Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 01:07, 22 December 2024

Commonwealth of Australia
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Advance Australia Fair"
Commonwealth of Australia   Australian territorial claim in Antarctica
Capital	Canberra 35°18′29″S 149°07′28″E / 35.30806°S 149.12444°E / -35.30806; 149.12444
Largest city	Sydney (metropolitan) Melbourne (urban)
Official language and national language	English (de facto) None (de jure)
Religion (2021)	43.9% Christianity 38.9% no religion 3.2% Islam 2.7% Hinduism 2.4% Buddhism 1.7% other 7.2% unanswered
Demonym(s)	Australian Aussie (colloquial)
Government	Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
• Governor-General	Sam Mostyn
• Prime Minister	Anthony Albanese
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Representatives
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Federation and creation of the Constitution	1 January 1901
• Balfour Declaration	15 November 1926
• Statute of Westminster Adoption Act	9 October 1942
• Australia Acts	3 March 1986
Area
• Total	7,688,287 km (2,968,464 sq mi) (6th)
• Water (%)	1.79 (2015)
Population
• 2024 estimate	27,579,200 (54th)
• 2021 census	25,890,773
• Density	3.6/km (9.3/sq mi) (244th)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$1.898 trillion (19th)
• Per capita	$69,475 (23rd)
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$1.802 trillion (14th)
• Per capita	$65,966 (12th)
Gini (2020)	32.4 medium inequality
HDI (2022)	0.946 very high (10th)
Currency	Australian dollar ($) (AUD)
Time zone	UTC+8; +9.5; +10 (AWST, ACST, AEST)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+10.5; +11 (ACDT, AEDT)
	DST not observed in Qld, WA and NT
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on	Left
Calling code	+61
ISO 3166 code	AU
Internet TLD	.au

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. Australia has a total area of 7,688,287 km (2,968,464 sq mi), making it the sixth-largest country in the world and the largest in Oceania. It is the world's oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited continent, with some of the least fertile soils. It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates including deserts in the interior and tropical rainforests along the coast.

The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. By the time of British settlement, Aboriginal Australians spoke 250 distinct languages and had the oldest living culture in the world. Australia's written history commenced with Dutch exploration of most of the coastline in the 17th-century. British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales. By the mid-19th century, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and five additional self-governing British colonies were established, each gaining responsible government by 1890. The colonies federated in 1901, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. This continued a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Acts of 1986.

Australia is a federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy comprising six states and ten territories. Its population of more than 28 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Canberra is the nation's capital, while its most populous cities are Sydney and Melbourne, both with a population of more than 5 million. Australia's culture is diverse, and the country has one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. It has a highly developed economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy. It ranks highly for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.

Australia is a middle power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure. It is a member of international groups including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community; the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence and security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes. It is also a major non-NATO ally of the United States.

Etymology

The name Australia (pronounced /əˈstreɪliə/ in Australian English) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ('southern land'), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times. Several 16th-century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia. When Europeans began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, the name Terra Australis was applied to the new territories.

Until the early 19th century, Australia was best known as New Holland, a name first applied by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1644 (as Nieuw-Holland) and subsequently anglicised. Terra Australis still saw occasional usage, such as in scientific texts. The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who said it was "more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the Earth". The first time that Australia appears to have been officially used was in April 1817, when Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledged the receipt of Flinders' charts of Australia from Lord Bathurst. In December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially by that name. The first official published use of the new name came with the publication in 1830 of The Australia Directory by the Hydrographic Office.

Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz", "Straya" and "Down Under". Other epithets include "the Great Southern Land", "the Lucky Country" (from the 1964 book of the same name), "the Sunburnt Country", and "the Wide Brown Land". The latter two both derive from Dorothea Mackellar's 1908 poem "My Country".

History

Indigenous prehistory

Indigenous Australians comprise two broad groups:

• Aboriginal Australians, who are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, including Tasmania
• Torres Strait Islanders, who are a distinct Melanesian people of Torres Strait Islands

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians. The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is possibly the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia. The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago.

Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth. At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians belonged to wide range of societies, with diverse economies spread across at least 250 different language groups. Estimates of the Aboriginal population before British settlement range from 300,000 to 3 million. Aboriginal Australians cultures were (and remain) deeply connected with the land and the environment, with stories of The Dreaming maintained through oral tradition, songs, dance and paintings. Certain groups engaged in fire-stick farming, fish farming, and built semi-permanent shelters. These practices have variously been characterised as "hunter-gatherer", "agricultural", "natural cultivation" and "intensification".

Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands at least 2,500 years ago. Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and villages appeared by the 1300s. By the mid-18th century in northern Australia, contact, trade and cross-cultural engagement had been established between local Aboriginal groups and Makassan trepangers, visiting from present-day Indonesia.

European exploration and colonisation

The Dutch are the first Europeans that recorded sighting and making landfall on the Australian mainland. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken, captained by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February 1606 at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York. Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through and navigated the Torres Strait Islands. The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, and although no attempt at settlement was made, a number of shipwrecks left men either stranded or, as in the case of the Batavia in 1629, marooned for mutiny and murder, thus becoming the first Europeans to permanently inhabit the continent. In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "New South Wales" and claimed for Great Britain.

Following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the First Fleet, under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the Union Flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which later became Australia's national day.

Most early settlers were convicts, transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants). Once emancipated, convicts tended to integrate into colonial society. Convict rebellions and uprisings were suppressed under martial law, which lasted for two years following the 1808 Rum Rebellion, Australia's only successful coup d'état. During the next two decades, social and economic reforms, together with the establishment of a Legislative Council and Supreme Court, saw the penal colony transition to a civil society.

The indigenous population declined for 150 years following European settlement, mainly due to infectious disease. British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties with Aboriginal groups. As settlement expanded, tens of thousands of Indigenous people and thousands of settlers were killed in frontier conflicts while settlers dispossessed surviving Indigenous peoples of most of their land.

Colonial expansion

In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania), and in 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement. The British claim extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany). The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, Western Australia. In accordance with population growth, separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, New Zealand in 1841, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. South Australia was founded as a free colony—it never accepted transported convicts. Growing opposition to the convict system culminated in its abolition in the eastern colonies by the 1850s. Initially a free colony, Western Australia practised penal transportation from 1850 to 1868.

The six colonies individually gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, thus becoming elective democracies managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs.

In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills charted Australia's interior. A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe, as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold licence fees. The 1860s saw the rise of blackbirding, where South Sea Islanders were coerced or abducted into indentured labour, mainly by Queensland colonists.

From 1886, Australian colonial governments began removing many Aboriginal children from their families and communities, justified on the grounds of child protection and forced assimilation policies. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) marked the largest overseas deployment of Australia's colonial forces.

Federation to the World Wars

On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation under the new Australian Constitution.

After the 1907 Imperial Conference, Australia and several other self-governing British settler colonies were given the status of self-governing dominions within the British Empire. Australia was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920, and the United Nations in 1945. The Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended the ability of the UK to pass federal laws without Australia's consent. Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed during World War II.

The Australian Capital Territory was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. While it was being constructed, Melbourne served as the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of South Australia to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia became the colonial ruler of the Territory of Papua (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1883) in 1902 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920. The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.

In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the First World War, and took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front. Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) at Gallipoli in 1915 as the "baptism of fire" that forged the new nation's identity. The beginning of the campaign is commemorated annually on Anzac Day, a date which rivals Australia Day as the nation's most important.

From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the Second World War. Australia's armed forces fought in the Pacific, European and Mediterranean and Middle East theatres. The shock of Britain's defeat in Singapore in 1942, followed soon after by the bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner. Since 1951, Australia has been allied with the United States under the ANZUS treaty.

Post-war and contemporary eras

In the decades following World War II, Australia enjoyed significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development. Governments encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with such immigrants referred to as "New Australians". This required a relaxation of the white Australia policy, which was justified to Australians using the slogan "populate or perish".

A member of the Western Bloc during the Cold War, Australia participated in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s and the Vietnam War from 1962 to 1972. During this time, tensions over communist influence in society led to unsuccessful attempts by the Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia, and a bitter split in the Labor Party in 1955.

As a result of a 1967 referendum, the federal government gained the power to legislate with regard to Indigenous Australians, and Indigenous Australians were fully included in the census. Pre-colonial land interests (referred to as native title in Australia) was recognised in law for the first time when the High Court of Australia held in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) that Australia was neither terra nullius ('land belonging to no one') or "desert and uncultivated land" at the time of European settlement.

Following the abolition of the last vestiges of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia. The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Pacific Rim nations. The Australia Acts severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom while maintaining the monarch in her independent capacity as Queen of Australia. In a 1999 constitutional referendum, 55% of voters rejected abolishing the monarchy and becoming a republic.

Following the September 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and the Iraq War from 2003 to 2009. The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin.

In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, several of Australia's largest cities were locked down for extended periods and free movement across the national and state borders was restricted in an attempt to slow the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Geography

General characteristics

Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent and sixth-largest country by total area, Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent" and is sometimes considered the world's largest island. Australia has 34,218 km (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an extensive exclusive economic zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.

Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° south, and longitudes 112° and 154° east. Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and desert in the centre. The desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. Australia is the driest inhabited continent; its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm. The population density is 3.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, although the large majority of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline. The population density exceeds 19,500 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne. In 2021 Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland. Forest cover is around 17% of Australia's total land area.

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 m (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak, at 2,745 m (9,006 ft), on the remote Australian external territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 m (11,457 ft) and 3,355 m (11,007 ft) respectively.

Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 m (5,200 ft) in height. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland and shrubland. These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Mitchell Grass Downs and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland. The northernmost point of the mainland is the tropical Cape York Peninsula.

The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country—with their tropical climate—include forest, woodland, wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert. At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. The Victoria Plains tropical savanna lies south of the Kimberley and Arnhem Land savannas, forming a transition between the coastal savannas and the interior deserts. At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia. Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast. The Western Australian mulga shrublands lie between the interior deserts and Mediterranean-climate Southwest Australia.

