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{{short description|Multi-sided war in Syria (2011–present)}}
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{{very long|rps=125|date=August 2016}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Syrian civil war infobox}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Campaignbox Syrian civil war}}
{{Syrian Civil War infobox}}
{{Bashar al-Assad series}}
{{Campaignbox Syrian Civil War}}
{{Ba'athism sidebar}} {{Ba'athism sidebar}}
The '''Syrian civil war''' ({{lang-ar|الحرب الأهلية السورية}}) is an ongoing multi-sided armed conflict with international interventions<ref>{{cite web
| last1=International conflict
| title=Iran to join, Russia already bombing Opposition's positions.
| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/02/us-mideast-crisis-russia-syria-idUSKCN0RV41O20151002
| website=Reuters.com
| publisher=Reuters
| accessdate=4 October 2015}}</ref>
taking place in ]. The ] grew out of the 2011 ] protests, and escalated to armed conflict after President ]'s government violently repressed protests calling for his removal.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/syria-crackdown-has-killed-5000-people-un-says/|title= Syria crackdown has killed 5,000 people, UN says}}</ref>
The war is being fought among several factions: the Syrian Government, a loose alliance of Syrian Arab rebel groups, the Syrian Democratic Forces, Salafi jihadist groups (including al-Nusra Front) who often co-operate with the rebels, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). All sides continue to receive substantial support from ], leading many to label the conflict a ] waged by both regional and global powers.<ref name="turnproxy">{{cite news
| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/13/world/middleeast/syria-russia-airstrikes.html?_r=0
| title=U.S. Weaponry Is Turning Syria Into Proxy War With Russia
| author=
| work=The New York Times
| accessdate=14 October 2015
| date=12 October 2015
}}</ref><ref name="guardproxy">{{cite news |url= http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/15/saudia-arabia-iran-proxy-war-syria|title=Saudi Arabia and Iran must end their proxy war in Syria |work=The Guardian |date=15 December 2013 |accessdate=30 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url=http://news.yahoo.com/arming-syria-rebels-us-drawn-proxy-war-190907079.html
| title=By arming Syria rebels, US drawn into proxy war
| date=15 June 2013
| work=Yahoo News
}}</ref>


The '''Syrian civil war''' is an ongoing multi-sided conflict in ] involving various state-sponsored and ]s. In March 2011, popular discontent with the rule of ] triggered ] and ] rallies across Syria, as part of the wider ] protests in the region. After months of crackdown by the government's ], various armed ] such as the ] began forming across the country, marking the beginning of the ]. By mid-2012, the insurgency had escalated into a full-blown civil war.
Under the Assad regime, Syria went through significant neoliberal economic reform. This reform exacerbated disparities in wealth, which combined with a recession and several years of drought led to the spread of the Arab Spring to Syria. Protests quickly spread to the predominantly Kurdish areas of northern Syria.


Rebel forces, which received arms from ] states, ] and some Western countries, initially made significant advances against the government forces, which were receiving financial and military support from ] and ]. Rebels captured the regional capitals of ] in 2013 and ] in 2015. Consequently, ] and ], shifting the balance of the conflict. By late 2018, all rebel strongholds except parts of ] had fallen to the government forces.
Syrian opposition groups formed the ] and seized control of the area surrounding Aleppo and parts of Southern Syria. Over time, factions of the ] split from the original moderate politics to pursue an Islamist vision for Syria, as al-Nusra Front and the ] (ISIL).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dettmer|first1=Jamie|title=Syria's Rebels: Radicalization and Division|url=http://www.mei.edu/content/syrias-rebels-radicalization-and-division|website=Middle East Institute|accessdate=9 July 2016}}</ref> In the north, Syrian government forces largely withdrew to fight the FSA, allowing the Kurdish YPG to move in and claim ''de facto'' autonomy.<ref>{{cite news|last=Davies |first=Wyre |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19021766 |title=Crisis in Syria emboldens country's Kurds |publisher=BBC News|date=27 July 2012 |accessdate=3 August 2012}}</ref> In 2015 the YPG joined forces with Arab, Assyrian, Armenian and Turkmen groups forming the Syrian Democratic Forces.<ref name=KQ1015>{{cite web |title=Declaration of establishment by Syrian Democratic Forces |publisher=Kurdish Question |url=http://kurdishquestion.com/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/declaration-of-establishment-by-democratic-syria-forces/1179-declaration-of-establishment-by-democratic-syria-forces.html |date=15 October 2015 |accessdate=15 October 2015}}</ref>


In 2014, the ] won many battles against both the rebel factions and the Syrian government. Combined with simultaneous success in ], the group was able to seize control of large parts of ] and ], prompting the ]-led ] coalition to launch an aerial ] against it, while providing ] and supplies to the ]-majority ]. By way of battles that culminated in the ] and ] offensives, the Islamic State was territorially defeated by late 2017. In August 2016, Turkey launched ] of ], in response to the creation of ], while also ] and ] in the process. Between the March 2020 ] and late 2024, frontline fighting mostly subsided, but there were ].
As of February 2016 the government held 40% of Syria, ISIL held around 20-40%, Arab rebel groups (including al-Nusra Front) 20%, and 15-20% is held by the Syrian Democratic Forces. Both the Syrian Democratic Forces and the Syrian Army have made recent gains against ISIL.


Heavy fighting renewed with a major ] in the northwest led by ] and supported by allied groups in the Turkish-backed ] in November 2024, during which ], ] and ] were seized. ] who had previously ] subsequently launched ], capturing ] and ]. The ] and the ] launched their own offensives in ] and ], respectively. By 8 December, rebel forces had ]. Following this, the ], with al-Assad fleeing to ]. On the same day, ] launched ] of Syria's ], aiming to seize the ] in the ]. The SNA continued to ] with the SDF.
International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ] and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with multiple ].<ref name="businessinsider1">{{cite web
| url=http://www.businessinsider.com/r-islamic-state-and-syrian-government-committing-war-crimes-un-2014-8
| title=UN Details Rampant War Crimes By ISIS And Assad's Regime
| date=27 August 2014
| accessdate=15 October 2014
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| last1=Abdelaziz
| first1=Salma
| title=Syrian rebels blame 'heinous' executions on 'extremists'
| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/02/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html
| website=CNN
| accessdate=15 October 2014
}}</ref><ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite web
| url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/27/syria-isis-war-crimes-united-nations-un
| title=Syria and Isis committing war crimes, says United Nations
| date=27 August 2014
| accessdate=15 October 2014
}}</ref><ref name="UN-20120524">{{cite news
| title=UN human rights probe panel reports continuing 'gross' violations in Syria
| url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=42079
| date=24 May 2012 |publisher=United Nations
| accessdate=12 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title=UN chief warns of Syrian civil war if massacres continue
| url=http://article.wn.com/view/2012/05/31/UN_chief_warns_of_Syrian_civil_war_if_massacres_continue/
| website=WN
| accessdate=15 October 2014
}}</ref>
The conflict caused a considerable ]. On 1 February 2016,<ref name=reutersstart>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VA2OT |title=U.N. announces start of Syria peace talks as government troops advance |publisher= Reuters|accessdate=2 February 2016|date=1 February 2016}}</ref> a formal start of the UN-mediated ] was announced by the UN, with the fighting continuing unabated.<ref name="reutersrageon">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VB1CQ|title=Syrian army threatens to encircle Aleppo as talks falter|work=Reuters|accessdate=4 February 2016|date=3 February 2016}}</ref>


== Background == == Overview ==
=== Origins of the conflict (2011–2012) ===
{{Main article|Modern history of Syria}}
{{main|Arab Spring|Syrian revolution}}
In March 2011, popular discontent with President ]'s ] led to large-scale protests and ] rallies across Syria, as part of the wider ] protests in the region.<ref name="Kassam, Becker 3">{{cite journal |last1=Kassam |first1=Kamal |last2=Becker |first2=Maria |date=16 May 2023 |title=Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany |journal=Frontiers in Political Science |volume=5 |pages=3 |doi=10.3389/fpos.2023.1100446 |doi-access=free|issn=2673-3145 }}</ref><ref name="Syria: The story of the conflict">{{cite news |date=11 March 2016 |title=Syria: The story of the conflict |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868 |url-status=live |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622052951/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868 |archive-date=22 June 2018}}</ref> Numerous protests were violently suppressed by security forces in ] ordered by Assad, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and ], many of whom were civilians.<ref name="Kassam, Becker 3"/><ref name="Syria: The story of the conflict"/> The ] transformed into an ] with the formation of ] across the country, developing into a full civil war by 2012.{{efn|Sources:
* {{cite journal |last1=Kassam |first1=Kamal |last2=Becker |first2=Maria |date=16 May 2023 |title=Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany |journal=Frontiers in Political Science |volume=5 |pages=3 |doi=10.3389/fpos.2023.1100446 |doi-access=free |issn=2673-3145}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868 |title=Syria: The story of the conflict |date=11 March 2016 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622052951/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868 |archive-date=22 June 2018 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syria.html|title=Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protestors in Several Cities|date=25 March 2011|work=The New York Times|access-date=23 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621011638/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syria.html|archive-date=21 June 2018|url-status=live}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674|title=Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo|date=15 March 2011|publisher=BBC News|access-date=15 March 2013|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721134738/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674|archive-date=21 July 2018|url-status=live}}}}


=== Peak of violence, foreign interventions (2012–2019) ===
=== Assad government ===
The war has been fought by several factions. From 2011 to December 2024, the ], alongside its domestic and foreign allies, represented the ] and ]. Alternative governments rose in ] to Assad's rule, including the ], a ] alliance of pro-democratic, ] opposition groups whose military forces consist of the ] (SNA) and allied ]. Another is the ], whose armed forces were represented by a ] of ] militias led by ] (HTS). Independent of them is the ] (AANES), also known as Rojava, whose military force is the ] (SDF), a multi-ethnic, Arab-majority force led by the Kurdish ] (YPG). Other competing factions include ] organizations such as ]'s Syrian branch ] (the successor of ]) and the ] (IS).
{{See also|Al-Assad family}}
], heartland of Assad's ] ]]]
Syria became an independent republic in 1946, although democratic rule ended with a coup in March 1949, followed by two more coups the same year.<ref>{{cite journal
| author=Douglas Little
| year=1990
| title=Cold War and Covert Action: The United States and Syria, 1945–1958.
| journal= Middle East Journal
| volume=44
| issue=1
| url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/4328056
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url=http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue51/articles/51_12-13.pdf
| title=1949–1958, Syria: Early Experiments in Cover Action, Douglas Little, Professor, Department of History, Clark University
| format=PDF
}}</ref> A popular ] against military rule in 1954 saw the army transfer power to civilians. From 1958 to 1961, a ] replaced Syria's parliamentary system with a highly centralized presidential regime.<ref name=bbcsyriaprofile>{{cite news
| title=Syria Profile
| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14703995
| accessdate=13 September 2013
| publisher=BBC
| date=13 September 2013
}}</ref> The secular ] government came to power through ] in 1963. The next several years Syria went through additional coups and changes in leadership.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wilson |first=Scott |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |title=Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators |work=The Seattle Times |date=25 April 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429193035/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com:80/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |archivedate=29 April 2011 }}</ref>


The civil war has also served as a ]<ref>{{cite web|title=Iran and Saudi Arabia's cold war is making the Middle East even more dangerous|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/3/30/8314513/saudi-arabia-iran|website=Vox|access-date=2015-09-28|date=2015-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705182249/https://www.vox.com/2015/3/30/8314513/saudi-arabia-iran|archive-date=5 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> as a number of foreign countries–including ], ], ] and the ]–have been ] in the conflict, providing support to opposing factions. Iran, Russia and ] supported Assad's government militarily, with Iran ] and Russia conducting ] in the country beginning in September 2015. In 2014 the ] officially began ]–primarily against the Islamic State, al-Qaeda elements such as Hurras al-Din and the ], and occasionally ]–and has been militarily and logistically supporting factions such as the ] and the SDF. ] ] and have fought the SDF, Assad government and Islamic State alike while actively supporting the SNA. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian civil war ] into ] as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil. While officially neutral, ] ] and ] against Hezbollah and Iranian elements inside Syria, whose presence in the country it ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria/u-s-russian-ceasefire-takes-effect-in-southwest-syria-idUSKBN19U08D|title=U.S.-Russian ceasefire deal holding in southwest Syria|date=9 July 2017|publisher=Reuters|access-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921113246/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria/u-s-russian-ceasefire-takes-effect-in-southwest-syria-idUSKBN19U08D|archive-date=21 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207133645/https://www.timesofisrael.com/death-toll-in-alleged-israeli-strikes-near-damascus-up-to-23-fighters-monitor/ |date=7 February 2020 }}, ''Times of Israel''</ref>
In March 1971, ], an Alawite, declared himself ], a position that he held until his death in 2000. Since 1970, the secular Syrian Regional Branch has remained the dominant political authority in what had been a ] until the first ] ] to the ] was held in 2012.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012524113941282101.html
|title=Assad says Syria 'able' to get out of crisis
|publisher=]
|date=2012-05-25
|accessdate=2012-06-11
}}</ref> On 31 January 1973, Assad implemented the new Constitution which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in ], ] and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ''ulama''. They labeled Assad as the "enemy of Allah" and called for a ''jihad'' against his rule.{{sfn|Alianak|2007|p=55}} ] has compared Assad's coming to power to "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries."<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite web|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199302/kaplan|title=Syria: Identity Crisis|last=Kaplan|first=Robert|date=February 1993|work=The Atlantic}}</ref> The regime survived a series of ] by Sunni ]s, mainly members of the ], from 1976 until 1982.


Violence in the war peaked during 2012–2017 amid rebel and government offensives and ] and Islamist violence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/2021-will-be-defining-year-syria|title=2021 will be a defining year for Syria|website=Middle East Institute|access-date=23 February 2022|archive-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184255/https://www.mei.edu/publications/2021-will-be-defining-year-syria|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rescue.org/article/crisis-syria-economic-crisis-compounds-decade-war|title=Crisis in Syria: Economic crisis compounds a decade of war|date=31 January 2022|website=International Rescue Committee (IRC)|access-date=23 February 2022|archive-date=14 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314175139/https://www.rescue.org/article/crisis-syria-economic-crisis-compounds-decade-war|url-status=live}}</ref> International organizations had accused virtually all sides involved—the Assad government, the Islamic State, opposition groups, Iran, Russia,<ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/25/russia-accused-war-crimes-syria-un-security-council-aleppo|title=Russia accused of war crimes in Syria at UN security council session|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=18 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401192517/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/25/russia-accused-war-crimes-syria-un-security-council-aleppo|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey<ref name=amnesty1>{{cite web |title=Damning evidence of war crimes by Turkish forces and allies in Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/10/syria-damning-evidence-of-war-crimes-and-other-violations-by-turkish-forces-and-their-allies/ |publisher=Amnesty International |date=18 October 2019 |access-date=9 February 2020 |archive-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202081923/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/10/syria-damning-evidence-of-war-crimes-and-other-violations-by-turkish-forces-and-their-allies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the US-led coalition<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/05/middleeast/us-led-coalition-raqqa-war-crimes-intl/index.html |title=US-led strikes on Raqqa may amount to war crimes, Amnesty says |first1=Angela |last1=Dewan |first2=Hillary |last2=McGann |date=5 June 2018 |publisher=CNN |access-date=5 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605205903/https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/05/middleeast/us-led-coalition-raqqa-war-crimes-intl/index.html |archive-date=5 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>—of severe ] and ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/15/world/middleeast/syria-bashar-al-assad-evidence.html |title=As Atrocities Mount in Syria, Justice Seems Out of Reach |first1=Anne |last1=Barnard |first2=Ben |last2=Hubbard |first3=Ian |last3=Fisher |date=15 April 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=18 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517192038/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/15/world/middleeast/syria-bashar-al-assad-evidence.html |archive-date=17 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The conflict had caused a major ], with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and ];<ref>{{cite web|title=Syrian refugees in Jordan: A decade and counting |publisher=] |date=27 January 2022 |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2022/01/27/syrian-refugees-in-jordan-a-decade-and-counting/ |first=Omer |last=Karasapan}}</ref><ref name="PBS">{{cite news |last1=Todd |first1=Zoe |title=By the Numbers: Syrian Refugees Around the World |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/numbers-syrian-refugees-around-world/ |access-date=30 April 2023 |work=Frontline |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |date=19 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120012034/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/numbers-syrian-refugees-around-world/#comments |archive-date=20 November 2019 |language=English}}</ref> however, a sizable minority also sought refuge in countries outside of the Middle East, with ] alone accepting over half a million Syrians since 2011.<ref name="PBS"/> Since 2011 a number of peace initiatives had been launched, including the ] led by the ], but fighting continued.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lundgren |first=Magnus |year=2016 |title=Mediation in Syria: Initiatives, strategies, and obstacles, 2011–2016 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303312425 |journal=Contemporary Security Policy |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=283–298 |doi=10.1080/13523260.2016.1192377 |s2cid=156447200 |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000757/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303312425_Mediation_in_Syria_Initiatives_strategies_and_obstacles_2011-2016 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2000, ] took over as President of Syria upon Hafez al-Assad′s death. He and his wife ], a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain,<ref name=rose>{{cite news|
last=Golovnina
| first=Maria
| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/19/us-syria-asma-idUSBRE82I0MB20120319
| title=Asma al Assad, a "desert rose" crushed by Syria's strife
| agency=Reuters
| date=19 March 2012
| accessdate=8 August 2013
}}</ref> initially inspired hopes for democratic reforms. A ] of social and political debate took place between July 2000 and August 2001.<ref>{{cite journal
| title=No Room to Breathe: State Repression of Human Rights Activism in Syria
| publisher=Human Rights Watch
| date=October 2007
| volume=19
| issue=6
| pages=8–13
| url=http://www.hrw.org/en/node/10646/section/4
}}</ref> The Damascus Spring largely ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.<ref name=alan>{{cite book
| last=George
| first=Alan
| title=Syria:Neither Bread nor Freedom
| year=2003
| publisher=Zed Books
| location=New York, NY
| isbn=1-84277-213-9
| pages=56–58
| url=https://books.google.com/?id=dFdbVVcKsSIC
}}</ref> In the opinion of his critics, Bashar Assad had failed to deliver on promised reforms.<ref name=nyt1Apr11>{{cite news
| title=Syrian Protesters Clash With Security Forces
| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02syria.html
| date=1 April 2011
| accessdate=19 December 2013
| newspaper=New York Times
| author=Liam Stack
| author2=J. David Goodman
}}</ref>


In October 2019, Kurdish leaders of the AANES announced they had reached a major deal with the Assad government, allowing for Syrian Army forces to enter Kurdish-held towns along the ]. The deal was part of an effort to resist Turkey's ] into AANES territory after US forces ] from the area after the collapse of the ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Kurds forge 'costly deal' with al-Assad as US pulls out |first=Arwa |last=Ibrahim |date=15 October 2019 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/15/syrias-kurds-forge-costly-deal-with-al-assad-as-us-pulls-out |work=] |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=26 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926193311/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/15/syrias-kurds-forge-costly-deal-with-al-assad-as-us-pulls-out |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kurdish forces backed by US strike deal with Syria's Assad, in major shift in 8-year war |first1=Helen |last1=Regan |first2=Eliza |last2=Mackintosh |date=14 October 2019 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/10/14/middleeast/syria-turkey-kurds-civilians-isis-intl-hnk/index.html |work=] |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=6 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241206224459/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/10/14/middleeast/syria-turkey-kurds-civilians-isis-intl-hnk/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey-Syria offensive: Kurds reach deal with Damascus to stave off assault |first=Bethan |last=McKernan |date=14 October 2019 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/13/kurds-reach-deal-with-damascus-in-face-of-turkish-offensive |work=] |access-date=27 October 2024}}</ref> In November 2019, Russia, Turkey and the Assad government established a ] in northern Syria that deescalated the Kurdish-Turkish clashes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/22/turkey-and-russia-agree-deal-over-buffer-zone-in-northern-syria|title=Turkey and Russia agree on deal over buffer zone in northern Syria|first1=Bethan|last1=McKernan|first2=Julian|last2=Borger|date=22 October 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214115348/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/22/turkey-and-russia-agree-deal-over-buffer-zone-in-northern-syria|archive-date=14 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> US-led coalition forces regrouped in eastern Syria in continued support of the SDF against the ], amid tensions with local Russian forces and Iranian elements in the region.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/reports-tensions-grow-between-us-russian-forces-northeast-syria|title=Reports: Tensions Grow Between US, Russian Forces in Northeast Syria|date=21 January 2020|access-date=23 January 2020|work=VOA News|archive-date=23 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200123022003/https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/reports-tensions-grow-between-us-russian-forces-northeast-syria|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/10/25/iran-syria-drone-attack-517096|work=Politico|title=Iran behind drone attack on US base in Syria, officials say|date=25 October 2021|access-date=11 December 2021}}</ref>
The Assad government opposed the ] in 2003 and the ] undertook to destabilize the regime by increasing sectarian tensions, showcasing and publicising Syrian repression of radical Kurdish and Sunni groups and financing political dissidents.<ref name="SHersh" /> In addition Assad opposed the ] in 2009. A classified 2013 report by a joint U.S. army and intelligence group concluded that bringing down Assad would have drastic consequences, since the opposition supported by the ] was dominated by ] elements. The report was ignored, according to ], the then director of the ], by the U.S. administration.<ref name="SHersh" />


By the end of the decade, the war had resulted in an estimated 470,000–610,000 violent deaths, making it the second-deadliest conflict of the 21st century, after the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ray |first=Michael |title=8 Deadliest Wars of the 21st Century |url=https://www.britannica.com/list/8-deadliest-wars-of-the-21st-century |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402172230/https://www.britannica.com/list/8-deadliest-wars-of-the-21st-century |archive-date=2 April 2020 |website=Britannica}}</ref>
=== Demographics ===
{{Main article|Demographics of Syria|Religion in Syria}}
Prior to the outbreak of the war, according to the U.S. government's estimates that were not based on any official Syrian sources, ] was 18 million:<ref name=IRFR2006 /> ] represented approximately 74 percent of the population; other ] groups, including ], together constituted approximately 13 percent of the population; ] accounted for approximately 3 percent; various ]s and ethnicities made up the remaining 10 percent of the population (approximately 1.7 million persons).<ref name=IRFR2006 /> The majority of Syria's Christians belonged to the ], such as the ], ], ] and ], that had existed in the region since the ] of Christianity.<ref name=IRFR2006>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm|title=Syria|work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>


=== Stalemate and frozen conflict (2020–2024) ===
The Assad family that has ruled Syria since 1970 is mixed: Bashar himself is married to a Sunni woman, with whom he has several children. His parents belong to the minority Alawite sect that comprised an estimated 12 percent of the total population.<ref>{{cite news |last=Heneghan |first=Tom |date= 3 December 2011 |title=Syria's Alawites is a secretive, unorthodox sect |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/23/us-syria-religion-alawites-idUSTRE7BM1J220111223 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref> The Alawite clan is believed to be in control of Syria's security apparatus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111010122434671982.html|title=Assad's Alawites: The guardians of the throne|author=Nir Rosen|publisher=}}</ref><ref> The Wall Street Journal, 25 June 2015.</ref>
Following the March 2020 ], frontline fighting between the Syrian government under Assad and opposition groups had mostly subsided. By 2021, the Assad government controlled about two-thirds of the country and was consolidating power.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=26 May 2021 |title='Mob boss' Assad's dynasty tightens grip over husk of Syria |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/26/bashar-al-assad-tightens-grip-on-power-as-syria-goes-to-polls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526075539/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/26/bashar-al-assad-tightens-grip-on-power-as-syria-goes-to-polls |archive-date=26 May 2021}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607031459/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/15/twelve-years-on-from-the-beginning-of-syrias-war |date=7 June 2023 }} By Al Jazeera Staff,15 Mar 2023.</ref> Although, regular flare-ups occurred among factions in northwestern Syria, and ] emerged in southern Syria and spread nationwide in response to extensive autocratic policies and the economic situation. The protests were noted at the time as resembling the 2011 revolution that preceded the civil war.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320183655/https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/01/1132837 |date=20 March 2023 }}, 25 January 2023, UN official website.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Suleiman |first=Ali Haj |date=23 August 2023 |title=Anti-government protests in Syria continue for sixth day |publisher=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/25/anti-government-protests-in-syria-continue-for-sixth-day |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825220621/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/25/anti-government-protests-in-syria-continue-for-sixth-day |archive-date=25 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=26 August 2023 |title=Anti-government protests shake Syrian provinces amid anger over economy |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/26/anti-government-protests-shake-syrian-provinces-amid-anger-over-economy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826041126/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/26/anti-government-protests-shake-syrian-provinces-amid-anger-over-economy |archive-date=26 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Abdulrahim |first=Raja |date=31 August 2023 |title=Rare Protests in Syria Summon Echoes of Arab Spring |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/31/world/middleeast/syria-protests.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831040419/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/31/world/middleeast/syria-protests.html |archive-date=31 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2023 |title=Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising |work=Asharq al-Awsat |url=https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829122111/https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-date=29 August 2023}}</ref>


The civil war had largely settled into a stalemate by early 2023. The ] said:
], an ethnic minority accounting for approximately 9 percent of the population have been disgruntled over ethnic discrimination and denial of their cultural and language rights.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/07/syra-kurds-leader-idUSLDE73613X20110407 |title=Syria Kurd leader vows to keep up democracy struggle |agency=Reuters
| date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/27/report-12-killed-syrian-port-city |title=US will not intervene in Syria as it has in Libya, says Hillary Clinton |work=The Guardian |date=27 March 2011 |location=London}}</ref>


<blockquote>"Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state. Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Over the last decade, the conflict erupted into one of the most complicated in the world, with a dizzying array of international and regional powers, opposition groups, proxies, local militias and extremist groups all playing a role. The Syrian population has been brutalized, with nearly a half a million killed, 12 million fleeing their homes to find safety elsewhere, and widespread poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, efforts to broker a political settlement have gone nowhere, leaving the Assad regime firmly in power."<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria's stalemate has only benefitted Assad and his backers |first=Mona |last=Yacoubian |date=14 March 2023 |url=https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/03/syrias-stalemate-has-only-benefitted-assad-and-his-backers |publisher=] |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=18 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318081024/https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/03/syrias-stalemate-has-only-benefitted-assad-and-his-backers |url-status=live }}</ref> </blockquote>
], an indigenous ] speaking Christian ], numbering approximately 500,000,<ref>"Syria's Assyrians threatened by extremists - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 2014-07-24.</ref> and are found mainly in the north east of Syria, with a larger population over the border in northern ].


The US ] said:
Other ethnic groups include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>Phillips, David J. (1 January 2001). Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World. William Carey Library. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-87808-352-7. Retrieved 12 November 2012</ref><ref>^ "A Country Study: Syria". Library of Congress. Retrieved 30 January 2013.</ref>


<blockquote> "The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of the country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure."<ref name="cfr 2023">{{cite web |title=Syria's civil war: the descent into horror |first=Zachary |last=Laub |date=14 February 2023 |url=https://www.cfr.org/article/syrias-civil-war |publisher=] |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307183412/https://www.cfr.org/article/syrias-civil-war |url-status=live }}</ref> </blockquote>
=== Socio-economics ===
At the start of the war, discontent against the government was said to be the strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.<ref name="Poor rural rebels">{{cite news
| title=Rebels in Syria's largest city of Aleppo mostly poor, pious and from rural backgrounds
| url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/10/16/rebels-in-syria-largest-city-aleppo-mostly-poor-pious-and-from-rural/
| accessdate=28 January 2013
| publisher=Fox News Channel
| agency=Associated Press
| date=16 October 2012
}}</ref> These included cities with high poverty rates, such as ] and ] and the poorer districts of large cities.


However, major clashes continued between Turkish forces and factions within Syria. In late 2023, Turkish forces continued to attack Kurdish forces in northern Syria.<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey is trying to bomb Rojava out of existence |first=Sarah |last=Glynn |date=9 October 2023 |url=https://bellacaledonia.org.uk/2023/10/09/turkey-is-trying-to-bomb-rojava-out-of-existence/ |work=] |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207072206/https://bellacaledonia.org.uk/2023/10/09/turkey-is-trying-to-bomb-rojava-out-of-existence/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Starting on 5 October 2023, the ] launched a series of air and ground strikes targeting the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeastern Syria (AANES territory). The airstrikes were launched in response to the ], which the Turkish government alleged was carried out by attackers originating from northeastern Syria.<ref name="reuters1">{{cite news |title=Turkey says bombers came from Syria, eyes cross-border targets |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkey-says-ankara-bomb-attackers-came-syria-2023-10-04/ |access-date=5 October 2023 |publisher=Reuters |date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004222315/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkey-says-ankara-bomb-attackers-came-syria-2023-10-04/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Socio-economic inequality increased significantly after ] policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the ], these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.<ref name="Poor rural rebels" /> The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/ |title=Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions |publisher=Journalist's Resource |accessdate=11 August 2012}}</ref>


=== Renewed rebel offensives and fall of the Assad regime (2024) ===
This coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria which lasted from 2007 to 2010 and that resulted in a widespread crop failure, increase in food prices and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers.<ref name="Kelley drought 2015">Kelley, C. P., Mohtadi, S., Cane, M. A., Seager, R., & Kushnir, Y. (2015). Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(11), 3241–3246.</ref> Syria had also received in the same period around 1.5&nbsp;million refugees from Iraq.<ref name="Iraq refugees">{{cite news|title=Researchers Link Syrian Conflict to a Drought Made Worse by Climate Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-conflict-to-drought-caused-by-climate-change.html|accessdate=8 September 2015|publisher=The New York Times|agency=The New York Times Company|date=2 March 2015}}</ref>
{{Main|Fall of the Assad regime}}
] that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days]]
On 27 November 2024, a coalition of opposition groups called the ],<ref>{{cite news |author1=Eyad Kourdi |author2=Mostafa Salem |author3=Allegra Goodwin |author4=Christian Edwards |author5=Annoa Abekah-Mensah |author6=Lauren Kent |author7=Avery Schmitz |title=Syrian rebels enter Aleppo for first time in eight years during shock offensive |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/29/world/syria-rebels-aleppo-war-intl/index.html |access-date=29 November 2024 |work=CNN |date=29 November 2024 |language=en |archive-date=29 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241129144938/https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/29/world/syria-rebels-aleppo-war-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> led by ], launched a major ]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syrian Rebels' Lightning Offensive Zeroes In on Major City |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/syrian-rebels-advance-on-third-major-city-in-growing-threat-to-assad-bd21f39f |work=] |archive-date=18 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218183954/https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/syrian-rebels-advance-on-third-major-city-in-growing-threat-to-assad-bd21f39f |url-status=live }}</ref> against the Syrian Army and other pro-government forces in ], ], ] and ]s. This was followed by other rebel offensives from the ], the ] and the ] which all began seizing Syrian government territory in the country's south and east.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian insurgents have reached the suburbs of Damascus in swiftly moving offensive – CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrian-insurgents-suburbs-of-damascus/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US |archive-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208020633/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrian-insurgents-suburbs-of-damascus/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria's US-backed Kurdish forces seize Deir ez-Zor as Assad hangs by thread – Al-Monitor: The Middle Eastʼs leading independent news source since 2012 |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/12/syrias-us-backed-kurdish-forces-seize-deir-ez-zor-assad-hangs-thread |access-date=7 December 2024 |website=www.al-monitor.com |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207165106/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/12/syrias-us-backed-kurdish-forces-seize-deir-ez-zor-assad-hangs-thread |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title='Syrian Free Army' take control of Palmyra as regime forces fall back |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syrian-free-army-take-control-palmyra-regime-withdraws |work=] |archive-date=19 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219135228/https://www.newarab.com/news/syrian-free-army-take-control-palmyra-regime-withdraws |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|work=]|date=27 November 2024|url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/11/27/middleeast/syria-rebel-attack-aleppo-assad-intl-latam/index.html|title=Syrian rebels launch major attack on regime forces in Aleppo province|first1=Eyad|last1=Kourdi|last2=Edwards|first2=Christian|access-date=27 November 2024|archive-date=29 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241129125004/https://www.cnn.com/2024/11/27/middleeast/syria-rebel-attack-aleppo-assad-intl-latam/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 29 November, rebel forces ] as Syrian Army positions collapsed across the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Abdulrahim |first=Raja |date=29 November 2024 |title=Syrian Rebels Reach City of Aleppo, in Biggest Advance in Years |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/29/world/middleeast/syria-war-aleppo-rebels-government.html |access-date=29 November 2024 |work=] |archive-date=1 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201012813/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/29/world/middleeast/syria-war-aleppo-rebels-government.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 7 December, rebel forces ] and the next day, on 8 December, Bashar al-Assad was reported to have fled the capital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad has left Damascus to an unknown destination, say two senior army officers |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-has-left-damascus-an-unknown-destination-say-2024-12-08/ |website=Reuters |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208035340/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-has-left-damascus-an-unknown-destination-say-2024-12-08/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Syrian Army confirmed Assad was no longer in power and had fled the country,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Al-Khalidi |first1=Suleiman |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |title=Syrian rebels topple President Assad, his whereabouts unknown|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What happened in Syria? How did al-Assad fall? |author=Al Jazeera Staff |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/12/8/what-happened-in-syria-has-al-assad-really-fallen |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208092725/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/12/8/what-happened-in-syria-has-al-assad-really-fallen |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Assad's Fall: The End of Syria's Brutal Ruling Dynasty |author=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-12-08/where-is-assad-syria-s-leader-flees-damascus-ending-brutal-dynasty |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=9 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209170042/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-12-08/where-is-assad-syria-s-leader-flees-damascus-ending-brutal-dynasty |url-status=live }}</ref> resulting in the ] and ending over 60 years of Ba'athist rule under the ].<ref>{{cite news |author=Ju-min Park, Stephen Farrell, Rupam Jain, Marc Jones, Kylie Maclellan, Farouq Suleiman |title=Syria Live: Assad has left Syria, Russia says, as Damascus falls to rebels |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/syria-live-rebels-say-assad-gone-regime-toppled-2024-12-08/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208090657/https://www.reuters.com/world/syria-live-rebels-say-assad-gone-regime-toppled-2024-12-08/ |archive-date=8 December 2024 |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Assad Left Syria and Stepped Down, Russia Says |author=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/live-blog/2024-12-08/syria-latest?srnd=homepage-europe |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Syrian rebels claim to have entered Damascus as regime's defenses collapse |url=https://www.cnn.com/world/live-news/syria-civil-war-12-07-2024-intl/index.html?t=1733629627267 |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=cnn.com |publisher=CNN |archive-date=10 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210204258/https://www.cnn.com/world/live-news/syria-civil-war-12-07-2024-intl/index.html?t=1733629627267 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Assad said to flee Damascus for unknown destination |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/assad-said-to-flee-damascus-for-unknown-destination/ |website=www.timesofisrael.com |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208092333/https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/assad-said-to-flee-damascus-for-unknown-destination/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Assad regime collapses as Syrian rebels enter Damascus |url=https://www.axios.com/2024/12/08/syria-damascus-assad-regime-collapse |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=axios.com |publisher=Axios |archive-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208045110/https://www.axios.com/2024/12/08/syria-damascus-assad-regime-collapse |url-status=live }}</ref> Assad and his family had fled to ] and was granted asylum in Russia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |title=Assad gets asylum in Russia, rebels sweep through Syria |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Assad is in Moscow, Russian state media reports |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cwy8xzxe0w7t?post=asset%3Ab972fb40-dbf3-4cf7-82d5-7ca804314bda#post |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=10 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210021701/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cwy8xzxe0w7t?post=asset:b972fb40-dbf3-4cf7-82d5-7ca804314bda#post |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syria Latest |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/live-blog/2024-12-08/syria-latest?cursorId=6755E6AC688C0000 |publisher=] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=8 December 2024 |title=Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media |url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html |work=] |via=]}}</ref> Syrian Prime Minister ] announced his willingness to cooperate with any new leadership "chosen by the people".<ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian Prime Minister: Ready to Cooperate |url=https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/syria-civil-war-damascus/card/syrian-prime-minister-ready-to-cooperate-gG7okAui3MTS7vJA6oHR |access-date=8 December 2024 |work=Wall Street Journal |date=8 December 2024}}</ref>


The ] established a ] in Damascus, with ] serving as the prime minister during the transition, succeeding al-Jalali. ], the leader of the Syrian Salvation Government and ] of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, became ''de facto'' leader of Syria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Abu Mohammad al-Julani: Who is Syria's de facto ruler?|url=https://www.jns.org/abu-mohammad-al-julani-who-is-syrias-de-facto-ruler/|website=]|date=8 December 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20241214130930/https://www.jns.org/abu-mohammad-al-julani-who-is-syrias-de-facto-ruler/|archive-date=14 December 2024}}</ref>
By 2011, Syria was facing steep rises in the prices of commodities and a clear deterioration in the national standard of living.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saleeby |first=Suzanne |title=Sowing the Seeds of Dissent: Economic Grievances and the Syrian Social Contract's Unraveling |url=http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/4383/sowing-the-seeds-of-dissent_economic-grievances-an |newspaper=Jadaliyya |date=16 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005152440/http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/4383/sowing-the-seeds-of-dissent_economic-grievances-an |archivedate=5 October 2012 }}</ref>


On 8 December 2024, Israel ], subsuming the ] ] and capturing ], the Syrian portion of ], and surrounding towns and villages.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Krever |first1=Mick |date=8 December 2024 |title=Watching with trepidation and glee, Netanyahu orders military to seize Syria buffer zone |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/12/08/middleeast/israel-syria-security-implications-golan-intl/index.html |access-date=8 December 2024 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> Israel also launched a strategic bombing campaign against remnant ] airbases, air defense networks, missile systems, coastal defense installations, ], weapons storage and production facilities and alleged ] to neutralize Assad's former military assets.<ref>{{cite web | author1=Lyndal Rowlands | author2=Alastair McCready | title=LIVE: Israel bombards Syria as opposition seeks to form a new government | website=Al Jazeera | date=10 December 2024 | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/12/10/live-israel-bombards-syria-as-opposition-seeks-to-form-new-government?update=3375862 | access-date=10 December 2024 | archive-date=10 December 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210025842/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/12/10/live-israel-bombards-syria-as-opposition-seeks-to-form-new-government?update=3375862 | url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Human rights ===
{{Main article|Human rights in Syria}}


== Background ==
The state of human rights in Syria had long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.<ref>, p. 555.</ref>
{{Main|Background and causes of the Syrian revolution|Modern history of Syria|label1=Background and causes of the Syrian revolution}}
Rights of ], ] and ] were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.<ref name=HRW />
The country was under ] from 1963 until 2011. Public gatherings of more than five people were banned.<ref name="Reuters16Apr11">{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad vows to lift emergency law by next week|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/16/us-syria-idUSTRE72N2MC20110416 |date=16 April 2011 |accessdate=1 January 2014 |agency=Reuters}}</ref> Security forces were effectively granted sweeping powers of arrest and detention.<ref name="AmInt2009">{{cite web |url=http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228221417/http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |archivedate=28 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |publisher=Amnesty International |year=2009 |title=Syria |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>


=== Assad government ===
The authorities harassed and imprisoned ] and other critics of the government, who were often indefinitely detained and ]d in poor prison conditions.<ref name=HRW>, ] 2005. ISBN 1-56432-331-5.</ref> Women and ] faced discrimination in the public sector.<ref name=HRW /> Thousands of ] were denied citizenship in 1962 and their descendants labeled "foreigners".<ref name=cnnkurds>{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-04-07/world/syria.kurdish.citizenship_1_kurdish-region-kurdish-identity-stateless-kurds |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229155818/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-04-07/world/syria.kurdish.citizenship_1_kurdish-region-kurdish-identity-stateless-kurds?_s=PM:WORLD |archivedate=29 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |title=Stateless Kurds in Syria granted citizenship |publisher=CNN |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> A number of riots in 2004 prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brandon |first=James |title=The PKK and Syria's Kurds |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1014&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=182&no_cache=1 |journal=Terrorism Monitor |publisher=The Jamestown Foundation|location=Washington, DC |volume=5 |issue=3 |date=21 February 2007 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mideastweb.org/log/archives/00000231.htm |title=Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo |last=Isseroff |first=Ami |work=MideastWeb |date=24 March 2004 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> and there have been occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces ever since.
{{See also|Ba'athist Syria|Presidency of Hafez al-Assad|Presidency of Bashar al-Assad|Assad family}}


The ] government came to power through ] by overthrowing the ]. A ] ousted the old Baathist leadership of ], replacing it with a militaristic, hard-left, pro-Soviet regime led by ], causing a split between the ], which supported Jadid, and the ], which remained loyal to Aflaq. Jadid was in turn ] by General ], an ] who declared himself ] in March 1971.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |date=25 April 2011 |title=Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429193035/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |archive-date=29 April 2011 |work=The Seattle Times}}</ref> This marked the beginning of the domination of personality cults centred around the ] that pervaded all aspects of Syrian daily life and was accompanied by a systematic suppression of civil and political freedoms, becoming the central feature of state propaganda. Authority in Ba'athist Syria was monopolised by three power-centres: Alawite loyalist clans, the Ba'ath Party and the ]. All three united by their allegiance to the Assad family.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shamaileh |first=Ammar |title=Trust and Terror: Social Capital and the Use of Terrorism as a Tool of Resistance |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-138-20173-6 |location=New York, NY, USA |pages=16 |chapter=2: Trust, Terror and the Arab Spring: Egypt, Libya and Syria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Saber Allam |author2=Salah Ashraf |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=9 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ma'oz |first=Moshe |title=Dictators and Autocrats: Securing Power across Global Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-367-60786-9 |editor-last=Larres |editor-first=Klaus |location=New York, NY |pages=249–263 |chapter=15: The Assad dynasty |doi=10.4324/9781003100508|s2cid=239130832 }}</ref>
Despite hoped for democratic change with the 2000 "]", Bashar al-Assad was widely regarded as having failed to implement any improvements. A ] report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad |work=The Guardian |first=Ian |last=Black |title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says |date=16 July 2010 |location=London}}</ref>


The Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a ] until the first ] ] to the ] was held in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012524113941282101.html |title=Assad says Syria 'able' to get out of crisis |publisher=] |date=25 May 2012 |access-date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607214248/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012524113941282101.html |archive-date=7 June 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, leading to a national crisis. The ] entrusted the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party with the distinctive role as the "leader of the state and society", empowering it to mobilise the civilians for party programmes, issue decrees to ascertain their loyalty and supervise all legal trade unions. Ba'athist ideology was imposed upon children as a compulsory part of school curricula as the Armed Forces became highly monitored by the Party. The constitution removed Islam from being recognised as the ] and stripped existing provisions such as the requirement that the president of Syria be ]. These measures caused widespread furor amongst the public, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the ] and the '']''. The Assad regime violently crushed the ] that occurred during 1976–1982, waged by revolutionaries from the ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 July 2012 |title=Profile: Syria's ruling Baath Party |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18582755 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331141644/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18582755 |archive-date=31 March 2022}}</ref>
== Course of events ==


The Ba'ath Party carefully constructed Assad as the guiding father figure of the party and modern Syrian nation, advocating the continuation of ] rule of Syria. As part of the publicity efforts to brand the nation and Assad family as inseparable, slogans such as "Assad or we burn the country", "Assad or to hell with the country" and "], forever" became an integral part of the state and party discourse during the 1980s. Eventually the party organisation itself became a rubber stamp<!-- this needs rephrasing --> and the power structures became deeply dependent on sectarian affiliation to the Assad family and the central role of armed forces needed to crack down on dissent in the society. Critics of the regime have pointed out that deployment of violence is central to the rule of ] and describe it as "a dictatorship with ] tendencies".<ref name="Kmak, Björklund 2022 73–74">{{Cite book |author1=Björklund Kmak |author2=Heta Magdalena |title=Refugees and Knowledge Production: Europe's Past and Present |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-367-55206-0 |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon |pages=73–74 |chapter=4: The world as an exiling political structure |doi=10.4324/9781003092421|s2cid=246668129 }}</ref> Hafez al-Assad's nearly three-decade rule was marked by its methods, ranging from censorship to violent measures of ] such as ], ] and brutal practices such as ], which were unleashed collectively upon the civilian population.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ma'oz |first=Moshe |title=Dictators and Autocrats: Securing Power across Global Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-367-60786-9 |editor-last=Larres |editor-first=Klaus |location=New York, NY |pages=249–250 |chapter=15: The Assad dynasty |doi=10.4324/9781003100508|s2cid=239130832 }}</ref> Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him as the President of Syria.<ref name="Kmak, Björklund 2022 73–74"/>
<!-- Per discussion, only include major territorial changes and attacks. This is not a timeline of every event. -->
{{See also|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War|Cities and towns during the Syrian Civil War}}
]


Bashar's wife ], a ] born and educated in Britain, was initially hailed in the Western press as a "rose in the desert".<ref name="rose">{{cite news |last=Golovnina |first=Maria |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-asma-idUSBRE82I0MB20120319 |title=Asma al Assad, a "desert rose" crushed by Syria's strife |work=Reuters |date=19 March 2012 |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923084401/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/19/us-syria-asma-idUSBRE82I0MB20120319 |archive-date=23 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The couple once raised hopes amongst Syrian intellectuals and outside Western observers, being seen as a path towards implementing economic and political reforms. However, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms, instead cracking down on the civil society groups, political reformists and democratic activists that emerged during the Damascus Spring in the 2000s.<ref name="nyt1Apr11">{{cite news |title=Syrian Protesters Clash With Security Forces |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02syria.html |date=1 April 2011 |access-date=19 December 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Liam |last=Stack |author2=J. David Goodman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513035056/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02syria.html |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bashar Al-Assad claims that no 'moderate opposition' to his government exists, and that all opposition forces are ] focused on destroying his ]; his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are "linked to the agendas of foreign countries".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://leakofnations.com/president-bashar-al-assad-interview-with-croatian-newspaper-vecernji-list-syrian-civil-war/ |title=President Bashar al-Assad interview with Croatian newspaper Vecernji List |website=leakofnations.com |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413073030/https://leakofnations.com/president-bashar-al-assad-interview-with-croatian-newspaper-vecernji-list-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=13 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Protests, civil uprising, and defections (January–July 2011) ===
{{Main article|Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War}}
{{See also|Arab Spring}}
The protests started on 15 March 2011, when protesters marched in the capital of ], demanding democratic reforms and the release of political prisoners. The security forces retaliated by opening fire on the protesters,<ref name="SCW" /> and according to witnesses who spoke to the ], the government forces detained six of them.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674|publisher=BBC|accessdate=7 August 2015}}</ref> The protest was triggered by the arrest of a boy and his friends by the government for writing in ], "The people want the fall of the regime", in the city of ].<ref name="SCW">{{cite news|title=A Faceless Teenage Refugee Who Helped Ignite Syria's War|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/09/world/middleeast/a-faceless-teenage-refugee-who-helped-ignite-syrias-war.html?_r=1|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=7 August 2015|first1=Kareem|last1=Fahim|first2=Hwaida|last2=Saad|date=8 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="DR">{{cite web|title=Middle East unrest: Silence broken in Syria|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12794882|publisher=BBC|accessdate=7 August 2015}}</ref> Louai al-Hussein, an analyst and writer wrote that "Syria is now on the map of countries in the region with an uprising", referencing the ] which was concurrently starting.<ref name="DR" /> On 20 March, the protesters burned down a ] headquarters and "other buildings". The ensuing clashes claimed the lives of seven police officers<ref>{{cite web|title=Syria: Seven Police Killed, Buildings Torched in Protests|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/143026#.VdOFupexlmE|publisher=Israel National News|accessdate=18 August 2015}}</ref> and 15 protesters.<ref>{{cite web|title=The struggle for Syria in 2011|url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Struggle_For_Syria.pdf|publisher=Understanding War|accessdate=7 August 2015}}</ref> Ten days later in a speech, President ] blamed "foreign conspirators" pushing Israeli propaganda for the protests.<ref>{{cite web|title=Assad blames conspirators for Syrian protests|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/30/syrian-protests-assad-blames-conspirators|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=7 August 2015}}</ref>


=== Demographics ===
]]]
{{Main|Demographics of Syria}}
The total Syrian population in July 2018 was estimated at 19,454,263 people. By ethnic groups, Syria was approximately ] 50%, ] 15%, ] 10%, ] 10% and 15% of other ethnic groups (includes ], ], ], ], ] and ]). Its religious breakdown was: ] 87% (official; includes ] 74% and Alawi, Ismaili and ] 13%), ] 10% (mainly of ]<ref name=IRFR2006>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm |title=Syria |work=U.S. Department of State |access-date=11 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722104603/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm |archive-date=22 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>—may now be smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country), ] 3% and ] (uncounted in the estimate, but with few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria/|title=The World Factbook: Syria|website=CIA Library|access-date=21 December 2018|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109103654/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria/|url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Socioeconomic background ===
The protesters' demands until 7 April were predominantly democratic reforms, release of political prisoners, more freedom, abolition of the emergency law and an end to corruption. After 8 April, the emphasis in demonstration slogans gradually shifted towards the call for overthrowing the Assad government. Protests spread: on Friday 8 April, they occurred simultaneously in ten cities. By Friday 22 April protests occurred in twenty cities. On 25 April, the ] started a series of large-scale deadly military attacks on towns, using tanks, infantry carriers, and artillery, leading to hundreds of civilian deaths. By the end of May 2011, 1,000 civilians<ref name=bbc24M11>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13529923 |publisher=BBC News |title=US policy on Syria 'depends on success in Libya' |date=24 May 2011|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref> and 150 soldiers and policemen<ref name=Kh.31-5-11>{{cite news|title=Armed residents put up resistance to Syrian army|url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle09.asp?xfile=data/middleeast/2011/May/middleeast_May870.xml&section=middleeast|accessdate=2 April 2014 |newspaper=Khaleej Times (Dubai)|date=31 May 2011}}</ref> had been killed and thousands detained;<ref name=bbc5511,17.19GMT>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13299793 |title=Syria protests: Rights group warns of 'Deraa massacre'|accessdate=2 February 2014 |publisher=BBC News|date=5 May 2011 <!-- 17:19GMT --> |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506035755/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13299793| archivedate=6 May 2011 | deadurl=no}}</ref> among the arrested were many students, liberal activists and human rights advocates.<ref>{{cite web|last=Salloum |first=Raniah |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/former-prisoners-fight-in-syrian-insurgency-a-927158.html |title=From Jail to Jihad: Former Prisoners Fight in Syrian Insurgency|work=Spiegel |date=10 October 2013 |accessdate=27 May 2014}}</ref>
] inequality increased significantly after ] policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the ], these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.<ref name="Poor rural rebels"/> In 2010, Syria's nominal GDP per capita was only $2,834, comparable to ] countries such as ] and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other developing countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/syria/gdp-per-capita|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214130246/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/syria/gdp-per-capita|url-status=dead|title=Syria GDP per Capita |archive-date=14 December 2017|website=ceicdata.com|access-date=18 August 2020}}</ref>


The country also faced particularly high ] rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/ |title=Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions |date=11 August 2011 |publisher=Journalist's Resource |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614153453/http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/ |archive-date=14 June 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> At the start of the war, discontent with the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.<ref name="Poor rural rebels">{{cite news |title=Rebels in Syria's largest city of Aleppo mostly poor, pious and from rural backgrounds |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/rebels-in-syrias-largest-city-of-aleppo-mostly-poor-pious-and-from-rural-backgrounds/ |access-date=28 January 2013 |publisher=Fox News Channel |agency=Associated Press |date=16 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207232408/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/10/16/rebels-in-syria-largest-city-aleppo-mostly-poor-pious-and-from-rural/ |archive-date=7 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> These included cities with high poverty rates, such as ] and ], and the poorer districts of large cities.
Significant armed rebellion against the state began on 4 June in ], a city in ] near the Turkish border, after security forces on a post office roof had fired at a funeral demonstration. Protesting mourners set fire to the building, killing eight security officers, and then overran a police station, seizing weapons from it. Violence continued and escalated over the following days. Unverified reports claim that a portion of the security forces in Jisr defected after secret police and intelligence officers executed soldiers who had refused to fire on civilians.<ref name="understandingwar">{{cite journal |url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Struggle_For_Syria.pdf|accessdate=20 September 2013|title=The Struggle for Syria in 2011 |author=Holliday, Joseph |journal=Institute for the Study of War |date=December 2011}} (page 21)</ref> Later, more protesters in Syria took up arms, and more soldiers defected to protect protesters.


