." REHMLAC: Revista de Estudios Históricos de la Masonería Latinoamericana y Caribeña 1 (2013): 11–25.online.

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