Geology

Lying on the Indo-Australian Plate, the mainland of Australia is the lowest and most primordial landmass on Earth with a relatively stable geological history. The landmass includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning more than 3.8 billion years of the Earth's history. The Pilbara Craton is one of only two pristine Archaean 3.6–2.7 Ga (billion years ago) crusts identified on the Earth.

Having been part of all major supercontinents, the Australian continent began to form after the break-up of Gondwana in the Permian, with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and Indian subcontinent. It separated from Antarctica over a prolonged period beginning in the Permian and continuing through to the Cretaceous. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the mainland of Australia. The Australian continent is moving toward Eurasia at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year.

The Australian mainland's continental crust, excluding the thinned margins, has an average thickness of 38 km, with a range in thickness from 24 km to 59 km. Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections, showcasing that the continent grew from west to east: the Archaean cratonic shields found mostly in the west, Proterozoic fold belts in the centre and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins, metamorphic and igneous rocks in the east.

The Australian mainland and Tasmania are situated in the middle of the tectonic plate and have no active volcanoes, but due to passing over the East Australia hotspot, recent volcanism has occurred during the Holocene, in the Newer Volcanics Province of western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. Volcanism also occurs in the island of New Guinea (considered geologically as part of the Australian continent), and in the Australian external territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands. Seismic activity in the Australian mainland and Tasmania is also low, with the greatest number of fatalities having occurred in the 1989 Newcastle earthquake.

Climate

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon). The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate. The south-east ranges from oceanic (Tasmania and coastal Victoria) to humid subtropical (upper half of New South Wales), with the highlands featuring alpine and subpolar oceanic climates. The interior is arid to semi-arid.

Driven by climate change, average temperatures have risen more than 1°C since 1960. Associated changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes exacerbate existing issues such as drought and bushfires. 2019 was Australia's warmest recorded year, and the 2019–2020 bushfire season was the country's worst on record. Australia's greenhouse gas emissions per capita are among the highest in the world.

Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought. Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in the early 2010s after the 2000s Australian drought.

Biodiversity

Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, the continent includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests. Fungi typify that diversity—an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% have been described—occur in Australia. Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Australia has at least 755 species of reptile, more than any other country in the world. Besides Antarctica, Australia is the only continent that developed without feline species. Feral cats may have been introduced in the 17th century by Dutch shipwrecks, and later in the 18th century by European settlers. They are now considered a major factor in the decline and extinction of many vulnerable and endangered native species. Seafaring immigrants from Asia are believed to have brought the dingo to Australia sometime after the end of the last ice age—perhaps 4000 years ago—and Aboriginal people helped disperse them across the continent as pets, contributing to the demise of thylacines on the mainland. Australia is also one of 17 megadiverse countries.

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts. Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra. Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world. The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE. Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species. All these factors have led to Australia's having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established. Australia was ranked 21st out of 178 countries in the world on the 2018 Environmental Performance Index. There are more than 1,800 animals and plants on Australia's threatened species list, including more than 500 animals. Paleontologists discovered a fossil site of a prehistoric rainforest in McGraths Flat, in South Australia, that presents evidence that this now arid desert and dry shrubland/grassland was once home to an abundance of life.

Government and politics

Australia is a constitutional monarchy, a parliamentary democracy and a federation. The country has maintained its mostly unchanged constitution alongside a stable liberal democratic political system since Federation in 1901. It is one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and state governments. The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a fused executive, constitutional monarchy and strong party discipline) and the United States (federalism, a written constitution and strong bicameralism with an elected upper house), resulting in a distinct hybrid.

Federal government power is partially separated between three groups:

• Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, comprising the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Representatives
• Executive: the Australian Government, led by the prime minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives), their chosen Cabinet and other ministers; formally appointed by the governor-general
• Judiciary: the High Court and other federal courts

Charles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by section 63 of the Constitution and convention act on the advice of their ministers. Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Cabinet. The governor-general may in some situations exercise reserve powers: powers exercisable in the absence or contrary to ministerial advice. When these powers may be exercised is governed by convention and their precise scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each of the current states guaranteed a minimum of five seats. The lower house has a maximum term of three years, but this is not fixed and governments usually dissolve the house early for an election at some point in the 6 months before the maximum. Elections for both chambers are generally held simultaneously with senators having overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house. Thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.

Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for the House of Representatives and all state and territory lower house elections (with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which use the Hare-Clark system). The Senate and most state upper houses use the proportional system which combines preferential voting with proportional representation for each state. Voting and enrolment is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and older in every jurisdiction. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the governor-general has the constitutional power to appoint the prime minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament. Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as a Westminster parliamentary democracy with a powerful and elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation", or as a semi-parliamentary system.

There are two major political groups that usually form government federally: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. At the state level of government, the relationship between the Nationals and the Liberal Party differs, with the parties merged in Queensland and the Northern Territory (federal parliamentarians sit in either the Liberal or National partyroom however); in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; and in competition with the Liberals in South Australia and Tasmania. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The Australian Greens are the third largest party by both vote and membership and the fourth largest by parliamentary representation. The most recent federal election was held on 21 May 2022 and resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, being elected to government.

States and territories

Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Victoria (Vic), Queensland (Qld), Western Australia (WA), South Australia (SA) and Tasmania (Tas)—and two mainland self-governing territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT).

The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth exclusive powers. The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency. Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states has significantly increased due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers – and because of the states' heavy financial reliance on Commonwealth grants.

Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister. The King is represented in each state by a governor. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.

The Commonwealth government directly administers the internal Jervis Bay Territory and the external territories: the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, the Heard Island and McDonald Islands, the Indian Ocean territories (Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), Norfolk Island, and the Australian Antarctic Territory. The remote Macquarie Island and Lord Howe Island are part of Tasmania and New South Wales respectively.

Foreign relations

Australia is a middle power, whose foreign relations has three core bi-partisan pillars: commitment to the US alliance, engagement with the Indo-Pacific and support for international institutions, rules and co-operation. Through the ANZUS pact and its status as a major non-NATO ally, Australia maintains a close relationship with the US, which encompasses strong defence, security and trade ties. In the Indo-Pacific, the country seeks to increase its trade ties through the open flow of trade and capital, while managing the rise of Chinese power by supporting the existing rules based order. Regionally, the country is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, the ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit. Internationally, the country is a member of the United Nations (of which it was a founding member), the Commonwealth of Nations, the OECD and the G20. This reflects the country's generally strong commitment to multilateralism.

Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation. It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Beginning in the 2000s, Australia entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, with the most recent deal signed in 2023 with the UK.

Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement. The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea. It also maintains an international aid program under which some 75 countries receive assistance. Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index.

The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and the national security committee, with major decision such as joining the 2003 invasion of Iraq made with without prior Cabinet approval. Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government. The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade supports the executive in its policy decisions.

Military

The two main institutions involved in the management of Australia's armed forces are the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the Department of Defence, together known as "Defence". The Australian Defence Force is the military wing, headed by the chief of the defence force, and contains three branches: the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force. In 2021, it had 84,865 currently serving personnel (including 60,286 regulars and 24,581 reservists). The Department of Defence is the civilian wing and is headed by the secretary of defence. These two leaders collective manage Defence as a diarchy, with shared and joint responsibilities. The titular role of commander-in-chief is held by the governor-general; however, actual command is vested in the chief of the Defence Force. The executive branch of the Commonwealth government has overall control of the military through the minister of defence, who is subject to the decisions of Cabinet and its National Security Committee. Major Australian intelligence agencies include the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (foreign intelligence), the Australian Signals Directorate (signals intelligence) and the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (domestic security).

In 2022, defence spending was 1.9% of GDP, representing the world's 13th-largest defence budget. In 2024, the ADF had active operations in the Middle East and the Indo-Pacific (including security and aid provisions); was contributing to UN forces in relation to South Sudan, Syria–Israel peacekeeping, and North Korea; and domestically was assisting to prevent asylum-seekers enter the country and assisting in natural disaster relief.

Human rights

Australia has generally strong protections for civil and political rights, and the country has signed up to a wide range of international rights treaties. Important documents protecting human rights include the Constitution, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, and the Age Discrimination Act 2004. Same-sex marriage has been legal in the nation since 2017. Unlike other comparable Western democracies, Australia does not have a single federal charter of rights in the Constitution or under legislation; however, the ACT, Victoria, and Queensland have state-based ones.

International organisations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have expressed concerns in areas including asylum-seeker policy, Indigenous deaths in custody, the lack of entrenched rights protection, and laws restricting protesting.

Economy

Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources. It is the world's fourteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP. As of 2021, it has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg, and has the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita. Australia has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022. According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing 3.2 million. It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty. The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also used by three island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu.

Australian government debt, about $963 billion in June 2022, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest. Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland. Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas. The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while its agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 3.6% of total GDP. Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer. China is Australia's largest trading partner by a wide margin, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports. Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.

Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked tenth in the Human Development Index in 2022. As of 2022, it is ranked twelfth in the Index of Economic Freedom and nineteenth in the Global Competitiveness Report. It attracted 9.5 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked thirteenth among the countries of Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism. The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries. Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.

Energy

In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced from black coal (37.2%), brown coal (12%), natural gas (18.8%), hydro (6.5%), wind (11.1%), solar (13.3%), bio-energy (1.2%) and others (1.7%). Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%). From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, while energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.

In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources, exceeding the target set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020. A new target of 82% per cent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022 and a target for net zero emissions by 2050 was set in 2021.

Science and technology

In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP. A recent study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people. In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are already valued at $34 billion combined. Australia ranked 23rd in the Global Innovation Index 2024.

With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world. CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities. Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy, the essential components of Wi-Fi technology, and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote. As of 2024, 13 Australian scientists have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry or medicine, and two have been awarded the Fields Medal.

Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration. Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA.

Demographics

Australia has a population density of 3.4 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west.

Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018. Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age of the population was 39 years. In 2015, 2.15% of the Australian population lived overseas, one of the lowest proportions worldwide.