=== Drought ===
=== Initial armed insurgency (July–October 2011) ===
The unrest coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in ] and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers.<ref name="Kelley drought 2015">Kelley, C. P., Mohtadi, S., Cane, M. A., Seager, R., & Kushnir, Y. (2015). Syria had also received in the same period around 1.5{{nbs}}million refugees from Iraq. By 2011, Syria was facing steep rises in the prices of commodities and a clear deterioration in the national standard of living.</ref> This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5{{nbs}}million refugees from the ].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-conflict-to-drought-caused-by-climate-change.html |title=Researchers Link Syrian Conflict to a Drought Made Worse by Climate Change |last=Fountain |first=Henry |date=2 March 2015 |work=The New York Times |access-date=1 May 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425175902/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-conflict-to-drought-caused-by-climate-change.html |archive-date=25 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The drought has been linked to ].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian drought |date=17 March 2015 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |doi=10.1073/pnas.1421533112 |last1=Kelley |first1=Colin P. |last2=Mohtadi |first2=Shahrzad |last3=Cane |first3=Mark A. |last4=Seager |first4=Richard |last5=Kushnir |first5=Yochanan |volume=112 |issue=11 |pages=3241–3246 |pmid=25733898 |pmc=4371967 |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.3241K |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://climateandsecurity.org/2012/02/29/syria-climate-change-drought-and-social-unrest/ |title=Syria: Climate Change, Drought and Social Unrest |date=29 February 2012 |website=The Center for Climate & Security |access-date=1 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414205011/https://climateandsecurity.org/2012/02/29/syria-climate-change-drought-and-social-unrest/ |archive-date=14 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gleick|first=Peter H.|date=1 July 2014|title=Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Conflict in Syria|journal=Weather, Climate, and Society|volume=6|issue=3|pages=331–340|doi=10.1175/wcas-d-13-00059.1|s2cid=153715885 }}</ref> Subsequent analysis, however, has challenged the narrative of the drought as a major contributor to the start of the war.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Selby |first1=Jan |last2=Dahi |first2=Omar S. |last3=Fröhlich |first3=Christiane |last4=Hulme |first4=Mike |date=1 September 2017 |title=Climate change and the Syrian civil war revisited |journal=Political Geography |language=en |volume=60 |pages=232–244 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2017.05.007 |s2cid=59482093 |issn=0962-6298|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eklund |first1=Lina |last2=Theisen |first2=Ole Magnus |last3=Baumann |first3=Matthias |last4=Forø Tollefsen |first4=Andreas |last5=Kuemmerle |first5=Tobias |last6=Østergaard Nielsen |first6=Jonas |date=6 April 2022 |title=Societal drought vulnerability and the Syrian climate-conflict nexus are better explained by agriculture than meteorology |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=85 |doi=10.1038/s43247-022-00405-w |bibcode=2022ComEE...3...85E |s2cid=247975293 |issn=2662-4435|doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3053767 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ide |first=Tobias |date=1 December 2018 |title=Climate War in the Middle East? Drought, the Syrian Civil War and the State of Climate-Conflict Research |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-018-0115-0 |journal=Current Climate Change Reports |language=en |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=347–354 |doi=10.1007/s40641-018-0115-0 |bibcode=2018CCCR....4..347I |s2cid=159017324 |issn=2198-6061}}</ref> Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and is frequently the target of military action.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-19533112 |title=Aleppo water supply cut as Syria fighting rages |date=8 September 2012 |work=BBC News |access-date=1 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730114347/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-19533112 |archive-date=30 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Main article|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (May–August 2011)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (September–December 2011)}}
{{See also|List of Syrian defectors}}


=== Human rights ===
On 29 July 2011, seven defecting Syrian officers formed the ] (FSA), composed of defected ] officers and soldiers, aiming "to bring this regime (the Assad government) down" with united opposition forces.<ref name=Landis29-7-11>{{cite web|url=http://www.joshualandis.com/blog/?p=11043|title=Free Syrian Army Founded by Seven Officers to Fight the Syrian Army|publisher=Syria Comment|first=Joshua|last=Landis|date=29 July 2011|accessdate=29 May 2014}}</ref><ref name="wtarc">{{cite news|url=http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_syria0973_08_03.asp|title=Defecting troops form 'Free Syrian Army', target Assad security forces|agency=World Tribune|date=3 August 2011|accessdate=29 May 2014}}</ref> On 31 July, a nationwide crackdown nicknamed the "Ramadan Massacre" resulted in the death of at least 142 people and hundreds of injuries.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=31 July 2011|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/648303/syrian-army-kills-at-least-95-in-hama-activist |title=Syrian army kills at least 95 in Hama: activist|work=Dawn |accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref>
{{Main|Human rights in Syria|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war}}
The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118110333/https://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 |date=18 November 2016}}, p. 555.</ref> The rights of ], ] and ] were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.<ref name=HRW>, ] 2005. {{ISBN|1-56432-331-5}}.</ref> The country remained under a ] from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned.<ref name="Reuters16Apr11">{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad vows to lift emergency law by next week |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSTRE72N2MC20110416 |date=16 April 2011 |access-date=1 January 2014 |work=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192245/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/16/us-syria-idUSTRE72N2MC20110416 |archive-date=2 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention.<ref name="AmInt2009">{{cite web |url=http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228221417/http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |archive-date=28 February 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=Amnesty International |year=2009 |title=Syria |access-date=1 February 2012}}</ref> Despite hopes for democratic change with the 2000 ], Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed to implement any improvements. In 2010, he imposed a controversial national ban on female ] (such as ]) across universities, where reportedly over a thousand primary school teachers that wore the niqab were reassigned to administrative jobs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mcgregor-Wood |first=Simon |date=20 July 2010 |title=Islamic Face Covering Veil Banned From Syrian Universties(sic) |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/islamic-face-covering-veil-banned-syrian-universties/story?id=11204788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021120604/https://abcnews.go.com/International/islamic-face-covering-veil-banned-syrian-universties/story?id=11204788 |archive-date=21 October 2022}}</ref> A ] report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that Assad had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad |work=The Guardian |first=Ian |last=Black |title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says |date=16 July 2010 |location=London |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813034407/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad |archive-date=13 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>


== Timeline ==
On 23 August, a coalition of anti-government groups was formed, the ]. The group, based in Turkey, attempted to organize the opposition. However, the opposition, including the FSA, remained a fractious collection of political groups, longtime exiles, grass-roots organizers and armed militants, divided along ideological, ethnic and/or sectarian lines.<ref name="NYT Topic: Syria">{{cite news |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/syria/index.html |title=Syria News |work=The New York Times |accessdate=2 August 2012 |first1=Anne |last1=Barnard |first2=Ben |last2=Hubbard}}</ref>
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Syrian civil war}}
]
]
]
]
;Protests, civil uprising, and armed insurgency (January 2011 – April 2012)
{{For-text|a chronological guide|], ], ] and ] timelines}}
{{further|Syrian revolution|Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war|Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan}}


;Escalation (2012–2013)
Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centres and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests. On 14 August, the ] continued as the ] became involved in the military crackdown for the first time. ]s fired ]s at waterfront districts in Latakia, as ground troops and security agents backed by armour stormed several neighbourhoods.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/14/us-syria-idUSTRE77D0LP20110814 |agency=Reuters |date=14 August 2011 |accessdate=14 August 2011 |title=Tank, navy attack on Syria's Latakia kills 26-witnesses |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |location=Amman}}</ref> The ] celebrations, which began at the end of August, were muted after security forces fired on protesters gathered in Homs, Daraa, and the suburbs of Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/08/30/164705.html |title=Syrian forces kill seven protesters as Muslims celebrate first day of Eid |publisher=Al Arabiya |date=30 August 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|], ], ] and ] timelines}}
{{further|2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war}}


;Rise of the Islamist groups (January–August 2014)
By September 2011, organized units of Syrian rebels were engaged in an active insurgency campaign in many different parts of Syria. A major confrontation between the FSA and the Syrian armed forces ]. From 27 September to 1 October, Syrian government forces, backed by tanks and helicopters, led a major offensive on the town of ] in ], in order to drive out army defectors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/27/syria-town-idUSL5E7KR02A20110927 |agency=Reuters |title=Syria forces storm main town, fight defectors-residents |date=27 September 2011}}</ref> The 2011 battle of Rastan between the government forces and the FSA was the longest and most intense action up until that time. After a week of fighting, the FSA was forced to retreat from Rastan.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13988701 |title=Syria: 'Hundreds of thousands' join anti-Assad protests |publisher=BBC |date=1 July 2011 |accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> To avoid government forces, the leader of the FSA, Colonel Riad Asaad, retreated to Turkey.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/04/us-syria-opposition-idUSL5E7L41CT20111004|agency=Reuters|title=Dissident Syrian colonel flees to Turkey|date=4 October 2011|accessdate=18 August 2012|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis}}</ref> Many of the rebels fled to the nearby city of Homs.<ref name="ISW 2011">{{cite journal |url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Struggle_For_Syria.pdf |title=The Struggle for Syria in 2011 |author=Holliday, Joseph |journal=Institute for the Study of War |date=December 2011}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war}}


;US intervention (September 2014 – August 2015)
By October, the FSA started to receive active support from Turkey, which allowed the rebel army to operate its ] from the country's southern ] close to the Syrian border, and its ] from inside Syria.<ref name="Rebel groups">{{cite news|last=Yezdani|first=İpek|title=Syrian rebels: Too fragmented, unruly|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/syrian-rebels-too-fragmented-unruly.aspx?pageID=238&nID=29158&NewsCatID=352|accessdate=21 September 2012|work=Hürriyet Daily News|date=1 September 2012}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] and ] timelines}}
{{further|US intervention in the Syrian civil war|2015 Southern Syria offensive|Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015)|Battle of Idlib (2015)|Palmyra offensive (May 2015)|Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015)|Battle of al-Hasakah (2015)}}


;Russian intervention; first partial ceasefire (September 2015 – August 2016)
In October 2011, clashes between government and defected army units were being reported fairly regularly. During the first week of the month, sustained ] in the mountainous regions of Idlib Governorate. Syrian rebels captured most of Idlib city as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/55206/World/Region/Syria-sends-extra-troops-after-rebels-seize-Idlib-.aspx |title=Syria sends extra troops after rebels seize Idlib: NGO|publisher=Ahram}}</ref> In mid-October, clashes in Idlib Governorate included the city of ] and the town of ] in the governorate near the mountain range of ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=241610|title=Activist group: Fourteen killed in Syrian violence|date=13 October 2011|work=The Jerusalem Post|agency=Reuters|accessdate=8 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2546086.ece|title=Activists: Syrian forces fight defectors; 5 killed|date=17 October 2011|accessdate=23 May 2012|work=The Hindu|agency=Associated Press|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In late October, clashes occurred in the northwestern town of ] between government forces and defected soldiers at a roadblock on the edge of the town, and near the Turkish border, where 10 security agents and a deserter were killed in a bus ambush.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/10/25/idINIndia-60114220111025|title=Assad forces fight deserters at northwestern town|agency=Reuters|date=25 October 2011|accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref> It was not clear if the defectors linked to these incidents were connected to the FSA.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/world/11-troops-killed-as-un-chief-urges-end-to-syria-violence-142004 |title=11 troops killed as UN chief urges end to Syria violence |publisher=NDTV |date=18 October 2011 |accessdate=22 July 2013|agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] and ] and ] timelines}}
{{further|Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war}}


;Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (September 2016 – April 2017)
According to defectors, in 2011 the Syrian government intentionally released imprisoned ] militants and provided them with arms "in order to make itself the least bad choice for the international community, though the "claims could not be independently verified" of the one defector quoted, who "did not have documents supporting" the allegations."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sands|first1=Phil|last2=Vela|first2=Justin|last3=Maayeh|first3=Suha|url=http://www.thenational.ae/world/syria/assad-regime-set-free-extremists-from-prison-to-fire-up-trouble-during-peaceful-uprising|title=Assad regime set free extremists from prison to fire up trouble during peaceful uprising|work=The National|date=21 January 2014|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="Weiss">{{cite web|last=Weiss|first=Michael|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/06/23/iran_is_funding_isis_syria_iraq_proxy_war|title=Trust Iran Only as Far as You Can Throw It|work=Foreign Policy|date=23 June 2014|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] and ] timeline}}
{{further|Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016)}}


;Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation zones (April–August 2017)
On October 19, 2011 U.S. media reported that "large crowds of Syrians rallied in the northern city of Aleppo in support of the government of President Bashar al-Assad" with the Syrian government estimating over a million pro-government demonstrators, while others estimated crowds to number at least in the "tens of thousands" with a similar sized pro-government rally "a week earlier in Damascus."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/20/world/middleeast/assad-supporters-hold-rally-in-aleppo-syria.html|title=Pro-Assad Rally Shows Syrian Government Can Still Command Support|date=20 October 2011|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>http://www.aljazeera.com/mritems/Images/2011/10/12/20111012134534483876_20.jpg</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Khan Shaykhun chemical attack|2017 Shayrat missile strike|Hama offensive (March–April 2017)}}


;ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted; Russian forces permanent (September–December 2017)
=== Escalation (November 2011 – March 2012) ===
{{Main article|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (September–December 2011)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (January–April 2012)}} {{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Deir ez-Zor offensive (September–November 2017)|Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)}}
{{See also|Siege of Homs|2012 Homs offensive|Battle of Idlib (2012)}}


;Army advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018)
]
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017 – February 2018)|Operation Olive Branch|Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)|February 2018 Israel–Syria incident}}


;Douma chemical attack; US-led missile strikes; southern Syria offensive (April–August 2018)
In early November, clashes between the FSA and security forces in Homs escalated as the ] continued. After six days of bombardment, the Syrian Army stormed the city on 8 November, leading to heavy street fighting in several neighborhoods. Resistance in Homs was significantly greater than that seen in other towns and cities, and some in opposition have referred to the city as the "Capital of the Revolution". Unlike events in Deraa and Hama, operations in Homs have thus far failed to quell the unrest.<ref name="ISW 2011" />
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Douma chemical attack|Operation House of Cards|Syria missile strikes (September 2018)}}


;Idlib demilitarization; Partial US withdrawal; Iraq strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018)
November and December 2011 saw increasing rebel attacks, as opposition forces grew in number. In the two months, the FSA launched deadly attacks on an ] in the Damascus suburb of ], the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch youth headquarters in ], Syrian Regional Branch offices in Damascus, ], and an intelligence building in Idlib.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bakri|first=Nada|title=New Phase for Syria in Attacks on Capital|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/21/world/middleeast/insurgents-attack-baath-party-offices-in-damascus.html|work=The New York Times|date=20 November 2011|accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref> On 15 December, opposition fighters ambushed checkpoints and military bases around Daraa, killing 27 soldiers, in one of the largest attacks yet on security forces.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bakri|first=Nada|title=Syrian Army Defectors Reportedly Kill 27 Soldiers|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/16/world/middleeast/syria-army-defectors-said-to-kill-soldiers-in-coordinated-assault.html|work=The New York Times|date=15 December 2011}}</ref> The opposition suffered a major setback on 19 December, when a failed defection in Idlib Governorate lead to 72 defectors killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16258387|title=Syria unrest: Dozens of army deserters 'gunned down'|publisher=BBC|date=20 December 2011}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)}}


;ISIL attacks continue; US states conditions of withdrawal; fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–April 2019)
In December 2011, former counter-terrorism specialist and CIA military intelligence officer ] asserted that already "unmarked NATO warplanes are arriving at Turkish military bases close to the Syrian border, delivering weapons from the late Muammar Gaddafi’s arsenals as well as volunteers from the Libyan Transitional National Council who are experienced in pitting local volunteers against trained soldiers" and that in addition, " ] and ] special forces trainers are on the ground, assisting the Syrian rebels while the CIA and U.S. ] are providing communications equipment and intelligence to assist the rebel cause." Giraldi stated that "CIA analysts are skeptical regarding the march to war" for reasons including that "the frequently cited U.N. report that more than 3,500 civilians have been killed by Assad’s soldiers is based largely on rebel sources and is uncorroborated" while cautioning in The American Conservative that "Americans should be concerned about what is happening in Syria… It threatens to become another undeclared war like Libya but much, much worse."<ref> By Philip Giraldi December 19, 2011, The American Conesrvative</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict}}


;New outbreaks of civil war; northwestern offensive; northern buffer zone established (May–August 2019)
In January 2012, Assad began using large-scale artillery operations against the insurgency, which led to the destruction of many civilian homes due to indiscriminate shelling.<ref name="Air War">{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/opeds/Boxx20130301-AirSpace.pdf |title=Observations on the Air War in Syria | work=Air & Space Power Journal | date=March–April 2013}}</ref><ref name="ISW Air">{{cite web | url=http://www.understandingwar.org/press-media/graphsandstat/syrian-air-force-air-defense-overview | title=Syrian Air Force & Air Defense Overview | publisher=Institute for the Study of War | date=25 October 2012}}</ref> By this time, daily protests had dwindled, eclipsed by the spread of armed conflict.<ref>{{cite news|author=Neil MacFarquhar |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/27/world/middleeast/syria.html|title=Syrian Protesters Emerge Amid Clashes and Bombing During a Holiday Cease-Fire|work=The New York Times|date=26 October 2012|accessdate=16 January 2014}}</ref> January saw intensified ], with the Syrian Army use of tanks and artillery becoming common. ] began on 7 January when the Syrian Army stormed the town in an attempt to rout out FSA presence. After the first phase of the battle ended with a ceasefire on 18 January, leaving the FSA in control of the town,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-zabadani-liberated-but-for-how-long/2012/01/21/gIQAMhDYGQ_story.html|title=Syria's Zabadani is 'liberated', but for how long?|date=21 January 2012|work=The Washington Post|first=Liz|last=Sly}}</ref> the FSA launched an offensive into nearby Douma.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/16/universal/es/para-los-que-aun-viven-en-siria-la-rutina-esta-marcada-por-el-miedo-y-el-horror.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Fnyt-america|title=Para los que aún viven en Siria, la rutina está marcada por el miedo y el horror|date=16 September 2015|newspaper=The New York Times|first1=Maher|last1=Smaan|first2=Anne|last2=Barnard|language=spanish}}</ref> ] lasted from 21 to 30 January, before the rebels were forced to retreat as result of a government counteroffensive. Although the Syrian Army managed to retake most of the suburbs, sporadic fighting continued.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yacoub|first=Khaled|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/30/us-syria-idUSTRE80S08620120130|title=Assad troops fight back against Syria rebels|agency=Reuters|date=30 January 2012|accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref> ] again on 29 January, when dozens of soldiers manning the town's checkpoints defected and began opening fire on troops loyal to the government. Opposition forces gained complete control of the town and surrounding suburbs on 5 February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/syria-mar-4-2012-1148 |title=Syria – Mar 4, 2012 – 11:48 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=4 March 2012}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)}}


;US forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (September–December 2019)
On 3 February, the Syrian Army launched ] in Homs to retake rebel-held neighborhoods. In early March, after weeks of artillery bombardments and heavy street fighting, the Syrian Army eventually captured the district of ], a rebel stronghold. The Syrian Army also captured the district of Karm al-Zeitoun by 9 March, where activists said that government forces killed 47 women and children. By the end of March, the Syrian Army retook control of half a dozen districts, leaving them in control of 70 percent of the city.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9207098/Syria-more-than-11000-killed-in-13-months.html | title=Syria 'more than 11,000 killed in 13 months' | work=The Telegraph | date=16 April 2012 | agency=Telegraph Media Group Limited | accessdate=7 June 2015 | location=London}}</ref> By 14 March, Syrian troops successfully ] from the city of Idlib after days of fighting.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/03/2012313193810910894.html |title=Syrian troops retake opposition stronghold |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=14 March 2012}}</ref> By early April, the estimated death toll of the conflict, according to activists, reached 10,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://metro.co.uk/2012/04/02/syria-agrees-to-kofi-annans-april-10-peace-deadline-un-security-council-told-374870/ |title=Syria agrees to Kofi Annan's April 10 peace deadline, UN Security Council told |work=Metro |date=2 April 2012}}</ref>
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{further|2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria}}


;Northwestern Syria offensive; Operation Spring Shield; new economic crisis and stalemate conflict (2020 – October 2024)
=== Ceasefire attempt (April–May 2012) ===
{{Main article|Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (January–April 2012)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (May–August 2012)}} {{For-text|a chronological guide|], ], ], ] and ] timelines}}
{{further|Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)|Operation Spring Shield|Southern Syria protests (2023–24)}}


;Renewed rebel offensive and collapse of the Assad regime (November 2024–present)
] was acting as UN–] ] Syria. His peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.<ref name="deadly reprisals">{{cite journal |title=Deadly Reprisals: deliberate killings and other abuses by Syria's armed forces |url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/041/2012/en/30416985-883b-4e67-b386-0df14a79f694/mde240412012en.pdf |publisher=Amnesty International |date=June 2012 |accessdate=25 June 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616231620/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/041/2012/en/30416985-883b-4e67-b386-0df14a79f694/mde240412012en.pdf|archivedate=16 June 2012|deadurl=yes}}</ref>{{rp|11|date=December 2012}} Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria: Repression continues despite Annan plan hopes |url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-repression-continues-despite-annan-plan-hopes-2012-04-03 |publisher=Amnesty International |date=3 April 2012 |accessdate=30 June 2012}}</ref> In April, Assad began employing ]s against rebel forces.<ref name="Air War" />
{{For-text|a chronological guide|] timeline}}
{{main|2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Operation Dawn of Freedom|Fall of the Assad regime}}
{{further|Southern Syria offensive (2024)|Deir ez-Zor offensive (2024)|Battle of Aleppo (2024)|2024 Hama offensive|2024 Homs offensive|Palmyra offensive (2024)|Fall of Damascus|2024 Israeli invasion of Syria}}


== Belligerents ==
On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN-mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.<ref>{{cite web |title= Iran reaffirms full support for Annan's Syria peace plan |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/10/225485.html |publisher=Al Arabiya|date=10 July 2012 |accessdate=10 July 2012 }}</ref> The peace plan practically collapsed by early June and the UN mission was withdrawn from Syria. Annan officially resigned in frustration on 2 August 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/Kofi-Annan-resigns-as-UN-Syria-envoy/articleshow/15329904.cms|title=Kofi Annan resigns as UN Syria envoy |accessdate=2 August 2012 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>
{{Main|Belligerents in the Syrian civil war}}
]


=== Syrian factions ===
=== Renewed fighting (June–October 2012) ===
There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be divided into four main groups.
{{Main article|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (May–August 2012)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (May–August 2012)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (September–December 2012)}}
* First, ] led by ] and backed by his ]n and ]ian allies.
{{further information|Battle of Damascus (2012)|Battle of Aleppo (2012–present)|Rif Dimashq offensive (August–October 2012)}}
* Second, the ] consisting of two alternative governments:
** i) the ], a big-tent coalition of ], ] and ] groups whose defense forces consist of the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-force/syrian-rebels-build-an-army-with-turkish-help-face-challenges-idUSKBN1KX05Y|title=Syrian rebels build an army with Turkish help, face challenges|first=Khalil|last=Ashawi|work=]|date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813014157/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-force/syrian-rebels-build-an-army-with-turkish-help-face-challenges-idUSKBN1KX05Y|archive-date=13 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and ], and
** ii) the ], a ] coalition led by ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html |title=Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria |first=Kim |last=Sengupta |newspaper=The Independent |date=12 May 2015 |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513214636/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html |archive-date=13 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Third, the Kurdish-dominated ] and its military wing, the ], supported by the ], ] and other ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/us/politics/trump-kurds-syria-army.html|title=Trump to Arm Syrian Kurds, Even as Turkey Strongly Objects|work=]|date=9 May 2017|access-date=23 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510000916/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/us/politics/trump-kurds-syria-army.html|archive-date=10 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Fourth, the ] camp consisting of ] affiliate ] and its rival ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/isis-kills-40-mabuja-village-central-syria-including-women-children/ |title=ISIS reportedly massacres dozens in Syrian village |date=31 March 2015 |work=CBS News |agency=Associated Press |access-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134248/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/isis-kills-40-mabuja-village-central-syria-including-women-children/ |archive-date=1 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>


The Syrian government, the opposition and the SDF have all received support—militarily, logistically and diplomatically—from foreign countries, leading the conflict to often be described as a ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Battle for Aleppo: How Syria Became the New Global War |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-war-became-conflict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html |work=Der Spiegel |date=11 October 2016 |quote=Syria has become a proxy war between the US and Russia |access-date=4 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405173520/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-war-became-conflict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html |archive-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live}}<br/>{{cite news |last1=O'Connor |first1=Tom |title=Iran's military leader tells U.S. to get out of Persian Gulf |url=http://www.newsweek.com/iran-military-us-get-out-persian-gulf-577231 |work=Newsweek |date=31 March 2017 |quote=The Gulf Arab faction, especially Saudi Arabia, has been engaged in a proxy war of regional influence with Iran |access-date=4 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405074950/http://www.newsweek.com/iran-military-us-get-out-persian-gulf-577231 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Following the ] of 25 May 2012, in which 108 people were summarily executed and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the ceasefire practically collapsed, as the FSA began nationwide offensives against government troops. On 1 June, President Assad vowed to crush the anti-government uprising.<ref name=aa0406>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/04/218430.html |title=Deadly violence flares in Syria as EU-Russia seek solutions |publisher=Al Arabiya |date=4 June 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref>


=== Foreign involvement ===
On 5 June, ] and nearby villages in the coastal governorate of ]. Government forces were backed by ]s in the heaviest clashes in the governorate since the revolt began. Syrian forces seized the territory following days of fighting and shelling.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Reuters |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/assad-names-new-syrian-pm-army-battles-rebels/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224031049/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/assad-names-new-syrian-pm-army-battles-rebels/ |archivedate=24 February 2013 |deadurl=yes|title=Assad names new Syrian PM, army battles rebels |publisher=Trust |date=6 June 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> On 6 June, 78 civilians were killed in the ]. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before the ] militia moved in.<ref>{{cite news|title=New 'massacre' reported in Syria's Hama province|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18348201|publisher=BBC News |date=7 June 2012}}</ref> The UN observers headed to Al-Qubeir in the hope of investigating the alleged massacre, but they were met with a roadblock and small arms fire and were forced to retreat.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria UN team 'shot at' near Qubair 'massacre site'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18352281|publisher=BBC News |date=7 June 2012}}</ref>
{{Main|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}}
{{see also|Israel–Syria relations}}


]
On 12 June 2012, the UN for the first time officially proclaimed Syria to be in a state of civil war.<ref name=bbc12-6-12>{{cite news|title=Syria in civil war, says UN official Herve Ladsous|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18417952|publisher=BBC News|date=12 June 2012|accessdate=7 January 2014}}</ref> The conflict began moving into the two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo. In both cities, peaceful protests – including a general strike by Damascus shopkeepers and a small strike in Aleppo were interpreted as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities had become weak.<ref>Ivan Watson (12 June 2012). . CNN. Retrieved 7 February 2013.</ref>
The major parties that supported the Syrian government were ],<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran Spends Billions to Prop Up Assad |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-06-09/iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad |work=Bloomberg |date=9 June 2015 |access-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426104705/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-06-09/iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad |archive-date=26 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> ]<ref name="telegraph">Louisa Loveluck, and Roland Oliphant, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223184909/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11999694/Russia-transporting-militia-groups-fighting-Islamic-State-to-frontlines-in-Syria.html |date=23 February 2019}}, ''Telegraph'' 17 November 2015</ref> and Lebanese ] ]. Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the ],<ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian rebels: US sends more arms against Iran threat |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/syrian-rebels-sends-arms-iran-threat-170531014459877.html |publisher=al-Jazeera |date=31 May 2017 |access-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001856/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/syrian-rebels-sends-arms-iran-threat-170531014459877.html |archive-date=24 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Donald Trump ends covert CIA aid to Syrian rebels in 'win' for Russia |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/20/donald-trump-ends-us-programme-supporting-syrian-rebels-fighting/ |work=The Independent |date=20 July 2017 |access-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001747/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/20/donald-trump-ends-us-programme-supporting-syrian-rebels-fighting/ |archive-date=24 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news |last=Weiss |first=Michael |date=22 May 2012 |title= Syrian rebels say Turkey is arming and training them |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/100159613/syrian-rebels-say-turkey-is-arming-and-training-them/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014329/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/100159613/syrian-rebels-say-turkey-is-arming-and-training-them/ |archive-date= 5 March 2016 |work=The Telegraph |access-date=30 June 2012 |location=London |url-status=dead}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10 |title=Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against the Assad regime |work=Business Insider |access-date=21 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064328/http://www.businessinsider.com/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10 |archive-date=22 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html |title=Qatar bankrolls Syrian revolt with cash and arms |first1=Roula |last1=Khalaf |author2=Abigail Fielding Smith |name-list-style=amp |newspaper=Financial Times |date=16 May 2013 |access-date=3 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607043508/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html |archive-date=7 June 2013 |url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Britain, France,<ref>{{cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |title=As Talks Continue, CIA Gets Some Weapons To Syrian Rebels |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/09/13/222020019/as-talks-continue-cia-gets-some-weapons-to-syrian-rebels |access-date=10 December 2013 |publisher=NPR |date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214043535/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/09/13/222020019/as-talks-continue-cia-gets-some-weapons-to-syrian-rebels |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> ]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-knesset-member-accuses-israel-of-aiding-syrian-rebels-1.5432055|title=Israeli lawmaker accuses Israel of aiding Syrian rebel group formerly known as Nusra Front|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=3 June 2021|archive-date=5 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705134839/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-knesset-member-accuses-israel-of-aiding-syrian-rebels-1.5432055|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=IDF chief finally acknowledges that Israel supplied weapons to Syrian rebels |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-chief-acknowledges-long-claimed-weapons-supply-to-syrian-rebels/ |work=] |date=14 January 2019 |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=22 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522122353/http://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-chief-acknowledges-long-claimed-weapons-supply-to-syrian-rebels/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Dutch govt under fire for Syria opposition support |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/dutch-govt-under-fire-for-syria-opposition-support/ar-BBN9CXc |work=MSN |date=11 September 2018 |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013142/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/dutch-govt-under-fire-for-syria-opposition-support/ar-BBN9CXc |archive-date=1 February 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Under the aegis of operation ] and other clandestine activities, ] and ] have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of $1{{nbs}}billion a year since 2012.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. has secretly provided arms training to Syria rebels since 2012 |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/sns-la-fg-cia-syria-20130622-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=21 June 2013 |access-date=3 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122020932/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jun/21/world/la-fg-cia-syria-20130622 |archive-date=22 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Secret CIA effort in Syria faces large funding cut |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/lawmakers-move-to-curb-1-billion-cia-program-to-train-syrian-rebels/2015/06/12/b0f45a9e-1114-11e5-adec-e82f8395c032_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=12 June 2015 |access-date=3 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507132500/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/lawmakers-move-to-curb-1-billion-cia-program-to-train-syrian-rebels/2015/06/12/b0f45a9e-1114-11e5-adec-e82f8395c032_story.html |archive-date=7 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> ] had also been involved in supporting the Syrian government, but mostly against ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 August 2018|title=Iraq bombs ISIS 'operations room' in Syria|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2018/08/16/Iraq-bombs-ISIS-operations-room-in-Syria.html|access-date=20 July 2020|website=Al Arabiya English|language=en|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720152608/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2018/08/16/Iraq-bombs-ISIS-operations-room-in-Syria.html|url-status=live}}</ref>


], the Lebanese Shia militant group, was significantly involved in the Syrian Civil War. Starting from the 2011 ], Hezbollah provided active support to the Ba'athist government forces.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kais |first=Roi |date=8 June 2013 |title=Hezbollah is a 'cancer,' say Arab media |language=en |work=Ynetnews |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4389767,00.html |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=21 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221134708/https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4389767,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2016 |title=Why has the Syrian war lasted 12 years? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35806229 |access-date=28 May 2024 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512212403/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35806229 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2012, the group escalated its involvement, deploying troops across Syria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=US punishes Hezbollah |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/8/10/us-adds-hezbollah-to-syria-sanctions-list |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=4 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103919/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012810164625825716.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2013, Hezbollah publicly acknowledged its presence in Syria, intensifying its ground commitment. This involvement included an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 fighters at any given time, comprising ], standing forces from all units, part-time fighters and new recruits with accelerated combat training. Hezbollah's presence, supported by Iranian weaponry and training, further complicated the conflict dynamics, drawing Israeli airstrikes against Hezbollah and Iranian targets in Syria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Institute for the Study of War |url=http://dev-isw.bivings.com/ |access-date=21 December 2023 |website=Institute for the Study of War |language=en |archive-date=25 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325065358/https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-march-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
On 22 June, a Turkish ] was ], killing both pilots. Syria and Turkey disputed whether the jet had been flying in Syrian or international ] when it was shot down. Despite Turkish Prime Minister ]'s vows to retaliate harshly against Assad's government, no such intervention materialised. Bashar al-Assad publicly apologised for the incident. By 10 July, rebel forces had captured most of the city of ], in ], after weeks of fighting.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/733230/syrias-qusayr-prepares-for-ramadan-under-siege|title=Syria's Qusayr prepares for Ramadan under siege |date=10 July 2012 |accessdate=20 July 2013}}</ref> By mid-July, rebels had captured the town of ], in Idlib Governorate.<ref>{{cite news|author=Abouzeid, Rania|title=In Rebel Syria: Celebrating Assad's Departure–Even Though He's Still Staying|url=http://world.time.com/2012/07/20/in-rebel-syria-celebrating-assads-departure-even-though-hes-still-staying/|newspaper=Time|date=20 July 2012|accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref>


=== Spillover ===
By mid-July 2012, with fighting spread across the country and 16,000 people killed, the ] declared the conflict a civil war.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362|title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says|date=15 July 2012|accessdate=27 May 2014}}</ref> Fighting in Damascus intensified, with a ] to take the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9407153/Syrian-rebels-launch-campaign-to-liberate-Damascus.html|title=Syrian rebels launch campaign to 'liberate' Damascus|author1=Ruth Sherlock |author2=Adrian Blomfield |date=17 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London}}</ref> On 18 July, ] ], former defense minister ], and the president's brother-in-law General ] were killed by a ] in Damascus.<ref name=telegraph9408321>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9408321/Assads-brother-in-law-and-top-Syrian-officials-killed-in-Damascus-suicide-bomb.html |title=Assad's brother-in-law and top Syrian officials killed in Damascus suicide bomb|author=Damien McElroy|date=18 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London}}</ref> The Syrian intelligence chief ], who was injured in the same explosion, later succumbed to his wounds.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18920733|title=Syria blast: Security chief Ikhtiar dies from wounds|publisher=BBC News|date=20 July 2012|accessdate=20 July 2012}}</ref> Both the FSA and Liwa al-Islam claimed responsibility for the assassination.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/18/uk-syria-crisis-bombing-claim-idUKBRE86H0FO20120718|title=Two Syrian rebel groups claim Damascus attack|date=18 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012|agency=Reuters|first=Erika|last=Solomon}}</ref>
{{Main|Spillover of the Syrian civil war}}
{{Further|War in Iraq (2013–2017)}}
In June 2014, members of the ] (ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and ] of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the ] abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the ] of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.html |title=Syrian War Plays Out Along a Street in Lebanon |work=The New York Times |date=24 August 2012 |first=Damien |last=Cave |access-date=25 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215044851/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.html |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the ] used airstrikes targeted against ISIL in ] and ] in coordination with the Iraqi government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Jun-15/260207-syria-pounds-isis-bases-in-coordination-with-iraq.ashx |title=Syria pounds ISIS bases in coordination with Iraq |work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon |access-date=1 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318032519/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Jun-15/260207-syria-pounds-isis-bases-in-coordination-with-iraq.ashx |archive-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In mid-July, rebel forces ] and were repelled in two weeks, although ]. After this, the focus shifted to the ].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3693349.ece|title= A decisive battle being waged over Aleppo| date=28 July 2012 |location=Chennai, India| work=The Hindu| first=Atul| last=Aneja}}</ref> On 25 July, multiple sources reported that the Assad government was using fighter jets to attack rebel positions in Aleppo and Damascus,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2012/jul/25/syria-assad-strikes-back-aleppo-live|title=Syria crisis: Assad strikes back with jets in Aleppo and Damascus – live updates|work=The Guardian|date=25 July 2012|accessdate=25 July 2012|location=London|first1=Matthew|last1=Weaver |first2=Brian|last2=Whitaker}}</ref> and on 1 August, UN observers in Syria witnessed government fighter jets firing on rebels in Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3711815.ece|title=Syria using fighter jets against rebels: UN|agency=Associated Press| date=1 August 2012 |location=Chennai, India| work=The Hindu}}</ref> In early August, the Syrian Army recaptured Salaheddin district, an important rebel stronghold in Aleppo. In August, the government began using fixed-wing warplanes against the rebels.<ref name="Air War" /><ref name="ISW Air" />
{{clear}}


== Weaponry and warfare ==
On 19 July, Iraqi officials reported that the FSA had gained control of all four border checkpoints between Syria and Iraq, increasing concerns for the safety of Iraqis trying to escape the violence in Syria.<ref>{{cite news|last=Arango|first=Tim|title=Iraq Says Rebels in Syria Control Border Posts|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/syria-border-with-iraq.html|accessdate=19 July 2012|work=The New York Times|date=19 July 2012}}</ref> On 19 September, rebel forces seized a border crossing between Syria and Turkey in ]. It was speculated that this crossing could provide opposition forces with strategic and logistical advantages due to Turkish support of the rebels, whose headquarters subsequently relocated from southern Turkey into northern Syria.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian rebels seize control of border crossing on frontier with Turkey |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57515876/syrian-rebels-seize-control-of-border-crossing-on-frontier-with-turkey/ |publisher=CBS News |date=19 September 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}<br />{{cite news|title=Rebel Group Says It Is Now Based in Syria, a Major Step|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/23/world/middleeast/rebels-move-command-from-turkey-to-syria.html|accessdate=23 September 2012|work=The New York Times|date=23 September 2012|first1=Anne|last1=Barnard|first2=Hania|last2=Mourtada}}</ref>
{{See also|List of equipment of the Syrian Army|List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces|Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war}}
] found after the ] in 2016]]
] tank during the ]]]


=== Chemical weapons ===
In October, rebel forces ], a town in Idlib Governorate on the highway linking Damascus with Aleppo<ref>{{cite news|last=Naeem |first=Asad |title=Syria rebels cut highway to northern battlefields |url=http://www.brecorder.com/top-news/1-front-top-news/85378-syria-rebels-cut-highway-to-northern-battlefields-.html |newspaper=Business Recorder |date=11 October 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025174021/http://www.brecorder.com/top-news/1-front-top-news/85378-syria-rebels-cut-highway-to-northern-battlefields-.html |archivedate=25 October 2014 }}</ref> and captured ], marking increased influence in ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Di Giovanni|first=Janine|title=Denial Is Slipping Away as War Arrives in Damascus|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/18/world/middleeast/syrian-war-reaches-damascus.html|accessdate=20 October 2012|work=The New York Times|date=18 October 2012}}</ref> Lakhdar Brahimi arranged for a ceasefire during ] in late October, but it quickly collapsed.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weaver|first=Matthew|title=Syria conflict: what next after failed ceasefire?|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2012/oct/30/syria-conflict-after-failed-ceasefire-live|work=The Guardian|date=30 October 2012|location=London}}</ref>
{{Main|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war|Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons}}
{{See also|Syria and weapons of mass destruction|Syria chemical weapons program}}
], ] and ] have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the 2013 ]. ] was requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four cases, UN inspectors confirmed the use of ] gas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts About Sarin|url=http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp|publisher=Centers for Disease Control|access-date=7 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030414181911/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp|archive-date=14 April 2003|url-status=live}}</ref> In August 2016, a confidential report by the UN and the ] explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al-Assad for dropping chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIL for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August 2015.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422005553/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/25/world/middleeast/syria-used-chlorine-in-bombs-against-civilians-report-says.html |date=22 April 2017}}, ''The New York Times'', Rick Gladstone, 24 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.</ref>


The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the ] began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds at a "military research site".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-linked-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html |title=UN inspectors find undeclared sarin-linked chemicals at Syrian military site |work=The Telegraph |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015 |first=Louisa |last=Loveluck |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518135811/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-linked-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> After the April 2017 ], the United States launched its first intentional attack against Syrian government forces. An investigation conducted by Tobias Schneider and Theresa Lutkefend of the ] research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total chemical attacks to the Assad regime. Almost 90% of the attacks occurred after Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Lutkefend Schneider |author2=Theresa Tobias |date=February 2019 |title=Nowhere to Hide: The Logic of Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |journal= |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216060712/https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2022 |via=GPPi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lombardo |first=Clare |date=17 February 2019 |title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107103943/https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-date=7 January 2023}}</ref>
On 6 September 2012 Kurdish activists reported that 21 civilians were killed in the Kurdish neighborhood of Sheikh Maqsud in ], when the Syrian Army shelled the local mosque and its surroundings. Despite the district being neutral during the ] and free of government and FSA clashes, local residents believed that the district was shelled as retaliation for sheltering anti-government civilians from other parts of the city. In a statement released shortly after the deaths, the Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) vowed to retaliate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5175.html |title=Deadly Attack Claims Many Lives in Aleppo's Kurdish Sector |last=Abdulmajid |first=Adib |date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Rudaw |accessdate=10 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130406225022/http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5175.html |archivedate=6 April 2013 }}</ref> A few days later, Kurdish forces killed 3 soldiers in ] ({{lang-ku|Efrîn}}) and captured a number of other government soldiers in ] ({{lang-ku|Kobanî}}) and ] ({{lang-ku|Dêrika Hemko}}) from where they drove the remaining government security forces. It was also reported that the government had begun to arm Arab tribes around ] in preparation for a possible confrontation with Kurdish forces, who still did not completely control the city.<ref name=pydkills>{{cite news|title=PYD Kills Syrian Soldiers in Revenge Attack|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5180.html|accessdate=10 September 2012|newspaper=Rudaw|date=10 September 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122062634/http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5180.html|archivedate=22 November 2012|deadurl=yes}}</ref>