Cities

Australia contains five cities (including their suburbs) that consist of more than one million people. Most of Australia's population live close to coastlines.

Ancestry and immigration

Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, the white Australia policy was strengthened, restricting further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2 and in the decades following, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, with multiculturalism becoming official policy. Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.

Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations. In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents. Most entered on skilled visas, however the immigration program also offers visas for family members and refugees.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census and the responses are classified into broad ancestry groups. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups as a proportion of the total population were: 57.2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11.2% Southern and Eastern European), 33.8% Oceanian, 17.4% Asian (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian), 3.2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1.4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1.3% Sub-Saharan African. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:

• English (33%)
• Australian (29.9%)
• Irish (9.5%)
• Scottish (8.6%)
• Chinese (5.5%)
• Italian (4.4%)
• German (4%)
• Indian (3.1%)
• Aboriginal (2.9%)
• Greek (1.7%)
• Filipino (1.6%)
• Dutch (1.5%)
• Vietnamese (1.3%)
• Lebanese (1%)

At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous—Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.

Language

Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the de facto official and national language. Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling. General Australian serves as the standard dialect. The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.

At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2.7%), Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese (1.2%) and Punjabi (0.9%).

More than 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact. The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered. The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians — Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole), Djambarrpuyngu (a Yolŋu language) and Pitjantjatjara (a Western Desert language) were among the most widely spoken. NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.

Religion

Australia has no state religion; section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits federal legislation that would establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion. However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.

At the 2021 census, 38.9% of the population identified as having "no religion", up from 15.5% in 2001. The largest religion is Christianity (43.9% of the population). The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9.8%). Non-British immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (2.7%), Buddhism (2.4%), Sikhism (0.8%), and Judaism (0.4%).

In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions. In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.

Health

Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females) is the fifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world, while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%. Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults; 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.

Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021. It introduced a national insurance scheme in 1975. Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme became universal once more in 1981 under the name of Medicare. The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%. The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.

Education

School attendance, or registration for home schooling, is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements. Since 2014, a national curriculum developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories. Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16. In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship. According to the 2022 PISA evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003. However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".

Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level. The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university. There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople. About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.

Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019. Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas. Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed more than $28 billion to the economy in the 2016–17 financial year.

Culture

Contemporary Australian culture reflects the country's Indigenous traditions, Anglo-Celtic heritage, and post-1945 history of multicultural immigration. The culture of the United States has also been influential. The evolution of Australian culture since British colonisation has given rise to distinctive cultural traits.

Many Australians identify egalitarianism, mateship, irreverence and a lack of formality as part of their national identity. These find expression in Australian slang, as well as Australian humour, which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic. New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by the Department of Home Affairs as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "fair go", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need. What these values mean, and whether or not Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.

Arts

Australia has more than 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites, and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes; its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye. Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land. The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation. While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston and Clarice Beckett, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends. The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira, as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract.

Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older. In the 19th century, Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary. Their works are still popular; Paterson's bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem. Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life. Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973. Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan. Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer.

In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed in corroborees. At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers, and later popular music acts such as the Bee Gees, AC/DC, INXS and Kylie Minogue achieved international recognition. Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government's Australia Council. There is a symphony orchestra in each state, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland. Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.

Media

The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry, and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased. With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock, Wake in Fright and Gallipoli, while Crocodile Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters. In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015. The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger.

Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. In 2024, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 39th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (19th) and the United Kingdom (23rd), but ahead of the United States (55th). This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia; most print media are under the control of News Corporation (59%) and Nine Entertainment Co (23%).

Cuisine

Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such as lemon myrtle, the macadamia nut and kangaroo meat now widely available.

The first colonists introduced British and Irish cuisine to the continent. This influence is seen in dishes such as fish and chips, and in the Australian meat pie, which is related to the British steak pie. Also during the colonial period, Chinese migrants paved the way for a distinctive Australian Chinese cuisine.

Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to new fusion dishes. Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which the flat white and avocado toast are now considered Australian staples. Pavlovas, lamingtons, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are also often called iconic Australian foods.

Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine. Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country. The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption, with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.

Sport and recreation

The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.

Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era, and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney. It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane. Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games, hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018.

Cricket is a major national sport. The Australian national cricket team competed against England in the first Test match (1877) and the first One Day International (1971), and against New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games. It has also won the men's Cricket World Cup a record six times.

Australia has professional leagues for four football codes, whose relative popularity is divided geographically. Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union. Soccer, while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.

The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.

See also

• Outline of Australia
• Index of Australia-related articles

Notes

1. Australia also has a royal anthem, "God Save the King", which may be played in place of or alongside the national anthem when members of the royal family are present. If not played alongside the royal anthem, the national anthem is instead played at the end of an official event.
2. Sydney is the largest city based on Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs). These represent labour markets and the functional area of Australian capital cities. Melbourne is larger based on ABS Significant Urban Areas (SUAs). These represent Urban Centres, or groups of contiguous Urban Centres, that contain a population of 10,000 people or more.
3. The religion question is optional in the Australian census.
4. ^ There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see Time in Australia.
5. The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name "Austrialia del Espíritu Santo" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit) for an island in Vanuatu. The Dutch adjectival form australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south.
6. For instance, the 1814 work A Voyage to Terra Australis.
7. Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between Antarctica and 60° south latitude.
8. Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry. The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-Celtic European ancestry.
9. Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so the total may exceed 100%.
10. The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-Celtic European ancestry.
11. Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include Torres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.
12. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
13. That is, 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.

References

1. "Australian National Anthem". Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. 19 January 2022. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
2. "Regional population, 2021-22 financial year". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 20 April 2023. Archived from the original on 20 April 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
3. Turnbull, Tiffanie (17 April 2023). "Melbourne overtakes Sydney as Australia's biggest city". BBC News. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
4. ^ "General Community Profile" (Excel file). 2021 Census of Population and Housing. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2022.
5. Pronounced "Ozzy"
6. "Aussie". Macquarie Dictionary. 16 October 2023. Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
7. Collins English Dictionary. Bishopbriggs, Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2009. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-0078-6171-2.
8. ^ "Area of Australia - States and Territories". Geoscience Australia. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
9. "Australia § Geography". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 16 August 2024.
10. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
11. ^ "Population clock and pyramid". Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Commonwealth of Australia. 5 March 2024. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 5 March 2024. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
12. "National, state and territory population". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 26 September 2022. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
13. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Australia)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
14. "Australia Gini Coefficient, 1995 – 2023 | CEIC Data". www.ceicdata.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
15. "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
16. Australian Government (March 2023). "Dates and time". Style Manual. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
17. Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (Imp) 63 & 64 Vict, c 12, s 3 Archived 9 January 2024 at the Wayback Machine
18. 41% of the Antarctic continent is also claimed by the country, however this is only recognised by the UK, France, New Zealand and Norway.
19. Korsch RJ.; et al. (2011). "Australian island arcs through time: Geodynamic implications for the Archean and Proterozoic". Gondwana Research. 19 (3): 716–734. Bibcode:2011GondR..19..716K. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.018. ISSN 1342-937X.
20. Macey, Richard (21 January 2005). "Map from above shows Australia is a very flat place". The Sydney Morning Herald. ISSN 0312-6315. OCLC 226369741. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
21. "The Australian continent". australia.gov.au. Archived from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
22. "Deserts". Geoscience Australia. Australian Government. 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 5 June 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
23. Kelly, Karina (13 September 1995). "A Chat with Tim Flannery on Population Control". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010. "Well, Australia has by far the world's least fertile soils".
24. Grant, Cameron (August 2007). "Damaged Dirt" (PDF). The Advertiser. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Australia has the oldest, most highly weathered soils on the planet.
25. ^ Clarkson, Chris; et al. (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. hdl:2440/107043. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28726833. S2CID 205257212.
26. ^ Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.
27. ^ Williams, Martin A. J.; Spooner, Nigel A.; McDonnell, Kathryn; O'Connell, James F. (January 2021). "Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date". Geoarchaeology. 36 (1): 92–108. Bibcode:2021Gearc..36...92W. doi:10.1002/gea.21822. ISSN 0883-6353. S2CID 225321249. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
28. ^ Flood, J. (2019). The Original Australians: The story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest NSW: Allen & Unwin. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-76087-142-0.
29. Contiades, X.; Fotiadou, A. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Change. Taylor & Francis. p. 389. ISBN 978-1-3510-2097-8. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
30. "Geographic Distribution of the Population". 24 May 2012. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
31. ^ "Regional population". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 20 April 2023. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
32. "Culturally and linguistically Diverse Australian". Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2024. Archived from the original on 19 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
33. O'Donnell, James (27 November 2023). "Is Australia a cohesive nation?". ABC Australia. Archived from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
34. "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2015". International Monetary Fund. 6 September 2015. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
35. "Human Development Report 2021-22" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
36. "Australians the world's wealthiest". The Sydney Morning Herald. 31 October 2011. Archived from the original on 10 July 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
37. "Statistics and rankings". Global Australia. 18 May 2021. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
38. Rachman, Gideon (13 March 2023). "Aukus, the Anglosphere and the return of great power rivalry". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
39. Australian pronunciations: Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition (2005) Melbourne, The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. ISBN 978-1-876429-14-0
40. "australia | Etymology, origin and meaning of the name australia by etymonline". www.etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
41. Clarke, Jacqueline; Clarke, Philip (10 August 2014). "Putting 'Australia' on the map". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
42. "He named it Austrialia del Espiritu Santo and claimed it for Spain" Archived 17 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine The Spanish quest for Terra Australis|State Library of New South Wales Page 1
43. "A note on 'Austrialia' or 'Australia' Rupert Gerritsen – Journal of The Australian and New Zealand Map Society Inc. The Globe Number 72, 2013 Archived 12 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Posesion en nombre de Su Magestad (Archivo del Museo Naval, Madrid, MS 951) p. 3.
44. "The Illustrated Sydney News". Illustrated Sydney News. National Library of Australia. 26 January 1888. p. 2. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
45. Purchas, vol. iv, pp. 1422–1432, 1625
46. Scott, Ernest (2004) . The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders. Kessinger Publishing. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-4191-6948-9. Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
47. Flinders, Matthew (1814) A Voyage to Terra Australis G. and W. Nicol
48. "Who Named Australia?". The Mail (Adelaide, South Australia). Adelaide: National Library of Australia. 11 February 1928. p. 16. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
49. Weekend Australian, 30–31 December 2000, p. 16
50. Department of Immigration and Citizenship (2007). Life in Australia (PDF). Commonwealth of Australia. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-9214-4630-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
51. Coman, Brian J. (2007). A Loose Canon: Essays on History, Modernity and Tradition. Connor Court Publishing Pty Ltd. ISBN 978-0-9802-9362-3. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
52. "Straya". Macquarie Dictionary. Archived from the original on 9 February 2024. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
53. School, Head of; admin.hal@anu.edu.au. "Australian National Dictionary Centre". ANU School of Literature, Languages and Linguistics. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
54. Nunn, Patrick (2018). The Edge of Memory: Ancient Stories, Oral Tradition and the Post-Glacial World. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4729-4327-9. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
55. Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2018). People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory. Taylor & Francis. pp. 250–253. ISBN 978-1-3517-5764-5. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
56. Oppenheimer, Stephen (2013). Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World. Little, Brown Book Group. pp. 111–. ISBN 978-1-7803-3753-1. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
57. ^ Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; et al. (21 September 2016). "A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia". Nature. 538 (7624). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 207–214. Bibcode:2016Natur.538..207M. doi:10.1038/nature18299. hdl:10754/622366. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 7617037. PMID 27654914.
58. Dorey, Fran. "When did modern humans get to Australia?". Australian Museum. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
59. Gilligan, Ian (2018). Climate, Clothing, and Agriculture in Prehistory: Linking Evidence, Causes, and Effects. Cambridge University Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-1084-7008-7. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
60. Tuniz, Claudio; Gillespie, Richard; Jones, Cheryl (2016). The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-3154-1888-9. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
61. Castillo, Alicia (2015). Archaeological Dimension of World Heritage: From Prevention to Social Implications. Springer Science. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4939-0283-5. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
62. "DNA confirms Aboriginal culture one of Earth's oldest". Australian Geographic. 23 September 2011. Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
63. Jozuka, Emiko (22 September 2016). "Aboriginal Australians are Earth's oldest civilization: DNA study". CNN. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
64. Williams, Elizabeth (2015). "Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia". Antiquity. 61 (232). Cambridge University Press: 310–321. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00052182. S2CID 162146349.
65. Sáenz, Rogelio; Embrick, David G.; Rodríguez, Néstor P. (3 June 2015). The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity. Springer. pp. 602–. ISBN 978-9-0481-8891-8. Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
66. Bradshaw, Corey J. A.; Williams, Alan N; Saltré, Frédérik; Norman, Kasih; Ulm, Sean (30 April 2021). "The First Australians grew to a population of millions, much more than previous estimates". The Conversation.
67. "1301.0 - Year Book Australia, 2002: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 25 January 2002. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023.
68. Gough, Myles (11 May 2011). "Prehistoric Australian Aboriginal populations were growing". Cosmos Magazine. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012.
69. Mawson, Stephanie (2021). "The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia". The Historical Journal. 64 (5): 1483–6. doi:10.1017/S0018246X20000369. ISSN 0018-246X.
70. Wyrwoll, Karl-Heinz (11 January 2012). "How Aboriginal burning changed Australia's climate". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
71. Williams, Robbie (21 June 2023). "Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
72. Bates, Badger; Westaway, Michael; Jackson, Sue (15 December 2022). "Aboriginal people have spent centuries building in the Darling River. Now there are plans to demolish these important structures". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
73. Clark, Anna (31 August 2023). "Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 11 February 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
74. Wahlquist, Calla (5 September 2016). "Evidence of 9,000-year-old stone houses found on Australian island". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
75. Flood, J. (2019). The Original Australians: The story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-1-76087-142-0.
76. Mawson, Stephanie (2021). "The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia". The Historical Journal. 64 (5): 1486–1491. doi:10.1017/S0018246X20000369. ISSN 0018-246X.
77. Bender, Barbara (1978). "Gatherer-hunter to farmer: A social perspective". World Archaeology. 10 (2): 204–222. doi:10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731. ISSN 0043-8243.
78. Gammage, Bill (October 2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia. Allen & Unwin. pp. 281–304.
79. Gammage, Bill (19 September 2023). "Colonists upended Aboriginal farming, growing grain and running sheep on rich yamfields, and cattle on arid grainlands". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 12 February 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
80. Flood, J. (2019). The Original Australians: The story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest NSW: Allen & Unwin. p. 25–27, 146. ISBN 978-1-76087-142-0.
81. David, Bruno; et al. (July 2004). "Badu 15 and the Papuan-Austronesian settlement of Torres Strait". Archaeology in Oceania. 39 (2): 65–78. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.2004.tb00564.x.
82. "Torres Strait Islands". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023 . Archived from the original on 15 June 2024. Retrieved 17 November 2024. Torres Strait Islands, island group in the Torres Strait, north of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia, and south of the island of New Guinea. They have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years. The present-day inhabitants are primarily of Melanesian origin, with some mixture of Polynesians and Southeast Asians.
83. Viegas, Jennifer (3 July 2008). "Early Aussie Tattoos Match Rock Art". Discovery News. Archived from the original on 10 July 2008. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
84. Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The Past 50,000 Years: An Archaeological View". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia. Vol. 1: Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-1-107-01153-3.
85. Macknight, Charles Campbell (2011). "The view from Marege': Australian knowledge of Makassar and the impact of the trepangindustry across two centuries". Aboriginal History. 35: 134. doi:10.22459/AH.35.2011.06. JSTOR 24046930.
86. T. Vigilante; et al. (2013). "Biodiversity values on selected Kimberley Islands, Australia" (PDF). Western Australian Museum. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
87. Russell, Denise (22 March 2004). "Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims" (PDF). Australian Aboriginal Studies. 2004 (1). Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies: 3–17. ISSN 0729-4352. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
88. Barber, Peter; Barnes, Katherine; Nigel Erskine (2013). Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita To Australia. National Library of Australia. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-6422-7809-8. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
89. Smith, Claire; Burke, Heather (2007). Digging It Up Down Under: A Practical Guide to Doing Archaeology in Australia. Springer Science. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-3873-5263-3. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
90. ^ Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 233
91. Brett Hilder (1980) The Voyage of Torres University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Queensland ISBN 978-0-7022-1275-8
92. Davis, Russell Earls (2019) A Concise History of Western Australia Woodslane Press ISBN 978-1-9258-6822-7 pp. 3–6
93. Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2013). World History: Journeys from Past to Present. Routledge. pp. 427–428. ISBN 978-1-1350-8829-3. Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
94. "European discovery and the colonisation of Australia". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 11 January 2008. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2010. moved north to Port Jackson on 26 January 1788, landing at Camp Cove, known as 'cadi' to the Cadigal people. Governor Phillip carried instructions to establish the first British Colony in Australia. The First Fleet was underprepared for the task, and the soil around Sydney Cove was poor.
95. Egan, Ted (2003). The Land Downunder. Grice Chapman Publishing. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-9545-7260-0. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
96. Kercher, Bruce (2020). An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781000248470. pp. 26–27.
97. Matsuda, Matt K. (2012) Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-0-5218-8763-2 pp. 165–167
98. Ward, Russel (1975). Australia: a short history (rev ed.). Ure Smith. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-7254-0164-1. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
99. Molony, John Neylon (1987). The Penguin History of Australia. Ringwood, Vic: Penguin. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-1400-9739-9. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
100. Smallpox Through History. Archived from the original on 18 June 2004.
101. ^ Flood, J. (2019). The Original Australians: The story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 42, 111, 147–59, 300. ISBN 978-1-76087-142-0.
102. Rule of Law Education Centre. "European Settlement and Terra Nullius". Archived from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
103. Reynolds, Henry (2022). Forgotten War (2nd ed.). Sydney: NewSouth. pp. 103–104, 134, 241–242, 182–192. ISBN 9781742237596.
104. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 464–465, 628–629
105. Conway, Jill. "Blaxland, Gregory (1778–1853)". Biography – Gregory Blaxland – Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Archived from the original on 8 April 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
106. Grey, Jeffrey (2008). A Military History of Australia (Third ed.). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–40. ISBN 978-0-5216-9791-0.
107. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 678
108. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 464
109. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 598
110. "Public Record Office Victoria online catalogue". 25 December 2005. Archived from the original on 25 December 2005. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
111. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 556
112. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 138–39
113. "Early explorers". Australia's Culture Portal. Archived from the original on 8 April 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
114. Jupp2, pp. 35–36
115. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 227–29