In April 2020, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons watchdog, ] (OPCW), which found that the ] used sarin and chlorine during multiple attacks in 2017. Syria's close allies, Russia, and other European countries debated the issue, during which Moscow dismissed the OPCW findings while many Western European countries called for accountability for the government's ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://time.com/5822236/russia-syria-chemical-weapons-latamneh/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416232118/https://time.com/5822236/russia-syria-chemical-weapons-latamneh/|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 April 2020|title=Russia Clashes With Europeans Over Report on Syria Chemical Weapons Attacks|access-date=16 April 2020|magazine=TIME}}</ref> The UN Deputy ambassador from Britain, Jonathan Allen, stated that the report by the OPCW's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) claimed that the Syrian regime is responsible for using ]s in the war on at least four occasions. The information was also noted in two UN-mandated investigations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/security-council-briefing-on-syrias-use-of-chemical-weapons|title=Security Council briefing on Syria's use of Chemical Weapons|access-date=15 April 2020|website=GOV.UK|date=15 April 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415162846/https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/security-council-briefing-on-syrias-use-of-chemical-weapons|url-status=live}}</ref>
At least 8 government soldiers were killed and 15 wounded by a car bomb in the al-Gharibi district of ] on 30 September 2012. The explosion targeted the Political Security branch.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/assad-forces-killed-northeast-car-bomb |title=Assad forces killed in northeast car bomb |date=30 September 2012 |work=Syria Live Blog |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=10 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010125050/http://blogs.aljazeera.com:80/topic/syria/assad-forces-killed-northeast-car-bomb |archivedate=10 October 2012 }}</ref>


In April 2021, Syria was suspended from the OPCW through the public vote of member states for not cooperating with the IIT and for violating the ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=21 April 2021 |title=States suspend Syria's OPCW rights over chemical attacks |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524194220/https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-date=24 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Conference of the States Parties adopts Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303125905/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-date=3 March 2022 |website=OPCW}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=22 April 2021 |title=Decision addressing the Possession and Use of Chemical Weapons by the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09%28e%29.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319223356/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09(e).pdf |archive-date=19 March 2022 |via=OPCW}}</ref> Findings of another OPCW investigation report published in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the 77 reported incidents of chemical weapons usage attributed to ] forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2021 |title=OPCW Confirms Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401005907/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-date=1 April 2022 |website=Arms Control Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2021 |title=Syria has likely used chemical weapons 17 times: International chemical weapons watchdog |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606111350/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-date=6 June 2021}}</ref>
=== Rebel offensives (November 2012 – April 2013) ===
{{Main article|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (September–December 2012)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (January–April 2013)}}
{{further information|Battle of Aleppo (2012–present)|Rif Dimashq offensive (November 2012–February 2013)|2012 Hama offensive|Damascus offensive (2013)|Battle of Shadadeh|Battle of Raqqa}}

After Brahimi's ceasefire agreement ended on 30 October, the Syrian military expanded its aerial bombing campaign in Damascus. A bombing of the Damascus district of Jobar was the first instance of a ] being used to bomb Damascus. The following day, Gen. Abdullah Mahmud al-Khalidi, a Syrian Air Force commander, was assassinated by opposition gunmen in the Damascus district of Rukn al-Din.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|title=Syrian Air Force Commander Is Reported Killed|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/31/world/middleeast/syrian-air-force-commander-is-reported-killed.html|accessdate=31 October 2012|work=The New York Times|date=31 October 2012}}</ref> In early November 2012, rebels made significant gains in northern Syria. The rebel capture of ] in Idlib Governorate, which lies on the M5 highway, further isolated Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria army quits base on strategic Aleppo road|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/02/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE88J0X720121102|accessdate=6 November 2012|agency=Reuters|date=2 November 2012}}</ref> Due to insufficient anti-aircraft weapons, rebel units attempted to nullify the government's air power by destroying landed helicopters and aircraft on air bases.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels struggle to keep regime Air Force on the ground (+video)|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/1126/Syrian-rebels-struggle-to-keep-regime-Air-Force-on-the-ground-video|accessdate=26 November 2012|newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor|date=26 November 2012}}</ref> On 3 November, rebels launched an attack on the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/03/world/meast/syria-civil-war/|title=Rebels target air base in battle against aerial bombardment in Syria |publisher=CNN |date=4 November 2012 |accessdate=6 November 2012}}</ref>

On 18 November, rebels ] Base 46 in the ], one of the Syrian Army's largest bases in northern Syria, after weeks of intense fighting. Defected General Mohammed Ahmed al-Faj, who commanded the assault, stated that nearly 300 Syrian troops had been killed and 60 had been captured, with rebels seizing large amounts of heavy weapons, including tanks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ap-exclusive-syrian-rebels-seize-base-arms-trove |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713012653/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ap-exclusive-syrian-rebels-seize-base-arms-trove |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Base Seizure Sharp Blow to Syria's Efforts to Roll Back Rebel Gains|agency=]|first=Ben|last=Hubbard|date=20 November 2012|accessdate=19 March 2013}}</ref> On 22 November, rebels captured the ] military base in the country's eastern ]. Activists said this gave the rebels control of a large amount of territory east of the base, stretching to the Iraqi border.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yeranian|first=Edward|title=Analysts Weigh in on Longevity of Syria's Assad|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/analysts_weight_in_on_longevity_of_syrias_assad/1551388.html|accessdate=24 November 2012|publisher=Voice of America|date=22 November 2012}}</ref> On 29 November, at approximately 10:26 ], the Syrian Internet and phone service was shut off for a two-day period.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/28/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html|title=Virtually all Internet service in Syria shut down, group says|publisher=CNN|date=29 November 2012|accessdate=6 December 2012}}</ref> Syrian government sources denied responsibility and blamed the blackout on ] lines near Damascus becoming exposed and damaged;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/world/syria-s-internet-restored-after-two-day-blackout-320866.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014706/http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/world/syria-s-internet-restored-after-two-day-blackout-320866.html |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Syria's Internet Restored After Two Day Blackout|work=The Epoch Times|date=2 December 2012|accessdate=17 February 2013}}</ref> ] in August 2014 claimed that this Internet breakdown had been caused, though unintendedly, by hackers of the ] during an operation to intercept Internet communication in Syria.<ref>] (Dutch), 14 August 2014.</ref>

In mid-December 2012, American officials said that the Syrian military had fired ] ballistic missiles at rebel fighters inside Syria. Reportedly, six Scud missiles were fired at the Sheikh Suleiman base north of Aleppo, which rebel forces had occupied. It is unclear whether the Scuds hit the intended target.<ref name="Scud Missiles2" /> The government denied this claim.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-12/13/c_132039471.htm |title=Syria denies using Scud missiles in fighting armed militia |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=13 December 2012 |accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref> Later that month, a further Scud attack took place near Marea, a town north of Aleppo near the Turkish border. The missile appeared to have missed its target.<ref name="Scud Missiles2">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/21/world/middleeast/syrian-forces-lobbing-more-scud-missiles-at-rebels-us-says.html |title=Syria Fires More Scud Missiles at Rebels, U.S. Says |work=The New York Times|date=20 December 2012 |accessdate=27 December 2012 |first1=Michael R. |last1=Gordon |first2=Eric |last2=Schmitt}}</ref> That same month, the British '']'' reported that the FSA had now penetrated into Latakia Governorate's coast through Turkey.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels cut off Bashar al-Assad's escape route|author=Ruth Sherlock|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9751531/Syrian-rebels-cut-off-Bashar-al-Assads-escape-route.html |work=The Daily Telegraph|date=17 December 2012|accessdate=17 December 2012|location=London}}</ref> In late December, rebel forces pushed further into Damascus, taking control of the adjoining ] and Palestine refugee camps, pushing out pro-government ] fighters with the help of other factions.<ref>. BBC. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2013.</ref> Rebel forces launched ] in Hama Governorate, later claiming to have forced army regulars to evacuate several towns and bases,<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels launch major assault on army across Hama|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-148994-Syrian-rebels-launch-major-assault-on-army-across-Hama |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014647/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-148994-Syrian-rebels-launch-major-assault-on-army-across-Hama |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=18 December 2012|newspaper=The News International|date=18 December 2012}}</ref> and stating that "three-quarters of western rural Hama is under our control."<ref>{{cite news|title=Rebels seize towns in central Syria |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/19/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE8AJ1FK20121219 |accessdate=20 December 2012 |agency=Reuters |date=19 December 2012}}</ref> Rebels also captured the town of Harem near the Turkish border in Idlib Governorate, after weeks of heavy fighting.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels fully capture town near Turkish border after weeks of siege|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/12/25/syrian-rebels-fully-capture-town-near-turkish-border-after-weeks-siege/ |accessdate=22 July 2013|publisher=Fox News Channel|date=24 December 2012|agency=Associated Press}}</ref>

On 11 January 2013, Islamist groups, including al-Nusra Front, took full control of the ] air base in the Idlib Governorate, after weeks of fighting. The air base was often used by the Syrian military to carry out helicopter raids and deliver supplies. The rebels claimed to have seized helicopters, tanks and multiple rocket launchers, before being forced to withdraw by a government counter-attack. The leader of the al-Nusra Front said the amount of weapons they took was a "game changer".<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels seize key air base, activists say|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/01/11/syrian-rebels-seize-key-air-base-activists-say/1826117/|accessdate=11 January 2013|agency=Associated Press|work=USA Today|date=11 January 2013}}</ref> On 11 February, Islamist rebels captured the town of ] in ] and the nearby ], Syria's largest dam and a key source of ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/12/world/middleeast/syrian-insurgents-claim-to-control-large-hydropower-dam.html|title=Syrian Insurgents Claim to Control Large Hydropower Dam|work=The New York Times|date=11 February 2013|accessdate=12 February 2013|first1=Hwaida|last1=Saad|first2=Rick|last2=Gladstone}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/rebels-take-control-of-military-airport-in-north-syria-ngo-says |title=Rebels take control of military airport in North Syria, NGO says |publisher=NOW News |date=12 February 2013|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> The next day, rebel forces took control of Jarrah air base, located {{convert|60|km|mi}} east of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/12/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE91A0MU20130212 |title=Syrian air base falls, Assad forces under pressure |agency=Reuters |date=12 February 2013|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> On 14 February, fighters from al-Nusra Front took control of Shadadeh, a town in ] near the Iraqi border.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/jihadists-seize-syria-town-on-iraq-border |title=Jihadists seize Syria town on Iraq border |publisher=NOW News |date=14 February 2013|accessdate=16 February 2013}}</ref>

On 20 February, a ] exploded in Damascus near the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch headquarters, killing at least 53 people and injuring more than 235.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21529634|title=Syria conflict: Many dead in huge Damascus bombing|publisher=BBC|date=21 February 2013|accessdate=21 February 2013}}</ref> None of the groups claimed responsibility.<ref>{{cite news|last=Barnard|first=Anne|title=Car Bomb in Damascus Kills Dozens, Opposition Says|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/22/world/middleeast/car-bomb-in-damascus-kills-dozens-opposition-says.html|work=]|accessdate=21 February 2013 |author2=Hwaida Saad |author3=Hania Mourtada|date=21 February 2013}}</ref> On 21 February, the FSA in Quasar began shelling Hezbollah positions in ]. Prior to this, Hezbollah had been shelling villages near Quasar from within Lebanon. A 48-hour ultimatum was issued by a FSA commander on 20 February, warning the militant group to stop the attacks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/syrian-rebels-attack-hezbollahs-positions-in-lebanon-fsa-commander.aspx?pageID=238&nID=41647&NewsCatID=352 |title=Syrian rebels attack Hezbollah's positions in Lebanon: FSA commander |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=22 February 2013}}</ref>

On 2 March, intense clashes between rebels and the Syrian Army erupted in the city of Raqqah, with many reportedly killed on both sides.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21641113|title=Syria: Fierce clashes in provincial capital Raqqa|publisher=BBC|date=2 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref> On the same day, Syrian troops regained several villages near Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.yahoo.com/syria-iran-us-aid-rebels-extend-war-155957995.html |title=Syria, Iran say US aid to rebels will extend war |work=Yahoo News|agency=Associated Press |date=3 March 2013|accessdate=22 July 2013}}</ref> By 3 March, rebels had overrun Raqqah's central prison, allowing them to free hundreds of prisoners, according to the SOHR.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153|title=Syria Live Blog|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref> The SOHR also stated that rebel fighters were now in control of most of an ] in ], and that over 200 rebels and government troops had been killed fighting for control of it.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21647196|title=Rebels 'seize most of Syria police academy'|publisher=BBC|date=3 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref>

By 6 March, the rebels had captured the city of Raqqah, effectively making it the first provincial capital to be lost by the Assad government. Residents of Raqqah toppled a bronze statue of his late father Hafez al-Assad in the centre of the city. The rebels also seized two top government officials.<ref name=USAToday1>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/03/05/syria-iraq-ambush/1963987/|title=Syrian Rebels Battle Regime Holdouts in Raqqa|author=Zeina Karam|agency=Associated Press|date=5 March 2013|accessdate=27 August 2014|work=USA Today}}</ref> On 18 March, the Syrian Air Force attacked rebel positions in ] for the first time. The attack occurred at the Wadi al-Khayl Valley area, near the town of Arsal.<ref>{{cite news |author=Barnard, Anne|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/world/middleeast/syria-warplanes-hit-lebanon-for-first-time.html |title=Syria Warplanes Hit Lebanon for First Time |work=The New York Times |date=18 March 2013|accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref> On 21 March, a suspected suicide bombing in the Iman Mosque in Mazraa district killed as many as 41 people, including the pro-Assad Sunni cleric, Sheikh ].<ref>{{cite news|author=Jim Muir |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21887877 |title=Syria mosque blast: Pro-Assad cleric among dozens dead |publisher=BBC |date=21 March 2013}}</ref> On 23 March, several rebel groups seized the 38th division air defense base in southern Daraa Governorate near a highway linking Damascus to Jordan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/23/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE92M03K20130323 |title=Syria rebels seize southern base, border area |agency=Reuters |date=23 March 2013}}</ref> On the next day, rebels captured a 25&nbsp;km strip of land near the Jordanian border, which included the towns of ], Abdin, and the al-Rai military checkpoint.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Mar-24/211277-activists-clashes-in-syria-near-jordan-border.ashx#axzz2OSgwmleH |title=Rebels seize Jordan-Syria border area: activists |work=The Daily Star |date=24 March 2013}}</ref>

On 25 March, rebels launched one of their heaviest bombardments of Central Damascus since the revolt began. Mortars reached Umayyad Square, where the Ba'ath Party headquarters, Air Force Intelligence and state television are located.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/25/us-syria-crisis-damascus-idUSBRE92O07320130325 |title=Syrian rebels bombard central Damascus, army artillery hits back |agency=Reuters |date=25 March 2013 |first=Oliver |last=Holmes}}</ref> On 26 March, near the Syrian town of al-Qusayr, rebel commander Khaled al Hamad, who commands the Al Farooq al-Mustakilla Brigade and is also known by his nom de guerre Abu Sakkar, ate the heart and liver of a dead soldier and said "I swear to God, you soldiers of Bashar, you dogs, we will eat from your hearts and livers! O heroes of Bab Amr, you slaughter the Alawites and take out their hearts to eat them!" in an apparent attempt to increase sectarianism.<ref>{{cite news|last=Baker |first=Aryn |url=http://world.time.com/2013/05/12/atrocities-will-be-televised-they-syrian-war-takes-a-turn-for-the-worse/ |title=Savage Online Videos Fuel Syria's Descent into Madness |work=Time |date=12 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="eating a human heart">{{cite web |url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/05/13/most_disgusting_atrocity_syrian_civil_war_rebel_eat_heart |title=Is This the Most Disgusting Atrocity Filmed in the Syrian Civil War? |work=Foreign Policy |date=13 May 2013 |accessdate=14 May 2013 |last=Bouckaert|first=Peter}}</ref> Video of the event emerged two months later and resulted in considerable outrage, especially from Human Rights Watch which classified the incident as a war crime. According to the BBC, it was one of the most gruesome videos to emerge from the conflict to-date.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22519770 |title=Outrage at Syrian rebel shown 'eating soldier's heart' |publisher=BBC |date=14 May 2013}}</ref> On 29 March, rebels captured the town of ] after fierce fighting. The town is located in ], along the highway connecting Damascus to Jordan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/rebels-claim-to-take-key-city-in-southern-syria/2013/03/29/e53b75e8-987c-11e2-814b-063623d80a60_story.html |title=Rebels claim to take key city in southern Syria |work=The Washington Post |date=29 March 2013 |first=Babak |last=Dehghanpisheh}}</ref> On 3 April, rebels captured a military base near the city of ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/world/middleeast/Syria-rebels.html |title=New Rebel Gains Reported in Southern Syria With Seizure of Military Base |work=The New York Times |date=3 April 2013 |first1=Rick |last1=Gladstone |first2=Hala |last2=Droubi}}</ref>

In mid-January 2013, as clashes re-erupted between rebels and Kurdish forces in Ras al-Ayn, YPG forces moved to expel government forces from oil-rich areas in Hassakeh Province.<ref name="main opposition">{{cite web|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5666.html|title=Kurdish Forces Clash with Main Syrian Opposition in Syria, Reports Say|last=van Wilgenburg|first=Wladimir|date=17 January 2013|publisher=Rudaw|accessdate=4 February 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118175834/http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5666.html|archivedate=18 January 2013|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Clashes broke out from 14 to 19 January<ref name="ypg mabada1">{{cite news|url=http://www.kurdwatch.org/index.php?aid=2741&z=en&cure=1009|title=Al Maʿbada: Fighting between YPG and Syrian military|date=24 January 2013|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref> between the army and YPG fighters in the Kurdish village of Gir Zîro (Tall Adas), near ] ({{lang-ku|Girkê Legê}}), where an army battalion of around 200 soldiers had been blockaded<ref name="firat heavier" /> since 9 January.<ref name="ypg mabada1" /> YPG forces claimed to have expelled government after the clashes.<ref name="main opposition" /> One soldier was reportedly killed and another eight injured, while seven were captured (later released<ref name="ypg mabada1" />) and 27 defected.<ref name="firat heavier">{{cite web|url=http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/clashes-getting-heavier-in-serekaniye-update.htm |title=Clashes getting heavier in Serêkaniyê-UPDATE |last=ANF |date=20 January 2013 |publisher=Firat News |accessdate=4 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207024708/http://en.firatnews.com:80/news/news/clashes-getting-heavier-in-serekaniye-update.htm |archivedate=7 February 2013 }}</ref> Fighting at the oil field near Gir Zîro ended on 21 January, when government forces withdrew after receiving no assistance from Damascus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kurdwatch.org/index.php?aid=2748&z=en&cure=1009|title=Al-Maʿbada: YPG gains control of oil field|date=3 February 2013|publisher=KurdWatch|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref> In Rumeilan, directly west of al-Maabadah, another 200 soldiers had been surrounded by YPG forces, and 10 soldiers were reported to have defected.<ref name="main opposition" />

From 8 to 11 February,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kurdwatch.org/?aid=2763&z=en&cure=1009|title=Aleppo: Heavy fighting between YPG and Syrian Army|date=24 February 2013|publisher=KurdWatch|accessdate=27 February 2013}}</ref> heavy clashes broke out between the YPG and government troops in the PYD/YPG-held district Ashrafiyah where, according to SOHR, at least 3 soldiers and 5 pro-government militiamen were killed. The fighting followed deadly shelling on 31 January on Ashrafiyah, in which 23<ref name="5killed27213" /> civilians were killed after FSA units moved into the Kurdish sector of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurds/5726.html |title=Kurdish Fighters Kill 8 on Aleppo Clashes |last=van Wilgenburg |first=Wladimir |date=10 February 2013 |publisher=Rudaw |accessdate=10 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130215053434/http://www.rudaw.net:80/english/kurds/5726.html |archivedate=15 February 2013 }}</ref> According to its own reports, the YPG lost 7 of its members in the fighting, while also claiming that 48 soldiers were killed and 22 captured,<ref name="5killed27213">{{cite news|url=http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/five-killed-in-syrian-attack-in-aleppo.htm |title=Five killed in Syrian attack in Aleppo |date=27 February 2013 |publisher=Firat News |accessdate=27 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728084853/http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/five-killed-in-syrian-attack-in-aleppo.htm |archivedate=28 July 2013 }}</ref> and a further 70<ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/fierce-fighting-in-aleppo-video.htm |title=Fierce fighting in Aleppo – VIDEO |date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Firat News |accessdate=16 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728090553/http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/fierce-fighting-in-aleppo-video.htm |archivedate=28 July 2013 }}</ref> injured.

In early March, YPG forces established full control of oil fields and installations in north-east Syria after government forces posted there surrendered. Also, YPG assaulted government forces and took control of the towns of ], which is adjacent to Rumeilan oil fields, and ] ({{lang-ku|Tirbespî}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/03/power-vacuum-oil-fields-syria-kurdish-militia-pyd.html|title=Syrian Kurdish Militia Takes Over Oil Fields|work=Al-Monitor|accessdate=24 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Government offensives (April–June 2013) ===
{{Main article|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (January–April 2013)|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (from May 2013)}}
{{further information|Al-Qusayr offensive|Battle of al-Qusayr (2013)}}

On 17 April, government forces breached a six-month rebel blockade in Wadi al-Deif, near Idlib. Heavy fighting was reported around the town of Babuleen after government troops attempt to secure control of a main highway leading to Aleppo. The break in the siege also allowed government forces to resupply two major military bases in the region which had been relying on sporadic airdrops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jafrianews.com/2013/04/17/syrian-forces-loyal-to-asaad-break-rebel-blockade-in-north-syria/ |title=Syrian forces Loyal to Asaad break Rebel Blockade in North Syria|publisher=Jafria News|date=17 April 2013}}</ref> On 18 April, the FSA took control of Al-Dab'a Air Base near the city of al-Qusayr.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/world/syria-rebels-claim-strategic-airbase/story-e6frfkui-1226623878591 |title=Syria rebels claim strategic airbase |publisher=News.com.au |date=18 April 2013}}</ref> The base was being used primarily to garrison ground troops. Meanwhile, the Syrian Army re-captured the town of Abel. The SOHR said the loss of the town would hamper rebel movements between al-Qusayr and Homs city. The capture of the airport would have relieved the pressure on the rebels in the area, but their loss of ] made the situation more complicated.<ref name="seize">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130418/syria-troops-seize-strategic-homs-village |title=Syria troops seize strategic Homs village |work=Global Post|date=18 April 2013}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref> The same day, rebels reportedly assassinated Ali Ballan, who was a government employee, in the Mazzeh district of Damascus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lebovic |first=Matt |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/fierce-battles-in-syria-us-to-raise-aid-to-rebels/ |title=Fierce Battles in Syria; US To Raise Aid To Rebels |work=The Times of Israel |date=19 April 2013}}</ref> On 21 April, government forces ], near Damascus.<ref>{{cite news|author=Sebastian Usher|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22240540 |title=Syria army seizes Jdaidet al-Fadl 'killing dozens' |publisher=BBC|date=22 April 2013}}</ref>

In April, government and ] forces launched ] to capture areas near al-Qusayr. On 21 April, pro-Assad forces captured the towns of Burhaniya, Saqraja and al-Radwaniya near the Lebanese border.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/04/21/Syria-army-closes-in-on-Quasar-near-Lebanon-.html | title=Syria army closes in on Qusayr near Lebanon | publisher=Al Arabiya Network | date=21 April 2013 | accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Yacoub |first=Khaled |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/04/21/us-syria-crisis-lebanon-idUSBRE93K0DN20130421 |title=Syria fighting flares both sides of Lebanese border |agency=Reuters |date=21 April 2013}}</ref> By this point, eight villages had fallen to the government offensive in the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/thomson-reuters/130421/lebanon-border-area-mired-syrian-conflict |title=Lebanon border area mired in Syrian conflict |work=Global Post|date=21 April 2013}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref> On 24 April, after five weeks of fighting, government troops re-took control of the town of Otaiba, east of Damascus, which had been serving as the main arms supply route from Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/assad-might-be-winning-the-syrian-war-2013-4|title=Assad Thinks He's Winning The Syrian War – And He May Be Right|date=25 April 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, in the north of the country, rebels took control of a position on the edge of the strategic Mennagh Military airbase, on the outskirts of Aleppo. This allowed them to enter the airbase after months of besieging it.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22283746 |title=Syria clashes destroy ancient Aleppo minaret |publisher=BBC |date=24 April 2013}}</ref>

On 2 May, government forces captured the town of ] in a push north from the city's airport. Troops also retook the Wadi al-Sayeh central district of Homs, driving a wedge between two rebel strongholds.<ref>{{cite news|author=Solomon, Erika|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/02/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE9410VP20130502 |title=Dozens dead as Assad's forces storm coastal village|agency=Reuters |date=2 May 2013 |accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref> SOHR reported ] of over 100 people by the Syrian Army in the coastal town of Al Bayda, Baniyas. However, this could not be independently verified due to movement restrictions on the ground.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/May-02/215831-up-to-100-feared-dead-in-syrian-massacre-monitoring-group.ashx#axzz2SAjabaj0 |title=Dozens killed in Syria's Banias: watchdog|work=The Daily Star |date=2 May 2013}}</ref> Yet the multiple video images that residents said they had recorded – particularly of small children, were so shocking that even some government supporters rejected Syrian television's official version of events, that the army had simply "crushed a number of terrorists."<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/15/world/middleeast/grisly-killings-in-syrian-towns-dim-hopes-for-peace-talks.html |title= New York Times, 15 May 2013 |publisher=nytimes.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>

On 15 June, the Syrian Army captured the Damascus suburb of Ahmadiyeh near the city's airport.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian troops capture Damascus suburb near airport|url=http://news.yahoo.com/syrian-troops-capture-damascus-suburb-near-airport-135233418.html|date=15 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.startribune.com/syrian-troops-capture-damascus-suburb-near-airport/211673011/ | title=Syrian troops capture Damascus suburb near airport, days after attack on the facility | work=StarTribune | date=15 June 2013 | accessdate=7 June 2015 | location=Beirut}}</ref> On 22 June, the Syrian Army captured the rebel stronghold town of ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Tal Kalakh: The Syrian town that lost the will to fight – The once rebel stronghold is back in the hands of the Syrian army |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/tal-kalakh-the-syrian-town-that-lost-the-will-to-fight-8673695.html|date=25 June 2013 |location=London|work=The Independent|first=Patrick|last=Cockburn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/World/News/Syria-rebels-lose-border-town-20130626 |title=Syria rebels lose border town |publisher=News24.com |date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Continued fighting (July–October 2013) ===
{{Main article|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (May–December 2013)}}
{{further information|2013 Syrian Kurdish–Islamist conflict|Ghouta chemical attack}}

On 28 June, rebel forces captured a major military checkpoint in the city of Daraa.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian army, backed by jets, launches assault on Homs|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/syrian-army-backed-by-jets-launches-assault-on-homs-1.532668|newspaper=Haaretz|date=29 June 2013}}</ref> On 12 July FSA reported that one of its commanders, Kamal Hamami, had been killed by Islamists a day before. The rebels declared that the assassination by the ], was tantamount to a declaration of war.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Karouny, Mariam |author2=Holmes, Oliver |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/12/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE96B08A20130712|title=New front opens in Syria as rebels say al Qaeda attack means war|agency=Reuters|date=12 July 2013|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> On 17 July, FSA forces took control of most of the southern city of ] after seizing up to 40 army posts stationed in the city.<ref>. Al Jazeera (17 July 2013).</ref> On 18 July, Kurdish YPG forces secured control of the northern town of ], after days of fighting with the al-Nusra Front.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/18/us-syria-crisis-turkey-idUSBRE96H0EQ20130718 |title=Kurds seize town on Syria-Turkey border, Ankara concerned |agency=Reuters |date=18 July 2013}}</ref> In the following three months, continued fighting between Kurdish and mainly jihadist rebel forces led to the capture of two dozen towns and villages in ] by Kurdish fighters,<ref name="fr-kurdes-chassent-des-jihadistes">{{cite web|url=http://www.lorientlejour.com/article/833671/syrie-les-kurdes-chassent-des-jihadistes-dun-village-du-nord-est.html |title=Syrie: les Kurdes chassent des jihadistes d'un village du nord-est |publisher=Lorientlejour.com |date=18 September 2013}}</ref> while the Jihadists made limited gains in Aleppo and Raqqah governorates after they turned on the Kurdish rebel group ] over its relationship with the YPG. In Aleppo Governorate, Islamists massacred the Kurds leading to a mass migration of civilians to the town of Afrin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/08/28/the_civil_war_within_syria_s_civil_war_kurdish_fighters |title=The Civil War Within Syria's Civil War |work=Foreign Policy |date=28 August 2013}}</ref>

On 22 July, FSA fighters seized control of the western Aleppo suburb of ]. The town was the last government stronghold in the western portion of Aleppo Governorate.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/77092/World/Region/Syria-rebels-seize-key-northern-town-NGO.aspx |title=Syria rebels seize key northern town: NGO |work=Ahram Online |date=22 July 2013}}</ref> On 25 July, the Syrian Army secured the town of ], after expelling the al-Nusra Front.<ref>. Facebook.</ref> On 27 July, after weeks of fighting and bombardment in Homs, the Syrian Army captured the historic ],<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian troops capture historic mosque in Homs|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/07/27/syrian-troops-capture-historic-mosque-in-homs/2592611/|newspaper=USA Today|date=27 July 2013}}</ref> and two days later, captured the district of Khaldiyeh.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria: Government forces take control of strategic Homs neighbourhood|url=http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2013/07/29/syria_government_forces_take_control_of_strategic_homs_neighbourhood.html|newspaper=Toronto Star|date=30 July 2013}}</ref>

On 4 August, around 10 rebel brigades, launched ] on the government stronghold of ]. Initial attacks by 2,000 opposition members seized as many as 12 villages in the mountainous area. Between 4 and 5 August 20 rebels and 32 government soldiers and militiamen had been killed in the clashes. Hundreds of Alawite villagers fled to Latakia. By 5 August, rebel fighters advanced to 20 kilometers from Qardaha, the home town of the Assad family.<ref name="RegimeRegainsGround">{{cite news|author=Isabel Nassief|title=Regime Regains Ground on the Coast |url=http://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/regime-regains-ground|date=22 August 2013|agency=Reuters|accessdate=5 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Mroue, Bassam |title=hrw-syrian-missiles-kill-hundreds-civilians |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/hrw-syrian-missiles-kill-hundreds-civilians |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014126/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/hrw-syrian-missiles-kill-hundreds-civilians |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |date=5 August 2013 |work=Associated Press |accessdate=12 September 2013}}</ref> However, in mid-August, the military counter-attacked and recaptured all of the territory previously lost to the rebels in the coastal region during the offensive.<ref name="serious">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/11/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html|title=Syrian rebel fighters guilty of serious abuses, says Human Rights Watch |publisher=CNN | date=11 October 2013}}</ref><ref name="pushback">{{cite news|last=Evans |first=Dominic |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/19/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE97I0HW20130819 |title=Assad's forces push back rebels in Syria's Alawite mountains |agency=Reuters |date=19 August 2013}}</ref> A Syrian security force source "told AFP the army still had to recapture the Salma region, a strategic area along the border with Turkey."<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria army recaptures all rebel positions in Latakia'|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130819-syria-army-recaptures-all-rebel-positions-latakia|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=19 August 2013}}</ref> According to a ] report 190 civilians were killed by rebel forces during the offensive, including at least 67 being executed. Another 200 civilians, primarily women and children, were taken hostage.<ref name="hrw">HRW: {{wayback|url=http://www.hrw.org/embargo/node/119645?signature=e2f9f3f7816e1c649b9265b332fc2ec2&suid=6 |date=20131016062324 |df=y }}</ref><ref name="nytimes2">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/11/world/middleeast/syrian-civilians-bore-brunt-of-rebels-fury-report-says.html |title=The New York Times &#124; Syrian Civilians Bore Brunt of Rebels' Fury, Report Says |publisher=nytimes.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>

On 6 August, rebels captured ] after a 10-month siege. The strategic airbase is located on the road between Aleppo city and the Turkish border.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels capture military airport near Turkey|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/05/us-syria-crisis-airport-idUSBRE97411J20130805|agency=Reuters|date=5 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/08/06/FSA-takes-control-of-Menagh-air-base-near-Aleppo.html|title=FSA takes control of Menagh air base near Aleppo|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=6 August 2013|accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref> On 21 August, ] took place in the Ghouta region of the Damascus countryside, leading to thousands of casualties and several hundred dead in the opposition-held stronghold. The attack was followed by a military offensive by government forces into the area, which had been hotbeds of the opposition.<ref name="SyriaOffensive">{{cite news| work=The Wall Street Journal| url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324619504579028621159392790.html|author1=Sam Dagher |author2=Farnaz Fassihi |title=Syria Presses Offensive, Shrugs Off Gas Attack Claims| date=22 August 2013| accessdate=5 September 2013}}</ref> On 24 August, rebels captured the town of ]. However, government forces recaptured Ariha on 3 September.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/96651-army-retakes-strategic-town-in-northwest-syria |title=Army Retakes Strategic Town in Northwest Syria |publisher=Naharnet.com |date=3 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/World/News/Assad-forces-capture-strategic-Syria-northern-town-20130903 |title=Assad forces capture strategic Syria northern town |publisher=News24.com |date=3 September 2013}}</ref> On 26 August, rebel forces took over the town of ] in Aleppo Governorate which was the government's last supply route for the city of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/08/2013826124946176888.html |title=Syria rebels take control of strategic town |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=26 August 2013}}</ref> On 8 September, rebels led by the al-Nusra Front ], 43&nbsp;km north of Damascus,<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/activists-syrian-rebels-take-christian-village/ | title=Activists: Syrian rebels take Christian village | work=The Seattle Times | date=8 September 2013 | accessdate=7 June 2015 | author=Jamal Halaby}}</ref> The Syrian Army launched a counterattack a few days later, recapturing the town.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10309239/Maaloulas-cathedral-and-churches-empty-of-Christians-as-Syrias-latest-front-line-fight-takes-its-toll.html|title=Maaloula's cathedral and churches empty of Christians as Syria's latest front-line fight takes its toll|author=Bill Neely|work=The Telegraph|date=14 September 2013|accessdate=23 October 2013|location=London}}</ref>

On 18 September, the ] (ISIS) overran the FSA-held town of Azaz in the north. The fighting was the most severe since tensions rose between militant factions in Syria earlier in the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2013/09/18/324729/infighting-erupts-between-syria-militants/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014139/http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2013/09/18/324729/infighting-erupts-between-syria-militants/ |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Takfiri militants clash with forces of Free Syrian Army |publisher=Press TV |date=18 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Morris |first=Loveday |url=http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-09-18/world/42179489_1_rebel-group-islamic-state-rebel-supply-lines |title=Al-Qaeda-linked fighters seize Syrian town of Azaz from more moderate rebels |work=The Washington Post |date=18 September 2013}}</ref> Soon after ISIS captured Azaz, a ceasefire was announced between the rival rebel groups. However, in early October, more fighting erupted in the town.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dziadosz |first=Alexander |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/03/us-syria-crisis-azaz-idUSBRE9920FV20131003 |title=Syria rebels try to end infighting near Turkish border |agency=Reuters |date=3 October 2013}}</ref> On 20 September, Alawite militias including the NDF killed 15 civilians in the Sunni village of ] in Hama Governorate. The massacre occurred in retaliation for a rebel capture of the village of Jalma, in Hama, which killed five soldiers, along with the seizure of a military checkpoint which killed 16 soldiers and 10 NDF militiamen.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/09/21/activists-syrian-troops-and-pro-government-militiamen-storm-sunni-village|title=Activists: Syrian troops and pro-government militiamen storm Sunni village, killing 15|agency=Associated Press|date=21 September 2013|accessdate=23 October 2013|work=Fox News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/21/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE98K08H20130921|title=Syria meets deadline for chemical weapons disclosure|author=Thomas Escritt|agency=Reuters|date=21 September 2013|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref> In mid-September, the military captured the towns of Deir Salman and Shebaa on the outskirts of Damascus. The Army also captured six villages in eastern Homs.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/syrian-army-makes-headway-damascus-and-homs|title=Syrian Army Makes Headway in Damascus and Homs|author=Marah Mashi|newspaper=Al-Akhbar|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Fighting broke out in those towns again in October.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://supportkurds.org/news/thursday-3-october-2013/|title=Events: Thursday 3 October 2013|publisher=Support Kurds in Syria|date=3 October 2013|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref>

On 28 September, rebels seized the Ramtha border post in ] on the Syria Jordan crossing after fighting which left 26 soldiers dead along with 7 foreign rebel fighters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/09/student-deaths-reported-syria-air-raids-201392914391313718.html|title=Students reported killed in Syria air attack|publisher=Al Jazeera |date=29 September 2013|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref> On 3 October, AFP reported that Syria's army re-took the town of ], which is located on a supply route linking central Syria to the city of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria army retakes northern strategic town|url=http://gulfnews.com/in-focus/syria/syria-army-retakes-northern-strategic-town-1.1238911|newspaper=Gulf News|date=3 October 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004064006/http://gulfnews.com/in-focus/syria/syria-army-retakes-northern-strategic-town-1.1238911|archivedate=4 October 2013|deadurl=yes}}</ref> On 7 October, the Syrian Army managed to reopen the supply route between Aleppo and Khanasir.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://live.aljazeera.com/Event/Syria_Live_Blog/92310948 |title=Syria Live Blog – Live Blogs – Al Jazeera English |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=5 February 2011}}</ref>

On 9 October, rebels seized the Hajanar guard post on the Jordanian border after a month of fierce fighting. Rebels were now in control of a swath of territory along the border from outside of Daraa to the edge of Golan Heights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/131009/syria-rebels-seize-guard-post-jordan-border-0 |title=Syria rebels seize guard post on Jordan border |publisher=Globalpost.com |date=9 October 2013}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref> The same day, Hezbollah and Iraqi Shiite fighters, backed up by artillery, air-strikes and tanks, captured the town of Sheikh Omar, on the southern outskirts of Damascus. Two days later, they also captured the towns of al-Thiabiya and Husseiniya on the southern approaches to Damascus. The capture of the three towns strengthened the government hold on major supply lines and put more pressure on rebels under siege in the Eastern Ghouta area.<ref>{{cite web|author=Khaled Yacoub Oweis |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/News/World/2013/10/11/Syrian-army-retakes-two-Damascus-suburbs-from-rebels.aspx |title=Syrian army retakes two Damascus suburbs from rebels – activists |work=The Star|location=Malaysia |date=11 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Syrian-opposition-Hezbollah-Iraqi-militia-capture-Damascus-suburb-328304 |title=Syrian opposition: Hezbollah, Iraqi militia capture Damascus suburb |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=21 November 2013}}</ref> On 14 October, SOHR reported that rebels captured the Resefa and Sinaa districts of ] city, as well as Deir ez-Zor's military hospital.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/syriahroe/posts/433712646737079 |title=Deir Ezzour province: A fighter from... – Syrian Observatory for Human Rights |publisher=Facebook}}</ref>

=== <!-- Second (there have been several government offensives) ! --> Government offensives (October–December 2013) ===
{{further information|Aleppo offensive (October–December 2013)|Battle of Qalamoun}}

The Syrian Army along with its allies, Hezbollah and the ], launched an offensive on Damascus and Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Reuters |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/boosted-by-foreign-shiite-militia-assads-forces-advance-on-aleppo/1788908.html |title=Boosted by Foreign Shi'ite Militia, Assad's Forces Advance on Aleppo |publisher=Voice of America }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24927097 |title=Syria rebels urge Aleppo mobilisation to halt assault |publisher=BBC |date=13 November 2013}}</ref> On 16 October, AFP reported that Syrian troops recaptured the town of Bweida, south of Damascus. On 17 October, the Syrian government's head of Military Intelligence in ], Jameh Jameh, was assassinated by rebels in Deir ez-Zor city. SOHR reported that he had been shot by a rebel sniper during a battle with rebel brigades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/10/top-syrian-army-general-killed-battle-20131017182611866437.html |title=Syrian military spy chief killed in battle – Middle East |publisher=Al Jazeera }}</ref> On 24 October, the Syrian Army retook control of the town of Hatetat al-Turkman, located southeast of Damascus, along the Damascus International Airport road.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dziadosz |first=Alexander |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/24/us-syria-crisis-suburb-idUSBRE99N0NU20131024 |title=Syrian army seizes Damascus suburb from rebels: state TV |agency=Reuters |date=24 October 2013}}</ref>

On 26 October, Kurdish rebel fighters seized control of the strategic Yarubiya border crossing between Syria and Iraq from al-Nusra in Al Hasakah Governorate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24689025 |title=Syria Kurdish fighters seize border post from Islamists |publisher=BBC |date=26 October 2013}}</ref> Elsewhere, in Daraa Governorate, rebel fighters captured the town of ] from government forces after weeks of clashes which left scores dead.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/m/story?id=20686002&sid=76 |title=Syrian Kurds Capture Border Crossing With Iraq|author=Bassem Mroue |agency=Associated Press |date=25 October 2013}}</ref> On 1 November, the Syrian Army retook control of the key city of ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Nov-01/236495-syrian-forces-capture-town-near-chemical-weapons-site-activists.ashx#axzz2hs2ziHUm |title=Syrian forces capture town near chemical weapons site: Activists|work=The Daily Star |date=1 November 2013}}</ref> and the next day, the Syrian Army and its allies recaptured the village of Aziziyeh on the northern outskirts of Al-Safira.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hEyztI8NQHagOrUBEQdrKXTc1rag?docId=fe3e3476-346a-4d68-bbf8-6dd59c8fb67b&hl=en |title=AFP: Air raids on rebel areas near Damascus, Kurds advance: NGO |publisher=Google|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209114326/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hEyztI8NQHagOrUBEQdrKXTc1rag?docId=fe3e3476-346a-4d68-bbf8-6dd59c8fb67b&hl=en|archivedate=9 December 2013 }}</ref> From early to mid-November, Syrian Army forces captured several towns south of Damascus, including Hejeira and Sbeineh. Government forces also recaptured the town of Tel Aran, southeast of Aleppo, and a military base near Aleppo's international airport.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/11/16/syrian-government-gaining-ground-in-war-strengthening-hand-ahead-proposed-peace/ | title=Syrian government gaining ground in war, strengthening hand ahead of proposed peace talks | work=Fox News | date=16 November 2013 | accessdate=7 June 2015 | location=Beirut}}</ref>

On 10 November, the Syrian Army had taken full control of "Base 80", near Aleppo's airport.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/11/10/syria-activists-say-rebels-reach-deal-with-government-to-ease-blockade-rebel/ |title=Syria activists say rebels reach deal with government to ease blockade of rebel-held town |publisher=Fox News |date=10 November 2013|accessdate=16 January 2014}}</ref> According to the SOHR, 63 rebels,<ref name="retakes" /> and 32 soldiers were killed during the battle.<ref name="retakes" /> One other report put the number of rebels killed between 60 and 80.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cphpost.dk/news14/international-news14/two-danes-allegedly-die-fighting-in-syria.html |title=Two Danes allegedly die fighting in Syria |work=The Copenhagen Post }}</ref> Army units were backed-up by Hezbollah fighters and pro-government militias during the assault.<ref name="retakes">{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gz6wr66r6Oa38fRV4RQH7uwZd2pA?docId=7ab4cb0a-40ef-49b8-b757-5b337a3ee3a0&hl=en |title=Syria army retakes key base near Aleppo: state TV |agency=Agence France-Presse|publisher=Google News|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209114330/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gz6wr66r6Oa38fRV4RQH7uwZd2pA?docId=7ab4cb0a-40ef-49b8-b757-5b337a3ee3a0&hl=en|archivedate=9 December 2013 }}</ref> The following day, government forces secured most of the area around the airport.<ref>{{cite web|author=Diaa Hadid|url=http://www.nwherald.com/2013/11/11/syria-based-groups-say-talks-may-be-last-chance/a8ppwjk/ |title=Syria-based groups say talks may be 'last chance' |publisher=Nwherald.com |date=11 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="reopen">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Nov-11/237517-syria-army-seeks-to-reopen-aleppo-airport-military.ashx#axzz2kLOt6xon |title=Syria army seeks to reopen Aleppo airport: military |work=The Daily Star|location=Lebanon }}</ref> On 13 November, government forces captured most of Hejeira.<ref>{{cite web|author=N Lucas|url=http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2013/nov/13/syrian-media-troops-capture-south-damascus-suburb/ |title=Syrian media: Troops capture south Damascus suburb |work=U-T San Diego |date=13 November 2013}}</ref> Rebels retreated from Hejeira to ]. However, their defenses in besieged districts closer to the heart of Damascus were still reportedly solid.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yacoub |first=Khaled |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/13/us-syria-crisis-damascus-idUSBRE9AC0IC20131113 |title=Assad's forces make further gains around Damascus |agency=Reuters |date=13 November 2013}}</ref> On 15 November, the Syrian Army retook control of the city of Tell Hassel near Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|last=Evans |first=Dominic |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/15/us-syria-crisis-aleppo-idUSBRE9AE11X20131115 |title=Assad's forces advance in northern Syria towards Aleppo |agency=Reuters |date=15 November 2013}}</ref> On 18 November, the Syrian troops stormed the town of Babbila.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian troops besiege strategic town amid fierce fights |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2013-11/18/c_125716083.htm|agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=18 November 2013 |accessdate=18 November 2013}}</ref> On 19 November, government forces took full control of Qara.<ref name="mmedia">{{cite news|title=Syria troops seize Qara village near Lebanon border|url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/521429-syria-troops-seize-qara-village-near-lebanon-border|work=NOW |date=19 November 2013 |accessdate= 19 November 2013}}</ref> The same day, the Syrian Army captured al-Duwayrinah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trust.org/item/20131119145959-vur9p|title=Forces loyal to Syria's President Capture Raqqa|publisher=Reuters|date=19 November 2013|accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref> On 23 November, al-Nusra Front and other Islamist rebels captured the al-Omar oil field, Syria's largest oil field, in Deir al-Zor Governorate causing the government to rely almost entirely on imported oil.<ref>{{cite news|title=Islamist rebels capture Syria's largest oilfield: activists|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/23/us-syria-crisis-oil-idUSBRE9AM03K20131123|newspaper=Reuters|date=23 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Conal |last=Urquhart |url =http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/23/syrian-islamist-rebels-oilfield-assad |title =Syrian Islamist rebels claim capture of key oilfield |work=The Guardian |date=23 November 2013 |accessdate=23 November 2013 }}</ref> On 24 November, rebels captured the towns of Bahariya, Qasimiya, Abbadah, and Deir Salman in Damascus's countryside.<ref>{{cite news|last=Solomon |first=Erika |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/11/24/uk-syria-crisis-damascus-siege-idUKBRE9AN09320131124 |title=Scores killed as rebels battle to break siege of Damascus suburbs |publisher=Reuters |date=24 November 2013 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> On 28 November, the Syrian Army recaptured Deir Attiyeh.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/1.560767 | title=Syrian troops capture town near Lebanon border | work=Haaretz | date=28 November 2013 | agency=The Associated Press | accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref>

On 2 December, rebels led by the Free Syrian Army recaptured the historic Christian town of ]. After the fighting, reports emerged that 12 nuns had been abducted by the rebels. However, the FSA disputes this and said that the nuns had been evacuated to the nearby rebel held town of ] due to the Army shelling.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Dec-03/239723-rebels-retake-christian-town-of-maaloula.ashx#axzz2mSZNeOZP|title=Rebels retake Christian town of Maaloula|publisher=The Daily Star|date=3 December 2013|accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/108284-suicide-bomber-kills-four-in-central-damascus|title=Suicide Bomber Kills Four in Central Damascus, Abducted Nuns Taken to Yabrud|publisher=Naharnet|date=3 December 2013|accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref> In early December, the Islamic Front seized control of Bab al-Hawa border crossing with Turkey, which had been in hands of FSA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Dec-10/240625-syria-islamists-seize-turkey-border-crossing-monitor.ashx|title=Syria Islamists seize Turkey border crossing|work=The Daily Star|date=10 December 2013|accessdate=28 May 2015}}</ref> The groups also captured warehouses containing equipment delivered by the U.S. In response, the U.S. and Britain said they halted all non-lethal aid to the FSA, fearing that further supplies could fall in hands of ] militants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/dec/11/us-britain-to-halt-non-lethal-aid-to-syria/|title=U.S., Britain to halt non-lethal aid to Syrian opposition|author=Dave Boyer|publisher=Washington Times|date=11 December 2014|accessdate=6 January 2014}}</ref>
On 9 December, the Army took full control of Nabek,<ref name="alabama">{{cite news | url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/dec/09/world/la-fg-wn-syrian-army-seizes-town-20131209 | title=Syrian army reportedly seizes third town along key north-south highway | work=Los Angeles Times | date=9 December 2013 | accessdate=19 September 2015 |author1=Patrick J. McDonnell |author2=Nabih Bulos |lastauthoramp=yes | location=Beirut, Libanon}}</ref> with fighting continuing in its outskirts.<ref name="USAToday1" />

=== Fighting between ISIS and other rebel groups (January–March 2014) ===

<!-- Per discussion, only include major territorial changes and attacks. This is not a timeline of every event. -->
{{Main article|Syrian opposition–Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant conflict}}
Tension between moderate rebel forces and ISIS had been high since ISIS captured the border town of ] from FSA forces on 18 September 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jihadis-capture-northern-syrian-town-near-turkey |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713012909/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jihadis-capture-northern-syrian-town-near-turkey |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Al-Qaida militants captured town in northern Syria|work=Associated Press|date=19 September 2013|accessdate=4 January 2014}}</ref> Conflict was renewed over ] in early October<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20131003-syrian-rebels-tell-qaeda-groups-withdraw-homs-isil-azaz/|title=Syrian rebel factions tell al Qaeda groups to withdraw|date=3 October 2013|accessdate=4 January 2014}}</ref> and in late November ISIS captured the border town of ] from an FSA brigade.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=123441|title=ISIL captures Syrian town on border with Turkey|publisher=World Bulletin|date=22 November 2013|accessdate=4 January 2014}}</ref> On 3 January 2014, the Army of the Mujahideen, the Free Syrian Army and the Islamic Front launched an offensive against ] in Aleppo and Idlib governorates. A spokesman for the rebels said that rebels attacked ISIS in up to 80% of all ISIS held villages in Idlib and 65% of those in Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Al Qaeda-linked group routed in Syrian rebel infighting|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-syrian-rebel-infighting-20140105,0,2285747.story#axzz2pX5mNcca|accessdate=5 January 2014 |work=Los Angeles Times|first=Nabih|last=Bulos|date=5 January 2014}}</ref>

By 6 January, opposition rebels managed to expel ISIS forces from the city of Raqqah, ISIS's largest stronghold and capital of the Raqqah Governorate.<ref>{{cite news|last=Chulov|first=Martin|title=Syrian rebels oust al-Qaida-affiliated jihadists from northern city of Raqqa|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/06/syrian-rebeal-oust-a-qaidi-jihadists-raqqa?CMP=twt_fd|newspaper=The Guardian|date=6 January 2014}}</ref> On 8 January, opposition rebels expelled most ISIS forces from the city of Aleppo, however ISIS reinforcements from the ] managed to retake several neighborhoods of the city of Raqqah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/01/08/Syria-jihadist-HQ-in-Aleppo-falls-to-rebels.html |title=Syria jihadist HQ in Aleppo falls to rebels |publisher= |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Moukalled |first=Diana |url=http://www.aawsat.net/2014/01/article55326743 |title=Syria: ISIS besieged by opposition fighters in Raqqa « ASHARQ AL-AWSAT |publisher=Aawsat.net |date=7 January 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> By mid January ISIS retook the entire city of Raqqah, while rebels expelled ISIS fighters fully from Aleppo city and the villages west of it.