116. "Australian South Sea Islanders" Archived 10 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine, State Library of Queensland. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
117. Higginbotham, Will (17 September 2017). "Blackbirding: Australia's history of luring, tricking and kidnapping Pacific Islanders". ABC News. Archived from the original on 26 January 2024.
118. Banivanua Mar, Tracey; Edmonds, Penelope (2013). "Indigenous and settler relations". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 355–58, 363–64
119. Marlow, Karina (1 December 2016). "Explainer: the Stolen Generations". NITV.
120. O'Loughlin, Michael (22 June 2020). "The Stolen Generation". Australian Museum.
121. "Australia and the Boer War, 1899–1902". Australian War Memorial. 2 June 2021. Archived from the original on 24 March 2018.
122. Wilcox, Craig (2002). Australia's Boer War: The War in South Africa, 1899-1902. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195516371.
123. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 243–44
124. "History of the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Network. Commonwealth of Nations. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
125. "The Covenant of the League of Nations". The United Nations Office at Geneva. Archived from the original on 27 January 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
126. "Growth in United Nations membership". United Nations. Archived from the original on 1 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
127. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 609
128. "Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Cth)". National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014.
129. Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Cth)
130. "Establishing the nation's capital". Legislative Assembly for the Australian Capital Territory. 25 April 2020. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
131. Otto, Kristin (25 June – 9 July 2007). "When Melbourne was Australia's capital city". Melbourne, Victoria: University of Melbourne. Archived from the original on 2 April 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
132. Souter, Gavin (2012). Lion & Kangaroo: The Initiation of Australia. Xoum Publishing. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-9220-5700-6. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
133. ^ McDermott, Peter M (2009). "Australian Citizenship and the Independence of Papua New Guinea". UNSW Law Journal. 32 (1): 50–2. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024 – via Austlii.
134. New Guinea Act 1920 (Cth)
135. "Papua New Guinea Legal Research Guide". University of Melbourne. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
136. "First World War 1914–18". Australian War Memorial. 2 June 2021. Archived from the original on 20 January 2024.
137. Tucker, Spencer (2005). Encyclopedia of World War I. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-8510-9420-2.
138. Reed, Liz (2004). Bigger than Gallipoli: war, history, and memory in Australia. Crawley, Western Australia: University of Western Australia. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-9206-9419-7.
139. Macintyre, Stuart (2000) A Concise History of Australia Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 151–53, ISBN 978-0-521-62359-9
140. "The Anzac legend". Department of Veterans' Affairs. 17 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
141. Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin; Bou, Jean (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 32, 38. ISBN 978-0-1955-1784-2.
142. Manne, Robert (25 April 2007). "The war myth that made us". The Age. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
143. Beaumont, Joan (1996). "Australia's war: Europe and the Middle East". In Beaumont, Joan (ed.). Australia's War, 1939–1945. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86448-039-9.
144. Beaumont, Joan (1996a). "Australia's war: Asia and the Pacific". In Beaumont, Joan (ed.). Australia's War, 1939–1945. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86448-039-9.
145. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 22–23
146. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, p. 30
147. Hosking, Susan; et al., eds. (2009). Something Rich and Strange: Sea Changes, Beaches and the Littoral in the Antipodes. Wakefield Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-8625-4870-1.
148. Hodge, Brian; Whitehurst, Allen (1967). Nation and People: An Introduction to Australia in a Changing World. Hicks, Smith. pp. 184–. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
149. "Immigration to Australia During the 20th Century – Historical Impacts on Immigration Intake, Population Size and Population Composition – A Timeline" (PDF). Department of Immigration and Citizenship (Australia). 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 August 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2008.
150. "'Populate or perish': Australia's postwar migration program". National Archives of Australia. Australian Government. Retrieved 31 August 2024.
151. Dean, Peter; Moss, Tristan, eds. (2021). "Introduction" (PDF). Fighting Australia's Cold War. Canberra: ANU Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-76046-482-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
152. Frank Crowley (1973) Modern Australia in Documents, 1939–1970. pp. 222–26. Wren Publishing, Melbourne. ISBN 978-0-1700-5300-6
153. Calwell, Arthur Augustus (1972). Be just and fear not. Hawthorn, Victoria: Lloyd O'Neil Pty Ltd. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-8555-0352-9.
154. Edwards, William Howell (2004). An Introduction to Aboriginal Societies. Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 25–26, 30, 132–133. ISBN 978-1-8766-3389-9. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
155. Galloway, Kate (26 April 2017). "Australian politics explainer: the Mabo decision and native title". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
156. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 5–7, 402
157. "Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy". Australian Immigration. Commonwealth of Australia: National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
158. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 338–39, 442–43, 681–82
159. Sawer, Geoffrey (1966). "The Australian Constitution and the Australian Aborigines" (PDF). Federal Law Review. 2 (1). Canberra: Australian National University: 17–36. doi:10.1177/0067205X6600200102. ISSN 1444-6928. S2CID 159414135. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
160. Thompson, Roger C. (1994). The Pacific Basin since 1945: A history of the foreign relations of the Asian, Australasian, and American rim states and the Pacific islands. Longman. ISBN 978-0-5820-2127-3.
161. "Australia Act 1986 (Cth)". Documenting a Democracy. Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
162. Twomey, Anne (January 2008). "The States, the Commonwealth and the Crown—the Battle for Sovereignty". Parliament of Australia. Papers on Parliament No. 48. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022.
163. "1999: Republic referendum: Queen and/or Country". Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House. Archived from the original on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
164. Neville, Leigh (2019). The Australian Army at War 1976–2016 (First ed.). London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4728-2631-2.
165. "Fifty years of Australia's trade" (PDF). Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
166. Dawson, Emma (2020). What Happens Next? Reconstructing Australia After COVID-19. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 978-0-5228-7721-2.
167. Rosenberg, Matt (20 August 2009). "The New Fifth Ocean – The World's Newest Ocean – The Southern Ocean". About.com: Geography. Archived from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
168. "Continents: What is a Continent?". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 14 July 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2009. "Most people recognize seven continents — Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia, from largest to smallest — although sometimes Europe and Asia are considered a single continent, Eurasia".
169. "Australia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 22 September 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2009. "Smallest continent and sixth largest country (in area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans".
170. "Islands". Geoscience Australia. Archived from the original on 23 April 2010. "Being surrounded by ocean, Australia often is referred to as an island continent. As a continental landmass it is significantly larger than the many thousands of fringing islands ..."
171. "Australia in Brief: The island continent". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia). Archived from the original on 4 June 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2009. "Mainland Australia, with an area of 7.69 million square kilometres, is the Earth's largest island but smallest continent".
172. "State of the Environment 2006". Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Archived from the original on 10 July 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2007.
173. "Oceans and Seas – Geoscience Australia". Geoscience Australia. Archived from the original on 20 June 2009.
174. "Parks and Reserves—Australia's National Landscapes". environment.gov.au. 23 November 2011. Archived from the original on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
175. Loffler, Ernst; Loffler, Anneliese; A. J. Rose; Warner, Denis (1983). Australia: Portrait of a continent. Richmond, Victoria: Hutchinson Group (Australia). pp. 37–39. ISBN 978-0-0913-0460-7.
176. ^ "Australia – Climate of Our Continent". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 17 March 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
177. "Population Density". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 26 March 2019. Archived from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
178. World Food and Agriculture: Statistical Yearbook 2023. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en. ISBN 978-92-5-138262-2. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023.
179. Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023.
180. "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Australia". Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
181. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1980). "Protected Areas and World Heritage – Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Archived from the original on 28 May 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2007.
182. "Mount Augustus". The Sydney Morning Herald. 17 February 2005. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
183. "Highest Mountains". Geoscience Australia. 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
184. ^ Johnson, David (2009). The Geology of Australia (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-5217-6741-5.
185. Seabrooka, Leonie; McAlpinea, Clive; Fenshamb, Rod (2006). "Cattle, crops and clearing: Regional drivers of landscape change in the Brigalow Belt, Queensland, Australia, 1840–2004". Landscape and Urban Planning. 78 (4): 375–376. Bibcode:2006LUrbP..78..373S. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.11.007.
186. "Einasleigh Uplands savanna". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
187. "Mitchell grass downs". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
188. "Eastern Australia mulga shrublands". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
189. "Southeast Australia temperate savanna". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
190. "Arnhem Land tropical savanna". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
191. "Rangelands – Overview". Australian Natural Resources Atlas. Australian Government. 27 June 2009. Archived from the original on 13 March 2010. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
192. "Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
193. Van Driesum, Rob (2002). Outback Australia. Lonely Planet. p. 306. ISBN 978-1-8645-0187-2.
194. "Victoria Plains tropical savanna". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
195. "Western Australian Mulga shrublands". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
196. "Central Ranges xeric scrub". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
197. Banting, Erinn (2003). Australia: The land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-7787-9343-4.
198. ^ "Tirari-Sturt stony desert". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
199. "Great Sandy-Tanami desert". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
200. "Western Australian mulga shrublands". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
201. Pirajno, F., Occhipinti, S.A. and Swager, C.P., 1998. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Palaeoproterozoic Bryah, Padbury and Yerrida basins, Western Australia: implications for the history of the south-central Capricorn orogen Precambrian Research, 90: 119–40
202. Pain, C.F., Villans, B.J., Roach, I.C., Worrall, L. & Wilford, J.R. (2012) "Old, flat and red – Australia's distinctive landscape" In: Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia Blewitt, R.S. (Ed.) Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra. pp. 227–75 ISBN 978-1-9221-0343-7
203. Gray, DR; Foster, DA (2004). "Tectonic review of the Lachlan Orogen: historical review, data synthesis and modern perspectives". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 51 (6): 773–817. doi:10.1111/j.1400-0952.2004.01092.x. S2CID 128901742.
204. Hawkesworth, CJ; et al. (2010). "The generation and evolution of the continental crust". Journal of the Geological Society. 167 (2): 229–248. Bibcode:2010JGSoc.167..229H. doi:10.1144/0016-76492009-072. S2CID 131052922.
205. Hillis RR & Muller RD. (eds) 2003 Evolution and dynamics of the Australian Plate Geological Society of Australia Special Publication 22: 432 p.
206. Cawood, PA (2005). "Terra Australis Orogen: Rodinia breakup and development of the Pacific and Iapetus margins of Gondwana during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic". Earth-Science Reviews. 69 (3–4): 249–279. Bibcode:2005ESRv...69..249C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.09.001.
207. McKenzie et al. (ed) 2004 Australian Soils and Landscapes: an illustrated compendium CSIRO Publishing: 395 p.
208. Bishop P & Pillans B. (eds) 2010, Australian Landscapes Geological Society of London Special Publication 346
209. Mccue, Kevin (26 February 2010). "Land of earthquakes and volcanoes?". Australian Geographic. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
210. Van Ufford AQ & Cloos M. 2005 Cenozoic tectonics of New Guinea AAPG Bulletin 89: 119–140
211. "Earthquake History, Regional Seismicity And The 1989 Newcastle Earthquake". Geoscience Australia. 22 June 2004. Archived from the original on 26 August 2004. Retrieved 27 June 2007.
212. Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5 (1): 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
213. Kleinman, Rachel (6 September 2007). "No more drought: it's a 'permanent dry'". Melbourne: The Age. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
214. Marks, Kathy (20 April 2007). "Australia's epic drought: The situation is grim". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 22 April 2007. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
215. "Climate of Western Australia". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 17 March 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
216. "State of the Climate 2020" (PDF). Bureau of Meteorology. November 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
217. "Australia fires: Life during and after the worst bushfires in history". BBC News. 28 April 2020. Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
218. Environment at a Glance Indicators: Climate change (PDF) (Report). OECD. 9 March 2020. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
219. Heggie, Jon (August 2019). "Making Every Drop Count: How Australia is Securing its Water Future". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 July 2020.
220. "National review of water restrictions in Australia". Australian Government National Water Commission. 15 January 2010. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
221. Gergis, Joelle (23 March 2021). "Yes, Australia is a land of flooding rains. But climate change could be making it worse". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
222. Pascoe, I. G.; (1991) History of systematic mycology in Australia History of Systematic Botany in Australasia Ed. by: P. Short Australian Systematic Botany Society Inc. pp. 259–264
223. "About Biodiversity". Department of the Environment and Heritage. Archived from the original on 5 February 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2007.
224. Lambertini, Marco (2000). A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics (excerpt). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-2264-6828-0. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
225. "Fact check: Are feral cats killing over 20 billion native animals a year?". ABC News. 20 November 2014. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
226. Jackson, Stephen; Groves, Colin (2015). Taxonomy of Australian Mammals. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. pp. 287–290. ISBN 978-1-4863-0013-6.
227. Evans, Megan C.; Watson, James E. M.; Fuller, Richard A.; Venter, Oscar; Bennett, Simon C.; Marsack, Peter R.; Possingham, Hugh P. (April 2011). "The Spatial Distribution of Threats to Species in Australia". BioScience. 61 (4): 282. doi:10.1525/bio.2011.61.4.8.
228. ^ "About Australia: Flora and fauna". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. May 2008. Archived from the original on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2010.
229. "Snake bite – The Australian Venom Compendium Concept". 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 15 January 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
230. Savolainen, P.; Leitner, T.; Wilton, A.N.; Matisoo-Smith, E.; Lundeberg, J. (2004). "A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (33): 12387–12390. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10112387S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0401814101. PMC 514485. PMID 15299143.
231. "Humans to blame for extinction of Australia's megafauna". University of Melbourne. 8 June 2001. Archived from the original on 2 April 2010. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
232. "The Thylacine Museum – A Natural History of the Tasmanian Tiger". The Thylacine Museum. Archived from the original on 15 March 2006. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
233. "National Threatened Species Day". Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. 2006. Archived from the original on 9 December 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
234. "Invasive species". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 17 March 2010. Archived from the original on 29 June 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
235. "Australia's most endangered species". Australian Geographic. 2 October 2012. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