On 29 January, Turkish aircraft near the border fired on an ISIS convoy inside the Aleppo province of Syria, killing 11 ISIS fighters and 1 ISIS emir.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/2014/01/30/Turkish-army-strikes-ISIS-convoy-in-Syria.html |title=Turkish army strikes ISIS convoy in Syria |publisher= |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eaworldview.com/2014/01/syria-turkey-hits-islamic-state-iraq-convoy-near-border/ |title=Syria: Turkey Hits Islamic State of Iraq Convoy Near Border |publisher=EA WorldView |date=29 January 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> In late January it was confirmed that rebels had assassinated ISIS's second in command, ], who was al-Qaeda's military council head and a former military officer in Saddam Hussein's army.<ref>{{cite web|last=Moukalled |first=Diana |url=http://www.aawsat.net/2014/01/article55328126 |title=Key Al-Qaeda militant reportedly killed in Syria " ASHARQ AL-AWSAT |publisher=Aawsat.net |date=27 January 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> By mid-February, the al-Nusra Front joined the battle in support of rebel forces, and expelled ISIS from the Deir Ezzor Governorate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/02/10/Islamist-rebels-oust-ISIS-from-Syria-s-Deir-Ezzor.html |title=Islamist rebels oust ISIS from Syria's Deir Ezzor |publisher= |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> By March, the ISIS forces fully retreated from the Idlib Governorate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aksalser.com/index.php?page=view_articles&id=2c7cb6075195b7856adc10c4c07d2859 |title=إدلب خالية من " داعش " بشكل كامل .. و الثوار يعلنون بدء معركة تحرير " خان شيخون " ( فيديو ) &#124; عكس السير دوت كوم |publisher=Aksalser.com |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Syria Comment – Joshua Landis |url=http://www.eurasiareview.com/21022014-saudis-cia-agree-arm-syrian-moderates-advanced-weapons-oped/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626143107/http://www.eurasiareview.com/21022014-saudis-cia-agree-arm-syrian-moderates-advanced-weapons-oped/ |archivedate=26 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Saudis And CIA Agree To Arm Syrian 'Moderates' With Advanced Weapons – OpEd Eurasia Review |publisher=Eurasiareview.com |date=21 February 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> On 4 March, ISIS retreated from the border town of Azaz and other nearby villages, choosing instead to consolidate around Raqqah in an anticipation of an escalation of fighting with al-Nusra.<ref>{{cite web|author=Liz Sly for the Washington Post |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/04/isis-al-qaida-rebels-syria-azaz |title=Renegade al-Qaida faction withdraws from Syrian border town of Azaz &#124; World news &#124; Guardian Weekly |publisher=Theguardian.com |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref>

=== Government offensives and Presidential election (March–June 2014) ===
{{further information|Syrian presidential election, 2014}}
<!-- Per discussion, only include major territorial changes and attacks. This is not a timeline of every event. -->

On 4 March, the ] took control of Sahel in the Qalamoun region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/541695-syria-army-advancing-on-key-rebel-town-supply-route/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626111415/http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/541695-syria-army-advancing-on-key-rebel-town-supply-route/ |archivedate=26 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Syria Army Advancing on Key Rebel Town, Supply Route |publisher=Theepochtimes.com |date=4 March 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> On 8 March, government forces took over Zara, in Homs Governorate, further blocking rebel supply routes from Lebanon.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria government forces seize strategic town near Lebanon border |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-fighting-20140309,0,6277729.story#axzz2vQOZESnL|newspaper=LA Times|date=8 March 2014|first1=Nabih|last1=Bulos|first2=Patrick J.|last2=McDonnell}}</ref> On 11 March, Government forces and ] took control of the Rima Farms region, directly facing Yabrud.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/164197/syrian-army-advances-amid-new-wave-of-explosions.html |title=Syrian army advances amid new wave of explosions |publisher=Turkish Weekly |date=7 March 2014 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> On 16 March, Hezbollah and government forces captured ], after Free Syrian Army fighters made an unexpected withdrawal, leaving the al-Nusra Front to fight in the city on its own.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria conflict: Assad's forces fully control rebel stronghold of Yabroud, near Lebanon|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-16/syrian-forces-fully-control-rebel-stronghold-near-lebanon/5324608|date=16 March 2014}}</ref> On 18 March, Israel used artillery against a Syrian Army base, after four of its soldiers had been wounded by a roadside bomb while patrolling Golan Heights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/israel-deploys-artillery-after-golan-blast-2014318173434341989.html |title=Israel bombs Syria's Golan after blast |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref>

On 19 March, the Syrian Army captured Ras al-Ain near ], after two days of fighting and al-Husn in Homs Governorate, while rebels in the Daraa Governorate captured Daraa prison, and freed hundreds of detainees.<ref>{{cite web|last=Associated |first=The |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=291319677 |title=Syrian Troops Capture Village Near Lebanon Border |publisher=NPR |accessdate=20 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319233359/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=291319677|archivedate=19 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/542961 |title=Syria rebels seize prison near Jordan, free inmates &#124; Arab News – Saudi Arabia News, Middle East News, Opinion, Economy and more |publisher=Arabnews.com |date=14 March 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="lorientlejour.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.lorientlejour.com/article/859708/wadi-khaled-et-ersal-de-nouveau-touches-par-les-debordements-du-conflit-syrien.html |title=Le régime syrien reprend le Krak des Chevaliers et coupe la "route libanaise" des rebelles – L'Orient-Le Jour |publisher=Lorientlejour.com |date=20 March 2014 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref> On 20 March, the ] took control of the ] in al-Husn.<ref name="lorientlejour.com" /> On 29 March, Syrian Army took control of the villages of ] and Ras Maara near the border with Lebanon.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Mar-29/251659-syrian-army-retake-qalamoun-towns-of-flita-ras-al-maarra-al-manar.ashx#axzz2xRnMNQAw|title=Syrian army takes two villages near Lebanon|author=Albert Aji|publisher=The Daily Star|date=29 March 2014|accessdate=30 March 2014}}</ref>

On 22 March, rebels took control of the Kesab border post in the Latakia Governorate.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.ndtv.com/world-news/syria-condemns-turkey-aggression-after-jet-downed-554905 | title=Syria condemns Turkey 'aggression' after jet downed | work=Ndtv.com | date=24 March 2014 | agency=Agence France-Presse | accessdate=7 June 2015 | location=Damascus}}</ref> By 23 March, rebels had taken most of Khan Sheikhoun in Hama.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/video/2014/03/23/rebels-battle-for-northern-syria-town?videoId=281312082 |title=Rebels battle for northern Syria town &#124; Video &#124; Reuters.com |publisher=Uk.reuters.com |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref> During clashes near the rebel-controlled Kesab border post in Latakia, Hilal Al Assad, NDF leader in Latakia and one of ]'s cousins was killed by rebel fighters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Assads-cousin-killed-in-fighting-with-Syrian-rebels-near-Turkish-border-346267 |title=Assad's cousin killed in fighting with Syrian rebels near Turkish border &#124; JPost &#124; Israel News |publisher=JPost |date=23 March 2014 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/assad-cousin-killed-syria-latakia-201432320159865701.html |title=Assad cousin killed in Syria's Latakia – Middle East |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref> On 4 April, rebels captured the town of Babulin, Idlib.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/04/04/us-syria-crisis-rebels-idUSBREA3319020140404 | work=Reuters | title=Rebels take northern Syrian town on main highway: activists | date=4 April 2014}}</ref> On 9 April, the Syrian Army took control of ] in the Qalamoun region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Apr-09/252798-syrian-army-regains-full-control-over-rankus-in-qalamoun-al-manar.ashx#axzz2yWVWRiBK |title=Syrian army regains full control of Rankous &#124; News , Middle East |publisher=The Daily Star |accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref>
On 12 April, rebels in Aleppo stormed the government-held Ramouseh industrial district in an attempt to cut the Army supply route between the airport and a large Army base. The rebels also took the Rashidin neighbourhood and parts of the Jamiat al-Zahra district.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/04/syria-rebels-advance-aleppo-city-2014412101712303691.html |title=Syria rebels advance in Aleppo city |publisher=Aljazeera.com |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> On 26 April, the Syrian Army took control of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/04/syria-rebels-surrender-border-town-2014426152724543924.html |title=Syria rebels surrender in border town |publisher=Aljazeera.com |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> According to SOHR, rebels took control of Tell Ahrmar, Quneitra.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syriahr.com/index.php?option=com_news&nid=18491&Itemid=2&task=displaynews#.U10XWk2KBjq |title=السيطرة على تل استراتيجي جديد على الحدود مع الجولان المحتل |publisher=Syriahr.com |date=27 April 2014 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> Rebels in Daraa also took over Brigade 61 Base and the 74th battalion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eaworldview.com/2014/04/syria-daily-insurgents-take-major-regime-base-southwest/ |title=Syria Daily, April 25: Insurgents Take Key Regime Position in the Southwest |publisher=EA WorldView |date=25 April 2014 |accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref>

On 26 April, the FSA announced they had begun an offensive against ISIS in the Raqqah Governorate, and had seized five towns west of Raqqah city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article4073352.ece |title=FSA strikes jihadist-held stronghold |publisher=The Times |date=26 April 2014 |accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref> On 29 April, activists said that the Syrian Army captured Tal Buraq near the town of Mashara in Quneitra without any clashes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syriahr.com/en/index.php?option=com_news&nid=2181&Itemid=2&task=displaynews#.U1_7hKDd03Q |title=Activists: regime forces captured Tal Buraq |publisher=Syriahr.com |date=29 April 2014 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> On 7 May, a truce went into effect in the city of Homs, SOHR reported. The terms of the agreement include safe evacuation of Islamist fighters from the city, which would then fall under government control, in exchange for release of prisoners and safe passage of humanitarian aid for Nubul and Zahraa, two Shiite enclaves besieged by the rebels.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/07/world/meast/syria-homs-truce/|title=Evacuation truce in key Syrian city of Homs goes into effect|date=7 May 2014|accessdate=8 May 2014|work=CNN}}</ref> On 18 May, the head of Syria's Air Defense, General ], died of wounds sustained during a rebel attack on an air defense base near Mleiha the previous day. In Hama Governorate, rebel forces took control of the town of Tel Malah, killing 34 pro-Assad fighters at an army post near the town. Its seizure marked the third time rebels have taken control of the town.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27462255 |title=BBC News – Syria war: Air defence chief Gen Hussein Ishaq killed |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=1 January 1970 |accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Reuters&nbsp;–&nbsp;14 hours ago |url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrian-air-defence-head-killed-near-damascus-monitoring-132642989.html#4xFEK49 |title=Syria air defence head killed, rebels take northern town – Yahoo News UK |publisher=Uk.news.yahoo.com |date=20 April 2011 |accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref>

Syria held a presidential election in government-held areas on 3 June 2014. For the first time in the history of Syria more than one person was allowed to stand as a presidential candidate.<ref name=BBC030614>{{cite news |url= http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27675343| title=Syria election: Assad win expected amid civil war|agency=BBC|date=3 June 2014}}</ref> More than 9,000 polling stations were set up in government-held areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/02/syria-election-bashar-al-assad-president|title=Syria presidential election: Assad's stage-managed show of democracy|author=Ian Black|work=the Guardian|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10871090/Syria-set-to-vote-as-the-bloodshed-goes-on.html|title=Syria set to vote as the bloodshed goes on|date=2 June 2014|work=Telegraph.co.uk|accessdate=1 April 2015|location=London|first=Ruth|last=Sherlock}}</ref> According to the ], 11.63&nbsp;million Syrians voted (the turnout was 73.42%).<ref>{{cite news |date=4 June 2014 |title=Supreme Constitutional Court: Number of participants in Presidential elections reached at 11.634.412 with 73.42% |url=http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |newspaper=SANA |location=Damascus |publisher= |accessdate=4 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000918/http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm|archivedate=7 June 2014 }}</ref> President ] won the election with 88.7% of the votes. As for Assad's challengers, ] received 4.3% of the votes and ] received 3.2%.<ref name=BBC040614>{{cite news |url= http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27706471| title= Syrian President Bashar al-Assad wins third term |agency=BBC|date=4 June 2014}}</ref> Allies of Assad from more than 30 countries were invited by the Syrian government to follow the presidential election,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/6/4/kerry-calls-syrianpresidentialvotemeaningless.html| title= Kerry calls Syrian presidential vote 'meaningless'|agency=Aljazeera|date=4 June 2014}}</ref> including Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, India, Iran, Iraq, Nicaragua, Russia, South Africa and Venezuela.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/Foreign-delegation-in-Syria-slams-West-endorses-elections/articleshow/36069541.cms |title=Foreign delegation in Syria slams West, endorses elections |work=The Times of India |accessdate=8 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://kohram.in/indian-delegation-to-monitor-syria-election-on-june-3/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014126/http://kohram.in/indian-delegation-to-monitor-syria-election-on-june-3/ |archivedate=13 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Indian Delegation to monitor Syria election on June 3 | work=KohraM |accessdate=8 June 2014}}</ref> The Iranian official ] read a statement by the group saying the election was "free, fair and transparent".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/04/international-observers-say-syrian-elections-were-transparent/ |title=International observers say Syrian elections were transparent |publisher=laInfo.es |date=4 June 2014 |accessdate=8 June 2014}}</ref> The ], the ] and the United States all dismissed the election as illegitimate and a farce.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/04/22/us-egypt-syria-arableague-idUSBREA3L0UX20140422?irpc=932|title=Arab League criticizes Syrian election plan|work=Reuters|accessdate=2 October 2014|date=22 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/581661 | title=GCC slams Syrian elections as 'farce' | work=Arab News | date=4 June 2014 | accessdate=7 June 2015 | author=GHAZANFAR ALI KHAN | location=RIYADH}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2014-06-05/syrias-assad-re-elected-president-in-farce-election/5501422 |title=Syria election: Bashar al-Assad re-elected president in poll with 'no legitimacy' |publisher=ABC |date=4 June 2014 |accessdate=8 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Sam Tarling |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10876084/Inside-Aleppo-the-people-refusing-to-leave-Syrias-shattered-city.html |title=Inside Aleppo: the people refusing to leave Syria's shattered city |work=Telegraph |date=5 June 2014 |accessdate=8 June 2014 |location=London}}</ref>

State employees were told to vote or face interrogation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweek.com/speedreads/index/262554/speedreads-syria-calls-in-north-korea-to-monitor-its-presidential-election#axzz33yflIyiK|title=Syria calls in North Korea to monitor its presidential election|work=The Week|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> On the ground there were no independent monitors stationed at the polling stations.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://online.wsj.com/articles/pro-assad-voters-rally-as-syria-holds-elections-1401805888|title=Syria Elections a Forum to Celebrate Assad|date=3 June 2014|work=WSJ|accessdate=2 October 2014|first=Sam|last=Dagher}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2014/06/04/bashar_assad_claims_887_per_cent_of_vote_in_syrian_election.html|title=Bashar Assad claims 88.7 per cent of vote in Syrian election|work=thestar.com|accessdate=2 October 2014|location=Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/kerry-calls-syria-election-a-great-big-zero/2014/06/04/652a9b93-bc29-4f1a-b701-4e614e98c36a_story.html|title=Kerry calls Syria election a 'great big zero'|work=Washington Post|accessdate=2 October 2014|first=Liz|last=Sly|date=4 June 2014}}</ref>

It is claimed in an opinion piece that as few as 6&nbsp;million eligible voters remained in Syria.<ref name="Haaretz">{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/1.596234?v=71FF9A55C19D76E21194F93C13FD3D38 |title=An Assad election win will bolster Syria's status quo|first=Zvi |last=Bar'el |publisher=Haaretz |date=31 May 2014|accessdate=31 May 2014}}</ref><ref name="independentuksyriaelection">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-elections-2014-voters-turn-out-for-ballot-denounced-as-a-sham-by-west-9475721.html |title=Syria elections 2014: Voters turn out for ballot denounced as a 'sham' by West|first=Heather |last=Saul |publisher=The Independent |date=3 June 2014|accessdate=5 June 2014 |location=London}}</ref> Due to rebel, Kurdish and ISIS control of Syrian territories there was no voting in roughly 60% of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gulf-times.com/region/216/details/394802/syrians-vote-as-war-rages|title=Syrians vote as war rages|work=Gulf-Times|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/assad-wins-vote-branded-illegitimate-by-opposition/article1-1226464.aspx|title=Assad wins vote branded illegitimate by opposition – Hindustan Times|work=hindustantimes.com|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

=== ISIL offensives and U.S. airstrikes (June 2014 – January 2015) ===

<!-- consensus reached to use ISIL not ISIS or Islamic State -->
{{See also|Timeline of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant events in 2014|Timeline of the Syrian Civil War (August 2014–present)|2014 American intervention in Syria}}
Starting on 5 June, ] seized swathes of territory in ] in addition to heavy weapons and equipment from the ], some of which they brought into Syria. Government airstrikes targeted ISIL bases in ] and ] in coordination with an Iraqi Army counteroffensive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Jun-15/260207-syria-pounds-isis-bases-in-coordination-with-iraq.ashx#axzz34j64aUTG|title=Syria pounds ISIS bases in coordination with Iraq|work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref> On 14 June, government forces retook the town of ] in northern ], while rebels took over Tall al-Gomo near the town of ] in the ], as well as reentering the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian troops recapture key border town near Turkey|url=http://news.oneindia.in/international/syrian-troops-recapture-key-border-town-near-turkey-1465950.html|date=15 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2382621&language=en|title=KUNA : Battles in Syria claim 50 lives – SOHR|work=kuna.net.kw|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>

According to the ], on 17 July ISIL took control of the Shaar oil field, killing 90 pro-government forces while losing 21 fighters. In addition, 270 guards and government-aligned fighters were missing. About 30 government persons managed to escape to the nearby Hajjar field.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/07/17/syria-crisis-gas-idUSL6N0PS45W20140717 |title=UPDATE 2-Ninety killed by Islamist attack on Syrian gas field – monitor |publisher=Reuters |date=17 July 2014 |accessdate=3 August 2014}}</ref> On 20 July, the Syrian Army secured the field, although fighting continued in its outskirts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/index.php?option=com_news&nid=21153&Itemid=2&task=displaynews#.U9Jw77FqPTq |title=مقتل 65 من قوات النظام في شاعر |publisher=Syriahr.com |date=20 July 2014 |accessdate=3 August 2014}}</ref> On 25 July, the Islamic State took control of the Division 17 base near Raqqah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Aug-07/266346-jihadists-storm-syrian-army-base-in-raqqa.ashx#axzz3D8QvZmy3|title=Jihadists storm Syrian army base in Raqqa|work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

On 7 August, ISIL took the Brigade 93 base in Raqqah using weapons captured from their offensive in Iraq. Multiple ] also went off before the base was stormed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Aug-08/266471-jihadists-capture-key-base-from-syrian-army.ashx|title=Jihadists capture key base from Syrian army|work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> On 13 August, ISIL forces took the towns of ] and Turkmanbareh from rebels in ]. ISIL forces also took a handful of nearby villages. The other towns seized include Masoudiyeh, ] and Ghouz.

On 14 August, the ] commander Sharif As-Safouri admitted working with Israel and receiving ] weapons from Israel and FSA soldiers also received medical treatment inside Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abna.ir/english/service/middle-east-west-asia/archive/2014/08/14/631067/story.html|title=Syrian militant commander admits collaboration with Israel|date=14 August 2014|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> On 14 August, the ] as well as ] militias retook the town of Mleiha in ]. The Supreme Military Council of the FSA denied claims of Mleiha's seizure, rather the rebels have redeployed from recent advances to other defensive lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eaworldview.com/2014/08/syria-daily-insurgents-doomed-aleppo/#mleiha2|title=Syria Daily, August 14: Are Insurgents Doomed in Aleppo?|work=EA WorldView|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> Mleiha has been held by the ]. Rebels had used the town to fire mortars on government held areas inside Damascus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/08/14/uk-syria-crisis-town-idUKKBN0GE0MN20140814|title=Syrian army takes town near Damascus in blow to rebels|work=Reuters UK|accessdate=1 April 2015|date=14 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="alarabiya">{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/08/13/ISIS-militants-seize-more-territory-in-Syria-.html|title=en/News/middle-east/2014/08/13/ISIS-militants-seize-more-territory-in-Syria-|publisher=english.alarabiya.net|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>

Meanwhile, ISIL forces in Raqqah were launching a siege on ], the Syrian government's last military base in Raqqah. Kuwaires airbase in ] also came under fierce attack by ISIL.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianmonitor.com/index.php/world/item/49001-islamic-militants-crush-tribal-uprising-in-syria-washington-post |title=Islamic militants crush tribal uprising in Syria |work=Indian Monitor |date=11 August 2014 |agency=Washington Post |accessdate=7 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20150626154414/http://www.indianmonitor.com/index.php/world/item/49001-islamic-militants-crush-tribal-uprising-in-syria-washington-post |archivedate=26 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/syriahroe/posts/568805753227767|title=Aleppo province: a man was killed with... – Syrian Observatory for Human Rights – Facebook|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> On 16 August, there were reports that 22 people were killed in the village of ] by a ] outside a mosque. The bomb was thought to be detonated by ISIS. Also on 16 August, the Islamic State seized the village of Beden in Aleppo Governorate from rebels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.uk.msn.com/world/22-killed-in-syria-car-bomb-blast|title=World – News – msn|work=MSN|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://kurdishandsyriannewsagency.blogspot.co.uk/|title=Kurdish and Syrian News Agency|author=Kansa International|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

On 17 August, SOHR said that in the past two weeks ISIL jihadists had killed over 700 tribal members in oil-rich ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/143590-is-killed-more-than-700-syria-tribe-members-in-2-weeks|title= IS Killed More than 700 Syria Tribe Members in 2 Weeks|work=Naharnet|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

On 19 August, a senior figure in ISIL who had helped prepare and plan car and suicide bombs across Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq was killed. Some reports said that he was killed by Hezbollah fighters. There were also several reports that he was killed by the Syrian Army in the Qalamoun region, near the border with ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/lebanons-hezbollah-kills-top-jihadist-syria-ngo-102414478.html|title=Lebanon's Hezbollah kills top jihadist in Syria: NGO|date=19 August 2014|work=Yahoo News|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abna.ir/english/service/middle-east-west-asia/archive/2014/08/19/632095/story.html|title=ISIL commander 'Abu Abdullah al-Iraqi' killed in Syrian army operation: report|date=19 August 2014|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Aug-19/267659-isis-commander-killed-by-syrian-army-report.ashx#axzz3Ar3WrUcI|title=Hezbollah kills suicide bombing plotter: activists|work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

On 19 August, American journalist ] was executed by ISIL, who claimed it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by ] militia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbur.org/2013/05/03/foley-family-syrian-prison|title=N.H. Family: Missing Journalist James Foley In Syrian Prison|author=Curt Nickisch|date=3 May 2013|work=WBUR|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> ISIL also threatened to execute ], who was kidnapped at the Syrian-Turkish border in August 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thewire.com/global/2014/08/isil-beheads-photojournalist-james-wright-foley/378802/|title=ISIL Beheads American Photojournalist James Foley|author=Polly Mosendz|work=The Wire|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/20/islamic-state-isis-foreign-hostages-syria-aleppo?CMP=twt_gu|title=Islamic State militants seize four more foreign hostages in Syria|author=Martin Chulov|work=the Guardian|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpj.org/2014/08/james-foleys-killers-pose-many-threats-to-local-in.php |title=James Foley's killers pose many threats to local, international journalists |publisher=] |date=20 August 2014 |accessdate=21 August 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20140821181102/https://cpj.org/2014/08/james-foleys-killers-pose-many-threats-to-local-in.php |archivedate=21 August 2014 }}</ref>

On 22 August, the ] released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded that Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Aug-23/268253-captured-soldiers-they-will-kill-us-if-hezbollah-remains-in-syria.ashx#axzz3BDVtnrhv|title=Captured soldiers: They will kill us, if Hezbollah remains in Syria|work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

On 23 August, the Tabqa airbase was no longer encircled by ISIL fighters and the Syrian Army had taken back the M-42 Highway from ISIL fighters, which leads to the city of ] in the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking-news-tabqa-airbase-syrian-army-longer-encircled/|title=Breaking News from Tabqa Airbase: Syrian Army No Longer Encircled|work=Al-Masdar News|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> Also in Raqqah, the Syrian Army took control of the town of Al-Ejeil.<ref name="aljazeera.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/08/islamic-state-syria-raqqa-2014823142435185199.html|title=Syrian army repels Islamic State attack|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almanar.com.lb/english/adetails.php?fromval=1&cid=23&frid=23&eid=167132|title=Third ISIL Attempt to Seize Tabaqa Airport Fails|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> ISIL reportedly sent reinforcements from Iraq to the governorate of Raqqah. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said at least 400 ISIL fighters had also been wounded in the previous five days in clashes with the Syrian Army and ] in Raqqah alone.<ref name="aljazeera.com" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1127375/isis-begins-push-to-seize-syrian-air-base|title=ISIS begins push to seize Syrian air base|author=AFP|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> At the same time, several senior UK and US figures urged Turkey to stop allowing ISIL to cross the border to Syria and Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/23/us-air-strikes-isis-commanders-syria-considered|title=US 'set to launch air strikes' on senior Isis terror chiefs in Syria – World news – The Observer|author=Toby Helm|work=the Guardian|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref> It was around this time that the Americans realized that the Turks had no intention of sealing their side of the border, and so Washington decided to work with the Syrian Kurds to close off the border on the Syrian side.<ref>{{cite news|title = Turkish threats of intervention after Ankara bombing taken seriously by Obama|url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-conflict-isis-turkey-barack-obama-ankara-bombing-a6886466.html|website = independent.co.uk|access-date = 21 February 2016|date = 20 February 2016|last = Cockburn|first = Patrick}}</ref> A year later, with the Kurds in control of most of the Turkey–Syria border, and the Syrian army advancing under Russian air support to seal the remainder, the situation was causing great ructions in Ankara.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUSKCN0VQ1FR|title = Kurds' advance in Syria divides U.S. and Turkey as Russia bombs|last = Butler|first = Daren|date = 17 February 2016|access-date = 21 February 2016|agency = Reuters}}</ref>

On the following day, the Islamic State seized Tabqa airbase from government forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/jihadists-seize-syria-s/1328194.html|title=Jihadists seize Syria's Tabqa airport after fierce battle|work=Channel NewsAsia|accessdate=2 October 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826114330/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/jihadists-seize-syria-s/1328194.html|archivedate=26 August 2014|deadurl=yes}}</ref> The battle for the base left 346 ISIL fighters and 195 soldiers dead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://citizen.co.za/afp_feed_article/more-than-500-dead-in-battle-for-syrias-tabqa-airport-ngo/|title=More than 500 dead in battle for Syria's Tabqa airport: NGO|work=The Citizen|accessdate=25 October 2014}}</ref> Prisoners taken by ISIL forces were executed and a video from the mass killing was posted on YouTube. The death toll varied from 120 to 250.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/youtube-video-posted-by-isis-militants-shows-execution-of-250-syrian-soldiers-9697532.html|work=Independent|title=YouTube video posted by Isis militants shows 'execution of 250 Syrian soldiers'|date=28 August 2014|accessdate=29 August 2014|location=London|first=Heather|last=Saul}}</ref>

On 26 August, the Syrian Air Force carried out airstrikes against ISIL targets in the Governorate of Deir ez-Zor. This was the first time the Syrian Army attacked them in ] as the Syrian Army pulled out of Raqqah and shifted to Deir ez-Zor in a bid to seize its oil and natural gas resources as well as strategically splitting ISIL territories.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/world/syria-war-planes-hit-jihadist-sites-in-deir-ezzor_1460674.html|title=Syria war planes hit jihadist sites in Deir Ezzor|work=Zee News|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almanar.com.lb/english/adetails.php?eid=167649&frid=23&seccatid=20&cid=23&fromval=1|title=Syria Warplanes Strike ISIL Sites in Deir Ezour, Army Operates across Country|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

American jets began bombing ISIL in Syria on 23 September 2014, raising U.S. involvement in the war-torn country. At least 20 targets in and around Raqqah were hit, the opposition group Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said. Foreign partners participating in the strikes with the United States were Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Jordan. The U.S. and "partner nation forces" began striking ISIL targets using fighters, bombers and Tomahawk missiles, Pentagon spokesman Rear Adm. John Kirby said.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/22/world/meast/u-s-airstrikes-isis-syria/index.html?hpt=hp_t1|title=U.S. airstrikes hit ISIS targets inside Syria – CNN.com|date=23 September 2014|work=CNN|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

U.S. aircraft include ]s, ]s, ]s and ], with F-18s flying missions off the {{USS|George H.W. Bush|CVN-77}} in the Persian Gulf. ] were fired from the destroyer {{USS|Arleigh Burke|DDG-51}} in the ]. Syria's Foreign Ministry told the Associated Press that the U.S. informed Syria's envoy to the U.N. that "strikes will be launched against the terrorist group in Raqqah".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2014/09/23/us-launches-first-wave-bombing-strikes-over-syria/|title=US, Arab allies launch first wave of strikes in Syria|work=Fox News|accessdate=2 October 2014|date=23 September 2014}}</ref> The United States informed the Free Syrian Army beforehand of the impending airstrikes, and the rebels said that weapons transfers to the Free Syrian Army had begun.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://online.wsj.com/articles/syria-opposition-says-it-was-informed-strikes-would-begin-1411459825|title=Syria Rebels Say They Were Told of Airstrikes Against Islamic State|date=23 September 2014|work=WSJ|accessdate=2 October 2014|first=Maria|last=Abi-Habib}}</ref>

The United States also attacked a specific faction of al-Nusra called the ], who according to the United States had training camps and plans for attacking the United States in the future.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eaworldview.com/2014/09/syria-daily-us-airstrikes-missiles-hit-islamic-state/#kobane|title=Syria Daily, Sept 23: US Airstrikes & Missiles Hit Islamic State|work=EA WorldView|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

For its part, Turkey launched an official request to the U.N. for a no-fly zone over Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.yenisafak.com/world/erdogan-asks-un-for-no-fly-zone-over-syria-2024442|title=Erdogan asks UN for no-fly zone over Syria|publisher=|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

The same day, Israel shot down a Syrian warplane after it entered the Golan area from Quneitra.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/1.617329|title=IDF shoots down Syrian fighter plane infiltrating Israeli territory|date=23 September 2014|work=Haaretz.com|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref>

By 3 October, ISIL forces were ] and were within a kilometer of the town.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29474879|title=BBC News – Islamic State steps up attack on Syrian town of Kobane|work=BBC News|accessdate=14 October 2014|date=4 October 2014}}</ref>

Within 36 hours from 21 October, the Syrian air force carried out over 200 airstrikes on rebel-held areas across Syria and US and Arab jets attacked IS positions around Kobanî. Syrian Information Minister ] said the YPG forces in Kobanî had been provided with military and logistical support.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2803457/Syria-destroys-two-warplanes-used-ISIS-train-fighter-pilots-terrorist-airforce.html|title=Syria destroys two warplanes used by ISIS to train fighter pilots|work=Mail Online|accessdate=23 October 2014|location=London|date=22 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29720384|title=BBC News – Syria conflict: '200 air force strikes' in 36 hours|work=BBC News|accessdate=23 October 2014|date=22 October 2014}}</ref> Syria reported that its air force had destroyed two fighter jets being operated by IS.<ref name=reuters-20141022>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/10/22/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-jets-idUKKCN0IB1H220141022 |title=Syria says shoots down two of three Islamic State jets |author=Oliver Holmes |publisher=Reuters |date=22 October 2014 |accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref>

By 26 January, the Kurdish YPG forced ISIL forces in Kobanî to retreat,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-30991612 |title=Syrian Kurds 'drive Islamic State out of Kobane' |date=26 January 2015 |accessdate=26 January 2015 |agency=BBC News}}</ref> thus fully recapturing the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syriahr.com/en/2015/01/ypg-retakes-the-entire-city-of-ayn-al-arab-kobani-after-112-days-of-clashes-with-is-militants-2/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016201939/http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/01/ypg-retakes-the-entire-city-of-ayn-al-arab-kobani-after-112-days-of-clashes-with-is-militants-2/ |archivedate=16 October 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=YPG retakes the entire city of Ayn al- Arab "Kobani" after 112 days of clashes with IS militants|author=sohranas|work=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights|accessdate=27 January 2015}}</ref> The U.S. confirmed that the city had been cleared of ISIL forces on 27 January,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/01/31/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-kobani-idUKKBN0L40U820150131?rpc=401|title=U.S. general says Syrian town of Kobani taken from Islamic State|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=31 January 2015|first=Mohammad|last=Zargham|date=31 January 2015}}</ref> and ISIL admitted defeat in Kobanî city three days later, although they vowed to return.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/isis-admits-kobani-defeat-after-u-s-led-airstrike-campaign-in-syria-1.2214806#ixzz3QPipE3Aw |title=ISIS admits Kobani defeat after U.S.-led airstrike campaign in Syria |date=31 January 2015 |accessdate=31 January 2015 |publisher=CTV News |agency=Associated Press |quote=Members of the Islamic State group have acknowledged for the first time that they were defeated in the Syrian town of Kobani.}}</ref>

=== The Southern Front (October 2014 – February 2015) ===

In February 2014, the ] formed in southern Syria. Six months later, they started a string of victories in Daraa and Quneitra during the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]. A government counter-offensive (the ]) during this period, that included the ] and ], recaptured 15 towns, villages and hills,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/02/regime-syria-daraa-southern-front-opposition.html|title=Syria opposition forces claim regime attack in Daraa futile|publisher=Al Monitor|accessdate=20 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://syriahr.com/en/2015/03/26-members-of-the-regime-forces-and-allied-militiamen-killed-today/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174801/http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/03/26-members-of-the-regime-forces-and-allied-militiamen-killed-today/ |archivedate=15 September 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=26 members of the regime forces and allied militiamen killed today|author=sohranas|work=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights|accessdate=4 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/EjmAlrai/status/572311004123680768|title=Elijah J. Magnier on Twitter|work=Twitter|accessdate=4 March 2015}}</ref> but the operation slowed soon after<ref name="Reuters_2April2015">{{cite news | url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/02/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0MT1R420150402 |title= As regional war rages, Syria's Assad faces setbacks |last1=Perry |first1=Tom | last2=Al-Khalidi |first2= Suleiman |publisher= Reuters |date= 2 April 2015 |accessdate= 14 April 2015 |quote= But the offensive stalled after some early but limited gains}}</ref> and stalled.<ref name="march">{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0311/Syrian-rebels-march-on-Damascus-becomes-fight-for-their-survival|title=Syrian rebels' march on Damascus becomes fight for their survival (+video)|author=The Christian Science Monitor|work=The Christian Science Monitor|accessdate=15 April 2015}}</ref>

Since early 2015, opposition military operations rooms based in Jordan and Turkey began increasing cooperation,<ref name="FT_13_Feb_2015">{{cite news|url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/16a10034-df6c-11e4-b6da-00144feab7de.html |title= Syria's rebels heartened by healing of Sunni Arab rifts |last1=Solomon |first1=Erika |last2=Kerr |first2=Simeon | publisher= Financial Times |date= 13 April 2015 |accessdate= 13 April 2015 |quote= In the south, opposition forces foiled an offensive led by regime allies for the first time since their revolution began, rebels note that advances in the north and south are coinciding, and their backers' two operating rooms – one in Turkey used by Ankara and Doha, and another in Jordan used more by Saudi Arabia and Western allies – appear to be co-ordinating}}</ref> with Saudi Arabia and Qatar also reportedly agreeing upon the necessity to unite opposition factions against the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |title= Can Syria's Assad withstand latest battlefield setbacks? (+video) | publisher= Christian Science Monitor | agency= |last= Blanford |first= Nicholas |date= 21 August 2015 |accessdate= 22 April 2015 |quote=The regime's recent setbacks in Idlib and the south are due in part to Assad's regional enemies – including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Qatar, and Jordan – agreeing on the need to unite rebel factions to oust Assad, according to analysts and regional diplomats.}}</ref>

=== Northern Al-Nusra Front and Islamist takeover (October 2014 – March 2015) ===

In late October 2014, a conflict erupted between the al-Nusra Front on one side and the western-backed ] and ] on the other (]). ISIL reportedly reinforced al-Nusra. By the end of February 2015 al-Nusra had defeated both groups, captured the entire ] region in Idlib province and several towns and military bases in other governorates, and seized weapons supplied by the ] to the two moderate groups.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/11/01/245423_in-setback-islamic-state-nusra.html |title=US-backed forces in Syria suffer big setback |date=1 November 2014 |accessdate=3 November 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20141207001145/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/11/01/245423_in-setback-islamic-state-nusra.html |archivedate=7 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/us-backed-syria-rebels-routed-by-fighters-linked-to-al-qaeda/2014/11/02/7a8b1351-8fb7-4f7e-a477-66ec0a0aaf34_story.html|title=U.S.-backed Syria rebels routed by fighters linked to al-Qaeda|date= 2 November 2014|accessdate= 3 November 2014|work=The Washington Post|first=Liz|last=Sly}}</ref> The significant amount of weapons seized included a small number of ] anti-tank missiles similar to weapons systems al-Nusra Front had previously captured from government stockpiles such as French ]s, Chinese ]s and Russian ]s.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2014/12/15/al-qaeda-faction-in-syria-claims-to-have-u-s-supplied-anti-tank-weapon/ |title = Al-Qaeda faction in Syria claims to have U.S.-supplied anti-tank weapon |publisher= The Washington Post |first1= Thomas |last1=Gibbons-Neff | date= 15 December 2014 | accessdate= 3 June 2015 |quote= The fielding of a TOW system would not necessarily provide al-Nusra with a capability it didn't already have. Similar weapons systems such as the Chinese HJ-8, French Milan and the Russian Spigot have all been seen in operation in Syria.}}</ref> Reuters reported that this represented al-Nusra crushing pro-Western rebels in the north of the country.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/14/us-mideast-crisis-syria-south-idUSKBN0N511N20150414?irpc=932 |title= Southern Syria rebels set collision course with al Qaeda|work= Reuters | date=14 April 2015}}</ref> According to FSA commanders in northern Syria, however, the elimination of Harakat Hazm and the SRF was a welcome development due to the leaders of those factions allegedly involved in corruption.<ref name=Lister>{{cite news | url= http://www.huffingtonpost.com/charles-lister/an-internal-struggle-al-q_b_7479730.html |title = An Internal Struggle: Al Qaeda's Syrian Affiliate Is Grappling With Its Identity | publisher= Huffington Post |last= Lister |first= Charles | date= 1 June 2015 |accessdate= 1 June 2015 | quote= But not all saw it the same way, especially when it came to the fighting against the SRF and Harakat Hazm. One FSA commander exclaimed to this author that "Jamal Maarouf was a criminal and his group was unpopular," while another such leader told this author in February 2015 that "Hazm's destruction cannot come soon enough, they have done nothing but cause trouble in Aleppo." Having spoken extensively with leading commanders from across the Syrian spectrum in recent weeks, it is clear this cooperation has at least partly been motivated by a desire to ensure victories in Idlib do not become strategic gains for al Qaeda.}}</ref> The Western-backed ] of the FSA remained active elsewhere in Idlib.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://iwpr.net/global-voices/after-syrian-armys-defeat-people-trickle-back |title = After Syrian Army's Defeat, People Trickle Back to Idlib Towns |publisher= IWPR |last= al-Akla |first = Ahmad |date= 8 May 2015 |accessdate= 29 May 2015 |quote= }}</ref>

By 24 March 2015 the al-Nusra Front dominated most of Idlib province, except for the government-held provincial capital, ], which they had encircled on three sides along with its Islamist allies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/03/24/nusra-front-s-game-changing-rise-in-syria/i4v0|title=The Nusra Front's Game-Changing Rise in Syria|work=Carnegie Middle East Center|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref> On 28 March a joint coalition of Islamist forces, the ], captured Idlib.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20150330-islamists-syria-seize-idlib-nusra-jaish-fath|title=Middle East – New Islamist alliance seizes Idlib from Syrian troops – France 24|work=France 24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://uk.blastingnews.com/politics/2015/03/new-islamist-alliance-captures-syrian-regional-capital-idlib-from-government-forces-00328405.html|title=New Islamist alliance captures Syrian regional capital Idlib from government forces|author=Blasting News|work=Blasting News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11502899/Thousands-flee-Syrian-city-Idlib-after-rebel-capture.html|title= Thousands flee Syrian city Idlib after rebel capture|date= 29 March 2015|accessdate= 1 April 2015|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> This left the north largely taken over by ], al-Nusra Front and other Islamist rebels, with the south of the country becoming the last significant foothold for the mainstream, non-jihadist opposition fighters.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/02/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0MT1R420150402 | title = As regional war rages, Syria's Assad faces setbacks|work=Reuters | date=2 April 2015}}</ref>

=== Army of Conquest advances in Idlib (April 2015 – June 2015) ===
{{Main article|Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015)|Second Battle of Idlib}}
On 22 April, ] was launched in the north-west of Syria and by 25 April, the rebel coalition ] had captured the city of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32461693|title=Syria conflict: Islamists capture Jisr al-Shughur|work=BBC News}}</ref> At the end of the following month, the rebels also seized the ] military base,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/05/after-al-mastomi-town-and-its-military-camp-al-fateh-army-expels-the-regime-forces-from-nihlaya/|title=After al- Mastomi town and its military camp, Al- Fateh Army expels the regime forces from Nihlaya|author=sohranas|work=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights|accessdate=22 May 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522083456/http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/05/after-al-mastomi-town-and-its-military-camp-al-fateh-army-expels-the-regime-forces-from-nihlaya/|archivedate=22 May 2015|deadurl=yes}}</ref> and ], leaving government forces in control of tiny pockets of Idlib, including the Abu Dhuhur military airport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/May-29/299703-rebels-take-ariha-from-assad.ashx|title=Rebels take Ariha from Assad|work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon}}</ref> In addition, according to Charles Lister (Brookings Doha Center), the Army of Conquest coalition was a broad opposition effort to ensure that the Al-Qaeda-affiliated al-Nusra Front was contained, with the rearguard involvement of Western-backed factions being regarded as crucial.<ref name=Lister /> Still, according to some, the FSA in northern Syria had by this point all but dissipated. Many of the moderate fighters joined more extremist organizations, such as ], the largest faction in the Army of Conquest, which led to the subsequent rise of the Islamist Army of Conquest coalition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/syrias-north-opposition-making-major-comeback-thanks-one-rebel-group-turkey-1975411|title=In Syria's North, Opposition Is Making A Major Comeback Thanks To One Rebel Group, And To Turkey|author=Erin Banco|date=19 June 2015|work=International Business Times}}</ref>

Rebel advances led to government and Hezbollah morale plunging dramatically.<ref>{{cite news | title = Outside Powers Weigh Their Options in Syria | url = https://www.stratfor.com/sample/analysis/outside-powers-weigh-their-options-syria | agency = Stratfor |date = 6 June 2015 | accessdate = 6 June 2015 }}</ref> In north-west Syria these losses were countered by a Hezbollah-led offensive in the Qalamoun mountains north of Damascus, on the border with Lebanon, that gave Hezbollah effective control of the entire area.<ref name="North mountains gains">{{cite news | title = Hezbollah, Syrian army make big gains in border battle | url = http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/05/13/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-idUKKBN0NY0UM20150513 | agency = Reuters | date = 13 May 2015 | accessdate = 13 May 2015 }}</ref>

=== Resurgent ISIL advance (May 2015 – September 2015) ===
{{Main article|Palmyra offensive (May 2015)|Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015)}}
On 21 May, ISIL took control of ], a UNESCO World Heritage Site, after eight days of fighting.<ref>{{cite news|title=ISIS is 'everywhere' in Syria's ancient city of Palmyra|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/21/middleeast/isis-syria-iraq/|publisher=CNN|date=21 May 2015}}</ref> The jihadists also captured the nearby towns of Al-Sukhnah and Amiriya, as well as several oil fields.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/is-overruns-parts-of-unesco-listed-syrian-city-115052001311_1.html|title=IS overruns parts of Unesco-listed Syrian city|accessdate=20 May 2015}}</ref> Following the capture of Palmyra, ISIL conducted mass executions in the area, killing an estimated 217–329 government civilian supporters and soldiers, according to opposition activists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/05/islamic-state-carry-out-its-moto-staying-and-explading-and-seizes-more-than-50-of-syria/|title=Islamic State carries out its motto "lasting and explading" and seizes more than 50% of Syria|author=sohranas|work=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights|accessdate=21 May 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522164059/http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/05/islamic-state-carry-out-its-moto-staying-and-explading-and-seizes-more-than-50-of-syria/|archivedate=22 May 2015|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN0OA0CD20150525|title=Syrian air force targets captured Palmyra city – monitor|publisher= | work=Reuters|date=25 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.timesofindia.com/world/middle-east/ISIS-purges-Syrias-Palmyra-of-Assad-loyalists/articleshow/47397855.cms |title= ISIS purges Syria's Palmyra of Assad loyalists |publisher= The Times of India |agency= AP |date= 23 May 2015 |accessdate= 23 May 2015}}</ref> Government sources put the number of killed at 400–450.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/syria-regime-launches-15-air-raids-around-palmyra|title=Syria regime launches 15 air raids around Palmyra|publisher=}}</ref>

By early June, ISIL reached the town of Hassia, which lies on the main road from Damascus to Homs and Latakia, and reportedly took up positions to the west of it, creating a potential disaster for the government and raising the threat of Lebanon being sucked further into the war.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11663774/Assads-forces-defeated-on-roads-north-and-south.html |title= Assad's forces defeated on roads north and south | publisher= The Telegraph |agency= |last1= Spencer |first1= Richard |last2= |first2= |date= 9 June 2015 |accessdate= 10 June 2015 |quote= Meanwhile, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, attacked west from Palmyra, reached the town of Hassia on the main road north from Damascus to Homs and the coast. |location=London}}</ref>

On 25 June, ISIL launched two offensives. One was a surprise diversionary attack on Kobanî, while the second targeted government-held parts of Al-Hasakah city.<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.stratfor.com/analysis/islamic-state-launches-two-attacks-syria |title= Islamic State Launches Two Attacks in Syria |publisher= Stratfor |agency= |date= 25 June 2015 |accessdate= 25 June 2015 |quote= The Islamic State launched two attacks in northern Syria on June 25 The second attack was directed against the parts of al-Hasaka city still occupied by forces loyal to Syrian President Bashar al Assad and Kurds in the northern part of town. The mainstream media has largely focused on the Kobanî attack, but the al-Hasaka operation in the northeast is more important by far.}}</ref> The ISIL offensive on Al-Hasakah displaced 60,000 people, with the UN estimating a total of 200,000 would be displaced.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.thestar.com.my/News/World/2015/06/26/Islamic-State-attack-in-northeast-Syria-reported-to-displace-60000--UN/ |title= Islamic State attack in northeast Syria reported to displace 60,000 – UN |publisher= The Star Online |agency=Reuters |date= 26 June 2015 |accessdate= 26 June 2015 |quote= }}</ref>

In July 2015, a raid by U.S. special forces on a compound housing the Islamic State's "chief financial officer", ], produced evidence that ] officials directly dealt with ranking ISIS members.<ref name="yahoonews">{{cite news|last1=Bertrand|first1=Natasha|title=Senior Western official: Links between Turkey and ISIS are now 'undeniable'|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/links-between-turkey-and-isis-are-now-undeniable-2015-7|date=28 July 2015}}</ref>

ISIS captured ] city from the government on 5 August 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3186895/ISIS-seize-key-town-central-Syria-home-tens-thousands-Christians-terror-group-s-significant-advance-capturing-ancient-city-Palmyra.html|title=ISIS seize Qaryatain town in central Syria|date=6 August 2015|accessdate=9 September 2015}}</ref>

Australia joined the bombing of ISIL in Syria in mid September, an extension of their efforts in Iraq for the last year.<ref name="bbc2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-34265118|title=Australia launches first air strikes inside Syria – BBC News|publisher=bbc.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>

=== Russian intervention and government offensive (30 September 2015–February 2016) ===

{| class="navbox collapsible" style="float: right; margin: 0.8em; width:40em; font-size:x-small;" cellspacing="0"
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! style="background:#F5F5F5; border:0 solid black;"|Russian military facilities involved in the war in Syria
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| {{Image label begin|image=Outline map of Middle East.svg|width=400}}
{{Image label small|x=-195.0|y=-25.0|scale=-1|text=] ] ] (])}}
{{Image label small|x=-190.0|y=-40.0|scale=-1|text=] ] ] (])}}
{{Image label small|x=-190.0|y=-50.0|scale=-1|text=] ] ] (])}}
{{Image label small|x=-132.0|y=-90.0|scale=-1|text=] {{Interlanguage link|ru|Aircraft group|Авиационная группа ВВС России в Сирии}} ]}}
{{Image label small|x=-130.0|y=-98.0|scale=-1|text=] ]}}
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]<ref name=BBC_Russian_Navy>{{cite web | url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34465425 | title=Russian missiles 'hit IS in Syria from Caspian Sea' | publisher=BBC News | date= 7 October 2015}}</ref> | ]<ref name=RIA_Novosti>{{cite web | url=//ria.ru/defense_safety/20150930/1292970356.html | title=The decision to use the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation abroad (Syria) | publisher=RIA Novosti | language=russian | date= 30 September 2015}}</ref> | {{Interlanguage link|ru|Group Special forces|Группа российских военных специалистов в Сирии}}<ref name="rt">{{cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/news/314831-russia-syria-military-advisors/|title=Russian military advisers work in Syria, longtime military cooperation ‘no secret’ - Moscow — RT News|publisher=rt.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>
|}

{{See also|Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|Northwestern Syria offensive (October 2015)|Aleppo offensive (October–December 2015)}}

On 30 September 2015,<ref>, 30 september 2015.</ref> at an official request by the Syrian government headed by President Bashar al-Assad,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sana.sy/en/?p=56454|title=Syria’s ambassador to Russia urges all countries to join Syria and Russia against terrorism|author=Manal|work=sana.sy}}</ref> the ] began air strikes against both ISIL and the anti-Assad FSA.<ref name="bbc3">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34413050 |title=Syria conflict: Russia launches fresh strikes – BBC News |publisher=bbc.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="stuff">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/middle-east/72624688/russians-make-air-strikes-on-islamic-state-usbacked-syrian-rebel-targets |title=Russians make air strikes on Islamic State, US-backed Syrian rebel targets &#124; Stuff.co.nz |publisher=stuff.co.nz|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> Russia claimed that the airstrike destroyed several local headquarters, ammunition storage, logistic infrastructure of IS and anti-Assad forces<ref name="express">{{cite web|url=http://www.express.co.uk/news/world/609665/Islamic-State-ISIS-command-post-destroyed-Russian-airstrike-Putin |title=Islamic State: ISIS command post in Syria destroyed by Russian airstrike ordered by Putin &#124; World &#124; News &#124; Daily Express |publisher=express.co.uk|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="rt2">{{cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/news/317590-russian-aviation-isis-targets/ |title=Russian Air Force hit 10 ISIS targets in Syria in last 24 hours – Defense Ministry (VIDEOS) — RT News |publisher=rt.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rt.com/news/317505-air-force-terrorists-raqqa |title=Russian Air Force hits 50 ISIS targets in Syria over 3 days, ‘significantly’ damaging militants |work=RT |date=3 October 2015 |accessdate=December 24, 2015}}</ref><ref name="hidayat">{{cite web|url=http://hidayat.tv/russian-airstrikes-hit-dozen-isis-positions-in-syria/ |title=HIdayat TV – Russian airstrikes hit dozen ISIS positions in Syria |publisher=hidayat.tv |accessdate=21 October 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20151006160858/http://hidayat.tv/russian-airstrikes-hit-dozen-isis-positions-in-syria/ |archivedate=6 October 2015 }}</ref> and about 3,000 militants from Islamic State, al-Nusra and Jaish al-Yarmouk according to Russian sources have retreated to Jordan to avoid possible air strikes.<ref name="rt3">{{cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/news/317720-terrorists-leaving-syria-airstrikes/ |title=3,000 terrorists leave Syria following Russian airstrikes – military source — RT News |publisher=rt.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>

On 5 October 2015, newsmedia reports suggested that over 40 Syrian anti-government groups, including factions such as ], ] and the ], vowed to attack Russian forces in retaliation for Moscow's air campaign.<ref name="usnews">{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/10/05/syrian-fm-russian-airstrikes-took-months-of-preparations |title=Syrian insurgent groups vow to attack Russian forces – US News |publisher=usnews.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> Meanwhile, CNN reports claimed U.S. president Barack Obama had a few days prior authorized the resupply of Syrian Kurds and the Arab-Syrian opposition, the President emphasizing to his team that the U.S. would continue to support the Syrian opposition now that Russia had joined the conflict.<ref name="cnn">{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/10/05/politics/russia-ground-campaign-syria-isis/ |title=Obama authorizes resupply of Syrian opposition – CNNPolitics.com |publisher=edition.cnn.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref>

On 7 October 2015, Russian officials claimed the ships of the ] had earlier that day fired 26 ] at 11 ISIL targets in Syria destroying those and causing no civilian casualties.<ref name="BBC_Russian_Navy" /> On the same day, the Syrian government′s ground forces launched a ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34465425|title=Russian missiles 'hit IS in Syria from Caspian Sea'|date=7 October 2015|work=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/07/us-mideast-crisis-syria-nato-idUSKCN0S11UP20151007|title=Russia has ground troop battalion, advanced tanks in Syria: U.S. NATO envoy|date=7 October 2015|work=Reuters}}</ref> that in the following few days succeeded in recapturing some territory in northern ], close to the government's coastal heartland in the west of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/12/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-idUSKCN0S60RT20151012|title=Syrian army, Russian jets drive back rebels in fiercest clashes for days: monitor|date=12 October 2015|work=Reuters}}</ref>

On 8 October 2015, the U.S. officially announced the end of the Pentagon’s $500&nbsp;million program to train and equip Syrian rebels in an acknowledgment that the program had failed<ref name="fail">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/world/middleeast/pentagon-program-islamic-state-syria.html?&hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=first-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news|title= Obama Administration Ends Pentagon Program to Train Syrian Rebels|work=The New York Times|accessdate=9 October 2015|date=9 October 2015}}</ref> (other covert and significantly larger<ref name="larger">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/13/world/middleeast/syria-russia-airstrikes.html?_r=0 |title=U.S. Weaponry Is Turning Syria Into Proxy War With Russia|work=The New York Times|accessdate=14 October 2015|date=12 October 2015}}</ref> CIA programs to arm anti-government fighters in Syria continue<ref name="covert">{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/09/us-to-axe-5-scheme-train-syrian-rebels-nyt|title=US axes $500m scheme to train Syrian rebels, says NYT |work=The Guardian|accessdate=13 October 2015|date=9 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="trim">{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/lawmakers-move-to-curb-1-billion-cia-program-to-train-syrian-rebels/2015/06/12/b0f45a9e-1114-11e5-adec-e82f8395c032_story.html|title=Secret CIA effort in Syria faces large funding cut |work=The Washington Post|accessdate=13 October 2015|date=10 June 2015}}</ref>).

Two weeks after the start of the Russian campaign in Syria, '']'' opined that with anti-government commanders receiving for the first time bountiful supplies of U.S.-made anti-tank missiles and with Russia raising the number of airstrikes against the government’s opponents that had raised morale in both camps, broadening war objectives and hardening political positions, the conflict was turning into an all-out ] between the U.S. and Russia.<ref name="larger" />

], before a four-way discussion focused on Syria, 29 October 2015]]

Despite multiple top-ranking casualties incurred by the Iranian forces advising fighters in Syria,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/iranian-commander-brigadier-general-hossein-hamedani-killed-by-isis-while-advising-syrian-regime-a6687276.html|title=Iranian commander Brigadier General Hossein Hamedani killed by Isis while advising Syrian regime|author=Lizzie Dearden|date=9 October 2015|work=The Independent}}</ref><ref name="assessed">{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/10/09/politics/iran-general-killed-syria-isis/ |title=Iran's involvement in Syria carries growing costs – U.S. official: 'Psychological blow' in ISIS killing of Iranian general in Syria |publisher=edition.cnn.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="2more">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/iranian-commanders-killed-syria-151013192529038.html|title=Two more Iranian commanders killed in Syria|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=14 October 2015|date=13 September 2015}}</ref> in mid-October the ] targeting rebels in Aleppo went ahead.<ref name="newsru">{{cite web|url=http://newsru.com/world/15oct2015/homs.html |title=Новости NEWSru.com :: Сирийская армия при поддержке российской авиации пошла в атаку на позиции повстанцев под Хомсом |publisher=newsru.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="euronews">{{cite web|url=http://www.euronews.com/2015/10/14/syria-and-allies-iran-and-russia-prepare-for-aleppo-offensive/ |title=Syria and allies Iran and Russia prepare for Aleppo offensive &#124; euronews, world news |publisher=euronews.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="planoff">{{cite web|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/10/14/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-rebels-idUKKCN0S71VO20151014|title=Syria's army, allies plan offensive against insurgents in Aleppo |work=Reuters|accessdate=14 October 2015|date=14 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="farsnews">{{cite web|url=http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.aspx?nn=13940722000592 |title= Syrian Army, Hezbollah, Russian Air Force Coordinating for Aleppo Liberation Operation, FARS News Agency, 14-10-15 |publisher=english.farsnews.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="bbcoffensive">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34553148|title=Syria conflict: Army launches new Aleppo offensive|work=BBC|accessdate=17 October 2015|date=16 October 2015}}</ref>

At the end of October 2015, the U.S. Secretary of Defense ] signalled a shift in the strategy of the U.S.-led campaign saying there will be more air strikes and ruling in the use of direct ground raids, the fight in Syria concentrating mostly on Raqqah.<ref name="cartershift">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34654693|title=US signals shift in Syria-Iraq campaign against Islamic State|work=BBC|accessdate=29 October 2015|date=28 October 2015}}</ref>

On 30 October and two weeks later, ] were held in Vienna, initiated by the United States, Russia, Turkey and Saudi Arabia, in which on 30 October Iran participated for the first time in negotiations on Syrian settlement.<ref name="viennabbc">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34663093|title=Syria conflict: John Kerry seeks end to civil war 'hell'|work=BBC|accessdate=29 October 2015|date=29 October 2015}}</ref> The participants disagreed on the future of Bashar Assad.

On 10 November 2015, the Syrian government forces completed the ] the Islamic State insurgents′ blockade of the Kweires air base in Aleppo Province, where government forces had been under siege since April 2013.<ref name="deblock">{{cite web|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/11/10/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-base-idUKKCN0SZ1OB20151110|title=Syrian army enters Aleppo air base after Islamic State siege – state TV |work=Reuters|accessdate=11 November 2015|date=10 November 2015}}</ref>

In mid-November 2015, in the wake of the ] and the ], both Russia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tass.ru/en/defense/837226|title=TASS: Military & Defense – Russia involves strategic missile carriers in operation against Islamic State in Syria|work=TASS}}</ref><ref name="putorders">{{cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/news/322436-russia-strikes-syria-putin/|title=Long-range bombers to fly anti-ISIS missions from Russia, Putin orders Navy to work with France|work=RT English}}</ref> and France significantly intensified their strikes in Syria, France closely coordinating with the U.S. military.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://edition.cnn.com/2015/11/16/middleeast/france-raqqa-airstrikes-on-isis/ |title=French jets bomb ISIS stronghold of Raqqa, Syria; few may have been killed|work=CNN|date=16 November 2015|accessdate=20 November 2015}}</ref> On 17 November, Putin said he had issued orders for the ] that had been in eastern Mediterranean since the start of the Russian operations to "work as with an ally",<ref name="putorders" /><ref> ], 17 November 2015.</ref><ref name="russtepup">{{cite web|url= http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34849063 |title=Russia steps up attacks against IS with missile bombardment|work=BBC|date=18 November 2015|accessdate=19 November 2015}}</ref> with the French naval group led by flagship ] that had been on her way to eastern Mediterranean since early November.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34738177|title=France to deploy largest warship in mission against IS|work=BBC|date=5 November 2015|accessdate=18 November 2015}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, a Russian foreign ministry official criticised France′s stridently anti-Assad stance as well as France′s air strikes at oil and gas installations in Syria<ref name="syroilhits">{{cite web|url= http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/14/france-active-policy-syria-assad-isis-paris-attacks-air-strikes |title= France more active than rest of the west in tackling Syria |work=The Guardian|date=18 November 2015|accessdate=19 November 2015}}</ref> as apparently designed to prevent those from returning under the Syrian government′s control; the Russian official pointed out that such strikes by France could not be justified as they were carried out without the Syrian government′s consent.<ref> RIA Novosti, 20 November 2015.</ref><ref> ], 20 November 2015.</ref> In his remarks to a French delegation that included French parliamentarians, on 14 November, President Bashar Assad sharply criticised France′s as well as other Western States′ actions against the Syrian government suggesting that French support for Syrian opposition forces had led to the Islamic State-claimed attacks in Paris.<ref> Sana, 14 November 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/assad-says-paris-attacks-result-from-frances-aiding-rebels-in-syria/2015/11/14/287f7576-8adc-11e5-bd91-d385b244482f_story.html|title=Syria’s President Assad says Paris attacks result from France’s aiding of rebels|author=Hugh Naylor|work=The Washington Post|date=14 November 2015|accessdate=20 November 2015}}</ref>

On 19 November 2015, U.S. President Barack Obama, speaking of the Vienna process, said he was unable to "foresee a situation in which we can end the civil war in Syria while Assad remains in power"; he urged Russia and Iran to stop supporting the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/11/19/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-trudeau-canada-after|title=Remarks by President Obama and Prime Minister Trudeau of Canada After Bilateral Meeting|work=The U.S. White House|date=19 November 2015|accessdate=20 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/11/19/us-apec-summit-obama-syria-idUSKCN0T80KP20151119#Fw1kLTz6Oo6zuGdk.97|title=Obama says Syria settlement needed to eliminate Islamic State|work=Reuters|date=18 November 2015|accessdate=20 November 2015}}</ref>

On 20 November 2015, the UN Security Council, while failing to invoke the UN's ], which gives specific legal authorisation for the use of force,<ref name="failing">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34886971|title=Paris attacks: UN backs 'all necessary measures' against IS|work=BBC|date=21 November 2015|accessdate=21 November 2015}}</ref> unanimously passed a resolution that urged UN members to "redouble and coordinate their efforts to prevent and suppress terrorist acts committed specifically by ISIL also known as Da’esh as well as ANF, and all other individuals, groups, undertakings, and entities associated with Al-Qaida, and other terrorist groups, as designated by the United Nations Security Council, and as may further be agreed by the ] (ISSG) and endorsed by the UN Security Council".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc12132.doc.htm|title=Security Council ‘Unequivocally’ Condemns ISIL Terrorist Attacks, Unanimously Adopting Text that Determines Extremist Group Poses ‘Unprecedented’ Threat|work=un.org}}</ref> The adopted resolution was drafted by France and co-sponsored by the UK<ref name="cosp">{{cite web|url=|title=Cameron hails UN backing for action against Islamic State|work=BBC|date=21 November 2015|accessdate=21 November 2015}}</ref> the following day after Russia introduced an updated version of its previously submitted draft resolution that was blocked by the Western powers as seeking to legitimise Assad’s authority.<ref name="unsecurity">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/u-n-security-council-unanimously-votes-to-adopt-frances-counterterrorism-resolution-1448062499|title=U.N. Security Council Unanimously Votes to Adopt France’s Counterterrorism Resolution|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=20 November 2015|accessdate=21 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="guardunsecurity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/21/un-calls-for-all-able-member-states-to-join-fight-against-isis|title=Security council unanimously calls on UN members to fight Isis |work=The Guardian|date=21 November 2015|accessdate=21 November 2015}}</ref>

On 24 November 2015, Turkey ] that allegedly violated Turkish airspace and crashed in northwestern Syria, leading to the Russian pilot's death.<ref name="National Post" /> Following the crash, it was reported that ] rebels from ] attacked and shot down a ]n rescue helicopter, killing a Russian naval infantryman.<ref name="National Post">{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/turkey-blasts-russian-warplane-out-of-the-sky-says-jet-violated-its-airspace-pilots-fate-unclear|title=Syrian rebels fired on parachuting Russian pilots, killing at least one after Turkey shot down warplane: official|newspaper=]|date=25 November 2015|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> A few days after, Russian aircraft were reported to have struck targets in the Syrian town of ] in Idlib province that was controlled by the ] causing multiple casualties on the ground.<ref name="arihaalj">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/11/20-killed-russian-air-strike-syrian-market-151129082103978.html|title=Deadly 'Russian airstrike' hits market in Syria's Idlib|work=Al Jazeera|date=29 November 2015|accessdate=29 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="arihanewsru">{{cite web|url= http://newsru.com/world/29nov2015/ariha.html|title=Российская авиация в Сирии разбомбила овощной рынок: минимум 40 погибших|work=]|date=29 November 2015|accessdate=29 November 2015}}</ref>

On 2 December 2015, the ] voted to expand ] into Syria with a majority of 397-223.<ref>{{cite web|title=MPs approve motion on ISIL in Syria|url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2015/december/mps-debate-motion-on-isil-in-syria/|publisher=UK Parliament|accessdate=5 December 2015|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> That day, two British ] aircraft took off from ] immediately at 22:30, each carrying three ] bombs. Two further aircraft were deployed at 00:30 on 3 December, and all aircraft returned by 06:30 without their bombs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria air strikes: What you need to know|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-34931421|accessdate=12 December 2015|work=BBC|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> ] ] said that the strikes hit the ] oil fields in eastern Syria, and that eight more jets (two Tornados and six ]) were being sent to RAF Akrotiri to join the eight already there.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria air strikes: RAF Tornado jets carry out bombing|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-34992032|accessdate=3 December 2015|work=BBC|date=3 December 2015}}</ref>

On 7 December 2015, the government of Syria announced that US-led coalition warplanes had fired nine missiles at its army camp near Ayyash, ], on the evening prior, killing three soldiers and wounding 13 others; three armoured vehicles, four military vehicles, heavy machine-guns and an arms and ammunition depot were also destroyed.<ref name="agressbbc">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35024408 |title=Syria conflict: Coalition denies air strike on army camp|work=BBC|date=7 December 2015|accessdate=7 December 2015}}</ref> The government condemned the strikes, the first time the government forces would be struck by the coalition,<ref name="1sttimesindep">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/us-led-coalition-air-strike-targets-syrian-soldiers-in-first-fatal-bombing-on-assad-regime-a6762956.html|title=Syria calls US-led coalition air strike on Assad regime forces an 'act of aggression' |work=The Independent|date=7 December 2015|accessdate=7 December 2015}}</ref> as an act of "flagrant aggression"; the coalition spokesman denied it was responsible.<ref name="agressbbc" /> Anonymous Pentagon officials alleged later in the day that the Pentagon was "certain" that a Russian warplane (presumably a ]) had carried out the attack.<ref name="pentagclaim">{{cite web|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/us-denies-syrian-accusations-that-its-warplanes-hit-a-syrian-base/2015/12/07/db72a0fb-cc62-49c8-a5ed-997c2e6e1f98_story.html|title=Pentagon says Russian — not American — warplanes hit a Syrian army base |work=The Washington Post|date=7 December 2015|accessdate=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="reutersdenied">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0TQ2VG20151208#ZjS49yH0CDYiahGV.97 |title= Washington denies U.S.-led coalition hit Syria army camp |work=Reuters|date=8 December 2015|accessdate=9 December 2015}}</ref> The claim was denied by the Russian military spokesman who noted that four Western coalition warplanes (other than U.S.) had been spotted over the Deir az-Zor area in Syria on 6 December.<ref name="konashenkovclaim">{{cite web|url= https://www.rt.com/news/325179-coalition-jets-syrian-army-attack/|title= 4 US-led coalition jets seen over Deir ez Zor in Syria day govt troops attacked – Russian MoD |work=RT|date=7 December 2015|accessdate=9 December 2015}}</ref>

On 14 December 2015, Russia's government news media reported that the Syrian government forces retook a ] military airbase east of Damascus that had been held by ].<ref name="marjalsultan">{{cite web|url=http://ria.ru/syria_chronicle/20151214/1341776728.html |title= Источник: сирийская армия вернула контроль над авиабазой близ Дамаска |author=Михаил Алаеддин|work=RIA Novosti|date=14 December 2015|accessdate=14 December 2015}}</ref>

The ] of 18 December 2015 that endorsed the ]′s transitional plan but did not clarify who would represent the Syrian opposition, while condemning terrorist groups like ISIL and al-Qaeda; it made no mention of the future role of Syrian President Bashar Assad.<ref name=reutersendorse>{{cite news|url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-idUKKBN0U10J020151219 |title= U.N. endorses Syria peace plan in rare show of unity among big powers|publisher= Reuters|accessdate=19 December 2015|date=19 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/12/18/syria-talks-falter-before-they-begin-as-key-players-struggle-to-agree-key.html |title=Differences remain as key sides meet for Syria talks |publisher= Aljazeera|accessdate=19 December 2015|date=18 December 2015}}</ref>

On 12 January 2016, the Syria government announced that its army and allied forces had established "full control” of the strategically situated town of ], whose pre-war population was predominantly Sunni,<ref>Balanche, 2006, p. 88.</ref> in the northwestern province of Latakia, and continued to advance north.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2016/01/12/Syrian-army-enters-rebel-bastion-in-Latakia-province.html |title= Syria army fully captures rebel redoubt in Latakia|publisher= Al arabia|accessdate=14 January 2016|date=12 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sana.sy/en/?p=66448|title=Syrian Army establishes control over four villages near Salma in Lattakia and another in Aleppo|author=h.said|publisher=}}</ref>

On 16 January 2016, ISIL militants ] on government-held areas in the city of ] and killed up to 300 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/isis-massacre-least-300-killed-several-held-hostages-east-syria-663542 |title=Isis massacre: At least 300 killed, several held hostages in east Syria |publisher= ''International Business Times''|date=17 January 2016}}</ref> Counter-strikes by ] fighter jets, in support of Syrian army forces, were reported to take back the areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/17/dozens-killed-by-islamic-state-in-massacre-in-syrian-city-of-deir-ezzor |title=Dozens killed by Islamic State in 'massacre' in Syrian city of Deir ez-Zor |publisher= ''The Guardian''|date=17 January 2016}}</ref>

On 21 January 2016, Russia′s activity presumably aimed at setting up a new base in the government-controlled ] was first reported;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/01/21/russians-survey-new-airbase-on-syria-turkey-border-us-officials-concerned.html|title= Russians survey new airbase on Syria-Turkey border, US officials concerned|publisher=] |accessdate=23 January 2016|date=21 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://newsru.com/world/23jan2016/newbases.html |title=Россия и США синхронно создают новые авиабазы на севере Сирии |publisher=NEWSru |accessdate=23 January 2016|date=23 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="cnnbase">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/01/21/politics/russia-syria-air-base/ |title= U.S. officials: Russia looking at Syria airfield near Turkey|publisher= CNN|accessdate=23 January 2016|date=22 January 2016}}</ref> the northeastern town of ] in the ] had been largely under the Syrian Kurds′ control since the start of the ] in the governorate of Al-Hasakah in July 2013. Similar activity by the U.S. forces was suspected in the Rmeilan Airbase in the same province, 50&nbsp;km away from the Kamishly Airport; the area is likewise controlled by the US-backed Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG).<ref name="cnnbase" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/01/takes-control-rmeilan-airfield-syria-160119141331681.html|title=US 'takes control' of Rmeilan airfield in Syria|publisher=}}</ref>

On 24 January 2016, the Syrian government announced its forces, carrying on with their ], had seized the predominantly Sunni-populated town of ], the last major town held by rebels in western Latakia province; Russian forces were said to have played an important role in the recapture.<ref name="bbcrabia">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35395328 |title= Syria conflict: Major rebel town 'seized' in boost for Assad|publisher= BBC|accessdate=24 January 2016|date=24 January 2016}}</ref> The capture of Rabia was said to threaten rebel supply lines from Turkey.<ref name="bbcrabia" /><ref> AFP, 24 Dec 2016.</ref>

By 26 January 2016, the Syrian government established "full control" over the town of ] in the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sana.sy/en/?p=67552|title=Update 4-Army establishes full control over al-Sheikh Miskeen in Daraa and a village in Aleppo|author=Barry Temmo|publisher=}}</ref><ref> Reuters, 25 January 2016.</ref> thus completing the ] that had begun in late December 2015. The town′s capture by the Syrian government was remarked as a "turning of the tide in the Syrian war" by ].<ref> Al Jazeera, 26 Dec 2016.</ref>

=== Partial ceasefire (from 26 February 2016) ===
{{Main article|Syria ceasefire}}
On 26 February 2016, the ] unanimously adopted ] that demanded all parties to comply with the terms<ref>{{cite web|title=Joint Statement of the United States and the Russian Federation, as Co-Chairs of the ISSG, on Cessation of Hostilities in Syria|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2016/02/253115.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=22 February 2016}}</ref> of a U.S.-Russian deal on a "]".<ref>{{cite news |agency= |work=BBC News|date=26 February 2016|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35674908 |title=Temporary truce comes into effect}}</ref> The cease-fire started on 27 February 2016 at 00:00 (Damascus time).<ref name=stopFighting>{{cite news |agency=|work=Reuters|date=26 February 2016|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-idUSKCN0VZ2WM |title=U.N. demands Syria parties halt fighting, peace talks set for March 7}}</ref> The ceasefire does not include attacks on UN-designated terrorist organizations.<ref name=theAtlanticCeasefire>. ]. Published 22 February 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.</ref><ref name=ScrollinCeasefire>. ]. Published 27 February 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.</ref> At the close of February 2016, despite individual clashes, the truce was reported to hold.<ref name=truceholds>{{cite news |agency=|work=BBC|date=29 February 2016|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35683931|title=Syria conflict: UN steps up aid deliveries as truce holds}}</ref> By the end of March, the Syrian government forces with support from Russia and Iran successfully ] from the ISIL.<ref name=advancepalmyra>{{cite news|title=Syrian army, with Russian air support, advances inside Palmyra|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0WR0RA|agency=Reuters|date=26 March 2016}}</ref>

By early July 2016, the truce was said to have mostly unraveled, and the fighting between all the major parties to the conflict continued.<ref></ref> At the end of July 2016, ].

=== Kurdish advances (August 2016) ===
On 12 August 2016, the ] fully ] ] from ISIL. Some days later the SDF announced a new offensive towards ], which could eventually connect the Kurdish regions in Northern Syria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://syriancivilwarmap.com/|title=Syrian Civil War Map / Live Map of the Syrian Civil War|website=Syrian Civil War Map|access-date=2016-08-17}}</ref>

A few days after, the ] began. On 22 August, the Kurdish YPG, having captured Ghwairan, the only major Arab neighbourhood in Hasaka that had been in government hands, launched a major assault to seize the last government-controlled areas of the northeastern Syrian city of Hasaka, after a Russian mediation team failed to mend the rift between the two sides.<ref></ref> A few days prior, the Pentagon admonished the Syrian government against "interfering with coalition forces or our partners" in that region, adding that the U.S. had the right to defend its troops.<ref> Reuters, 20 August 2016.</ref>

== Advanced weaponry and tactics ==
{{See also|Equipment of the Syrian Army|List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces}}

=== Chemical weapons ===
{{Main article|Syria and weapons of mass destruction|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}}

{{See also|Syria chemical weapons program}}

] was requested by member states to investigate 16 alleged chemical weapons attacks. Seven of them have been investigated (nine were dropped for lack of "sufficient or credible information") and in four cases the UN inspectors confirmed use of ] gas.<ref>{{cite web|title = CDC {{!}} Facts About Sarin|url = http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp|website = www.bt.cdc.gov|accessdate = 7 October 2015}}</ref> The reports, however, did not blame any party for using chemical weapons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-bab.com/blog/2013/december/sarin-in-syria.htm |title=Sarin in Syria: UN inspectors struggle to verify competing claims |publisher=Al-bab.com |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> Many countries, including the United States and the European Union have accused the Syrian government of conducting several chemical attacks, the most serious of them being the ]. However, before this incident UN human rights investigator ] who has been investigating sarin gas use in Syria, in May 2013 accused the opposition of the 'regime' for using sarin gas and in her interview she said: "According to the testimonies we have gathered, the rebels have used chemical weapons, making use of sarin gas".<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10039672/UN-accuses-Syrian-rebels-of-chemical-weapons-use.html | title=UN accuses Syrian rebels of chemical weapons use | publisher=The Telegraph | date=6 May 2013 | accessdate=8 March 2016 | author=Damien McElroy | location=London}}</ref> Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the ] began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds{{Disputed inline|talk=Talk:Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war#Undeclared_.22traces_of_sarin.22|date=May 2015}} in a "military research site".<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-linked-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html | title=UN inspectors find undeclared sarin-linked chemicals at Syrian military site | publisher=The Telegraph | date=9 May 2015 | accessdate=9 May 2015 | author=Louisa Loveluck | location=London}}</ref>


=== Cluster bombs === === Cluster bombs ===
Syria is not a party to the ] and does not recognize the ban on the use of ]s. The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at Human Rights Watch, said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs." He adds of the weapons that "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/16/syria-mounting-casualties-cluster-munitions |title=Syria: Mounting Casualties from Cluster Munitions |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=16 March 2013 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205135559/https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/16/syria-mounting-casualties-cluster-munitions |archive-date=5 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Syrian Army began using ]s in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms division at Human Rights Watch said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs", "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/16/syria-mounting-casualties-cluster-munitions |title=Syria: Mounting Casualties from Cluster Munitions|publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=16 March 2013}}</ref>

Syria, America and Russia are not parties to the ]; the Syrian government does not recognize the ban on the use of cluster bombs.


=== Thermobaric weapons === === Thermobaric weapons ===
Russian ]s, also known as "fuel-air bombs", were used by the government's side during the war. On 2 December 2015, '']'' reported that Russia was deploying the ] Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria-14493|title=Russia's Lethal Thermobaric Rocket Launchers: A Game Changer in Syria?|work=The National Interest|date=2 December 2015|access-date=4 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015203357/http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria-14493|archive-date=15 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> One ] "can obliterate a roughly {{convert|200|by|400|m|abbr=off}} area with a single salvo".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria-14493|title=Russia's Lethal Thermobaric Rocket Launchers: A Game Changer in Syria?|first=Dave|last=Majumdar|date=2 December 2015|work=The National Interest|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015203357/http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria-14493|archive-date=15 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the ] and also in ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712054611/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4266902,00.html |date=12 July 2013}}. Ynetnews.com (20 June 1995).</ref> A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cumming-Bruce |first=Nick |title=U.N. Panel Reports Increasing Brutality by Both Sides in Syria |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/middleeast/un-panel-reports-increasing-brutality-by-both-sides-in-syria.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=4 June 2013 |access-date=25 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225081427/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/middleeast/un-panel-reports-increasing-brutality-by-both-sides-in-syria.html |archive-date=25 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-23892594 |title=Syria crisis: Incendiary bomb victims 'like the walking dead' |work=BBC News |access-date=1 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407051917/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-23892594 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Anti-tank missiles ===
]s, also known as "fuel-air bombs", have been used by the government side during the Syrian civil war. Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the ] and also in ].<ref>. Ynetnews.com (20 June 1995).</ref><ref>. Firstpost.com.</ref> A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cumming-Bruce|first=Nick|title=U.N. Panel Reports Increasing Brutality by Both Sides in Syria|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/middleeast/un-panel-reports-increasing-brutality-by-both-sides-in-syria.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 June 2013}}</ref> In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-23892594|title=Syria crisis: Incendiary bomb victims 'like the walking dead'|work=BBC News|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref> On 2 December 2015, The National Interest reported that Russia was deploying the ] Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria-14493|title=Russia's Lethal Thermobaric Rocket Launchers: A Game Changer in Syria?|work=The National Interest}}</ref>
] fighter launches a ] anti-tank missile at a Syrian government position during the ].]]
Several types of ]s are in use in Syria. Russia has sent ], third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight jihadists and rebels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseworld.net/news/13790/Russia_Delivers_Kornet_Anti_Tank_Guided_Missiles_To_Syria |title=Russia Delivers Kornet Anti-Tank Guided Missiles To Syria |access-date=23 October 2016 |date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824185345/http://www.defenseworld.net/news/13790/Russia_Delivers_Kornet_Anti_Tank_Guided_Missiles_To_Syria |archive-date=24 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> US-made ] missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against the Assad regime – Business Insider |url=http://www.businessinsider.sg/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10/ |website=Business Insider |access-date=12 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215180526/http://www.businessinsider.sg/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10/ |archive-date=15 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The US has also supplied many Eastern European sourced ] launchers and warheads to Syrian rebel groups under its ] program.<ref name="janes-20160408">{{cite news |last1=Binnie |first1=Jeremy |last2=Gibson |first2=Neil |name-list-style=and |date=8 April 2016 |title=US arms shipment to Syrian rebels detailed |url=http://www.janes.com/article/59374/us-arms-shipment-to-syrian-rebels-detailed |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205081205/http://www.janes.com/article/59374/us-arms-shipment-to-syrian-rebels-detailed |archive-date=5 December 2016 |access-date=3 December 2016 |work=Jane's Defence Weekly |publisher=IHS}}</ref>


=== TOW missiles === === Ballistic missiles ===
{{See also|Operation Laylat al-Qadr}}
In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the ] area in eastern Syria with ] ]s fired from western Iran,<ref name="janes.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/71519/iran-says-it-hit-targets-in-syria-with-zolfaghar-ballistic-missiles |title=Iran says it hit targets in Syria with Zolfaghar ballistic missiles – Jane's 360 |website=janes.com |access-date=19 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619123538/http://www.janes.com/article/71519/iran-says-it-hit-targets-in-syria-with-zolfaghar-ballistic-missiles |archive-date=19 June 2017 |url-status=live}}<br/>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/18/irans-revolutionary-guard-strikes-syria-for-tehran-attacks.html |title=Iran's Revolutionary Guard strikes Syria for Tehran attacks |publisher=CNBC |date=18 June 2017 |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622173300/http://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/18/irans-revolutionary-guard-strikes-syria-for-tehran-attacks.html |archive-date=22 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/iran/1.796422 |title=Iran Fires at Militants in Syria in First Use of Mid-range Missiles in 30 Years |first1=Gili |last1=Cohen |agency=], ] |date=18 June 2017 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=18 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618203414/http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/iran/1.796422 |archive-date=18 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to '']'', the missiles travelled 650–700 kilometres.<ref name="janes.com"/>


== Sectarianism ==
''']''' (Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided) missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia to rebel groups. These ]s have led to massive losses of the SAA tank forces. Because of their accuracy and long range the missiles are also used against soft targets. It has been estimated that almost 5,000 missiles have been provided to the ].<ref>{{cite web|title = Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against the Assad regime – Business Insider|url = http://www.businessinsider.sg/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10/|website = Business Insider|access-date = 2016-02-12|language = en-US}}</ref>
{{Main|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war|Federalization of Syria}}
]
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious group<ref name="Behari">{{cite news |title=Syria: Sunnis Threatening to Massacre Minority Alawites |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/151013 |publisher=Arutz Sheva |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=11 March 2011 |first=Elad |last=Behari |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110110322/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/151013 |archive-date=10 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. This resulted in calls for persecution of the Alawites by parts of the opposition.<ref name="Behari"/>


A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |title=In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Sherlock |first=Ruth |date=7 April 2015 |location=London |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407102223/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2013, ] stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, 41,000 of which being Alawites.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-deaths-idUSBRE94D0L420130514 |title=Syria Death Toll Likely As High As 120,000, Group Says |work=Reuters |date=14 May 2013 |access-date=6 October 2013 |first=Mariam |last=Karouny |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013022620/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/14/us-syria-crisis-deaths-idUSBRE94D0L420130514 |archive-date=13 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== Belligerents ==


According to '']'' news website, many ] stated in November 2013 that they had fled after they were targeted by the anti-government rebels.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/11/19/syria-s-christians-flee-kidnappings-rape-executions.html |title=Syria's Christians Flee Kidnappings, Rape, Executions |last=Dettmet |first=Jamie |date=19 November 2013 |work=The Daily Beast |access-date=20 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119224625/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/11/19/syria-s-christians-flee-kidnappings-rape-executions.html |archive-date=19 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
]


As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government—have taken over fighting the anti-government forces from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well"<ref name="nelson-defector">{{cite news |last1=Nelson |first1=Lara |title=The Shia jihad and the death of Syria's army |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/columns/shia-jihad-and-death-syria-s-army-1508759016 |access-date=11 October 2016 |agency=Middle East Eye |date=18 November 2015 |quote=Without the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and Lebanese Hezbollah the army could not stand up. Seventy percent of the troops ... are Iranian troops or Lebanese Hezbollah, the rest are shabiha. Only two to three percent are regular Syrian soldiers. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114052109/http://www.middleeasteye.net/columns/shia-jihad-and-death-syria-s-army-1508759016 |archive-date=14 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>—reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders.<ref name="nelson-defector"/> According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, human rights abuses have been committed by the militias including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians dead".<ref name="nelson-defector"/>
{{Main article|List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War}}


== Kurdish autonomy in northeastern Syria ==
=== Baathist Syria and allies ===
{{Main article|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Arab Republic}} {{Main|Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Rojava conflict}}
The ] (AANES), also known as ],{{efn|The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's ]-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=154}}{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-Rojava--no-longer-exists---Northern-Syria--adopted-instead-|title='Rojava' no longer exists, 'Northern Syria' adopted instead|website=Kurdistan24|access-date=19 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114141412/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-rojava--no-longer-exists---northern-syria--adopted-instead-|archive-date=14 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Since then, the name is still used by some locals and international observers.<!--<ref name="jazeera turkey"/><ref name="morningstar"/> -->}} is a ] ] in northeastern Syria.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=11, 95}}{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|pp=219, 228}} The region does not claim to pursue full independence but autonomy within a federal and democratic Syria.<ref name=MiddleEastEye>{{cite web|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-kurds-syria-rojava-1925945786|title=ANALYSIS: 'This is a new Syria, not a new Kurdistan'|publisher=Middle East Eye|date=21 March 2016|access-date=25 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922211744/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-kurds-syria-rojava-1925945786|archive-date=22 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Rojava consists of self-governing ] in the areas of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Second conference of Shahba region">{{cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Delegation from the Democratic administration of Self-participate of self-participate in the first and second conference of the Shaba region |url=http://cantonafrin.com/en/news/view/1658.a-delegation-from-the-democratic-administration-of-self-participate-in-the-second-conference-of-the-el--shahba-region.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809175326/http://cantonafrin.com/en/news/view/1658.a-delegation-from-the-democratic-administration-of-self-participate-in-the-second-conference-of-the-el--shahba-region.html |archive-date=9 August 2016 |access-date=12 June 2016 |publisher=Cantonafrin.com}}</ref>{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=97–98}} The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing ], in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49973218|title=Turkey's Syria offensive explained in four maps|date=14 October 2019|publisher=BBC News|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010081358/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49973218|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Syria Kurds adopt constitution for autonomous federal region|url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/12/30/syria-kurds-adopt-constitution-for-autonomous-federal-region|access-date=5 October 2018|publisher=TheNewArab|date=31 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005194832/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/12/30/syria-kurds-adopt-constitution-for-autonomous-federal-region|archive-date=5 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>