236. "About the EPBC Act". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Archived from the original on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
237. "National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 21 January 2010. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
238. "Conservation of biological diversity across Australia". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 19 January 2009. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
239. "The List of Wetlands of International Importance". Ramsar Convention. 22 May 2010. pp. 6–7. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
240. "Australia". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
241. "2018 EPI Results", Environmental Performance Index, Yale Center for International Earth Science Information Network, archived from the original on 23 July 2019, retrieved 24 September 2018
242. March, Stephanie (24 June 2019). "'Haunting': What it's like watching the last of a species die". ABC News. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
243. Michelle Starr (7 January 2022). "Mind-Blowing New Fossil Site Found in The 'Dead' Heart of Australia". Science Alert. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
244. Michael Greshko (7 January 2022). "See the spectacular fossils from a newly discovered prehistoric rainforest". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022.
245. "Australian system of government". Parliamentary Education Office. 12 January 2024. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024.
246. ^ Thompson, Elaine (1980). "The 'Washminster' Mutation". Politics. 15 (2): 32. doi:10.1080/00323268008401755.
247. "What is the Washminster system?". Parliamentary Education Office. 14 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024.
248. "Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary". Parliamentary Education Office. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
249. ^ "Australia § Government". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 16 August 2024.
250. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 287–88
251. ^ "Governor-General's Role". Governor-General of Australia. Archived from the original on 4 August 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
252. Downing, Susan (23 January 1998). "The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General". Parliament of Australia. Archived from the original on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
253. ^ "Senate Summary". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 6 May 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
254. Muller, Damon (26 April 2023). "The process for, and consequences of, changing the size of the Commonwealth Parliament: a quick guide". Parliament of Australia. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023.
255. Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters (10 October 2005). "Parliamentary terms". The 2004 Federal Election. Parliament of Australia. paras. 7.26–7.27. ISBN 978-0-642-78705-7. Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
256. Evans, Tim (2006). "Compulsory Voting in Australia" (PDF). Australian Electoral Commission. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
257. "Is it compulsory to enrol, regardless of age or disability?". Enrolment – Frequently Asked Questions. Australian Electoral Commission. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
258. Brett, Judith (2019). From Secret Ballot to Democracy Sausage: How Australia Got Compulsory Voting. Text Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-9256-0384-2.
259. "Governor-General's Role". Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
260. Ganghof, S (May 2018). "A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government". European Journal of Political Research. 57 (2): 261–281. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12224.
261. "Glossary of Election Terms". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
262. "State of the Parties". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
263. "The Liberal-National Party – a new model party?". ABC News. 30 July 2008. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
264. Fenna, Alan; Robbins, Jane; Summers, John (2013). Government Politics in Australia. London: Pearson Higher Education AU. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-4860-0138-5.
265. Harris, Rob (22 April 2020). "Old Greens wounds reopen as members vote on directly electing leader". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
266. Jackson, Stewart (2016). The Australian Greens : from activism to Australia's third party. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 978-0-5228-6794-7.
267. "Anthony Albanese sworn in as Prime Minister". ABC News. 22 May 2022. Archived from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
268. "What's the difference between a territory and a state parliament?". Parliamentary Education Office. 14 December 2023. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024.
269. Pyke, John (2020). Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 405–6. ISBN 978-0-455-24415-0.
270. "Three levels of government: governing Australia". Parliamentary Education Office. 19 July 2022. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
271. Pyke, John (2020). Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 528–30, 577–80. ISBN 978-0-455-24415-0.
272. Australian Constitution (Cth) s 109. "When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid."
273. Pyke, John (2020). Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 607–9. ISBN 978-0-455-24415-0.
274. Beck, Luke (2020). Australian constitutional law: concepts and cases. Port Melbourne, VIC: Cambridge university press. pp. 521–8. ISBN 978-1-108-70103-7.
275. "Administrator of Norfolk Island". Australian Government Attorney-General's Department. Archived from the original on 6 August 2008.
276. Tan, Monica; Australian Associated Press (12 May 2015). "Norfolk Island loses its parliament as Canberra takes control". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 October 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
277. Norfolk Island previously was self-governed, however this was revoked in 2015.
278. This Antarctic claim is recognised by only by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.
279. "Australian Territories". Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
280. "Macquarie Island research station to be closed in 2017". ABC News. 13 September 2016. Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
281. Southerden, Louise (8 November 2017). "Which island should you visit - Lord Howe or Norfolk? A guide to both". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 16 February 2024.
282. Lowy Institute Asian Power Index (PDF) (Report). 2023. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-6480189-3-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
283. Gyngell, Allan (31 July 2022). "A new Australian foreign policy agenda under Albanese". East Asia Forum. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024.
284. ^ 2017 Foreign Policy White Paper (PDF) (Report). Australian Government. 2017. pp. 1–8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
285. Firth, Stewart (2011). Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (3rd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 332–8. ISBN 978-1-74237-263-1.
286. "Australia and the United States". Australian Embassy and Consulates. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
287. Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (20 January 2021). "Major Non-NATO Ally Status". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
288. Page, Mercedes (31 May 2022). "Multilateralism matters again". The Interpreter. Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024.
289. Watson, Mark R (30 October 2023). "Australia and the Quad: A Watering Can or a Hammer?". The National Bureau of Asian Research. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
290. Capling, Ann (2013). Australia and the Global Trade System: From Havana to Seattle. Cambridge University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-5217-8525-9.
291. Gallagher, P. W. (1988). "Setting the agenda for trade negotiations: Australia and the Cairns group". Australian Journal of International Affairs. 42 (1 April 1988): 3–8. doi:10.1080/10357718808444955.
292. "APEC and Australia". APEC 2007. 1 June 2007. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
293. "Australia:About". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Archived from the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
294. "Australia – Member information". World Trade Organization. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
295. "Australia's free trade agreements (FTAs)". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 19 January 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
296. "Trans-Tasman Roadmap to 2035". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 26 July 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
297. Kassam, Natasha (2021). "2021 Lowy Institute Poll" (PDF). Lowy Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
298. "Australian Aid". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
299. Mitchell, Ian; Robinson, Lee; Cichocka, Beata; Ritchie, Euan (13 September 2021). "The Commitment to Development Index 2021". Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
300. Lee, David (31 December 2023). "Cabinet papers 2003: Howard government sends Australia into the Iraq war". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
301. Firth, Stewart (2011). Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (3rd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 78–84. ISBN 978-1-74237-263-1.
302. Appleby, Gabrielle (2 September 2014). "Explainer: Australia's war powers and the role of parliament". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
303. "Capability review: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade". Australian Public Service Commision. June 2013. p. 2. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
304. "Organisation structure". Australian Government: Defence. Archived from the original on 3 November 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
305. "Australian Defence Force service". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 29 June 2022. Archived from the original on 19 November 2023.
306. Defence Annual Report 2022–23 (PDF) (Report). Australian Government: Defence. 18 September 2023. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-925890-47-1. ISSN 1323-5036. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2023.
307. Defence Act 1903 (Cth) s 9
308. Khosa, Raspal (July 2011). Australian Defence Almanac: 2011–2012 (PDF) (Report). Australian Strategic Policy Institute. pp. 2, 12. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2023.
309. "Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. April 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
310. "Operations". Defence. Australian Government. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
311. "Australia: Events of 2023". World Report 2024. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
312. "Legal - Legislation". Australian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
313. "The 20 most and least gay-friendly countries in the world". Public Radio International. 26 June 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2017.
314. "Same-Sex Marriage Around the World". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
315. "Amnesty International Report 2022/23: The state of the world's human rights". Amnesty International Australia. 28 March 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
316. "Australia: Setbacks, Inaction on Key Rights Issues". Human Rights Watch. 11 January 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
317. Russell, Clyde (30 March 2021). "Column: Resource-rich Australia shows vagaries of any commodity supercycle". Reuters. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
318. "Global Wealth Databook 2021" (PDF). Credit Suisse. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
319. Carrera, Jordi Bosco; Grimm, Michaela; Halzhausen, Arne; Pelaya, Patricia (7 October 2021). "ALLIANZ GLOBAL WEALTH REPORT 2021" (PDF). Allianz. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
320. "Labour Force, Australia". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 14 July 2022. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
321. "Poverty – Poverty and Inequality".
322. "Report shows three million people in poverty in Australia and why we must act to support each other". ACOSS. 21 February 2020.
323. "Small island economies" (PDF). Asian Development Bank. 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2022. All three countries use the Australian dollar as legal tender.
324. Dossor, Rob. "Commonwealth debt". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
325. "Household debt, loans and debt securities". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
326. Neubauer, Ian (6 April 2022). "'Ridiculous prices': Australians' home ownership dreams turn sour". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
327. "Australia. CIA – The World Factbook". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
328. "List of importing markets for the product exported by Austral1ia in 2021". International Trade Centre. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
329. "List of supplying markets for the product imported by Australia in 2021". International Trade Centre. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
330. Tan, Weizhen (29 December 2020). "Australia's growth may 'never return' to its pre-virus path after trade trouble with China, says economist". CNBC. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
331. "Trade and investment at a glance 2020". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
332. United Nations Development Programme (September 2022). "United Nations Development Programme, The 2021/2022 Human Development Report: Uncertain times, unsettled lives, Shaping our future in a transforming world (p 272)". United Nations. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
333. "Country Rankings". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
334. Schwab, Klaus (2022). "The Global Competitiveness Report" (PDF). World Economic Forum.
335. "Trends in the Visitor Arrivals to Japan by Year". JNTO. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
336. ^ "Statistical Annex". UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. 18 (5). UNWTO: 18. August–September 2020. doi:10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.5.
337. "The Travel & Tourism Development Index 2021" (PDF). World Economic Forum. May 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
338. "Australian electricity generation - fuel mix". energy.gov.au. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
339. "Australian electricity generation renewable sources". energy.gov.au. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
340. "Australian energy mix by state and territory 2021-22". energy.gov.au. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
341. "Energy consumption". energy.gov.au. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
342. "Renewable Energy Target Scheme Design" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
343. Clean Energy Council Australia. "Clean Energy Australia Report 2021" (PDF). Clean Energy Australia. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
344. "Australia will fall well short of 82 per cent renewable energy by 2030, analysts predict, as problems mount". ABC News. 5 August 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
345. Evans, Jake (26 October 2021). "What is the government's plan to get Australia to net zero?". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 11 February 2024.
346. "Research and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia, 2019–20 financial year". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 9 March 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
347. "Australia wants a place in ranks of global tech nations". Australian Financial Review. 12 April 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
348. "Sydney's startup ecosystem is worth $24 billion, Melbourne's $10.5bn". Startup Daily. 23 September 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
349. World Intellectual Property Organization.; Dutta, Soumitra.; Lanvin, Bruno.; Rivera León, Lorena.; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha. (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. World Intellectual Property Organization. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
350. "Research Output | Australian Innovation System Monitor". publications.industry.gov.au. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
351. ^ Berthold, Emma (17 May 2021). "Science in Australia". Curious. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
352. Hannaford, Peter. "Alan Walsh 1916–1998". AAS Biographical Memoirs. Australian Academy of Science. Archived from the original on 24 February 2007. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
353. "Wi-fi". National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
354. "Proceeds of crime: how polymer banknotes were invented". CSIROscope. 25 November 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
355. "Nobel Australians". Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved 21 December 2024.
356. Watson, Laura (1 August 2018). "AMSI Congratulates Australia's Second Ever Fields Medallist". Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute. Retrieved 21 December 2024.
357. Williams, Dave (19 March 2014). "Australia's part in 50 years of space exploration with NASA". The Conversation. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
358. "Main Features – Main Features". 3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2017–18. Commonwealth of Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 27 March 2019.
359. "Population: Census". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022.
360. "United Nations Population Division – Department of Economic and Social Affairs". Retrieved 13 May 2016.
361. "The Beach". Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 17 March 2008. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010.
362. "Regional Population, 2021". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 11 February 2022.
363. "The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy". Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. 2005. Archived from the original on 19 February 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2007.
364. ^ "2018–19 Migration Program Report" (PDF). Australian Government Department of Home Affairs. 30 June 2019.
365. "Main Features – Australia's Population by Country of Birth". 3412.0 – Migration, Australia, 2019–20. Commonwealth of Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 23 April 2021.
366. "International migrant stock 2017: maps". United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Archived from the original on 9 December 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