While entertaining ], the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state except for the ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 October 2021|title=Umar: Catalonian recognition of AANES is the beginning|url=http://www.hawarnews.com/en/haber/umar-catalonian-recognition-of-aanes-is-the-beginning-h27342.html|url-status=live|access-date=27 October 2021|website=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026094527/https://hawarnews.com/en/haber/umar-catalonian-recognition-of-aanes-is-the-beginning-h27342.html |archive-date=26 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=van Wilgenburg|first=Wladimir|author-link=Wladimir van Wilgenburg|date=21 October 2021|title=Catalan parliament recognizes administration in northeast Syria|url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/25991-Catalan-parliament-recognizes-administration-in-northeast-Syria|url-status=live|access-date=27 October 2021|website=]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021074228/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/25991-Catalan-parliament-recognizes-administration-in-northeast-Syria |archive-date=21 October 2021 }}</ref> The AANES has widespread support for its universal ], ], ] ], ] and ] policies in dialogues with other political parties and organizations.<ref name="tandfonline.com">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650045.2018.1554564 |doi=10.1080/14650045.2018.1554564 |title=Beyond Orientalism: Exploring the Distinctive Feminism of democratic confederalism in Rojava |year=2018 |last1=Shahvisi |first1=Arianne |journal=Geopolitics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1–25 |s2cid=149972015 |archive-date=9 May 2022 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509020623/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650045.2018.1554564 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://anfenglish.com/news/german-mp-jelpke-rojava-needs-help-against-corona-pandemic-42546|title=German MP Jelpke: Rojava needs help against Corona pandemic|website=ANF News|access-date=13 October 2022|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427171838/https://anfenglish.com/news/german-mp-jelpke-rojava-needs-help-against-corona-pandemic-42546|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gender Revolution in Rojava: The Voices beyond Tabloid Geopolitics|first1=Bahar|last1=Şimşek|first2=Joost|last2=Jongerden|date=29 October 2018|journal=Geopolitics|volume=26|issue=4|pages=1023–1045|doi=10.1080/14650045.2018.1531283|doi-access=free|hdl=1887/87090|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burç|first=Rosa|date=22 May 2020|title=Non-territorial autonomy and gender equality: The case of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria – Rojava|url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf|journal=Philosophy and Society|volume=31|issue=3|pages=277–448|doi=10.2298/FID2003319B|s2cid=226412887|archive-date=17 June 2022|access-date=13 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617192825/http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Northeastern Syria is ] and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic Turkmen, Armenians, ] and ].{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=xviii, 112}}{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|pp=219, 228–229}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidinger|first=Thomas|title=The Battle for the Mountain of the Kurds|publisher=PM Press, Kairos|year=2019|isbn=978-1-62963-651-1|location=Oakland, CA|pages=12|translator-last=Schiffmann|translator-first=Thomas|quote=Afrin was the home to the largest Ezidi minority in Syria.}}</ref>
==== Syrian Armed Forces ====
{{Main article|Syrian Armed Forces}}


The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially ] ]{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=xviii, 66, 200}}<ref name="marriage">{{cite web|date=20 February 2016|title=Syria Kurds challenging traditions, promote civil marriage|url=http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222111444/http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/|archive-date=22 February 2016|access-date=23 August 2016|publisher=]}}</ref> with ] ambitions based on an ], feminist and ] promoting ], ],{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|p=219}}{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=156–163}} environmental ], social ] and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and ], and that these values are mirrored in ], society and politics, stating it to be a model for a ] as a whole, rather than outright independence.<ref name="MiddleEastEye" /><ref>{{cite news|title=PYD leader: SDF operation for Raqqa countryside in progress, Syria can only be secular|url=http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/|access-date=8 October 2016|publisher=]|date=28 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001094203/http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="utopia">{{cite news|last=Ross|first=Carne|date=30 September 2015|title=The Kurds' Democratic Experiment|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/the-kurds-democratic-experiment.html|access-date=20 May 2016|archive-date=18 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618184815/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/the-kurds-democratic-experiment.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=In der Maur|first1=Renée|last2=Staal|first2=Jonas|title=Stateless Democracy|date=2015|publisher=BAK|location=Utrecht|isbn=978-90-77288-22-1|page=19|url=http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf|chapter=Introduction|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025095239/http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Jongerden">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/12/turkey4358b.pdf|title=Rethinking Politics and Democracy in the Middle East|last=Jongerden|first=Joost|date=6 December 2012|publisher=]|access-date=9 October 2016|archive-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315143043/http://ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/12/turkey4358b.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The region's administration has also been accused by some ] and nonpartisan sources of ], support of the Syrian government,{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=94, 130–131, 184}} ] and displacement.<ref name=":4" /> However, despite this the AANES has been the most ] system in Syria, with direct open elections, ], respecting ] within the region, as well as defense of ] and ] within Syria.<ref name="tandfonline.com"/><ref>{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/115/1/184/3804/The-Rojava-Experience-Possibilities-and-Challenges|title=The Rojava Experience: Possibilities and Challenges of Building a Democratic Life|first1=Bülent|last1=Küçük|first2=Ceren|last2=Özselçuk|date=1 January 2016|journal=South Atlantic Quarterly|volume=115|issue=1|pages=184–196|via=read.dukeupress.edu|doi=10.1215/00382876-3425013|archive-date=27 April 2022|access-date=13 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094931/https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/115/1/184/3804/The-Rojava-Experience-Possibilities-and-Challenges|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016 |doi=10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016 |title=When Öcalan met Bookchin: The Kurdish Freedom Movement and the Political Theory of Democratic Confederalism |year=2018 |last1=Gerber |first1=Damian |last2=Brincat |first2=Shannon |journal=Geopolitics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1–25 |s2cid=150297675 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094729/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf|title=NATION-BUILDING IN ROJAVA: PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY AMIDST THE SYRIAN CIVL WAR|website=Imemo.ru|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-date=22 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622151413/https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1|format=PDF|title=RUPTURES AND RIPPLE EFFECTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND BEYOND|website=Repository.bilkent.edu.tr|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718174324/http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>
]


In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution".<ref>{{cite web|title=KRG: Elections in Jazira are Not Acceptable|publisher=Basnews|url=http://basnews.com/en/news/2015/03/14/krg-elections-in-jazira-are-not-acceptable/|date=14 March 2015|access-date=15 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316122001/http://basnews.com/en/news/2015/03/14/krg-elections-in-jazira-are-not-acceptable/|archive-date=16 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> While the region's administration was not invited to the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUSKCN0YE2NI|title=Syrian Kurds point finger at Western-backed opposition|publisher=Reuters|date=23 May 2016|access-date=24 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083032/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUSKCN0YE2NI|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular called for the region's inclusion and did to some degree carry the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May 2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.<ref name="Now.MMedia/Al-Akhbar">{{cite web|url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567021-russia-finishes-draft-for-new-syria-constitution-report|title=Russia finishes draft for new Syria constitution|publisher=Now.MMedia/Al-Akhbar|date=24 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807092054/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567021-russia-finishes-draft-for-new-syria-constitution-report |archive-date=7 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Al-Monitor">{{cite web|title=Syria rejects Russian proposal for Kurdish federation|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkey-russia-mediates-between-kurds-and-assad.html|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=24 October 2016|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223143954/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkey-russia-mediates-between-kurds-and-assad.html|archive-date=23 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
] who was assassinated in Damascus in 2012]]


] announcing the ] in 2017]]
Before the uprising and war broke out, Syrian Armed Forces was estimated at 325,000 regular troops, of which 220,000 were 'army troops' and the rest in the navy, air force and air defenses. There were also approximately 280,000–300,000 reservists. Since June 2011, defections of soldiers have been reported. By July 2012, the ] estimated that tens of thousands of soldiers had defected, and a Turkish official estimated that 60,000 soldiers had defected.
An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://warontherocks.com/2017/06/the-signal-in-syrias-noise/|title=The Signal in Syria's Noise|first=Sam|last=Heller|publisher=warontherocks.com|date=30 June 2017|access-date=19 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630154243/https://warontherocks.com/2017/06/the-signal-in-syrias-noise/|archive-date=30 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> In late September 2017, Syria's Foreign Minister said that Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL was defeated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/syria-granting-kurds-greater-autonomy-170926121821968.html|title=Syria to consider granting Kurds greater autonomy|website=Al Jazeera|access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228052604/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/syria-granting-kurds-greater-autonomy-170926121821968.html|archive-date=28 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>


On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0|title=Report: Syrian army to enter SDF-held Kobani, Manbij|website=Reuters|date=14 October 2019|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013164335/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0|url-status=live}}</ref> The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF|title=Syrian army to deploy along Turkish border in deal with Kurdish-led forces|website=Reuters|date=14 October 2019|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022053311/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/|title=Syrian army moves to confront Turkish forces as US withdraws|website=Times of Israel|date=14 October 2019|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=14 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014110752/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/|url-status=live}}</ref> Following the creation of the ] the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024140036/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 October 2019|title=Syrian Kurds accuse Turkey of violations, Russia says peace plan on track|website=Reuters|date=24 October 2019|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref>
The Syrian government enjoys high levels of support in certain areas under its control; according to a poll organised by British ORB International, up to 73% of the population in government-controlled areas support the government effort.<ref>http://www.opinion.co.uk/perch/resources/syriadata.pdf</ref>


According to information gathered in December 2021, Iraqi authorities have repatriated 100 Iraqi fighters from the ISIL (ISIS) group who were being held by Kurdish forces in northeast Syria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iraq repatriates 100 ISIL fighters from Syria's Kurdish forces |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/8/iraq-repatriates-100-isil-fighters-from-syria-kurdish-forces |date=8 December 2021 |website=] |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121220008/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/8/iraq-repatriates-100-isil-fighters-from-syria-kurdish-forces |url-status=live }}</ref>
==== National Defense Force ====
{{Main article|National Defense Force (Syria)}}


As of 2022, the main military threat and conflict faced by Rojava's official defense force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), are firstly, an ongoing conflict with ISIS; and secondly, ongoing concerns of possible invasion of the northeast regions of Syria by Turkish forces, in order to strike Kurdish groups in general, and Rojava in particular.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129211158/https://www.thenation.com/article/world/rojava-kurds-syria/ |date=29 November 2022 }} By Mireille Court and Chris Den Hond, 18 February 2020, The Nation website.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002134723/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/01/we-stand-in-solidarity-with-rojava-an-example-to-the-world |date=2 October 2020 }}.Leaders from social movements, communities and First Nations from around the world, including LaDonna Brave Bull Allard, Eve Ensler and Stuart Basden on the Turkish invasion in north-east Syria. Fri 1 November 2019 guardian.com</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013190856/https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/STATEMENTS/Statements-View/Article/3161976/statement-regarding-syrian-democratic-forces-security-operation-in-al-hol-camp/ |date=13 October 2022 }}, 18 September 2022 US Army Central Command Communication Integration official statement.</ref> An official report by the Rojava government noted Turkey-backed militias as the main threat to the region of Rojava and its government.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721092444/https://rojavainformationcenter.com/2022/07/the-syrian-national-army-the-turkish-proxy-militias-of-northern-syria/ |date=21 July 2022 }}, 21 July 2022, Rojava official website.</ref>
The Syrian NDF was formed out of pro-government militias. They receive their salaries, and their military equipment from the government,<ref name="reuters">{{cite news|title=Insight: Battered by war, Syrian army creates its own replacement|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/04/21/us-syria-crisis-paramilitary-insight-idUSBRE93K02R20130421|accessdate=29 May 2013|newspaper=Reuters|date=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rise of the militias |author=Michael Weiss |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/commentaryanalysis/rise-of-the-militias |newspaper=NOW. |date=17 May 2013 |accessdate=}}</ref> and number around 100,000 troops.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria's Alawite Force Turned Tide for Assad|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323997004578639903412487708.html|publisher=Wall Street Journal|date=26 August 2013|accessdate=2 September 2013|first=Sam|last=Dagher}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's civil war: The regime digs in|url=http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21579494-president-bashar-assad-and-his-forces-have-won-new-lease-life-regime-digs |newspaper=The Economist |date=15 June 2013 |accessdate= }}</ref> The force acts in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in coordination with the army, who provides them with logistical and artillery support. The force has a 500-strong women's wing called "''Lionesses of National Defense''" which operates checkpoints.<ref>{{cite news|title=Using Women to Win in Syria|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2013/09/women-fighters-syria-rebels-regime.html|author=Adam Heffez|publisher=] (Eylül)|date=28 November 2013|accessdate=28 November 2013}}</ref> NDF members, like regular army soldiers, are allowed to ] the battlefields (but only if they participate in raids with the army), and can sell the loot for extra money.<ref name="reuters" />


In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey's Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |date=5 June 2022 |title=Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal, sources reveal |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/ |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=Middle East Monitor |language=en-GB |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605082611/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Syria: US-backed SDF 'open' to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605135451/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion |url-status=live }}</ref> The new operation is set to resume efforts to create {{Convert|30|km|mi|-wide|adj=mid}} "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, President Erdoğan said in a statement.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |date=7 June 2022 |title=Russian, regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US |archive-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607153400/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation |url-status=live }}</ref> The operation aims at the ] and ] regions west of the ] and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President Erdoğan reiterated his determination for the operation on 8 August 2022.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite web |title=President Erdoğan reiterates determination for Syria operation |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967 |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808160100/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==== Shabiha ====
{{Main article|Shabiha}}


On 5 June 2022, the leader of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), Mazloum Abdi, said that forces of the Kurdish government in the ] (AANES) were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying "Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230720154601/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-backed-kurdish-led-forces-say-ready-to-coordinate-with-syrian-army-against-turkey/6606769.html |date=20 July 2023 }}, Reuters, via VOA website, By Maya Gebeily, 5 June 2022.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601033047/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/syria/2022/06/06/syria-should-use-air-defences-against-turkish-invasion/ |date=1 June 2023 }}, The National, 6 June 2022.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020044555/https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2022/06/20/these-kurdish-led-forces-cannot-count-on-syrian-air-defenses-to-protect-them-against-the-turkish-air-force/ |date=20 October 2022 }}, Paul Iddon, 20 June 2022.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173617/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/06/kurdish-syrian-iranian-forces-coordinate-ahead-turkish-operation |date=31 January 2023 }}, by Mohammed Hardan, 17 June 2022. al-monitor.com</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210851/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/us-backed-syrian-kurds-turn-damascus-turkey-attacks-85231755 |date=20 October 2022 }} By BASSEM MROUE Associated Press, 7 June 2022.</ref> The joint discussions were a result of the negotiation processes that had begun in October 2019.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320154200/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/turkey-syria-news-kurds-deal-bashar-al-assad-sdf-latest-updates-a9154561.html |date=20 March 2023 }}, Kurdish fighters agree to hand over border towns to Damascus in deal brokered by Russia], Richard Hall, Sunday 13 October 2019, the UK Independent.</ref> In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of Islamic State in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320194115/https://iraq.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/S202376%20EN.pdf |date=20 March 2023 }}, UN official website, February 2023.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321164516/https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3255908/centcom-year-in-review-2022-the-fight-against-isis/ |date=21 March 2023 }}, USCENTCOM, official website of US Army Central Command, 29 December 2022.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608124159/https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/01/ex-islamic-state-fighters-still-pose-a-risk-in-turkey-finds-report |date=8 June 2023 }}, By Joshua Askew, 1 March 2023.</ref>
The ''Shabiha'' are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Syria's ] minority group. Since the uprising, the Syrian government has been accused of using ''shabiha'' to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods.<ref name="Organized crime">{{cite web|last=Asher|first=Berman|title=Criminalization of the Syrian Conflict|url=http://www.understandingwar.org/article/criminalization-syrian-conflict|work=Institute for the Study of War|accessdate=27 October 2012}}</ref> As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term ''shabiha'' to describe civilians they suspected of supporting Bashar al-Assad and the Syrian government and clashing with pro-opposition demonstrators.<ref name="Shabiha">{{cite web | url=http://lb.boell.org/en/2014/03/03/syrian-shabiha-and-their-state-statehood-participation | title=The Syrian Shabiha and Their State – Statehood & Participation | publisher=Heinrich Böll Stiftung | date=3 March 2014 | accessdate=7 June 2015 | author=Yassin al-Haj Salih}}</ref> The opposition blames the ''shabiha'' for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers,<ref name="Shabiha" /> as well as looting and destruction.<ref name=Harpers>{{cite web |url=http://harpers.org/archive/2011/06/hbc-90008111 |title=The Two Homs |last=Adorno |first=Esther |date=8 June 2011 |work=Harper's Magazine |accessdate=22 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/15/us-syria-idUSTRE78D3HV20110915|title=Armored Syrian forces storm towns near Turkey border|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis|agency=Reuters|date=15 September 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|location=Amman}}</ref> In December 2012, the ''shabiha'' were designated a terrorist organization by the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/11/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |title=U.S. blacklists al-Nusra Front fighters in Syria |publisher=CNN |accessdate=17 December 2012 |date=12 December 2012}}</ref>


As of 2023, Turkey was continuing its support for various militias within Syria, consisting mostly of the Syrian National Army, which periodically attempted some operations against Kurdish groups.<ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rose |first1=Caroline |last2=Shabanian |first2=Aram |last3=Wilder |first3=Calvin |date=7 March 2023 |title=Operation Claw-Sword Exposes Blind Spots in the US' NE Syria Strategy |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/nonstate-actors/operation-claw-sword-exposes-blind-spots-in-the-us-ne-syria-strategy/ |access-date=6 April 2024 |website=New Lines Institute |language=en}}</ref> One stated goal was to create "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, according to a statement by Turkish President Erdoğan.<ref name="auto3"/> The operations were generally aimed at the ] and ] regions west of the ] and other areas further east. President Erdoğan openly stated his support for the operations, in talks with Moscow in mid-2022.<ref name="auto5"/>
] is reported to have created the ''shabiha'' in the 1980s for government use in times of crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=20120515124158 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713013830/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=20120515124158 |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Bashar Al-Assad's transformation |work=Saudi Gazette |date=15 May 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> ''Shabiha'' have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's regime";<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tnr.com/article/world/93286/syria-assad-shabbiha-sectarianism|title=Assad's Devious, Cruel Plan to Stay in Power By Dividing Syria—And Why It's Working|first=Oliver|last=Holmes |date=15 August 2011|work=TNR}}</ref> "gunmen loyal to Assad",<ref name=r452011>{{cite news|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/04/us-syria-assad-alawites-idUSTRE7433X620110504|title=Analysis: Assad retrenches into Alawite power base|date=4 May 2011}}</ref> and, according to the Qatar-based Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, "semi-criminal gangs {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} thugs close to the regime".<ref name=r452011 /> Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, some ''shabiha'' operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/03/us-syria-aleppo-idUSTRE81213720120203 |title=Uprising finally hits Syria's "Silk Road" city |agency=Reuters |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=18 August 2012|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis}}</ref> In 2012, the Assad government created a more organized official militia known as the ], allegedly with help from Iran and Hezbollah. As with the ''shabiha'', the vast majority of Jaysh al-Sha'bi members are Alawite and Shi'ite volunteers.<ref name=guardianfeb13>. '']''. 12 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.</ref><ref name=miamiherald>. '']''. 19 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.</ref>


== Humanitarian impact ==
====Christian militias====
{{Human toll of Syrian Civil War}}
{{main article|Christian Militias in Syria}}
The Christian militias in Syria (and northern ]) are largely made up of ethnic ], ]-], and ]. A CBS report showed that ] are largely in favor of the government because they claimed that they believe their survival is linked to a largely secular government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57372175-503543/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |title=Syria's Christians stand by Assad |work=] |publisher=] |date=6 February 2012}}</ref><ref>"". '']''. 22 January 2014.</ref> Christian militias fight both on the Syrian government's side <ref>. '']''. 9 June 2014.</ref><ref>. '']''. 20 February 2014.</ref> as well as with the Kurdish forces.<ref name="Martin Chulov">{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/03/christian-militia-syria-defends-ancient-settlements-isis|title=Christian militia in Syria defends ancient settlements against Isis|author=Martin Chulov|work=the Guardian|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Rudaw">{{cite web|url=http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/110720152|title=Assyrian Christian group fights ISIS in Syria|work=Rudaw|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="JNS.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/news-briefs/2014/9/30/iraqs-assyrian-christians-form-militia-to-fight-islamic-state|title=Iraq's Assyrian Christians form militia to fight Islamic State|work=JNS.org|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref> According to the WorldTribune.com, "The sources said thousands of Christians were joining the Syrian Army as well as such regime militias as National Defense Forces and the Popular Committees. They said NDF helped organize Christian units to protect communities, particularly in the Assyrian regions of north eastern Syria. A major unit has been called the Christian Resistance, said to operate in the Homs province."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldtribune.com/2014/05/28/syrian-opposition-christians-forming-militias-backing-assad-regime/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826194312/http://www.worldtribune.com/2014/05/28/syrian-opposition-christians-forming-militias-backing-assad-regime/ |archivedate=26 August 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=Christians in Syria side with Assad, form militias against Al Qaida rebels |work=World Tribune |date=28 May 2014 |accessdate=24 December 2015}}</ref>


=== Refugees ===
The ] speaking ] in north eastern Syria and northern Iraq have formed various militias (including the ], ], ] and ]) in order to defend their ancient towns, villages and farmsteads from ISIS terrorists. They often but not always fight in conjunction with Kurdish and Armenian groups.<ref name="Martin Chulov"/><ref name="Rudaw"/><ref name="JNS.org"/><ref></ref> The ], like many Christian militias, originally formed to defend Christian villages, but joined the Kurdish forces to retake ] from ISIS in late 2015 <ref>Allott, "Jordan Kurds and Christians Fight Back against ISIS in Syria" nationalreview http://www.nationalreview.com/article/427304/syria-christian-militia-takes-isis-jordan-allott November 19, 2015</ref> However, Assyrian fighters from Sootoro have also clashed militarily with the Kurdish dominated ], whom they have accused of attempting to appropriate Assyrian lands for the Kurds.<ref></ref> A force of all female Assyrian fighters also exists in north east Syria and northern Iraq called ''The Female Protection Forces of the Land Between the Two Rivers'' which conducts military operations against ISIS alongside other Assyrian and Kurdish units.<ref>Bishop, Rachel. "female-fighters-form-fierce-Christian Militia" The Mirror 13 Dec 2015 http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/female-fighters-form-fierce-christian-7004827</ref>
]
{{Main|Refugees of the Syrian civil war}}
{{update|section|date=December 2024}}


As of December 2022, an estimated 6.7 million refugees have been forced to flee Syria,<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=Syria – Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |access-date=12 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206051649/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-date=6 February 2023 }}</ref> with approximately 5.5 million Syrian refugees residing across the five nearby countries of Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and ]. Germany hosts the largest refugee population out of any non-neighboring nation with more than 850,000 Syrian refugees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2023 |title=Syria Refugee Crisis Explained |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |access-date=12 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091756/https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 }}</ref>
The situation in northern Iraq is similar to that of Syria, with swathes of territory either occupied by or threatened by ]/], and ] Christian militia have been highly active in this region defending Assyrian towns and villages (particularly in the ], ], ] and around ]) from ISIS attacks.<ref>^ Matt Cetti-Roberts. "Inside the Christian Militias Defending the Nineveh Plains — War Is Boring". Medium. Retrieved 16 February 2016.</ref><ref>^ Patrick Cockburn (22 February 2015). "Isis in Iraq: Assyrian Christian militia keep well-armed militants at bay - but they are running out of ammunition". The Independent. Retrieved 16 February 2016.</ref>


Over 3.7 million Syrian refugees are in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Situation Syria Regional Refugee Response |url=https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria |access-date=17 January 2022 |website=data2.unhcr.org |archive-date=5 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200405022803/https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria |url-status=live }}</ref> Many refugees are housed in a system of a dozen ] placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syrian refugee camps in Turkish territory tracked by satellite |url=http://www.astrium-geo.com/en/4807-syrian-refugee-camps-in-turkish-territory-interactive-web-report |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006120725/http://www.astrium-geo.com/en/4807-syrian-refugee-camps-in-turkish-territory-interactive-web-report |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=20 June 2013 |publisher=Astrium-geo.com}}</ref> The massive sustained presence of Syrian refugees has fueled resentment from Turkish citizens and figures across the country's political spectrum. They have been employed as scapegoats during periods of crisis within the country. Measures have been put in place to "drive them out" including raised fees on utilities such as water and services such as marriage licences. There has been an increase on attacks targeting Syrian refugees in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farooq |first=Umar |title=How killing of Syrian refugee marks an alarming trend in Turkey |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/12/turkey-news-log-jan-12 |access-date=17 January 2022 |website=aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217103925/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/12/turkey-news-log-jan-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>
] has also been subject to incursions via Syria from ISIS and other Sunni Islamist groups, and the ] too have formed militias in response to these threats.<ref>^ http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/11/10/lebanese-christians-gun-up-against-isis.html</ref>


In 2013, one in three of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon, which had a population of 5.2 million in 2012.<ref name="NYT5Sep">" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722035626/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/09/05/world/middleeast/Syrian-Refugees-in-Lebanon.html |date=22 July 2016}}", ''The New York Times'', 5 September 2013</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon |url=https://data.who.int/countries/422 |access-date=12 December 2024 |website=datadot |language=en |archive-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213225950/https://data.who.int/countries/422 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==== Hezbollah ====
{{Main article|Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian Civil War}}


In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded three{{nbs}}million.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-refugees-idUSKBN0GT0AX20140829 |title=Syrian refugees top 3 million, half of all Syrians displaced: U.N. |work=Reuters |access-date=2 October 2014 |date=29 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131448/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/29/us-syria-crisis-refugees-idUSKBN0GT0AX20140829 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the ], Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Greek Catholic Patriarch ] claimed in 2014 that more than 450,000 ] have been displaced by the conflict.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912195403/http://www.algemeiner.com/2013/10/18/syrian-civil-war-causes-one-third-of-country%E2%80%99s-christians-to-flee-their-homes/ |date=12 September 2014}}". ''The Algemeiner Journal''. 18 October 2013.</ref> {{As of|September 2016}}, the European Union has reported that there are 13.5{{nbs}}million refugees in need of assistance in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syrianrefugees.eu/ |title=Syrian Refugees |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109061848/http://syrianrefugees.eu/ |archive-date=9 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Australia is being appealed to rescue more than 60 women and children stuck in Syria's Al-Hawl camp{{nbs}}ahead of a potential Turkish invasion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/national/fears-for-dozens-of-australian-children-in-refugee-camps-in-syria/video/a0faaf3c066348655efc81b476cb269a|title=Fears for dozens of Australian children in refugee camps in Syria|date=8 October 2019|website=Daily Telegraph|language=en|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008132940/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/national/fears-for-dozens-of-australian-children-in-refugee-camps-in-syria/video/a0faaf3c066348655efc81b476cb269a|archive-date=8 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
General Secretary ] denied Hezbollah had been fighting on behalf of the Syrian government, stating in a 12 October 2012 speech that "right from the start the Syrian opposition has been telling the media that Hezbollah sent 3,000 fighters to Syria, which we have denied".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabamericannews.com/news/index.php?mod=article&cat=ArabWorld&article=6018 |title=Drone flight over Israel: Nasrallah’s latest surprise |publisher=Arab-American News}}</ref> However, according to the Lebanese '']'' newspaper, Nasrallah said in the same speech that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government "retain control of some 23 strategically located villages inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship". Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their "jihadist duties".<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirst|first=David|title=Hezbollah uses its military power in a contradictory manner|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Opinion/Commentary/2012/Oct-23/192380-hezbollah-uses-its-military-power-in-a-contradictory-manner.ashx#axzz2AJrVn2Ik|newspaper=The Daily Star|location=Beirut|date=23 October 2012}}</ref> In 2012, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon and took over eight villages in the ] of Syria.<ref name=alarabiya17feb13>. ], 17 February 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.</ref> The former secretary general of Hezbollah, Sheikh ], confirmed in February 2013 that Hezbollah was fighting for the Syrian Army.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2013/02/26/268422.html |title=Hezbollah fighters killed in Syria will 'go to hell,' says former leader |publisher=Al Arabiya|date=26 February 2013}}</ref>


A report from NGO ] found that refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/act-alliance-call-action-jordan-syria-and-lebanon-18-december-2019 |title=ACT Alliance Call for Action: Jordan, Syria and Lebanon (18 December 2019) REPORTfrom ACT AlliancePublished on 18 Dec 2019. |date=18 December 2019 |access-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218143247/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/act-alliance-call-action-jordan-syria-and-lebanon-18-december-2019 |archive-date=18 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially during the winter.<ref name="washokani"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211032029/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/winter-threatens-the-idps-in-the-washokani-camp-39991 |date=11 December 2019 }}.For the displaced people in northern and eastern Syria, winter is a torture: many set up for those seeking shelter have already collapsed due to rain and wind. Almost all international aid organisations are watching the misery. ANF HESEKÊ Tuesday, 10 December 2019.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219144104/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-oil-smuggling-hyena-sdf-deir-ezzor-tankers.html |date=19 December 2019 }}, by Dan Wilkofsky 18 December 2019.</ref> In 2019, 4,000 people were housed at the Washokani Camp. The Kurdish Red Cross was the only organization known to have helped the camp's refugees. Numerous camp residents called for assistance from international groups.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162619/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/over-3500-refugees-accommodated-in-the-washokani-camp-39924 |date=11 December 2019 }}. The Washokani camp, set up by the autonomous administration of North-East Syria near Hesekê, now hosts 3566 people who have fled the Turkish occupation troops in Serêkaniyê. ANF HESEKÊ Saturday, 7 December 2019.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162755/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/no-help-for-people-displaced-by-the-turkish-invasion-39771 |date=11 December 2019 }}. More than 2,500 people now live in the northern Syrian camp Washokani who had to flee due to the Turkish occupation war. No help has arrived from international organisations yet. ANF HESEKE Sunday, 1 December 2019.</ref>
On 12 May 2013, Hezbollah, with the Syrian Army, attempted to retake part of ].<ref name="Hezbollah in Q 2013">{{cite news | title=Hezbollah Aids Syrian Military in a Key Battle | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/20/world/middleeast/syrian-army-moves-to-rebel-held-qusayr.html | date=19 May 2013 |work=The New York Times |author1=Barnard, Anne |author2=Saad, Hwaida }}</ref> By the end of the day, 60 percent of the city, including the municipal office building, were under pro-Assad forces.<ref name="Hezbollah in Q 2013" /> In Lebanon, there have been "a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters" and "Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah-controlled areas."<ref name="Hezbollah in Q 2013" /> As of 14 May 2013, Hezbollah fighters were reported to be fighting alongside the Syrian Army, particularly in the ].<ref name="shiites in hez">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/01/world/middleeast/nasrallah-warns-that-hezbollah-is-ready-to-come-to-syrias-aid.html| title=Leader of Hezbollah Warns It Is Ready to Come to Syria's Aid | work=The New York Times | date=30 April 2013 | accessdate=14 May 2013 |author1=Anne Barnard |author2=Hania Mourtada }}</ref> Hassan Nasrallah has called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab.<ref name="shiites in hez" /> President Bashar al-Assad denied in May 2013 that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, fighting for the government in Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/05/2013519124646578835.html |title=Syrian offensive on Qusayr deepens|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>


On 30 December 2019, over 50 Syrian refugees, including 27 children, were welcomed in Ireland, where they started afresh in their new temporary homes at the Mosney Accommodation Centre in Co Meath. The migrant refugees were pre-interviewed by Irish officials under the Irish Refugee Protection Programme (IRPP).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.herald.ie/news/fifty-syrian-refugees-promised-the-warmest-of-irish-welcomes-38823817.html|title=Fifty Syrian refugees promised the warmest of Irish welcomes |last=Bray |first=Allison |website=Herald.ie|language=en|access-date=31 December 2019|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231114213/https://www.herald.ie/news/fifty-syrian-refugees-promised-the-warmest-of-irish-welcomes-38823817.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 25 May 2013, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah was fighting in Syria against Islamic extremists and "pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon".<ref name="yahoo">{{cite news |url=http://news.yahoo.com/hezbollah-chief-says-group-fighting-syria-162721809.html | title=Hezbollah chief says group is fighting in Syria | agency=Associated Press | date=25 May 2013 | accessdate=25 May 2013 | author=Mroue, Bassem}}</ref> He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Qusayr on the same side as ]'s forces.<ref name="Hezbollah 2013">{{cite news
| url=http://news.yahoo.com/hezbollah-chief-says-group-fighting-syria-162721809.html
| title=Hezbollah chief says group is fighting in Syria
| agency=Associated Press
| date=25 May 2013
| accessdate=25 May 2013
| author=Bassem Mroue
}}</ref> In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the ], the people of our region will go into a dark period."<ref name="Hezbollah 2013" /> According to independent analysts, by the beginning of 2014, approximately 500 Hezbollah fighters had died in the Syrian conflict.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Stay informed today |author2=every day |lastauthoramp=yes |url=http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21592634-civil-war-neighbouring-syria-putting-ever-greater-strain-lebanons |title=Lebanon: Will it hold together? |publisher=Economist.com |date=4 January 2014 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref>


==== Return of refugees ====
On 7 February 2016, 50 Hezbollah fighters were killed in a clash by the ] near Damascus. These fighters were embed in the SAA formation Army Division 39 <ref>{{cite web|title = Dozens of pro-Assad Hezbollah militants killed in attacks by Syrian rebels near Damascus|url = http://aranews.net/2016/02/18168/|website = ARA News|access-date = 2016-02-09}}</ref>
{{Main|Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war}}
Another aspect of the post-war years will be how to repatriate the millions of refugees. The Syrian government has put forward a law commonly known as "law 10", which could strip refugees of property, such as damaged real estate. There are also fears among some refugees that if they return to claim this property they will face negative consequences, such as forced conscription or prison. The Syrian government has been criticized for using this law to reward those who have supported the government. However, the government said this statement was false and has expressed that it wants the return of refugees from Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/26/10m-syrians-at-risk-of-forfeiting-homes-under-new-property-law|title=10m Syrians at risk of forfeiting homes under new property law|first=Martin|last=Chulov|date=26 April 2018|website=The Guardian|access-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021708/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/26/10m-syrians-at-risk-of-forfeiting-homes-under-new-property-law|archive-date=25 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/syria-wants-its-citizens-in-lebanon-to-return-help-rebuild/|title=Syria wants its citizens in Lebanon to return, help rebuild|website=]|date=4 June 2018|access-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624232804/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2018/06/04/syria-wants-its-citizens-in-lebanon-to-return-help-rebuild.html|archive-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2018, it was also reported that the Syrian government has started to seize property under an anti-terrorism law, which is affecting government opponents negatively, with many losing their property. Some people's pensions have also been cancelled.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-property-idUSKBN1OB0H3|title=Syrian state seizes opponents' property, rights activists say|newspaper=Reuters|date=12 December 2018|access-date=20 December 2018|via=reuters.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220230542/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-property-idUSKBN1OB0H3|archive-date=20 December 2018|url-status=live|last1=Nehme|first1=Dahlia}}</ref>


Erdogan said that Turkey expects to resettle about 1{{nbs}}million refugees in the "buffer zone" that it controls.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211192144/https://wsau.com/news/articles/2019/dec/17/erdogan-urges-resettling-of-one-million-refugees-in-northern-syria-peace-zone/967200/?refer-section=world |date=11 February 2020 }}
==== Iran ====
Tuesday, 17 December 2019.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217145212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/erdogan-urges-resettling-1-million-refugees-northern-syria-191217100317971.html |date=17 December 2019 }}. Turkish president says formula needed to allow refugees to return on a voluntary basis but in 'short period of time'.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217170029/https://www.dw.com/en/migrant-arrivals-in-europe-from-turkey-nearly-double-in-2019/a-51702064 |date=17 December 2019 }}. According to a confidential EU report, 70,000 migrants have crossed from Turkey to the EU this year. The numbers raise questions about whether an EU-Turkey refugee deal is unravelling.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020607/https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/474863-turkeys-erdogan-calls-for-resettlement-of-1m-refugees-in-northern |date=18 December 2019 }} BY MARTY JOHNSON – 12/17/19.</ref> Erdogan claimed that Turkey had spent billions on approximately five million refugees now being housed in Turkey; and called for more funding from wealthier nations and from the EU.{{refn|Multiple sources:
{{Main article|Iranian support for Syria in the Syrian Civil War}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020301/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/lack-refugee-aid-forced-turkey-syria-operation-erdogan-12191402 |date=18 December 2019 }}, 17 December 2019.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020459/https://www.dailysabah.com/diplomacy/2019/12/17/erdogan-return-of-syrian-refugees-as-crucial-as-fight-against-terrorism |date=18 December 2019 }}. '']'' with AFP, Istanbul, 17 December 2019.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020658/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/erdogan-renew-call-safe-zone-syria.html |date=18 December 2019 }}, Ayla Jean Yackley 17 December 2019.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217170022/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-says-eu-should-increase-funding-syrian-refugees-beyond-66bn-pledged |date=17 December 2019 }}.EU funds support 3.5 million Syrian refugees in Turkey, as Syria's civil war has killed hundreds of thousands and pushed millions from their homes.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217170029/https://ahvalnews.com/migrants/migrant-wave-calls-eu-turkey-deal-question-report |date=17 December 2019 }}. 17 December 2019 The number of migrants crossing from Turkey into Europe doubled in 2019 to 70,000, raising questions about whether the 2016 EU-Turkey migrant deal is still effective, Deutsche Welle reported, citing a confidential EU report.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020459/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20191215-turkish-official-says-eu-should-boost-funding-of-syrian-refugees/ |date=18 December 2019 }} 15 December 2019.}} This plan raised concerns amongst Kurds about displacement of existing communities and groups in that area.


=== Internally displaced refugees ===
Iran continues to officially deny the presence of its combat troops in Syria, maintaining that it provides military advice to Assad's forces in their fight against terrorist groups.<ref name="denies">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/iranian-commanders-killed-syria-151013192529038.html|title=Two more Iranian commanders killed in Syria|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=15 October 2015|date=14 October 2015}}</ref>
{{Main|Internally displaced persons in Syria}}
The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimated 10.9{{nbs}}million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced.<ref name=aljazeera-3-17-2015/> Violence in the ongoing crisis in northwest Syria had forced 6,500 children to flee every day over the last week of January 2020. The recorded count of displaced children in the area has reached more than 300,000 since December 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://localnews8.com/news/2020/02/02/children-bearing-the-brunt-of-last-escalation-in-syrian-civil-war/|title=Children bearing the brunt of latest escalation in Syrian civil war|agency=CNN|date=2 February 2020|website=Local News 8|language=en-US|access-date=2 February 2020|archive-date=2 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202135150/https://localnews8.com/news/2020/02/02/children-bearing-the-brunt-of-last-escalation-in-syrian-civil-war/|url-status=live}}</ref>


As of 2022, there are 6.2 million internally displaced persons in Syria according to the ]. 2.5 million of those are children. 2017 alone saw the displacement of at least 1.8 million people, many of them being displaced for the second and third time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Internally Displaced People|url=https://www.unhcr.org/sy/internally-displaced-people|access-date=18 January 2022|website=UNHCR Syria|language=en}}</ref>
Nevertheless, since the start of the civil war, Iran has expressed its support for the Syrian government and has provided it with financial, technical, and military support, including training and some combat troops.<ref name="Economistlongroad">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21547305 |title=The long road to Damascus|work=The Economist|accessdate=11 February 2012|date=11 February 2012}}</ref> Iran and Syria are ]. Iran sees the survival of the Syrian government as being crucial to its regional interests.<ref name="iranian-strategy">, ], Executive Summary + Full report, May 2013</ref><ref name="IranBoostY4telegraph">, telegraph, 21 February 2014</ref> Iran's ], ], was reported in September 2011 to be vocally in favor of the Syrian government.<ref name=abdo>{{cite web|url=http://www.insideiran.org/featured/how-iran-keeps-assad-in-power-in-syria/ |title=How Iran Keeps Assad in Power in Syria |work=Inside Iran |date=5 September 2011 |accessdate=6 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120320184525/http://www.insideiran.org/featured/how-iran-keeps-assad-in-power-in-syria/ |archivedate=20 March 2012 }}</ref> In the ], Iran provided Syria with technical support based on Iran's capabilities developed following the ].<ref name=abdo /> As the uprising developed into a civil war, there were increasing reports of Iranian military support, and of Iranian training of NDF (National Defence Forces) both in Syria, and in Iran.<ref>BBC Newsnight, report on Iranian military advisor Hadari, 28 October 2013 'Iran's Secret Army' , {{YouTube|ZI_88ChjQtU}}</ref>


Hundreds of boys are being held hostage by ISIS. As of 25 January 2022, ''The New York Times'' stated that the fight over a prison in northeastern Syria has brought attention to the plight of thousands of foreign children who were brought to Syria by their parents to join the Islamic State caliphate and have been detained for three years in camps and prisons in the region, abandoned by their home countries.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=ISIS is holding hundreds of boys hostage. Who are they? |newspaper=The New York Times |date=25 January 2022 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/01/25/world/syria-news-isis-us#isis-is-holding-hundreds-of-boys-hostage-who-are-they |last=Arraf |first=Jane |archive-date=5 March 2022 |access-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305221614/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/01/25/world/syria-news-isis-us#isis-is-holding-hundreds-of-boys-hostage-who-are-they |url-status=live }}</ref>
Iranian security and intelligence services are advising and assisting the Syrian military to preserve Bashar al-Assad's hold on power.<ref name="iranian-strategy" /> Those efforts include training, technical support, combat troops.<ref name=Economistlongroad /><ref name="iranian-strategy" /> By December 2013 Iran was thought to have approximately 10,000 operatives in Syria.<ref name="IranBoostY4telegraph" /> But according to Jubin Goodarzi, assistant professor and researcher of ], Iran aided the Assad regime with a limited number of deployed units and personnel, "at most in the hundreds … and not in the thousands as opposition sources claimed".<ref name="Goodarzi">{{cite journal|last=Goodarzi|first=Jubin|journal=Viewpoints|title=Iran and Syria at the Crossroads: The Fall of the Tehran-Damascus Axis?|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/iran_syria_crossroads_fall_tehran_damascus_axis.pdf|date=August 2013|publisher=Wilson Center}}</ref> Lebanese ] fighters backed by Tehran have taken direct combat roles since 2012.<ref name="IranBoostY4telegraph" /><ref name="IranBoostY4">, reuters, 21, Feb 2014</ref> In the summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support for Assad, allowing it to make advances on the opposition.<ref name="IranBoostY4" /> In 2014, coinciding with the ], Iran has stepped up support for Syrian President Assad.<ref name="IranBoostY4telegraph" /><ref name="IranBoostY4" /> Syrian Minister of Finance and Economy announced that the "Iranian government has given more than 15&nbsp;billion dollars" to Syria.<ref>; syrianef; 24, January 2014</ref> ] ] commander ] is in charge of Syrian President Assad's security portfolio and has overseen the arming and training of thousands of pro-government Shi'ite fighters.<ref name="Weiss" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Filkins|first=Dexter|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/30/the-shadow-commander?currentPage=all|title=The Shadow Commander|publisher='']''|date=30 September 2013|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref>


An estimated 40,000 foreigners, including children, travelled to Syria to fight for the caliphate or work for it. Thousands of them had brought their small children with them. There were also other children born there. When ISIS lost control of the last piece of territory in Syria, Baghuz, three years ago, surviving women and young children were detained in{{nbs}}camps, while suspected militants and boys, some as young as 10, were imprisoned.<ref name=":1"/>
328 IRGC troops, including several commanders, have reportedly been killed in the Syrian civil war since it began.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=1032642887&Country=Syria&topic=Politics|title=Iran’s evolving policy in Iraq and Syria|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ncr-iran.org/en/news/terrorism-fundamentalism/18037-iran-sixteen-irgc-members-and-afghan-mercenaries-killed-in-syria|title=IRAN: Sixteen IRGC members and Afghan mercenaries killed in Syria|author=Super User|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mojahedin.org/newsen/34369/Syria-Iranian-Revolutionary-Guards-(IRGC)-killed-in-the-suburb-of-Damascus|title=Syria: Iranian Revolutionary Guards (IRGC) killed in the suburb of Damascus|work=mojahedin.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncr-iran.org/en/news/terrorism-fundamentalism/16472-irgc-member-killed-in-syria-buried-in-iran|title=IRGC members killed in Syria buried in Iran|author=Super User|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ncr-iran.org/en/news/terrorism-fundamentalism/18308-photo-shows-four-irgc-top-commanders-killed-in-syria|title=Photo shows four IRGC top commanders killed in Syria|author=editor-m|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/06/13/us-mideast-crisis-iran-general-idUSKBN0OT0BC20150613|title=Iran brings home body of top general killed in Syria|author=Sam Wilkin|date=13 June 2015|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2014/0530/Behind-Syrian-regime-a-familiar-US-adversary-Iran|title=Behind Syrian regime, a familiar US adversary: Iran|first=Scott |last=Peterson |publisher=Christian Science Monitor|quote= |date=May 30, 2014|accessdate=June 15, 2014}}</ref>


Furthermore, when the boys in the camps reach the age of adolescence, they are usually transferred to Hasaka's Sinaa prison, where they are packed into overcrowded cells with no access to sunlight. According to prison guards in the area, there is insufficient food and medical attention.<ref name=":1"/> When the boys reach the age of 18, they are sent to the regular prison population, where wounded ISIS members are placed three to a bed.<ref name=":1"/>
==== Russia ====
{{Main article|Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War}}


=== Casualties ===
{{See also|Russian naval facility in Tartus}}
{{Main|Casualties of the Syrian civil war}}
]
On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been killed since the civil war began, with UN ] ] saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking".<ref name=deathtolljump>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/02/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |title=U.N.'s Syria death toll jumps dramatically to 60,000-plus |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=CNN |access-date=29 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128123934/http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/02/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |archive-date=28 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Four months later, the UN's updated figure for the death toll had reached 80,000.<ref name=UN80000Dead>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22886730 |title=Syria death toll at least 93,000, says UN |work=BBC News |date=13 June 2013 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831134623/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22886730 |archive-date=31 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 13 June 2013, the UN released an updated figure of people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for up to the end of April 2013. ], UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure". The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000.<ref name=UN>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofoman.com/News/Article-20325.aspx |title=More than 2,000 killed in Syria since Ramadan began |work=Times of Oman |date=25 July 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904081753/http://www.timesofoman.com/News/Article-20325.aspx |archive-date=4 September 2013}}</ref><ref name=UN1>{{cite news |title=U.N. says Syria death toll has likely surpassed 100,000 |url=https://latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-death-toll-20130613,0,2953708.story |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=13 June 2013 |first=Patrick J. |last=McDonnell |access-date=13 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712040500/http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-death-toll-20130613,0,2953708.story |archive-date=12 July 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in the city of ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21228039 |title=Syria crisis: Solidarity amid suffering in Homs |publisher=BBC |date=29 January 2013 |access-date=29 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129014319/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21228039 |archive-date=29 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>


One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians.<ref>{{cite web |last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/11/06/173808/deaths-in-syria-down-from-peak.html |title=Deaths in Syria down from peak; army casualties outpacing rebels' |date=6 November 2012 |access-date=14 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113181246/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/11/06/173808/deaths-in-syria-down-from-peak.html |archive-date=13 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> At least half of those confirmed killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including 52,290 government fighters and 29,080 rebels, with an additional 50,000 unconfirmed combatant deaths.<ref name="SOHR2">{{cite web|url=http://syriahr.com/en/2015/03/15099/|title=The international community let the Syrian people down; millions of people killed, wounded and displaced over 4 years|publisher=The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights|date=15 March 2015|access-date=3 September 2023|archive-date=22 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122132926/http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/03/15099/|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, ] reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/405908 |title=400 children killed in Syria unrest |newspaper=Arab News |date=8 February 2012 |access-date=28 January 2013 |location=Geneva |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030115934/http://www6.arabnews.com/node/405908 |archive-date=30 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons;<ref name="npr">{{cite news |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |newspaper=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427232713/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |archive-date=27 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> both of these reports have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html |work=The New York Times |first=Kareem |last=Fahim |title=Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says |date=5 January 2012 |access-date=12 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513032839/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group ] reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/160978 |title=Fighting Continues in Syria |publisher=Arutz Sheva |date=16 October 2012 |access-date=25 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018001122/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/160978 |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> and in March 2013, opposition sources stated that over 5,000 children had been killed.<ref name="Violations Documenting Center">{{cite web |url=http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/home |title=Statistics for the number of martyrs |date=3 June 2013 |publisher=] |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303155835/http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/home |archive-date=3 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2019}} In January 2014, ] was released detailing the systematic killing of more than 11,000 detainees of the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite web|first=Ian |last=Black |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/evidence-industrial-scale-killing-syria-war-crimes |title=Syrian regime document trove shows evidence of 'industrial scale' killing of detainees |work=The Guardian |date=21 January 2014|access-date=21 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203161117/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/evidence-industrial-scale-killing-syria-war-crimes?view=desktop |archive-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
On 30 September 2015, Russia's ] unanimously granted the request by ] ] to permit the use of the ] in Syria.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rt.com/news/317021-russia-syria-engagement-how/| title=Russia goes to war with ISIS: Why and how?| publisher=RT | date= 30 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rt.com/news/317013-parliament-authorization-troops-abroad/ | title=Russian parliament unanimously approves use of military in Syria to fight ISIS| publisher=RT | date= 30 September 2015}}</ref> On the same day, the Russian general Sergey Kuralenko,<ref name="interfax">{{cite web|url=http://www.interfax.ru/world/471024 |title= В Минобороны рассказали о контактах с США перед началом бомбардировок Сирии |publisher=interfax.ru|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> who represents Russia at the joint information center in Baghdad set up by Russia, Iran, Iraq and Syria to coordinate their operations against Islamic State,<ref name="rt4">{{cite web|url=http://russian.rt.com/article/120489 |title=Генерал-лейтенант Сергей Кураленко представляет РФ в информцентре в Багдаде|publisher=russian.rt.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="rt5">{{cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/news/316592-russia-syria-islamic-state/ |title=Russia, Iran, Iraq & Syria setting up ‘joint information center’ to coordinate anti-ISIS operations — RT News |publisher=rt.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> arrived at the ] and requested that any U.S. forces in the targeted area leave immediately.<ref name="independent">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-bombing-russian-three-star-general-warned-us-officials-we-request-your-people-leave-a6674166.html |title=Syria bombing: Russian three star general warned US officials 'we request your people leave' &#124; Middle East &#124; News &#124; The Independent |publisher=independent.co.uk|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> An hour later, the Russian aircraft based in the government-held territory began conducting airstrikes ostensibly against the Islamic State targets.<ref>{{cite web | url=//www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34399164 | title=Syria crisis: Russia begins air strikes against Assad foes | publisher=ВВС News | date= 30 September 2015}}</ref>


]
=== Syrian Opposition ===
] who lost her leg during the ] in October 2019]]
{{Main article|Syrian Opposition|Syrian Interim Government}}
On 20 August 2014, a new U.N. study concluded that at least 191,369 people have died in the Syrian conflict.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/22/world/meast/syria-conflict/index.html?hpt=imi_c2 |title=More than 191,000 dead in Syria conflict, U.N. finds |author=Laura Smith-Spark |date=22 August 2014 |publisher=CNN |access-date=1 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411102510/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/22/world/meast/syria-conflict/index.html?hpt=imi_c2 |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The UN thereafter stopped collecting statistics, but a study by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research released in February 2016 estimated the death toll to be 470,000, with 1.9m wounded (reaching a total of 11.5% of the entire population either wounded or killed).<ref>{{Cite news |title=Report on Syria conflict finds 11.5% of population killed or injured |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/11/report-on-syria-conflict-finds-115-of-population-killed-or-injured |newspaper=The Guardian |date=11 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 |first=Ian |last=Black |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160211082555/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/11/report-on-syria-conflict-finds-115-of-population-killed-or-injured |archive-date=11 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> A report by the pro-opposition ] in 2018 mentioned 82,000 victims that had been forcibly disappeared by the Syrian government, added to 14,000 confirmed deaths due to torture.<ref>{{cite web |title=By Acknowledging the Death of 836 Forcibly-Disappeared Syrians at its hands, the Syrian Regime Convicts itself, yet the Security Council Does Nothing |url=http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/By_Acknowledging_the_Death_of_836_Forcibly_Disappeared_Syrians_at_its_hands_the_Syrian_Regime_Convicts_itself_en.pdf |website=sn4hr.org |quote=Approximately 82,000 Forcibly Disappeared and 14,000 Died due to Torture at the hands of the Syrian Regime |access-date=1 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701110829/http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/By_Acknowledging_the_Death_of_836_Forcibly_Disappeared_Syrians_at_its_hands_the_Syrian_Regime_Convicts_itself_en.pdf |archive-date=1 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to various war monitors, ] and pro-Assad forces has been responsible for over 90% of the total civilian casualties in the civil war.{{efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 June 2022 |title=Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria |work=Middle East Monitor |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104153837/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=19 June 2022 |title=91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105112752/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-date=5 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702114009/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=U.S Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 January 2015 |title=In Syria's Civilian Death Toll, The Islamic State Group, Or ISIS, Is A Far Smaller Threat Than Bashar Assad |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/9311/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406183001/https://www.syriahr.com/en/9311/ |archive-date=6 April 2022 |website=SOHR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Assad's War on the Syrian People Continues |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/208389/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313163249/https://www.syriahr.com/en/208389/ |archive-date=13 March 2021 |website=SOHR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Roth |first=Kenneth |date=9 January 2017 |title=Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-date=2 February 2021 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips |url=https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |website=Council for Arab-British Understanding |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=9 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209022611/https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |url-status=live }}</ref>}}


On 15 April 2017, a convoy of buses carrying evacuees from the besieged Shia towns of ] and ], which were surrounded by the ],<ref>{{Cite news|title=Madaya: The two other Syrian villages where 20,000 people have been starving under rebel siege|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/madaya-the-two-other-syrian-villages-where-20000-people-have-been-starving-under-rebel-siege-a6807941.html|date=12 January 2016|work=The Independent|first=Lizzie|last=Dearden|access-date=20 July 2020|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720200424/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/madaya-the-two-other-syrian-villages-where-20000-people-have-been-starving-under-rebel-siege-a6807941.html|url-status=live}}</ref> was ] west of Aleppo,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-39609288|title=Syria war: Huge bomb kills dozens of evacuees in Syria|date=15 April 2017|work=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=20 July 2020|archive-date=10 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910060938/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-39609288|url-status=live}}</ref> killing more than 126 people, including at least 80 children.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-04-17/syrian-bus-bombing-kills-at-least-80-children/8447104|title='A new horror': 80 children among those slaughtered in suicide attack on refugee convoy|date=17 April 2017|work=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=20 July 2020|archive-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503042731/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-04-17/syrian-bus-bombing-kills-at-least-80-children/8447104|url-status=live}}</ref> On 1 January 2020, at least eight civilians, including four children, were killed in a rocket attack on a school in Idlib by Syrian government forces, the Syrian Human Rights Observatory (SOHR) said.<ref>{{cite news |title=Four Syrian children killed in New Year's Day attack on school |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/syrian-children-killed-year-day-attack-school-200101152952912.html |access-date=18 August 2020 |work=aljazeera.com |date=1 January 2020 |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302220530/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/syrian-children-killed-year-day-attack-school-200101152952912.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
The armed opposition consists of various groups that were either formed during the course of the conflict or joined from abroad. According to ], the opposition is financed by Saudi Arabia to the tune of $700 million a year (2014).<ref name="SHersh" /> In the north-west of the country, the main opposition faction is the ]-affiliated ] allied with numerous other smaller ] groups, some of which operate under the umbrella of the ] (FSA).<ref name="aljazeera">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/09/2013920164342453621.html|title=FSA brigade 'joins al-Qaeda group' in Syria – Al Jazeera English|publisher=aljazeera.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> The designation of the FSA by the West as a moderate opposition faction has allowed it, under the ]-run programmes,<ref name="larger" /><ref name="covert" /><ref name="trim" /> to receive sophisticated weaponry and other military support from the U.S., ] and some ] that effectively increases the total fighting capacity of the Islamist rebels.<ref name="betray">{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11882195/US-trained-Division-30-rebels-betrayed-US-and-hand-weapons-over-to-al-Qaedas-affiliate-in-Syria.html |title=US-trained Division 30 rebels 'betray US and hand weapons over to al-Qaeda's affiliate in Syria' |author=Nabih Bulos |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=22 September 2015 |location=London}}</ref><ref name="businessinsider">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10 |title=Syria rebels and TOW missiles – Business Insider – Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against the Assad regime |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref> In the east, the ] (ISIL), a ] militant group originating from ], made rapid military gains in both Syria ]. ISIL eventually ] with other rebels, especially with al-Nusra, leaders of which did not want to pledge allegiance to ISIL. By July 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria's territory and most of its oil and gas production, thus establishing itself as the principal anti-government force.<ref>]. </ref> {{as of|2015}}, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey are openly backing the ], an umbrella rebel group that reportedly includes an ] linked ] and another ] coalition known as ], and ], a coalition of ]-linked rebel groups.<ref name="Kim Sengupta">{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html |title=Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria |author=Kim Sengupta |newspaper=The Independent |date=12 May 2015 |location=London}}</ref><ref name="Gulf allies and Army of Conquest">"". '']''. 28 May 2015.</ref><ref name="news.yahoo.com">"". Yahoo News. 28 April 2015.</ref> Also, in the north-east, local Kurdish militias such as the ] have taken up arms and have fought with both ]<ref name="fr-kurdes-chassent-des-jihadistes" /> and ].<ref name=pydkills />


In January 2020, UNICEF warned that children were bearing the brunt of escalating violence in northwestern Syria. More than 500 children were wounded or killed during the first three quarters of 2019, and over 65 children fell victim to the war in December alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/21848/children-in-syria-bearing-brunt-of-intensifying-violence-unicef|title=Children in Syria bearing brunt of intensifying violence, UNICEF|date=2 January 2020|website=InfoMigrants|language=en|access-date=4 January 2020|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102150339/https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/21848/children-in-syria-bearing-brunt-of-intensifying-violence-unicef|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Free Syrian Army ====
{{Main article|Free Syrian Army}}


Over 380,000 people have been killed since the war in Syria started nine years ago, war monitor Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said on 4 January 2020. The death toll comprises civilians, government soldiers, militia members and foreign troops.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/world/syria-death-toll-tops-380-000-in-almost-nine-year-war-monitor-11578143112160.html|title=The death toll in Syria has exceeded 380,000 in almost nine years: Monitor|last=Naquin|first=Leora|date=4 January 2020|website=Technoea News|language=en-US|access-date=5 January 2020|archive-date=5 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105131716/https://www.livemint.com/news/world/syria-death-toll-tops-380-000-in-almost-nine-year-war-monitor-11578143112160.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
]


In an airstrike by Russian forces loyal to the Syrian government, at least five civilians were killed, out of which four belonged to the same family. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that the death toll included three children following the attack in the Idlib region on 18 January 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brecorder.com/2020/01/18/562799/russia-strike-kill-five-civilians-in-northwest-syria/|title=Russia strike kill five civilians in northwest Syria |date=18 January 2020|website=Business Recorder|language=en-US|access-date=18 January 2020|archive-date=13 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513151819/https://www.brecorder.com/2020/01/18/562799/russia-strike-kill-five-civilians-in-northwest-syria/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) was announced on 29 July 2011 by a group of defecting ] officers. In a video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state, and "to bring this regime down".<ref name=worldtribune1>{{cite news |work=The World Tribune |url=http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_syria0973_08_03.asp |title=Defecting troops form 'Free Syrian Army', target Assad security forces |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref>


On 30 January 2020, Russian airstrikes on a hospital and a bakery killed over 10 civilians in Syria's Idlib region. Moscow immediately rejected the allegation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/civilians-killed-in-syria-air-strikes-russia-denies-involvement/30406882.html|title=At Least 10 Civilians Reported Killed In Syria Air Strikes; Russia Denies Involvement|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=30 January 2020 |language=en|access-date=30 January 2020|archive-date=30 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130133947/https://www.rferl.org/a/civilians-killed-in-syria-air-strikes-russia-denies-involvement/30406882.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The IS leadership, interviewed by a German journalist, laughingly dismiss the FSA as the best source of arms they have.<ref name="SHersh" /> By December 2011, the estimated number of soldiers who had defected to the FSA was ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000.<ref>{{cite news|last=Blomfield|first=Adam|title=Syrian rebels strike heart of Damascus|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/8902832/Syrian-rebels-strike-heart-of-Damascus.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=21 November 2011|location=London}}</ref> The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and was first "headquartered" in Turkey, but moved its command headquarters to northern Syria in September 2012.


On 23 June 2020, ]i raids killed seven fighters, including two Syrian in a central province. State media cited a military official as saying the attack targeted posts in rural areas of ] province.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syria-reports-israeli-raids-on-central-south-military-posts/2020/06/24/5b9184de-b5db-11ea-9a1d-d3db1cbe07ce_story.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200625044543/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syria-reports-israeli-raids-on-central-south-military-posts/2020/06/24/5b9184de-b5db-11ea-9a1d-d3db1cbe07ce_story.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= 25 June 2020|title= Seven killed in Israeli strikes on Syria – monitor|access-date=23 June 2020|website=The Washingtonpost}}</ref>
] (October 2012).]]


Just four days after the start of 2022, two children were killed and five others injured in northwest Syria. In 2021 alone, over 70% of violent attacks against children have been recorded in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Two children killed and five injured in Syria as the new year starts|url=https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/two-children-killed-and-five-injured-syria-new-year-starts|access-date=18 January 2022|website=unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118212810/https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/two-children-killed-and-five-injured-syria-new-year-starts|url-status=live}}</ref>
In March 2012, two reporters of ''The New York Times'' witnessed an FSA attack with a ] and AK-47 rifles on a column of armored Syrian tanks in ] in ], and learned that FSA had a stock of able, trained soldiers and ex-officers, organized to some extent, but were without the weapons to put up a realistic fight.<ref>, New York Times (3 March 2012); , NYTimes, 3March2012; , . Retrieved 20 September 2014.</ref>


On 14 January 2022, one person was killed by a car bomb and several others were wounded in the city of ] in northwest Syria, three people were wounded at a marketplace in a suspected suicide bombing in the town of al Bab and another suicide bomb went off in the city of Afrin at a roundabout.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|date=13 January 2022|title=Suspected suicide bombers strike in northwest Syria near Turkish border|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/bomb-blast-kills-one-syrian-border-city-wounds-several-2022-01-13/|access-date=14 January 2022|archive-date=14 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114231341/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/bomb-blast-kills-one-syrian-border-city-wounds-several-2022-01-13/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In April 2013, the US announced it would transfer $123&nbsp;million in nonlethal aid to Syrian rebels through defected general ], leader of the FSA.<ref name="McClatchySalimIdriss">{{cite web|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/05/07/190602/syrian-rebel-leader-salim-idriss.html|title=Syrian rebel leader Salim Idriss admits difficulty of unifying fighters| work=McClatchyDC |accessdate=19 September 2014 |date=7 May 2013}}</ref>


=== Human rights violations and war crimes ===
In May 2013, ], the FSA leader, acknowledged that "the rebels" were badly fragmented and lacked the military skill needed to topple the government of President Bashar al-Assad. Idriss said he was working on a countrywide command structure, but that a lack of material support was hurting that effort. "Now it is very important for them to be unified. But unifying them in a manner to work like a regular army is still difficult", Idriss said. He acknowledged common operations with Islamist group ] but denied any cooperation with Islamist group ].<ref name="McClatchySalimIdriss" />
{{Main|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Human rights in Syria}}
{{See also|Syrian mass graves|Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory|List of massacres during the Syrian civil war|Rape during the Syrian civil war|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war|Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals}}
] perpetrated by Syrian regime forces in August 2013]]
] and ] have asserted that human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebel forces, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130313/un-must-refer-syria-war-crimes-icc-amnesty |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816193917/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130313/un-must-refer-syria-war-crimes-icc-amnesty |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 August 2013 |title=UN must refer Syria war crimes to ICC: Amnesty |work=GlobalPost |access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref> Numerous ], ], ]s and ] perpetrated by the ] throughout the course of the conflict has led to international condemnation and widespread calls to convict Bashar al-Assad in the ] (ICC).{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robertson |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Robertson |title=Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice |publisher=The New Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-59558-860-9 |edition=4th |location=New York, NY, USA |pages=560–562, 573, 595–607 |chapter=11: Justice in Demand}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdxEAQAAMAAJ&dq=Assad+crimes+against+humanity&pg=PA229 |title=Syria Freedom Support Act; Holocaust Insurance Accountability Act of 2011 |publisher=Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives |year=2012 |location=Washington D.C., USA |pages=221–229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Vohra |first=Anchal |date=16 October 2020 |title=Assad's Horrible War Crimes Are Finally Coming to Light Under Oath |work=Foreign Policy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/16/assads-horrible-war-crimes-are-finally-coming-to-light/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102212057/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/16/assads-horrible-war-crimes-are-finally-coming-to-light/ |archive-date=2 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2022 |title=German court finds Assad regime official guilty of crimes against humanity |work=Daily Sabah |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/german-court-finds-assad-regime-official-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122082145/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/german-court-finds-assad-regime-official-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=22 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Martina Nosakhare |first=Whitney |date=15 March 2022 |title=Some Hope in the Struggle for Justice in Syria: European Courts Offer Survivors a Path Toward Accountability |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/15/some-hope-struggle-justice-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405071705/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/15/some-hope-struggle-justice-syria |archive-date=5 April 2022 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>}} The unprecedented scale of the atrocities launched by government forces since the outbreak of the ] has led to international outrage, and Syria's membership was suspended from various international organizations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Debusmann |first=Bernd |date=17 May 2023 |title=How Syria's Bashar al-Assad got away with murder |work=WION |url=https://www.wionews.com/opinions-blogs/how-syrias-bashar-al-assad-got-away-with-murder-593114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517135043/https://www.wionews.com/opinions-blogs/how-syrias-bashar-al-assad-got-away-with-murder-593114 |archive-date=17 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="auto4">{{Cite news |last=Pelley |first=Scott |date=11 July 2021 |title=The evidence of Syrian President Bashar Assad and his regime's legacy of war crimes |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bashar-al-assad-syria-evidence-war-crimes-60-minutes-2021-07-11/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514055904/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bashar-al-assad-syria-evidence-war-crimes-60-minutes-2021-07-11/ |archive-date=14 May 2023}}</ref>


According to three international lawyers,<ref>Sir Desmond de Silva QC, former chief prosecutor of the special court for Sierra Leone, Sir Geoffrey Nice QC, the former lead prosecutor of former Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević, and Professor David Crane, who indicted President Charles Taylor of Liberia at the Sierra Leone court</ref> Syrian government officials could face ]s charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about ]. Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |title=foreignaffairs.house.gov |access-date=2 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006083709/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> Experts said this evidence was more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that had emerged from the then 34-month crisis.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/ |title=EXCLUSIVE: Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime |date=21 January 2014 |publisher=CNN |access-date=21 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122155626/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/ |archive-date=22 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Atrocities committed by the Assad regime have been described as the "greatest war crimes of the 21st century", with chilling revelations of ], ]s, ]s, and extermination being leaked through the ], which contained photographic evidence gathered by a dissident ] who worked in Ba'athist ]s.<ref name="auto4"/> According to ] ]: <blockquote>We've got better evidence—against Assad and his clique—than we had against ] in ], or we had in any of the war crimes tribunals in which I've involved in, some extent, even better than we had against the ] at ], because the Nazis didn't actually take individual pictures of each of their victims with identifying information on them.<ref name="auto4"/></blockquote>
Abu Yusaf, a commander of the ] (IS), said in August 2014 that many of the FSA members who had been trained by United States' and Turkish and Arab military officers were now actually joining IS.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2014/08/18/the-terrorists-fighting-us-now-we-just-finished-training-them/ |title=The terrorists fighting us now? We just finished training them. |work=The Washington Post|accessdate=19 September 2014| date=18 August 2014|first=Souad|last=Mekhennet}}</ref> On the contrary to the ISIS commander's claims, by September 2014 the Free Syrian Army was joining an alliance and a common front with Kurdish militias including the YPG to fight ISIS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.vice.com/article/syrian-kurds-ally-with-rebel-groups-to-fight-the-islamic-state|title=Syrian Kurds Ally With Rebel Groups To Fight The Islamic State|work=VICE News|accessdate=2 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/180920141|title=As Global Efforts Galvanize in Iraq, Syrian Kurds Left Alone Aga|work=Rudaw|accessdate=14 October 2014}}</ref>


The UN reported in 2014 that "] is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access to humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: ], ], Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama.<ref name="UNHCRfeb2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-65_en.doc |title=Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |date=12 February 2014 |access-date=7 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521155230/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-65_en.doc |archive-date=21 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thenewage.co.za">{{cite web |url=http://www.thenewage.co.za/120337-1020-53-UN_decries_use_of_sieges_starvation_in_Syrian_military_strategy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014155/http://www.thenewage.co.za/120337-1020-53-UN_decries_use_of_sieges_starvation_in_Syrian_military_strategy |archive-date=13 July 2015 |url-status=dead |title=UN decries use of sieges, starvation in Syrian military strategy &#124; The New Age Online |work=The New Age|location=South Africa |date=5 March 2014 |access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref> In ] 20,000 residents faced death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and ], which prevents food distribution by UNRWA.<ref name="UNHCRfeb2014"/><ref name="MMHYarmouk">{{cite news |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/03/03/3971810/yarmouk-update-nusras-apparent.html |title=Yarmouk update: Nusra's apparent return complicates UNRWA's hopes for food program |date=3 March 2014 |access-date=6 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306193840/http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/03/03/3971810/yarmouk-update-nusras-apparent.html |archive-date=6 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2015, the UN removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to say why it had done so.<ref name="IRIN removal">{{cite news |last=Dyke |first=Joe |date=24 July 2015 |title=Yarmouk camp no longer besieged, UN rules |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/101781/yarmouk-camp-no-longer-besieged-un-rules |agency=] |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150727021032/http://www.irinnews.org/report/101781/yarmouk-camp-no-longer-besieged-un-rules |archive-date=27 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> After intense fighting in April/May 2018, Syrian government forces finally took the camp, its population now reduced to 100–200.<ref name="cleric"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726233511/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2018/5/23/syrian-cleric-condemns-flagrant-looting-after-regime-captured-yarmouk |date=26 July 2018 }}, ''Al-Araby'' 24 May 2018</ref>
In early October 2015, shortly after the start of Russia's military intervention in Syria, ] asserted the very existence of the FSA had been a charade, a fact acknowledged by U.S. officials, with virtually all U.S.-trained FSA rebels having defected to other rebel groups;<ref> ′′]′′, 4 October 2015.</ref>


ISIS forces have also been criticized by the UN of using public executions and ], amputations, and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27 August 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/27/syria-isis-war-crimes-united-nations-un |title=Syria and Isis committing war crimes, says UN |date=27 August 2014 |work=The Guardian |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828220905/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/27/syria-isis-war-crimes-united-nations-un |archive-date=28 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ISIS also ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Under ISIS: Where Being Gay Is Punished by Death |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/isis-gay-punished-death/story?id=39826182 |work=ABC News |date=13 June 2016 |access-date=20 July 2020 |archive-date=20 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720233816/https://abcnews.go.com/International/isis-gay-punished-death/story?id=39826182 |url-status=live }}</ref>
]'s position is ambivalent: foreign minister ] in October 2015 called the FSA "an already phantom structure",<ref name="doesnot4">{{cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/news/317655-moscow-contacts-free-syrian-army/ |title=Moscow ready for contact with Free Syrian Army – FM Lavrov — RT News |publisher=rt.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsru.com/russia/05oct2015/syria_5.html|title=Новости NEWSru.com :: Лавров: Россия готова установить контакты с "фантомной структурой" - Сирийской свободной армией|work=newsru.com}}</ref> but later that month said that Russia was ready to aid the FSA with airstrikes.<ref></ref>
]


Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29653526 |title=syrias disappeared |date=11 November 2014 |access-date=11 November 2014 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111153912/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29653526 |archive-date=11 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> An ] report, published in November 2015, stated the Syrian government has forcibly disappeared more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11976494/Amnesty-accuses-Syrian-regime-of-disappearing-tens-of-thousands.html |title=Amnesty accuses Syrian regime of 'disappearing' tens of thousands |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=5 November 2015 |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427133904/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11976494/Amnesty-accuses-Syrian-regime-of-disappearing-tens-of-thousands.html |archive-date=27 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a report in May 2016 by the ], at least 60,000 people have been killed since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522125646/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/tens-thousands-die-syria-government-prisons-160521173306410.html |date=22 May 2016}} Al Jazeera</ref>
==== Islamic Front ====
{{Main article|Islamic Front (Syria)}}


In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the ]. They stated the killings began in 2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/syria-13000-secretly-hanged-saydnaya-military-prison-shocking-new-report |title=Syria: 13,000 secretly hanged in Saydnaya military prison – shocking new report |publisher=Amnesty International |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222043232/https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/syria-13000-secretly-hanged-saydnaya-military-prison-shocking-new-report |archive-date=22 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Three months later, the United States State Department stated a ] had been identified near the prison. According to the US, it was being used to burn thousands of bodies of those killed by the government's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war crimes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-accuses-syria-of-killing-thousands-of-prisoners-and-burning-the-dead-bodies-in-large-crematorium-outside-damascus/2017/05/15/7cf95c30-3985-11e7-a59b-26e0451a96fd_story.html |title=US accuses Syria of killing thousands of prisoners and burning the dead bodies in large crematorium outside Damascus. |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=15 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219162710/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-accuses-syria-of-killing-thousands-of-prisoners-and-burning-the-dead-bodies-in-large-crematorium-outside-damascus/2017/05/15/7cf95c30-3985-11e7-a59b-26e0451a96fd_story.html |archive-date=19 December 2018 |url-status=dead}}<br/>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-crematory.html |title=Syria Prison Crematory Is Hiding Mass Executions, U.S. Says |last=Harris |first=Gardiner |date=15 May 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=15 May 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515221921/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-crematory.html |archive-date=15 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Amnesty International expressed surprise at the reports about the crematorium, as the photographs used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-crematory.html |title=Syrian Crematory Is Hiding Mass Killings of Prisoners, U.S. Says |first1=Gardiner |last1=Harris |first2=Anne |last2=Barnard |date=15 May 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515221921/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-crematory.html |archive-date=15 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Syrian government said the reports were not true.
The Islamic Front ({{lang-ar|الجبهة الإسلامية}}, ''al-Jabhat al-Islāmiyyah'') is a merger of seven rebel groups involved in the Syrian civil war<ref name=BBC22Nov>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25053525|title=Leading Syrian rebel groups form new Islamic Front|publisher=BBC|date=22 November 2013|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref> that was announced on 22 November 2013.<ref name="Reuters22Nov">{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/22/us-syria-crisis-islamists-merger-idUSBRE9AL0I420131122|title=Six Islamist factions unite in largest Syria rebel merger|publisher=Reuters|date=22 November 2013|accessdate=22 November 2013|first=Erika|last=Solomon}}</ref> The group has between 40,000<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/09/us-syria-crisis-rebels-factbox-idUSBREA080SW20140109|title=Factbox: Syria's rebel groups|author=Richard Hall|publisher=Reuters|date=9 January 2014}}</ref> and 60,000 fighters. An anonymous spokesman for the group has stated that it will not have ties with the ],<ref name="AP22Nov">{{cite news | url=http://www.startribune.com/syrian-muslim-rebel-groups-say-they-have-unified/232964261/ | title=Series of Syrian Muslim rebel brigades say they've unified under name of the 'Islamic Front' | work=Star Tribune | date=22 November 2013 | agency=Associated Press | accessdate=7 June 2015 | author=BARBARA SURK}}</ref> though a member of the political bureau of the group, Ahmad Musa, has stated that he hopes for recognition from the ] in cooperation for what he suggested "the Syrian people want. They want a revolution and not politics and foreign agendas."<ref name="AJE22Nov">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/11/major-syrian-rebel-groups-join-forces-20131122141129975421.html|title=Major Syrian rebel groups join forces|publisher=Al Jazeera English|last=Atassi|first=Basma|date=22 November 2013|accessdate=7 December 2013}}</ref> The group is widely seen as backed and armed by ].<ref>, ], 11 December 2013</ref><ref>, '']'', 16 December 2013</ref><ref>, '']'', 4 February 2014</ref>


By July 2012, the human rights group ] had documented over 100 cases of rape and ] during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/the-ultimate-assault-charting-syrias-use-of-rape-to-terrorize-its-people |title=The ultimate assault: Charting Syria's use of rape to terrorize its people |publisher=Women Under Siege |date=11 July 2012 |access-date=27 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715020015/http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/the-ultimate-assault-charting-syrias-use-of-rape-to-terrorize-its-people |archive-date=15 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2019}}
=== Salafist factions ===
{{further information|Foreign rebel fighters in the Syrian Civil War}}


On 11 September 2019, the UN investigators said that air strikes conducted by the US-led coalition in Syria have killed or wounded several civilians, denoting that necessary precautions were not taken leading to potential war crimes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/6381058/un-investigators-point-to-syria-war-crimes/|title=UN investigators point to Syria war crimes|last=Nebehay|first=Stephanie|date=11 September 2019|website=Newcastle Herald|language=en|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019104703/https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/6381058/un-investigators-point-to-syria-war-crimes/|archive-date=19 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
In September 2013, US Secretary of State ] stated that extremist ] groups make up 15–25% of rebel forces.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kerry: Syrian rebels have not been hijacked by extremists|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2013/09/04/syria-hagel-kerry-obama-rebels/2764567/|newspaper=USA Today|date=4 September 2013|first1=Jim|last1=Michaels}}</ref> According to Charles Lister, about 12% of rebels are part of groups linked to ], 18% belong to ], and 9% belong to ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Kelley, Michael|url=http://www.businessinsider.com.au/graphic-the-most-accurate-breakdown-of-the-syrian-rebels-2013-9|title=A full extremist-to-moderate spectrum of the 100,000 Syrian rebels|work=Business Insider|date=19 September 2013|accessdate=4 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=Malas, Nour |author2=Abushakra, Rima |lastauthoramp=yes |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303796404579096782311389904.html|title=Syrian rebel units reject pro-western opposition political leaders|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=25 September 2013|accessdate=4 October 2013}}</ref> These numbers contrast with a report by ], a defence outlet, claiming almost half of all rebels being affiliated to Islamist groups.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10311007/Syria-nearly-half-rebel-fighters-are-jihadists-or-hardline-Islamists-says-IHS-Janes-report.html |date=15 September 2013|accessdate=6 October 2014|title=Syria: nearly half rebel fighters are jihadists or hardline Islamists, says IHS Jane's report – The Telegraph|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Ben|last=Farmer}}</ref> British think-tank Centre on Religion and Geopolitics, linked to former British PM ], says that 60% of the rebels could be classified as Islamist extremists.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/12/20/460463173/60-percent-of-syrian-rebels-share-islamic-state-ideology-think-tank-finds|title=60 Percent Of Syrian Rebels Are Islamist Extremists, Think Tank Finds |work=] |date=20 December 2015}}</ref> ] have joined the conflict in opposition to Assad. While most of them are jihadists, some individuals, such as ], have joined to support the Syrian opposition.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/world/middleeast/as-syrian-war-drags-on-jihad-gains-foothold.html|title=As Syrian War Drags On, Jihadists Take Bigger Role |work=The New York Times|date=29 July 2012 |accessdate=9 December 2012|first1=Neil|last1=MacFarquhar|first2=Hwaida|last2=Saad}}</ref>


]]]
The ] estimates that 2,000–5,500 foreign fighters have gone to Syria since the beginning of the protests, about 7–11 percent of whom came from Europe. It is also estimated that the number of foreign fighters does not exceed 10 percent of the opposition armed forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://icsr.info/2013/04/icsr-insight-european-foreign-fighters-in-syria-2/|title=ICSR Insight: European Foreign Fighters in Syria|date=2 April 2013}}</ref> Another estimate puts the number of foreign jihadis at 15,000 by early 2014.<ref name=us>{{cite news|last=Friedman|first=Thomas L.|title=Not Just About Us|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/08/opinion/friedman-not-just-about-us.html|accessdate=9 January 2014|newspaper=New York Times|date=7 January 2014}}</ref> The ] expressed concerns that some of the fighters might use their skills obtained in Syria to commit acts of terrorism back in Europe in the future.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/belgian-father-son-syria-433/|title='He was brainwashed': Desperate Belgian father searches for son fighting in Syria|date=26 April 2013}}</ref>
In late 2019, as the violence intensified in northwest Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/666763-women-children-in-syria-continue-to-be-kept-in-inhumane-conditions-un-report|title=Women, children in Syria continue to be kept in inhumane conditions: UN report|access-date=11 September 2019|website=Devdiscourse|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019104702/https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/666763-women-children-in-syria-continue-to-be-kept-in-inhumane-conditions-un-report|archive-date=19 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2019, ] stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by ] and ] who are said to "have displayed a shameful disregard for civilian life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and unlawful attacks that have killed and injured civilians".<ref name="amnesty1"/>


According to a 2020 report by UN-backed investigators into the Syrian civil war, young girls aged nine and above have been raped and inveigled into sexual slavery, while boys have been put through torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children have been attacked by sharpshooters and lured to be bargaining chips for ransoms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://local12.com/news/nation-world/un-report-lays-out-agonies-faced-by-syrian-children-amid-war|title=UN report lays out agonies faced by Syrian children amid war|author=JAMEY KEATEN|agency=Associated Press|date=16 January 2020|website=WKRC|access-date=16 January 2020|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116135849/https://local12.com/news/nation-world/un-report-lays-out-agonies-faced-by-syrian-children-amid-war|url-status=live}}</ref>
In October 2012, various Iraqi religious groups join the conflict in Syria on both sides. Radical Sunnis from Iraq have traveled to Syria to fight against President ] and the Syrian government.<ref name="nyt10282012">{{cite news|title=Iraqi Sects Join Battle in Syria on Both Sides|date=28 October 2012|work=The New York Times|accessdate=22 November 2012|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/world/middleeast/influx-of-iraqi-shiites-to-syria-widens-wars-scope.html|last1=Ghazi|first1=Yasir |last2=Arango |first2=Tim}}</ref>


On 6 April 2020, the United Nations published its investigation into the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. In its reports, the UN said it had examined six sites of attacks and concluded that the ] had been carried out by the "Government of Syria and/or its allies." However, the report was criticized for being partial towards Russia and not naming it, despite proper evidence. "The refusal to explicitly name Russia as a responsible party working alongside the Syrian government ... is deeply disappointing", the HRW quoted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/07/un-inquiry-stops-short-of-directly-blaming-russia-over-idlib-attacks-syria |title=UN inquiry stops short of directly blaming Russia over Idlib attacks |access-date=7 April 2020|website=The Guardian|date=7 April 2020 }}</ref>
In September 2013, leaders of 13 powerful rebel brigades rejected the Syrian National Coalition and called Sharia law "the sole source of legislation". In a statement they declared that "the coalition and the putative government headed by Ahmad Tomeh does not represent or recognize us". Among the signatory rebel groups were ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/25/world/meast/syria-rebels/index.html|title=Syrian rebels reject interim government, embrace Sharia|date=25 September 2013 | work=CNN}}</ref>


On 27 April 2020, the ] reported the continuation of multiple crimes in the month of March and April in Syria. The rights organization claimed that the Syrian regime killed 44 civilians, including six children, during the ]. It also said that Syrian forces held 156 people captive while committing at least of four attacks on vital civilian facilities. The report further recommended that the UN impose sanctions on the Bashar al-Assad regime if it continues to commit human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/assad-regime-violence-continues-despite-coronavirus/1820593|title=Assad regime violence continues despite coronavirus|access-date=27 April 2020|website=Anadolu Agency|archive-date=3 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503043418/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/assad-regime-violence-continues-despite-coronavirus/1820593|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Al-Nusra Front ====
{{Main article|Al-Nusra Front}}


On 8 May 2020, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, raised serious concern that rebel groups, including ] terrorist fighters, may be using the ] pandemic as "an opportunity to re-group and inflict violence in the country".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/05/1063562|title=Syria violence 'a ticking time-bomb that must not be ignored': UN human rights chief|access-date=8 May 2020|website=UN News|date=8 May 2020|archive-date=16 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716185639/https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/05/1063562|url-status=live}}</ref>
], for which al-Nusra Front claimed responsibility.<ref>{{cite news|title=With wary eye, Syrian rebels welcome Islamists into their ranks|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/with-wary-eye-syrian-rebels-welcome-islamists-into-their-ranks/|work=The Times of Israel|date=25 October 2012}}</ref>]]


On 21 July 2020, the Syrian government forces carried out an attack and killed two civilians with four Grad rockets in western al-Bab sub-district.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-assad-regime-attack-kills-2-civilians-in-al-bab/1917153|title=Syria: Assad regime attack kills 2 civilians in al-Bab|access-date=21 July 2020|website=Anadolu Agency|archive-date=22 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722233813/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-assad-regime-attack-kills-2-civilians-in-al-bab/1917153|url-status=live}}</ref>
The ]-linked<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34411653 |title=Russia launches media offensive on Syria bombing |newspaper=BBC News |date=1 October 2015}}</ref> al-Nusra Front, being the biggest ] group in Syria, is often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9716545/Inside-Jabhat-al-Nusra-the-most-extreme-wing-of-Syrias-struggle.html|title=Inside Jabhat al Nusra – the most extreme wing of Syria's struggle|date=2 December 2012 | location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Ruth|last=Sherlock}}</ref> Being responsible for over 50 ]s, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in ] and ], it is recognized as a terrorist organization by Syrian government and was designated as such by United States in December 2012.<ref name="AlNusraDaraa">{{cite web
| url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2012/11/al_nusrah_front_claims_3_more.php
| title=Al Nusrah Front claims 3 more suicide attacks in Daraa|date=27 November 2012
| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202011654/http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2012/11/al_nusrah_front_claims_3_more.php
| archivedate=2 December 2012
}}</ref> It has been supported by the Turkish government for years, according to US intelligence.<ref name="SHersh" /> In April 2013, the leader of the ] released an audio statement announcing that al-Nusra Front is its branch in Syria.<ref name="globalpost">{{cite news|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130409/qaeda-iraq-confirms-syrias-nusra-part-network|title=Qaeda in Iraq confirms Syria's Nusra is part of network|date=9 April 2013|accessdate=9 April 2013|agency=]}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref> The leader of al-Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Golani, said that the group would not merge with the Islamic State of Iraq but would still maintain allegiance to ], the leader of ].<ref name="naharnet">{{cite news|url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/78961-al-nusra-commits-to-al-qaida-deny-iraq-branch-merger/|title=Al-Nusra Commits to al-Qaida, Deny Iraq Branch 'Merger'|date=10 April 2013|accessdate=10 April 2013|agency=]}}</ref> The estimated manpower of al-Nusra Front is approximately 6,000–10,000 people, including many foreign fighters.<ref name="GuardianForeignFighters">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/sep/23/syria-foreign-fighters-joining-war |title=Syria: the foreign fighters joining the war against Bashar al-Assad|work=The Guardian|date=23 September 2012|accessdate=9 December 2012|location=London|first=Ghaith|last=Abdul-Ahad}}</ref>


On 14 January 2022, in the rebel-held city of Azaz in northwest Syria, a car bomb went off killing one and wounding several bystanders. According to a rescue worker, an improvised explosive device had been housed inside a car and then the car was planted near a local transport office in the city which is close to the Turkish border. In the town of al Bab, a suicide bomb went off wounding three and in the city of Afrin, another suicide bomb went off at a roundabout. All these three bombings happened in a span of hours and minutes from each other.<ref name=":0"/>
The relationship between the al-Nusra Front and the indigenous Syrian opposition is tense, even though al-Nusra has fought alongside the FSA in several battles and some FSA fighters defected to the al-Nusra Front.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/08/free-syrian-army-rebels-defect-islamist-group |title=Free Syrian Army rebels defect to Islamist group Jabhat al-Nusra |date=8 May 2013 |work=The Guardian|location=London}}</ref> The Mujahideen's strict religious views and willingness to impose ] disturbed many Syrians.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/with-wary-eye-syrian-rebels-welcome-islamists-into-their-ranks/|title=With wary eye, Syrian rebels welcome Islamists into their ranks|date=25 October 2012|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution", robbing Syrian factories and displaying religious intolerance.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jan/17/syria-crisis-alqaida-fighters-true-colours|title=Syria crisis: al-Qaida fighters revealing their true colours, rebels say|last=Chulov|first=Martin|date=17 January 2013|accessdate=26 January 2013|work=The Guardian|location=London}}</ref> Al-Nusra Front has been accused of mistreating religious and ethnic minorities since their formation.<ref>. TheBlaze.com (30 June 2013).</ref> On 10 March 2014, al-Nusra released 13 Christian nuns captured from Ma'loula, Damascus, in exchange for the release of 150 women from the Syrian government's prisons. The nuns reported that they were treated well by al-Nusra during their captivity, adding that they "were giving us everything we asked for" and that "no one bothered us".<ref>{{cite web|author=Agence France-Presse in Jdeitdet Yabus |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/10/kidnapped-nuns-thank-negotiators-freed-syria |title=Kidnapped nuns thank negotiators after being freed in Syria &#124; World news |publisher=theguardian.com |date=10 March 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref>


According to ], a rocket attack on a northern Syrian town controlled by Turkey-backed opposition fighters killed six civilians and injured more than a dozen others on 21 January 2022. According to the British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, it was unclear who fired the artillery shells, but the attack came from a region populated by Kurdish fighters and Syrian government forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shelling on Syria's Afrin kills six civilians; dozens wounded |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/21/shelling-on-syrias-afrin-kills-six-civilians-dozens-wounded |date=21 January 2022 |website=] |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121221257/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/21/shelling-on-syrias-afrin-kills-six-civilians-dozens-wounded |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Syrian Democratic Forces ===
{{Main article|Syrian Democratic Forces|Rojava conflict|Rojava}}


After an attack on a Syrian jail on 23 January 2022, over 120 individuals were killed in an ongoing conflict between Kurdish-led troops and ISIL (ISIS) fighters. According to the UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, "at least 77 IS members and 39 Kurdish fighters, including internal security forces, prison guards and counter-terrorism forces were killed" in the attack.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria prison attack kills more than 100, clashes ongoing |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/23/syria-prison-attack-kills-over-120-as-clashes-ongoing-monitor |date=23 January 2022 |website=] |access-date=23 January 2022 |archive-date=23 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123143833/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/23/syria-prison-attack-kills-over-120-as-clashes-ongoing-monitor |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 December 2023, eight civilians, including a pregnant woman, were killed during bombardments by the ] on the town of ]. War monitor SOHR reported that pro-Assad forces deliberately perpetrated a ] by "directly targeting residential areas, using artillery shells and rocket launchers".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eight civilians killed by Syria army in rebel bastion |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-eight-civilians-killed-syria-army-rebel-bastion |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219015335/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-eight-civilians-killed-syria-army-rebel-bastion |url-status=live }}</ref>
]


==== Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals ====
The ] (SDF) are an alliance of ], ], ], ], and ] militias fighting for a democratic and federalist Syria. They are opposed to the Assad regime, but have directed most of their efforts against ] and ].
{{Main article|Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals}}
In 2022, a German court sentenced ], 58, a high-ranking official of President Bashar al-Assad's regime to life imprisonment after he sought asylum in Germany and was arrested in 2019. He was charged with being complicit to the murder of at least 27 people coupled with the sexual assault and torture of at least another 4,000 people between 29 April 2011, and 7 September 2012. Raslan was a mid-level officer in Branch 251 and oversaw the torture of detainees. His trial was one of an unprecedented nature because Germany took on a trial of crimes committed in the Syrian war and the human rights lawyers took this on under the principle of "universal jurisdiction". Universal Jurisdiction is a concept in German law that allows for serious crimes to be tried in Germany even if they did not happen in the country. His co-defendant Eyad al-Gharib, 44, a low-level officer in ] was also sentenced to 4 years and 6 months in prison on 24 February 2021. Eyad's duties included the transport of detainees to locations where they would be tortured for days on end. It was his knowledge of the fact that torture was happening there that landed him the sentence.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian intelligence officer is convicted of crimes against humanity, gets life in prison in landmark German trial.|newspaper=]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/01/13/germany-syria-war-crimes-trial/|date=14 January 2022|archive-date=13 January 2022|access-date=13 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113150735/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/01/13/germany-syria-war-crimes-trial/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How an Alleged Syrian Intelligence Officer was Put on Trial in Germany|url=https://www.hrw.org/feature/2022/01/06/seeking-justice-for-syria/how-an-alleged-intelligence-officer-was-put-on-trial-in-germany|date=14 January 2022|access-date=13 January 2022|archive-date=13 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113221725/https://www.hrw.org/feature/2022/01/06/seeking-justice-for-syria/how-an-alleged-intelligence-officer-was-put-on-trial-in-germany|url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Crime wave ===
The group formed in December 2015, led primarily by the predominantly Kurdish ] (YPG). Estimates of its size range from 55,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com.au/syrian-kurds-now-say-they-now-control-territory-the-size-of-qatar-and-kuwait-combined-2015-8 |title=Syrian Kurds now say they now control territory the size of Qatar and Kuwait combined |last=Perry |first=Tom |date=15 August 2015 |website=]}}</ref> to 80,000 fighters.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2015/12/02/us-backed-syrian-democratic-forces-emerges-as-force-against-isis.html|title=U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces emerges as force against ISIS|date=2 December 2015|agency=Associated Press|accessdate=4 December 2015}}</ref> While largely Kurdish, it's estimated that about 40% of the fighters are non-Kurdish.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian-Kurdish SDF successfully absorbing non-Kurdish groups, says US|url=http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090320161|accessdate=19 March 2016|agency=Rudaw|date=9 March 2016}}</ref>
]

As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cave |first=Damein |title=Crime Wave Engulfs Syria as Its Cities Reel From War |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/middleeast/crime-wave-engulfs-syria-as-its-cities-reel-from-war.html |access-date=26 August 2012 |work=The New York Times |date=9 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813235006/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/middleeast/crime-wave-engulfs-syria-as-its-cities-reel-from-war.html |archive-date=13 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
On 17 March the ], the political wing of the SDF,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/article/6702811/2015/12/10/syria-kurd-arab-coalition-creates-political-wing|title=Kurdish-Arab coalition fighting Islamic State in Syria creates political wing|work=Agence France-Presse|date=10 December 2015|accessdate=10 December 2015}}</ref> declared the creation of an autonomous federation in northern Syria.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bulos|first1=Nabih|last2=McDonnell|first2=Patrick J.|title=Kurdish-led group declares autonomous zone in northern Syria|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-kurds-20160317-story.html|accessdate=19 March 2016|agency=LA Times|date=17 March 2016}}</ref>

Before the formation of the SDF, the YPG was the primary fighting force in Rojava. The Syrian Kurdish ] (YPG) first entered this Syrian civil war as belligerent in July 2012 by capturing a town, ], that until then was under control of the Syrian Assad-government (see ]).