367. "Overseas Migration". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 15 December 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
368. "Australia's Migration Trends 2022–23" (PDF). Department of Home Affairs. 2023.
369. "Net Overseas Migration". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
370. "Understanding and using Ancestry data". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 9 February 2024.
371. ^ "Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups (ASCCEG), 2019". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 18 December 2019. Archived from the original on 21 November 2023.
372. Cultural diversity data summary. 2021. Australian Bureau of Statistics.
373. ^ "Feature Article – Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article)". 1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995. Commonwealth of Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics.
374. "Understanding and using Ancestry data". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2024.
375. "Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?". 1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 11 January 2009. "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."
376. Ward, Rowena (2019). "'National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific". Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies. 16 (1/2): 83–4. doi:10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510. The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.
377. Moore, Bruce. "The Vocabulary Of Australian English" (PDF). National Museum of Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
378. "The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005.
379. Lalande, Line (4 May 2020). "Australian English in a nutshell". Government of Canada.
380. "Census of Population and Housing: Cultural diversity data summary, 2021, TABLE 5. LANGUAGE USED AT HOME BY STATE AND TERRITORY". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
381. "2021 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024.
382. National Indigenous Languages Report. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. 2020. p. 13.
383. National Indigenous Language Report (2020). pp. 42, 65
384. "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: Census". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 June 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
385. National Indigenous Languages Report (2020). p. 46
386. "About Australia: Religious Freedom". Dfat.gov.au. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
387. Puls, Joshua (1998). "The Wall of Separation: Section 116, the First Amendment and Constitutional Religious Guarantees" (PDF). Federal Law Review: 160 – via Austlii.
388. "2001 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024.
389. "Religious affiliation in Australia". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 7 April 2022.
390. Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 163–69
391. "Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Australia". World Bank. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
392. "Skin cancer – key statistics". Department of Health and Ageing. 2008. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014.
393. "Risks to health in Australia" (PDF). Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 26 February 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2011.
394. "quitnow – Smoking – A Leading Cause of Death". 19 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 February 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
395. "Global prevalence of adult obesity" (PDF). January 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
396. "About Overweight and Obesity". Department of Health and Ageing. Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
397. "Overweight and obesity". Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 25 February 2021.
398. "Current healthcare expenditure (% of GDP) – Australia". World Bank. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
399. ^ Biggs, Amanda (29 October 2004). "Medicare – Background Brief". Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library. Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
400. "International Health Care System Profiles: Australia". The Commonwealth Fund. 5 June 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
401. "Medicare levy". Australian Taxation Office. 18 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2018.
402. Townsend, Ian (30 January 2012). "Thousands of parents illegally home schooling". ABC News. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
403. "The Australian Education System" (PDF). Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. pp. 7–9. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
404. Ross, Emily (18 November 2021). "Why do Australian states need a national curriculum, and do teachers even use it?". The Conversation. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
405. "Education". Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
406. "Our system of education". Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
407. "The Department of Education – Schools and You – Schooling". det.wa.edu.au. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
408. "Education Act (NT) – Section 20". austlii.edu.au.
409. "Education Act 1990 (NSW) – Section 21". austlii.edu.au.
410. "Minimum school leaving age jumps to 17". The Age. 28 January 2009. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
411. "PISA 2022 Results (Volume I and II) - Country Notes: Australia". OECD. 4 December 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
412. Long, Claudia (6 December 2023). "Australia is now in the world's top 10 academic performers – but the data paints a complex picture". ABC News Australia. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
413. "Literacy". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
414. "Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, Australia". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 9 October 2013.
415. "A literacy deficit". abc.net.au. 22 September 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
416. "Australia's adult literacy crisis". Adult Learning Australia. 12 April 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
417. "Australian Education | Australian Education System | Education | Study in Australia". Ausitaleem.com.pk. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
418. Education at a Glance 2006 Archived 2 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
419. "About Australian Apprenticeships". Australian Government. Archived from the original on 11 November 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
420. "Year Book Australia 2005". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 21 January 2005. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016.
421. Sauter, Michael B. (24 September 2012). "The Most Educated Countries in the World – Yahoo Finance". Finance.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
422. Grossman, Samantha (27 September 2012). "And the World's Most Educated Country Is ..." Time. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
423. "2016 Census QuickStats: Australia". censusdata.abs.gov.au. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
424. "Subscribe to The Australian | Newspaper home delivery, website, iPad, iPhone & Android apps". theaustralian.com.au.
425. Fund, Leith van OnselenLeith van Onselen is Chief Economist at the MB; Treasury, MB Super Leith has previously worked at the Australian; Treasury, Victorian; Sachs, Goldman (31 October 2019). "Australian universities double down on international students". MacroBusiness.
426. Gothe-Snape, political reporter Jackson (27 July 2018). "Record number of international students sticking around on work visas". ABC News.
427. Architect Magazine (August 2007), 96 (11), p. 14
428. Jupp1, pp. 796–802
429. Teo & White 2003, pp. 118–20
430. Jupp1, pp. 808–12, 74–77
431. White, Richard (1 January 1983). "A Backwater Awash: The Australian Experience of Americanisation". Theory, Culture and Society. 1 (3): 108–122. doi:10.1177/026327648300100309. S2CID 144339300.
432. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 98–99
433. Teo & White 2003, pp. 125–27
434. "Cultural life". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
435. "Australian Culture: Core Concepts". Cultural Atlas. 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
436. "Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond" (PDF). Australian Government. p. 36.
437. Luu, Chi (7 February 2018). "Small Poppy Syndrome: Why are Australians so Obsessed With Nicknaming Things?". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
438. Kidd, Evan; Kemp, Nenagh; Kashima, Emiko S.; Quinn, Sara (June 2016). "Language, Culture, and Group Membership: An Investigation Into the Social Effects of Colloquial Australian English". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 47 (5): 713–733. doi:10.1177/0022022116638175. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002E-24A7-F. ISSN 0022-0221. S2CID 147360478.
439. "Meeting our requirements: Australian values". Department of Home Affairs. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
440. Snow, Deborah (18 January 2019). "Australian values: what the bloody hell are they?". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
441. Dyrenfurth, Nick (June 2007). "John Howard's Hegemony of Values: The Politics of 'Mateship' in the Howard Decade". Australian Journal of Political Science. 42 (2): 211–230. doi:10.1080/10361140701319994. ISSN 1036-1146. S2CID 154041199.
442. Crowe, Shaun (14 January 2015). "Book review: Mateship – A Very Australian History". The Conversation. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
443. Zhuang, Yan (19 November 2021). "What Does Mateship Mean to You?". New York Times.
444. "Sidney Nolan's Rainbow Serpent is larger than life" (16 June 2012), The Australasian.
445. Tacon, Paul S. C.; Ouzman, Sven (2004). "Worlds within stone: the inner and outer rock-art landscapes of northern Australia and southern Africa". In Nash, George; Chippindale, Christopher (ed.). The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art: Looking at Pictures in Place. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–68. 9780521524247.
446. Henly, Susan Gough (6 November 2005). "Powerful growth of Aboriginal art". The New York Times.
447. Smith, Terry (1996). "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 in Emily Kngwarreye – Paintings, North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International. ISBN 978-90-5703-681-1.
448. ^ "Collection | Art Gallery of NSW". www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
449. Sayers, Andrew (2001). Australian Art. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 78–88. ISBN 978-0-19-284214-5.
450. "Brett Whiteley: nature :: Art Gallery NSW". www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
451. Sarwal, Amit; Sarwal, Reema (2009). Reading Down Under: Australian Literary Studies Reader. SSS Publications. p. xii. ISBN 978-8-1902-2821-3.
452. Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5210-0956-0, p. 72.
453. O'Keeffe, Dennis (2012). Waltzing Matilda: The Secret History of Australia's Favourite Song. Allen & Unwin. p. back cover. ISBN 978-1-7423-7706-3.
454. "The Miles Franklin Literary Award – australia.gov.au". 27 February 2012. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
455. Australia's Nobel Laureates and the Nobel Prize Archived 19 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, australia.gov.au. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
456. Hughes-d'Aeth, Tony (15 October 2014). "Australia's Booker prize record suggests others will come in Flanagan's wake". The Conversation. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
457. Williams, Robyn (12 November 2016). "Three Australian books that changed history", ABC Radio National. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
458. Flood (2019). pp. 62, 64-5
459. Maloney, Shane (January 2006). "Nellie Melba & Enrico Caruso". The Monthly. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
460. Compagnoni, Tom (4 September 2022). "The 43-year-old invention behind 2022's biggest music sensation". The Sydney Morning Herald.
461. "Arts funding guide 2010" (PDF). Australia Council. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
462. "Evaluation of the Orchestras Review 2005 funding package implementation" (PDF). Australia Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
463. "Opera Australia". Australia Council. Archived from the original on 23 July 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
464. "Opera in Australia". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 5 March 2007. Archived from the original on 6 April 2011.
465. Brandis, George (8 May 2007). "35 per cent increase in funding for Australia's major performing arts companies". Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts. Archived from the original on 12 November 2007. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
466. Chichester, Jo (2007). "Return of the Kelly Gang". UNESCO Courier. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
467. "The first wave of Australian feature film production" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
468. "Culture.gov.au – "Film in Australia"". Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 22 November 2007. Archived from the original on 27 March 2011.
469. Krausz, Peter (2002). "Australian Identity: A Cinematic Roll Call" (PDF). Australian Screen Education Online (29): 24–29. ISSN 1443-1629. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
470. Moran, Albert; Vieth, Errol (2009). The A to Z of Australian and New Zealand Cinema. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6347-7, p. 35.
471. Quinn, Karl (4 December 2015). "Australian film has had its biggest year at the box office ever. Why?". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
472. "Ten Great Australian Moments at the Oscars" Archived 8 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine (26 February 2014), news.com.au. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
473. ^ "Country profile: Australia". BBC News. 13 October 2009. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
474. "Press Freedom Index 2024". Reporters Without Borders. 2024. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
475. "Media Ownership In Australia – 1999 | AustralianPolitics.com". australianpolitics.com. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
476. Minter, Elizabeth (12 April 2021). "Media concentration by Murdoch, Nine and Stokes, and ABC cuts, a danger to democracy – report". Michael West. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
477. "Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food". Teachers.ash.org.au. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
478. Lockhart, Jessica Wynne (4 August 2023). "The Next Superfoods May Come From Australia", Smithsonian. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
479. McCubbing, Gus (4 November 2022). "Bush food industry worth $80m but could double by 2025: study", Australian Financial Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
480. "Australian food and drink". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 23 September 2008. Archived from the original on 26 March 2010.
481. "Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine". Special Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 3 May 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
482. Jonsen, Helen (1999). Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book. Hippocrene Books. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7818-0737-1.
483. Newton, John (2018). The Getting of Garlic: Australian Food from Bland to Brilliant, with Recipes Old and New. NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742244365, pp. 32, 230–231.
484. Waters, Cara (15 June 2015). "Smashed avo, anyone? Five Australian creations taking the world by storm", The Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
485. "How the flat white conquered the coffee scene". The Independent. 9 April 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
486. Santich, Barbara (2012). Bold Palates: Australia's Gastronomic Heritage. Wakefield Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-7430-5094-1.
487. "Australian wine: Production, sales and inventory report, 2018–19". wineaustralia.com. Wine Australia. 12 February 2020. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
488. "Wine Regions of Australia". Cellarmasters. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
489. Per Capita Beer Consumption by Country (2004) Archived 23 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Table 3, Kirin Research Institute of Drinking and Lifestyle – Report Vol. 29–15 December 2005, Kirin Holdings Company.
490. "National Sports Museum – Heritage Listing". 14 September 2009. Archived from the original on 14 September 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
491. "Clearinghouse for sport: Ausplay National Sport and Activity Physical Participation Report 2022-23, p 9". Australian Sports Commission. October 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
492. Oxlade, Chris; Ballheimer, David (2005). Olympics. DK Eyewitness. DK. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7566-1083-8.
493. Davison, Hirst & Macintyre 1998, pp. 479–80
494. "Brisbane announced as 2032 Olympic Games host city at IOC meeting in Tokyo". ABC News (Australia). 21 July 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021.
495. "Flag Bearers". Australian Commonwealth Games Association. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
496. "Past Commonwealth Games". Commonwealth Games Federation. Archived from the original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
497. Harte, Chris; Whimpress, Bernard (2008). The Penguin history of Australian cricket (3rd ed.). Camberwell, Vic: Viking. p. 1. ISBN 9780670072880.
498. Harte & Whimpress (2008), pp. 92–94, 528, 722
499. "Australia stuns India to claim record-extending sixth Cricket World Cup crown in Ahmedabad". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 20 November 2023. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
500. Fujak, Hunter (15 July 2022). "The Barassi Line: a globally unique divider splitting Australia's footy fans". The Conversation. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
501. "The 'Barassi Line': Quantifying Australia's Great Sporting Divide". 21 December 2013. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
502. Skinner, James; Zakus H., Dwight; Edwards, Allan (2013). "Coming in from the Margins: Ethnicity, Community Support and the Rebranding of Australian Soccer". In Adam, Brown (ed.). Football and Community in the Global Context: Studies in Theory and Practice. Routledge. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-1-317-96905-1.
503. Booth, Douglas (2012). Australian Beach Cultures: The History of Sun, Sand and Surf. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7146-8178-8.
504. "Surf Life Saving - Stories from Australia's Culture and Recreation Portal" Archived 11 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine. , Commonwealth Government of Australia, 2006.

•  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

Bibliography

• Davison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart (1998). The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1955-3597-6.
•  Flood, Josephine (2019). The Original Australians: The Story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and Unwin. ISBN 9781760527075.
• Jupp, James (2001). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-0789-0.
• Jupp, James; Director Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies James Jupp (2001). The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-0789-0.
• Smith, Bernard; Smith, Terry (1991). Australian painting 1788–1990. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1955-4901-0.
• Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003). Cultural history in Australia. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-8684-0589-6.

Further reading

• Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic. ISBN 978-0-6700-7871-4
• Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-17962-7.
• Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-8857-8.
• Hughes, Robert (1986). The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-50668-5.
• Milne, John (1886). Colonial facts and fictions: Humorous sketches. United Kingdom: Chatto and Windus.
• Kemp, David (2018). The Land of Dreams: How Australians Won Their Freedom, 1788–1860. Melbourne University Publishing. ISBN 978-0-5228-7334-4. OCLC 1088319758.
• Powell, J.M. (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25619-3
• Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-340-72033-2 paperback, ISBN 978-0-340-72032-5 hardback.

External links

• Australia profile on The World Factbook
• Australia profile from BBC News
• Australia profile from the OECD
• Wikimedia Atlas of Australia
• Geographic data related to Australia at OpenStreetMap

Government

• Parliament of Australia
• Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
• National Archives of Australia
• Australian Bureau of Statistics

Travel

• Official website of Tourism Australia