] – mostly ] Muslims, with a small minority of ]s – represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising in 2011. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic, and social rights.<ref name="OHCHR Sep11">{{cite journal |title= Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/countries/SY/Syria_Report_2011-08-17.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 15 September 2011 |accessdate=30 June 2012}}</ref>{{rp|7|date=December 2012}} When protests began, Assad's government finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds, in an effort to try and neutralize potential Kurdish opposition.<ref name="HRW Kurds">{{cite web |last= Muscati |first= Samer |date= 14 May 2012 |title= Syrian Kurds Fleeing to Iraqi Safe Haven |url= http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/14/syrian-kurds-fleeing-iraqi-safe-haven |publisher= Human Rights Watch |accessdate=30 June 2012 }}</ref> Despite this concession, most Kurds remain opposed to the regime, hoping instead for a more decentralized Syria based on ].<ref>{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syria opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/uk-syria-crisis-rifts-idUKBRE8630IY20120704 |agency= Reuters |accessdate=9 July 2012 }}</ref>

=== Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) ===
{{Main article|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant}}

Called Dā'ash or the ] (abbrv. ISIL or ISIS ) made rapid military gains in Northern Syria starting in April 2013 and as of mid-2014 controls large parts of that region, where the ] describes it as "the strongest group".<ref name="ISISNorthSyria">{{cite news|title=Al Qaeda-linked group strengthens hold in northern Syria|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/syria-turkey-al-qaeda/|author1=Gul Tuysuz |author2=Raja Razek |author3=Nick Paton Walsh |publisher=CNN|date=6 November 2013|accessdate=3 December 2013}}</ref> It has imposed strict ] law over land that it controls. The group was, until 2014, affiliated with ], led by the Iraqi fighter ], and has an estimated 7,000 fighters in Syria, including many non-Syrians. It has been praised as less corrupt than other militia groups and criticized for abusing human rights<ref name=AI>{{cite web|title=Syria: Harrowing torture, summary killings in secret ISIS detention centres|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-harrowing-torture-summary-killings-secret-isis-detention-centres-2013-12-19|work=19 December 2013|publisher=Amnesty International|accessdate=3 January 2014}}</ref> and for not tolerating non-Islamist militia groups, foreign journalists or aid workers, whose members it has expelled, imprisoned,<ref name=birke1>{{cite journal|last=Birke|first=Sarah|title=How al-Qaeda Changed the Syrian War|journal=New York Review of Books|date=27 December 2013|url=http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2013/dec/27/how-al-qaeda-changed-syrian-war}}</ref> or executed. According to Michael Weiss, ISIL has not been targeted by the Syrian government "with quite the same gusto" as other rebel factions.<ref name="Weiss" />

By summer 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria. It established itself as the dominant force of Syrian opposition, defeating Jabhat al-Nusra in Deir Ezzor Governorate and claiming control over most of Syria's oil and gas production.<ref name="ISISconsolidates">{{cite web|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n16/patrick-cockburn/isis-consolidates|title=ISIS Consolidates|date=1 August 2014|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref>

The Syrian government did not begin to fight ISIL until June 2014 despite its having a presence in Syria since April 2013, according to Kurdish officials.<ref>{{cite web|author=Martin Chulov, Middle East correspondent |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/22/isis-syria-airbase-tabqa?CMP=twt_gu |title=Isis fighters surround Syrian airbase in rapid drive to recapture lost territory &#124; World news |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=23 August 2014}}</ref>

ISIL was able to recruit more than 6,300 fighters in July 2014 alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Aug-30/269031-syrians-adjust-to-life-under-isis-rule.ashx#axzz3B7bH1Yle|title=Syrians adjust to life under ISIS rule|publisher=The Daily Star|date=29 August 2014|accessdate=29 August 2014}}</ref> In September 2014, reportedly some Syrian rebels signed a "non-aggression" agreement with ISIL in a suburb of Damascus, citing inability to deal with both ISIL and the Syrian Army's attacks at once.<ref>{{cite news|last=Masi|first=Alessandria |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/us-backed-moderate-group-syria-signs-truce-isis-reports-1687662 |title=US-Backed Moderate Group in Syria Signs Truce With ISIS: Reports |publisher='']'' |date=12 September 2014}}</ref> Some Syrian rebels have, however, decried the news on the "non-aggression" pact.
ISIL have also planted bombs in the ancient city area of ], a city with population of 50,000. Palmyra is counted as a ] as it is home to some of the most extensive and best-preserved ancient Roman ruins in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/06/21/us-syria-crisis-palmyra-idUSKBN0P10FW20150621?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews|title=Islamic State militants plant mines and bombs in Palmyra: monitoring group|work=Reuters|accessdate=29 June 2015|first=Mariam|last=Karouny|date=21 June 2015}}</ref> Having lost nearly half of their territory in Iraq since 2014, many more Islamic State leaders have begun to sell their property and sneak into Syria, further destabilizing the region.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-mosul-idUSKCN10A0OX|title=Many Islamic State leaders trying to flee to Syria: Iraqi minister|date=2016-07-30|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=2016-08-05}}</ref>

=== Western coalition ===

]

{{Main article|Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve|American-led intervention in Syria|Turkish involvement in the Syrian Civil War|}}

A number of countries, including many ] members, participate in the Combined Joint Task Force, chiefly to fight ISIL and support rebel groups perceived as moderate and friendly to Western nations such as the ]. Those who have conducted airstrikes in ] include the ], ], ], ], ], ], The ], ], ], the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense.gov/News-Article-View/Article/621107/airstrikes-hit-isil-terrorists-in-syria-iraq|title=Airstrikes Hit ISIL Terrorists in Syria, Iraq|date=30 September 2015|work=U.S. Department of Defense|accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref> Some members are involved in the conflict beyond combating ISIL; Turkey has been accused of fighting against Kurdish forces in Syria and Iraq, including intelligence collaborations with ISIL in some cases.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Zaman|first1=Amberin|title=Syrian Kurds continue to blame Turkey for backing ISIS militants|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/ru/originals/2014/06/zaman-syria-kurds-rojava-ypg-muslim-pyd-pkk-turkey-isis.html#|agency=]|date=10 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Wilgenburg|first1=Wladimir van|title=Kurdish security chief: Turkey must end support for jihadists|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/08/syria-kurd-pyd-asayish-isis-turkey-islamic-state.html#|agency=]|date=6 August 2014}}</ref> The conclusion of a highly classified assessment carried out by the ] (DIA) and the ] in 2013 was that Turkey had effectively transformed the secret US arms programme in support of moderate rebels, who no longer existed, into an indiscriminate programme to provide technical and logistical support for all elements of the opposition, including Jabhat al-Nusra and Islamic State.<ref name =SHersh>], ],Vol. 38 No. 1,7 January 2016 pp.11-14.</ref>

== Political opposition ==

=== Syrian National Coalition ===
{{Main article|National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces}}
] members in ], 11 November 2012. In center, president ], along with VPs ] and ], as well as all ] chairmen ], ] and ].]]
On 11 November 2012 in Doha, the National Council and other opposition groups united as the ].<ref name="usatoday1">{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2012/11/11/syrian-opposition-deal/1697693/|title=Syrian opposition groups reach unity deal |work=USA Today |date=11 November 2012|accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> The following day, it was recognized as the legitimate government of Syria by numerous ] states. Delegates to the Coalition's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jim Muir |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20295857 |title=Syria crisis: Gulf states recognise Syria opposition |publisher=BBC|date=12 November 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing the ] government and "its symbols and pillars of support", "dismantling the security services", unifying and supporting the ], refusing dialogue and negotiation with the al-Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying , and displacing ".<ref>{{cite web| title =The National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces| publisher =] | date =12 November 2012 |url=http://www.lccsyria.org/10488| accessdate =20 November 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6CIpu8And |archivedate=19 November 2012|deadurl=no }}</ref>


Local ] commanders often engaged "in ] through protection rackets, looting and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.<ref name=ISW>{{cite web |url=http://iswsyria.blogspot.co.uk/2015/05/the-regimes-military-capabilities-part-1.html |title=The Regime's Military Capabilities: Part 1 |publisher=ISW |last=Kozak |first=Christopher |date=26 May 2015 |access-date=31 May 2015 |quote=Local NDF commanders often engage in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and organized crime. NDF members have been implicated in waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings, and extortions throughout regime-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527120304/http://iswsyria.blogspot.co.uk/2015/05/the-regimes-military-capabilities-part-1.html |archive-date=27 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== Reporting, censoring and propaganda ==
{{Main article|Reporting, censoring and propaganda in the Syrian Civil War}}


Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings.<ref name="Organized crime">{{cite web |last=Asher |first=Berman |title=Criminalization of the Syrian Conflict |url=http://www.understandingwar.org/article/criminalization-syrian-conflict |work=Institute for the Study of War |access-date=27 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018102104/http://understandingwar.org/article/criminalization-syrian-conflict |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Rebel forces sometimes rely on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. ] in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, theft and kidnapping.<ref name="Organized crime"/>
== International reaction ==
{{Main article|International reactions to the Syrian Civil War|Vetoed UN resolutions on Syria}}


Syria has become the chief location for manufacturing ], an illegal ]. Drugs manufactured in Syria have found their way across the Gulf, Jordan and Europe but have at times been intercepted. In January 2022, a Jordanian army officer was shot and killed and three army personnel injured after a shoot out erupted between drug smugglers and the army. The Jordanian army has said that it shot down a drone in 2021 that was being used to smuggle a substantial amount of drugs across the Jordanian border.<ref>{{Cite news|date=16 January 2022|title=Jordan army officer killed in shooting along border with Syria -army statement|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/jordan-army-officer-killed-three-injured-shooting-along-border-with-syria-army-2022-01-16/|access-date=18 January 2022|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118215205/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/jordan-army-officer-killed-three-injured-shooting-along-border-with-syria-army-2022-01-16/|url-status=live}}</ref>
] (U.S.) speaks at a ] urgent debate on Syria, February 2012]]


=== Epidemics ===
The ], ], the United Nations,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011318231622114396.html |title=UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests |publisher=Al Jazeera|date=18 March 2011}}</ref> and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise ].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2011/113.aspx?lang=eng | title=Minister Cannon Condemns Ongoing Violence in Yemen, Bahrain and Syria | publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada | date=21 March 2011 | accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref> Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted they switched to a more balanced approach, criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the ] suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted ] resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15177114|title=China and Russia veto UN resolution condemning Syria|publisher=BBC|date=5 October 2011}}</ref> China is deeply troubled by Turkey's assistance in helping ] jihadi fighters from the ] move to Syria.<ref name="SHersh" />
{{Further|COVID-19 pandemic in Syria}}
The ] has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a disease risk to countries to which they have fled.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-22766084 |title=WHO warns of Syria disease threat |publisher=BBC |date=4 June 2013 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930214050/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-22766084 |archive-date=30 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Four hundred thousand civilians were isolated by the ] from April 2013 to April 2018, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United Nations Special Advisor, ], who urged the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also isolated in the ] refugee camp between Syria and Jordan, where humanitarian relief access is difficult due to the harsh desert conditions. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking three months between shipments.<ref>United Nations. (9 November 2017). "Syrian conflict has now lasted longer than World War II – UN humanitarian envoy". {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211233433/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58062 |date=11 December 2017}}. Retrieved 10 December 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/rukban-camp-syria-receives-aid-3-months-190207175321262.html |title=Rukban camp in Syria receives first aid in three months |access-date=17 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321014358/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/rukban-camp-syria-receives-aid-3-months-190207175321262.html |archive-date=21 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Formerly rare ]s have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor ] and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and the disfiguring ] ]. Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling ]. As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to ], sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".<ref name=Suppressed>{{Cite journal |last=Sparrow |first=Annie |title=Syria's Polio Epidemic: The Suppressed Truth |journal=New York Review |date=20 February 2014 |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/feb/20/syrias-polio-epidemic-suppressed-truth/?insrc=hpma |access-date=23 January 2014 |quote=Even before the uprising, in areas considered politically unsympathetic like Deir Ezzor, the government stopped maintaining sanitation and safe-water services, and began withholding routine immunizations for preventable childhood diseases. Once the war began, the government started ruthless attacks on civilians in opposition-held areas, forcing millions to seek refuge in filthy, crowded, and cold conditions. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125214019/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/feb/20/syrias-polio-epidemic-suppressed-truth/?insrc=hpma |archive-date=25 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== Humanitarian help ==
{{Main article|Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war}}


In June 2020, the ] reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the ]. As of 26 June, a total of 248 people were infected by COVID-19, out of which nine people died. Restrictions on the importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its population. Syrian communities were additionally facing unprecedented levels of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1067252|title=Syrians 'face unprecedented hunger amid impending COVID crisis'|access-date=26 June 2020|website=UN News|date=26 June 2020|archive-date=28 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628084132/https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1067252|url-status=live}}</ref>
The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency—the stunning $6.5bn request of December 2013.<ref name="RW aid record">{{cite web | title = UN launches biggest humanitarian appeal, fearing deepening of Syrian crisis | url = http://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/un-launches-biggest-humanitarian-appeal-fearing-deepening-syrian-crisis | website = ] | date = 16 December 2013 | accessdate = 28 July 2015 }}</ref> The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food.<ref name="UNNC 26Mar2015">{{cite web | title = Syria crisis 'worsening' amid humanitarian funding shortfall, warns top UN relief official | url = http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=50436 | website = UN News Centre | date = 26 March 2015 | accessdate = 28 July 2015 }}</ref>


In September 2022, the UN representative in Syria reported that several regions in the country were witnessing a ] outbreak. UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator Imran Riza called for an urgent response to contain the outbreak, saying that it posed "a serious threat to people in Syria". The outbreak was linked to the use of contaminated water for growing crops and the reliance of people on unsafe water sources.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/cholera-outbreak-syria-poses-serious-threat-un-2022-09-13/|title=Cholera outbreak in Syria poses serious threat, U.N. says|access-date=13 September 2022|website=Reuters|date=13 September 2022|archive-date=13 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913132030/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/cholera-outbreak-syria-poses-serious-threat-un-2022-09-13/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the ] (UNOCHA) in accordance with ] Resolution 46/182.<ref>United Nations General Assembly Resolution 182 session 46 ''Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations on 19 December 1991''</ref> The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for USD $1.41&nbsp;billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict.<ref>. Retrieved 18 September 2013.</ref> Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syria.unocha.org/|title=Syrian Arab Republic|publisher=United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)}}</ref> UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need. It has launched a vaccination campaign to eradicate polio from the region, as 17 cases have come up since the war broke over three years ago.


=== Humanitarian aid ===
{{Main|Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war}}
] ]
The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, $6.5{{nbs}}billion worth of requests of December 2013.<ref name="RW aid record">{{cite web |title=UN launches biggest humanitarian appeal, fearing deepening of Syrian crisis |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/un-launches-biggest-humanitarian-appeal-fearing-deepening-syrian-crisis |website=] |date=16 December 2013 |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201135117/http://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/un-launches-biggest-humanitarian-appeal-fearing-deepening-syrian-crisis |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the ] (UNOCHA) in accordance with ] Resolution 46/182.<ref>United Nations General Assembly Resolution 182 session 46 ''Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations on 19 December 1991''</ref> The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for US$1.41{{nbs}}billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916000153/http://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/revised-syria-humanitarian-assistance-response-plan-sharp-january |date=16 September 2013}}. Retrieved 18 September 2013.</ref> Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syria.unocha.org/ |title=Syrian Arab Republic |publisher=United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) |access-date=18 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109203428/http://syria.unocha.org/ |archive-date=9 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need. Financial information on the response to the SHARP and assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE and Norway.<ref>{{cite web |work=UNOCHA |department=Financial Tracking Service |url=http://fts.unocha.org/pageloader.aspx?page=emerg-emergencyDetails&emergID=16303|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121210732/http://fts.unocha.org/pageloader.aspx?page=emerg-emergencyDetails&emergID=16303|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 January 2013 |title=Syrian Arab Republic – Civil Unrest 2013 |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>


] and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385&nbsp;million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States is providing food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/where-we-work/syria |title=USAID/SYRIA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502071344/http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/where-we-work/syria |archivedate=2 May 2013 }}</ref> ] has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irusa.org/emergencies/syrian-humanitarian-relief/|title=SYRIAN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF}}</ref> The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food.<ref name="UNNC 26Mar2015">{{cite web |title=Syria crisis 'worsening' amid humanitarian funding shortfall, warns top UN relief official |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=50436 |publisher=UN News Centre |date=26 March 2015 |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724002123/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=50436 |archive-date=24 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> ] and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385{{nbs}}million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/where-we-work/syria |title=USAID/SYRIA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502071344/http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/where-we-work/syria |archive-date=2 May 2013}}</ref> ] has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irusa.org/emergencies/syrian-humanitarian-relief/ |title=SYRIAN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF |access-date=29 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424123556/http://www.irusa.org/emergencies/syrian-humanitarian-relief/ |archive-date=24 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130303/iran-sending-tonnes-flour-daily-syria-report|title=Iran sending tonnes of flour daily to Syria: report|agency=Agence France-Presse |date=3 March 2013}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref> Israel has provided treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in ]. Rebels say that 250 of their fighters received medical treatment there.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/world/revealed-how-syrian-rebels-seek-medical-help-from-an-unlikely-source-in-israel|title=Revealed: how Syrian rebels seek medical help from an unlikely source in Israel|date=12 January 2014|accessdate=17 January 2014}}</ref> On 26 April 2013, a humanitarian convoy, inspired by ], departed from Turkey to Syria. Called ''Hayat'' ("Life"), it is set to deliver aid items to ] inside Syria and refugees in neighboring countries: Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt. Syrian refugees make up one quarter of Lebanon's population, mostly consisting of women and children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=107584|title=Humanitarian aid convoy departs to help Syrian refugees|date=27 April 2013}}</ref> In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN10A0IM|title=Scores of families leave besieged Aleppo under Russia-Damascus plan|date=2016-07-30|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=2016-08-04}}</ref> Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130303/iran-sending-tonnes-flour-daily-syria-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306012357/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130303/iran-sending-tonnes-flour-daily-syria-report |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 March 2013 |title=Iran sending tonnes of flour daily to Syria: report |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=3 March 2013 }}</ref> Israel supplied aid through ], providing medical treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in ] where rebels say that 250 of their fighters were treated.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/world/revealed-how-syrian-rebels-seek-medical-help-from-an-unlikely-source-in-israel|title=Revealed: how Syrian rebels seek medical help from an unlikely source in Israel|date=12 January 2014|access-date=17 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219201141/http://www.thenational.ae/world/revealed-how-syrian-rebels-seek-medical-help-from-an-unlikely-source-in-israel|archive-date=19 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Israel established two medical centers inside Syria. Israel also delivered ], ], seven electric ], water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food, ]s, shoes and clothing. ] make up one quarter of ], mostly consisting of women and children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=107584 |title=Humanitarian aid convoy departs to help Syrian refugees |date=27 April 2013 |access-date=29 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513184120/http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=107584 |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN10A0IM |title=Scores of families leave besieged Aleppo under Russia-Damascus plan |date=30 July 2016 |work=Reuters |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803211733/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN10A0IM |archive-date=3 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>


On 9 April 2020, the UN dispatched 51 truckloads of humanitarian aid to ]. The organization said that the aid would be distributed among civilians stranded in the northwestern part of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/un-sends-humanitarian-aid-to-idlib-nw-syria/1780581|title=UN sends humanitarian aid to Idlib, NW Syria|access-date=9 April 2020|website=Anadolu Agency|archive-date=12 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412122228/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/un-sends-humanitarian-aid-to-idlib-nw-syria/1780581|url-status=live}}</ref>
The ] has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service and, depending upon the region, up to 70% of health care professionals have fled. Cases of ] and ] have increased by more than twofold since the beginning of 2013. Due to fighting, the normal vaccination programs cannot be undertaken. The displaced refugees may also pose a risk to countries to which they have fled.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-22766084 |title=WHO warns of Syria disease threat |publisher=BBC |date=4 June 2013}}</ref>


On 30 April 2020, ] condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction on the entry of aid supplies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/28/syria-aid-restrictions-hinder-covid-19-response|title=Syria: Aid Restrictions Hinder Covid-19 Response|access-date=28 April 2020|website=Human Rights Watch|date=28 April 2020|archive-date=29 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429065050/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/28/syria-aid-restrictions-hinder-covid-19-response|url-status=live}}</ref> It also demanded the ] to keep pushing the UN to allow medical aid and other essentials to reach Syria via the Iraq border crossing, to prevent the spread of ] in the war-torn nation. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect themselves from contracting the COVID-19 virus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/30/who-should-stand-appeal-cross-border-aid-syria|title=WHO Should Stand By Appeal for Cross-Border Aid to Syria|access-date=30 April 2020|website=Human Rights Watch|date=30 April 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819152254/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/30/who-should-stand-appeal-cross-border-aid-syria|url-status=live}}</ref>
Financial information on the response to the SHARP, as well as assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations, can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As at 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were: United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE, and Norway.<ref>{{cite web|author=UNOCHA|work=Financial Tracking Service|url=http://fts.unocha.org/pageloader.aspx?page=emerg-emergencyDetails&emergID=16303|title=Syrian Arab Republic – Civil Unrest 2013|accessdate=19 September 2015}}</ref>


==== 2019 UN cross-border aid dispute ====
== Foreign involvement ==
As of December 2019, a diplomatic dispute is occurring at the UN over re-authorization of cross-border aid for refugees. China and Russia oppose the draft resolution that seeks to re-authorize crossing points in Turkey, Iraq and Jordan; China and Russia, as allies of Assad, seek to close the two crossing points in Iraq and Jordan, and to leave only the two crossing points in Turkey active.<ref name="un refugees">{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/191219064903066.html|title=Clash at UN Security Council over cross-border aid for Syria |date=19 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219144720/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/191219064903066.html|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> The current authorization expired on 10 January 2020.<ref name="UN report 1-2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2020-01/syria-15.php|title=Syria, January 2020 Monthly Forecast: Security Council Report|website=securitycouncilreport.org|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231020315/https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2020-01/syria-15.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Main article|Foreign involvement in the Syrian Civil War|Foreign rebel fighters in the Syrian Civil War}}


All of the ten individuals representing the non-permanent members of the Security Council stood in the corridor outside of the chamber speaking to the press to state that all four crossing points are crucial and must be renewed.<ref name="un refugees"/>
[[File:SyrianCivilWarMap.png|thumb|300px|Map of countries surrounding Syria (red) with military involvement.


United Nations official ] is asking the UN to re-authorize cross-border aid to enable aid to continue to reach refugees in Syria. He says there is no other way to deliver the aid that is needed. He noted that four million refugees out of the over eleven million refugees who need assistance are being reached through four specific international crossing points. Lowcock serves as the United Nations ] and the Head of the ].<ref name="UN VOA 12/2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/un-ability-get-lifesaving-aid-4-million-syrians-risk|title=UN: Ability to Get Lifesaving Aid to 4 Million Syrians at Risk |date=19 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219142307/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/un-ability-get-lifesaving-aid-4-million-syrians-risk|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=19 December 2019}}</ref>
{{legend|Red|Syria}}


Russia, aided by China's support, has vetoed the resolution to retain all four border crossings. An alternate resolution also did not pass.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-un/russia-backed-by-china-casts-14th-u-n-veto-on-syria-to-block-cross-border-aid-idUSKBN1YO23V|title=Russia, backed by China, casts 14th U.N. veto on Syria to block cross-border aid – Reuters|newspaper=Reuters|date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223150638/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-un/russia-backed-by-china-casts-14th-u-n-veto-on-syria-to-block-cross-border-aid-idUSKBN1YO23V|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=23 December 2019|last1=Nichols|first1=Michelle}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/e3d23c9f8ecdb2a146b55f3464d15660|title=UN defeats rival resolutions to keep Syria cross-border aid|website=]|date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223150640/https://apnews.com/e3d23c9f8ecdb2a146b55f3464d15660|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=23 December 2019}}</ref> The US strongly criticized the vetoes and opposition by Russia and China.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223151013/https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2019/12/22/us-slams-china-russia-veto-on-humanitarian-aid-to-syria |date=23 December 2019 }}. ''Daily Sabah'' with AFP, Istanbul, 22 December 2019.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224023758/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2019/12/21/russia-china-block-extension-of-syria-cross-border-aid |date=24 December 2019 }}, alaraby.co.uk</ref> China explained the reason for veto is the concern of "unilateral coercive measures" by certain states causing humanitarian suffering on the Syrian people. It views lifting all unilateral sanctions respecting Syrian sovereignty and for humanitarian reasons is a must.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Letter dated 8 July 2020 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General and the Permanent Representatives of the members of the Security Council|url=https://undocs.org/en/S/2020/661|access-date=19 May 2021|website=undocs.org|language=en|archive-date=19 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519112635/https://undocs.org/en/S/2020/661|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{legend|blue|Countries that support the Syrian government}}


== Cultural impact ==
{{legend|Green|Countries that support the Syrian rebels}}{{Legend|Yellow|Countries that are in a similar conflict}}]]
{{Main|Tourism in Syria|List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian civil war|Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State}}
Both the Syrian government and the opposition have received support, militarily and diplomatically, from foreign countries leading the conflict to often be described as a ]. The major parties supporting the Syrian Government are ]. Both of these are involved in the war politically and logistically by providing military equipment, training and battle troops. The Syrian government has also received arms from Russia and ] support directly from ],<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/.premium-1.619664 |title= Russia commanded spy operation against Israeli forces and Syria rebels, footage shows |first= Anshel|last=Pfeffer | publisher=Haaretz|quote= |date=7 October 2014|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> in addition to significant political ].<ref>, CNN, 30 August 2013</ref>
{{See also|Syrian civil war in popular culture}}
] in Palmyra, which was destroyed by ISIL in August 2015]]
{{As of|March 2015}}, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24.{{update inline|date=November 2020}} Five of the six UNESCO ]s in Syria have been damaged.<ref name=aljazeera-3-17-2015>{{cite news |last1=Al Rifai |first1=Diana |last2=Haddad |first2=Mohammed |title=What's left of Syria? |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2015/03/left-syria-150317133753354.html |access-date=21 March 2015 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=17 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320054413/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2015/03/left-syria-150317133753354.html |archive-date=20 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Destruction of antiquities has been caused by ], army entrenchment, and ] at various ], museums and monuments.<ref>Cunliffe, Emma. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710192645/http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_2107.pdf |date=10 July 2012}}. ] and the ]. 1 May 2012.</ref> A group called ] is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of ] and architecture.<ref>Fisk, Robert. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310174644/http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-syrias-ancient-treasures-pulverised-8007768.html |date=10 March 2015}}. ''The Independent''. 5 August 2012.</ref>


UNESCO listed all six Syria's World Heritage Sites as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the ] was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while ] and ] suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/world/middleeast/syrian-war-takes-heavy-toll-at-a-crossroad-of-cultures.html |title=Syrian War Takes Heavy Toll at a Crossroad of Cultures |date=16 April 2014 |access-date=18 April 2014 |work=The New York Times |first=Anne |last=Barnard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417235247/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/world/middleeast/syrian-war-takes-heavy-toll-at-a-crossroad-of-cultures.html |archive-date=17 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The main Syrian opposition body – the Syrian coalition – receives political, logistic and military support from the ], Britain and France.<ref name=memmott>{{cite news|last=Memmott|first=Mark|title=As Talks Continue, CIA Gets Some Weapons To Syrian Rebels|url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/09/13/222020019/as-talks-continue-cia-gets-some-weapons-to-syrian-rebels|accessdate=10 December 2013|publisher=National Public Radio|date=13 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=marcus>{{cite news|last=Marcus|first=Jonathon|title=Syria conflict: UK to give extra £5m to opposition groups|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19205204|accessdate=10 December 2013|publisher=BBC News|date=10 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=France's Hollande hints at arming Syrian rebels|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130920-france-says-ready-arm-syrian-rebels-hollande-assad-fsa-islamists|accessdate=10 December 2013|publisher=France24|date=20 September 2013}}</ref> Some Syrian rebels get ] at bases in ], ] and ].<ref name="wsj">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-concludes-russia-targeting-cia-backed-rebels-in-syria-1444088319|title=U.S. Sees Russian Drive Against CIA-Backed Rebels in Syria – WSJ|publisher=wsj.com|accessdate=21 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=bbc-20141113>{{cite AV media |url=http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/radio4/fooc/fooc_20141113-1200b.mp3 |time=11:41 |title=The Missing Students |author=] |publisher=BBC Radio 4 |work=From Our Own Correspondent |date=13 November 2014 |accessdate=14 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=frontline-20140526>{{cite news |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/foreign-affairs-defense/syria-at-war/syrian-rebels-describe-u-s-backed-training-in-qatar/ |title=Syrian Rebels Describe U.S.-Backed Training in Qatar |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |work=FRONTLINE |date=26 May 2014 |accessdate=14 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=First Syria rebels armed and trained by CIA 'on way to battlefield' |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10283758/First-Syria-rebels-armed-and-trained-by-CIA-on-way-to-battlefield.html |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |author=Raf Sanchez |date=3 September 2013 |accessdate=14 November 2014 |location=London}}</ref> ] and ] have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of $1&nbsp;billion a year since 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. has secretly provided arms training to Syria rebels since 2012 |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jun/21/world/la-fg-cia-syria-20130622 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date= 21 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Secret CIA effort in Syria faces large funding cut |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/lawmakers-move-to-curb-1-billion-cia-program-to-train-syrian-rebels/2015/06/12/b0f45a9e-1114-11e5-adec-e82f8395c032_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date= 12 June 2015}}</ref> The Syrian coalition also receives logistic and political support from Sunni states, most notably Turkey, Qatar and Saudi Arabia; all the three major supporting states however have not contributed any troops for direct involvement in the war, though Turkey was involved in border incidents with the Syrian Army. The ''Financial Times'' and ''The Independent'' reported that ] had funded the Syrian rebellion by as much as $3&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/too-late-the-sponsors-of-ideology-find-they-have-made-a-monster-9687723.html |title=Meet the Frankenstein monster of Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Or as we know them, Isis |author=] |newspaper=The Independent |date=24 August 2014 |location=London}}</ref><ref name=ft-20130516>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html |title=Qatar bankrolls Syrian revolt with cash and arms |author1=Roula Khalaf |author2=Abigail Fielding Smith |lastauthoramp=yes |newspaper=Financial Times |date=16 May 2013 |accessdate=3 June 2013}} {{subscription required}}</ref> It reported that Qatar was offering refugee packages of about $50,000 a year to defectors and family.<ref name=ft-20130516 /> ] has emerged as the main group to finance and arm the rebels.<ref>"". Reuters. 31 May 2013</ref>


In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State, several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a ]. In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the ] and ], many tombs including the ] and part of the ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Palmyra's Temple of Bel destroyed, says UN |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34111092 |access-date=3 September 2015 |work=BBC News |date=1 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903005143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34111092 |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The 13th-century ] was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the ] in March 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Said |first1=H. |last2=Raslan |first2=Rasha |last3=Sabbagh |first3=Hazem |title=Palmyra Castle partially damaged due to ISIS acts, plans to restore it to its former glory |url=http://sana.sy/en/?p=72903 |agency=] |date=26 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327133431/http://sana.sy/en/?p=72903 |archive-date=27 March 2016}}</ref> IS also destroyed ancient statues in ],<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats to Cultural Heritage in Iraq and Syria |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/232028.htm |website=US Department of State |access-date=3 September 2015 |date=23 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121130323/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/232028.htm |archive-date=21 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> and a number of churches, including the ] in ].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hayrumyan |first1=Naira |title=Middle East Terror: Memory of Armenian Genocide victims targeted by ISIS militants |url=http://www.armenianow.com/commentary/analysis/57070/armenia_church_syria_isis_aram_catholicos |access-date=3 September 2015 |work=] |date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905144120/http://www.armenianow.com/commentary/analysis/57070/armenia_church_syria_isis_aram_catholicos |archive-date=5 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
French television France 24 reported that the ], with perhaps 3,000 foreign jihadists among its ranks,<ref>"". '']''. 14 June 2014.</ref> "receives private donations from the ]."<ref>"". ].</ref> It is estimated ISIL has sold oil for between $1m-4m per day principally to Turkish buyers, during at least six months in 2013, greatly helping its growth.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/26/isis-syria-turkey-us|title=Turkey sends in jets as Syria's agony spills over every border|date=26 July 2015|accessdate=7 September 2015}}</ref> The Turkish government has been also accused of helping ISIL by turning a blind eye to illegal transfers of weapons, fighters, oil and pillaged antiquities across the southern border.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/turkey-created-a-monster-and-doesnt-know-how-to-deal-with-it-2015-2|title=Turkey 'created a monster and doesn't know how to deal with it'|date=19 February 2015|accessdate=7 September 2015}}</ref>


In January 2018 Turkish airstrikes seriously damaged an ancient Neo-] temple in Syria's Kurdish-held ] region. It was built by the ] in the first millennium BC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42858265|title=Turkish strikes 'damage ancient temple'|date=29 January 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=30 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129222239/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42858265|archive-date=29 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a September 2019 report published by the ], more than 120 Christian churches have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/report-over-120-syrian-churches-damaged-by-war-since-2011-146451 |title= Report: Over 120 Syrian churches damaged by war since 2011 |date= 10 September 2019 |access-date= 10 September 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190915161623/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/report-over-120-syrian-churches-damaged-by-war-since-2011-146451 |archive-date= 15 September 2019 |url-status= live}}</ref>
{{as of|2015}}, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey are openly backing the ], an umbrella rebel group that reportedly includes an ] linked ] and another ] coalition known as ], and ], a coalition of ]-linked rebel groups.<ref name="Kim Sengupta" /><ref name="Gulf allies and Army of Conquest" /><ref name="news.yahoo.com" /> The major Syrian Kurdish opposition group, the PYD, was reported to get logistic and training support from ].


The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at the ] showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Batty |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/22/syria-art-smuggled-exhibition-london-uk |title=Syrian art smuggled from the midst of civil war to show in London |work=The Guardian |date=22 June 2013 |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118114601/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/22/syria-art-smuggled-exhibition-london-uk |archive-date=18 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
On 21 August 2014, two days after US photojournalist ] was beheaded, the ] admitted a covert rescue attempt involving dozens of ] had been made to rescue Americans and other foreigners held captive in Syria by ISIL militants. The rescue attempt is the first known US military ground action inside Syria. The resultant gunfight resulted in one US soldier being injured. The rescue was unsuccessful as the captives were not in the location targeted.


As a result of the war many children's books have been published surrounding themes and stories of Syrian children of war. Some examples of this would be ''Tomorrow'' by Nadine Kaadan, ''My Beautiful Birds'' by Suzanne del Rizzo and ''Nowhere Boy'' by ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=lbreiseth |date=4 May 2017 |title=Syrian Stories: Books for Children and Teens |url=https://www.colorincolorado.org/booklist/syrian-stories-books-children |access-date=7 October 2024 |website=www.colorincolorado.org |language=en}}</ref>
On 11 September 2014 the US Congress expressed support to give President Obama the $500&nbsp;million he wanted to arm and train moderate Syrian rebels. The question of whether the president has authority to continue airstrikes beyond the 60-day window granted by the War Powers Resolution remained unresolved.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sherfinski|first1=David|title=Both sides of Congress have own red lines for Obama's action in Syria|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/sep/11/both-sides-of-congress-have-own-red-lines-for-obam/|work=Washington Times|accessdate=11 September 2014}}</ref>{{dated-inline|2015|12|6}}


== Media coverage ==
On 12 September, US Secretary of State John Kerry met Turkish leaders to secure backing for US-led action against ISIL, but Ankara showed reluctance to play a frontline role. Kerry stated that it was "not appropriate" for Iran to join talks on confronting ISIL.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Reuters|first1=Presidential press Office|title=Kerry opposes Iran role in anti-Islamic State coalition|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/13/us-iraq-crisis-kerry-idUSKBN0H71UP20140913|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=13 September 2014|date=13 September 2014}}</ref>
{{Main|Media coverage of the Syrian civil war}}
The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-12-19/syrias-war-may-be-most-documented-ever-and-yet-we-know-so-little |title=Syria's war may be the most documented ever. And yet, we know so little. |publisher=PRI |date=19 December 2016 |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304115121/https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-12-19/syrias-war-may-be-most-documented-ever-and-yet-we-know-so-little |archive-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=live}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/st/c/prod/eng/2016/news/03/syria/ |title=Five years in Syria: History's most documented war |work=Haaretz |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312052613/http://www.haaretz.com/st/c/prod/eng/2016/news/03/syria/ |archive-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>


=== ISIL executions ===
The plans revealed in September also involve Iraq in targeting ISIL. US warplanes have launched 158 strikes in Iraq over the past five weeks while emphasizing a relatively narrow set of targets. The Pentagon's press secretary, John Kirby, said the air campaign in Iraq, which began 8 Aug, will enter a more aggressive phase.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Burns|first1=Robert|title=Strikes in Iraq, Syria expected under new war plan|url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_ISLAMIC_STATE_WHAT_COMES_NEXT?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2014-09-13-04-48-28|work=Associated Press|accessdate=13 September 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915204359/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_ISLAMIC_STATE_WHAT_COMES_NEXT?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2014-09-13-04-48-28|archivedate=15 September 2014}}</ref>
On 19 August 2014, American journalist ] was executed by ISIL, who said it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by ] militia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbur.org/2013/05/03/foley-family-syrian-prison |title=N.H. Family: Missing Journalist James Foley In Syrian Prison |first=Curt |last=Nickisch |date=3 May 2013 |publisher=WBUR |access-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006105946/http://www.wbur.org/2013/05/03/foley-family-syrian-prison |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ISIL also threatened to execute ], who was kidnapped at the Syrian–Turkish border in August 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thewire.com/global/2014/08/isil-beheads-photojournalist-james-wright-foley/378802/ |title=ISIL Beheads American Photojournalist James Foley |first=Polly |last=Mosendz |work=The Wire |access-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928073108/http://www.thewire.com/global/2014/08/isil-beheads-photojournalist-james-wright-foley/378802/ |archive-date=28 September 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/20/islamic-state-isis-foreign-hostages-syria-aleppo?CMP=twt_gu |title=Islamic State militants seize four more foreign hostages in Syria |first=Martin |last=Chulov |work=The Guardian |date=20 August 2014 |access-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009035842/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/20/islamic-state-isis-foreign-hostages-syria-aleppo?CMP=twt_gu |archive-date=9 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpj.org/2014/08/james-foleys-killers-pose-many-threats-to-local-in.php |title=James Foley's killers pose many threats to local, international journalists |publisher=] |date=20 August 2014 |access-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821181102/https://cpj.org/2014/08/james-foleys-killers-pose-many-threats-to-local-in.php |archive-date=21 August 2014}}</ref> On 22 August 2014, the ] released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Aug-23/268253-captured-soldiers-they-will-kill-us-if-hezbollah-remains-in-syria.ashx |title=Captured soldiers: They will kill us, if Hezbollah remains in Syria |work=The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon |date=23 August 2014 |access-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006142104/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Aug-23/268253-captured-soldiers-they-will-kill-us-if-hezbollah-remains-in-syria.ashx |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>


== International reactions and diplomacy ==
On the other hand, initial refusal from the West to support the Syrian liberal opposition has contributed to the emergence of extremist Sunni groups. These include ISIL and the Nusra Front, linked to al-Qaeda.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fanack|title=Regional Opposition to US Policies in the Middle East|url=https://chronicle.fanack.com/specials/international-affairs/regional-opposition-to-us-policies-in-the-middle-east/|website=Fanack.com|accessdate=13 July 2015}}</ref>
{{Main|International reactions to the Syrian civil war}}
{{See also|Vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions on Syria}}
] (US) speaks at a ] urgent debate on Syria, February 2012]]


During the early period of the civil war, The ], ], the United Nations<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011318231622114396.html |title=UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=2 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130034801/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011318231622114396.html |archive-date=30 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2011/113.aspx?lang=eng |title=Minister Cannon Condemns Ongoing Violence in Yemen, Bahrain and Syria |publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=7 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626130505/http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2011/113.aspx?lang=eng |archive-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the ] suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted ] resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15177114 |title=China and Russia veto UN resolution condemning Syria |publisher=BBC |date=5 October 2011 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930172947/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15177114 |archive-date=30 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
American and Turkish militaries announced a joint plan to remove Islamic State militants from a 60-mile strip along the Turkish border.<ref>{{cite news|title = Turkey Agrees to Assist U.S. With Airstrikes Against ISIS|url = http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/06/12/world/middleeast/the-iraq-isis-conflict-in-maps-photos-and-video.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 12 June 2014|access-date = 7 October 2015|issn = 0362-4331}}</ref>


=== Economic sanctions ===
Soufan Group has estimate a total of 27,000-31,000 foreign fighters from 86 countries who have travelled to Syria and Iraq to join extremist groups by December 2015.<ref>{{cite report|title=Foreign Fighters – An Updated Assessment of the Flow of Foreign Fighters into Syria and Iraq|url=http://soufangroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/TSG_ForeignFightersUpdate3.pdf|publisher=Soufan Group|date=December 2015|accessdate=12 December 2015}}</ref>
{{See also|Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act|Syria–United States relations#Economic sanctions}}
The ] has enacted punitive sanctions on the Syrian government for its actions during the Civil War. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any companies operating in Syria.<ref name="sanctions mansour">{{cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-sanctions-caesar-bill-economy-dependency-iran.html|title=Could Congress' latest Syria sanctions bill backfire?|last=Mansour|first=Aiman|date=26 December 2019|website=Al-Monitor|language=en|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231061334/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-sanctions-caesar-bill-economy-dependency-iran.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://brief.kharon.com/updates/us-adds-bevy-of-sanctions-in-defense-authorization-law/|title=U.S. Adds Bevy of Sanctions in Defense Authorization Law |website=Kharon |language=en|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230151053/https://brief.kharon.com/updates/us-adds-bevy-of-sanctions-in-defense-authorization-law/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/syria-prepares-massive-offensive-us-votes-new-sanctions-assad-russia-iran-1477752|title=Syria prepares for a major offensive as the U.S. votes for new sanctions on Assad, Russia and Iran |last=O'Connor |first=Tom |date=17 December 2019|website=Newsweek|language=en|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230124207/https://www.newsweek.com/syria-prepares-massive-offensive-us-votes-new-sanctions-assad-russia-iran-1477752|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/whats-caesar-act-donald-trumps-738bn-defence-policy-bill|title=What's the 'Caesar Act' in Trump's $738bn defence policy bill?|website=Middle East Eye|language=en|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114213101/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/whats-caesar-act-donald-trumps-738bn-defence-policy-bill|url-status=live}}</ref> US President Donald Trump tried to protect the Turkish President Erdogan from the effects of such sanctions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.axios.com/trump-congress-turkey-sanctions-russia-aab99e82-0df8-4575-968c-923f6cf50fc9.html|title=Trump administration lays out case against Senate bill that would levy Turkey sanctions|website=Axios|date=23 December 2019 |language=en|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224013117/https://www.axios.com/trump-congress-turkey-sanctions-russia-aab99e82-0df8-4575-968c-923f6cf50fc9.html|url-status=live}}</ref>


Some activists welcomed this legislation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/us-congress-approves-measure-sweeping-sanctions-against-syrian-government|title=US Congress approves bill to impose sweeping sanctions against Syrian government|website=Middle East Eye|language=en|access-date=17 January 2020}}</ref> Some critics contend that these punitive sanctions are likely to backfire or have unintended consequences; they argue that ordinary Syrian people will have fewer economic resources due to these sanctions (and will thus need to rely more the Syrian government and its economic allies and projects), while the sanctions' impact on ruling political elites will be limited.<ref name="sanctions mansour"/><ref>{{cite news|first=Oula A.|last=Alrifai|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/12/29/assad-is-growing-stronger-under-trumps-nonexistent-syria-policy/|title=Assad is growing stronger under Trump's nonexistent Syria policy|newspaper=]|date=29 December 2019|access-date=31 December 2019|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230170214/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/12/29/assad-is-growing-stronger-under-trumps-nonexistent-syria-policy/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|first=Angus|last=McDowall|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-sanctions-idUSKCN1LI06Z|title=Long reach of U.S. sanctions hits Syria reconstruction|date=4 September 2018|work=Reuters|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=2 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402144253/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-sanctions-idUSKCN1LI06Z|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Impact ==


Mohammad al-Abdallah, executive director of ] (SJAC), said that the sanctions will likely hurt ordinary Syrian people, saying, "it is an almost unsolvable unfeasible equation. If they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/12/caesar-act-economic-chokehold-to-adjust-political-behavior/|title=Caesar Act: economic chokehold to adjust political behavior|date=25 December 2019|website=Enab Baladi|language=en-US|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226135938/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/12/caesar-act-economic-chokehold-to-adjust-political-behavior/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Deaths ===
{{Main article|Casualties of the Syrian Civil War}}


], the former UK Ambassador to Syria, said "...going forward, we're seeing more economic warfare. It seems that the US, having failed to change the regime in Syria by military force or by proxies, is tightening the economic screws and the main reason why the US is keeping hold of the production facilities in eastern Syria. So, the economic situation is becoming more and more serious and dire in Syria and it's a major reason why refugees are not going back."{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}
]


In June, US Secretary of State ] announced new economic sanctions on Syria targeting foreign business relations with the Syrian government. Under the ], the latest sanctions were to be imposed on 39 individuals and entities, including ], wife of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53076994|title=Syria war: New US sanctions target Assad government's foreign backers|work=BBC News|date=17 June 2020|access-date=17 June 2020|archive-date=18 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618140608/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53076994|url-status=live}}</ref>
Estimates of deaths in the conflict vary widely, with figures, per opposition activist groups, ranging from 140,200 to 470,000.<ref name=SOHR /><ref name="Violations Documenting Center">{{cite web|url=http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/home|title=Statistics for the number of martyrs|date=3 June 2013|publisher=Violations Documenting Center}}</ref><ref name="Violations Documenting Center1">{{cite web|url=http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/otherstatistics|title=Other statistics|date=3 June 2013|publisher=Violations Documenting Center}}</ref><ref name="shuhadamain">{{cite web |url=http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&|title=Syrian Martyrs |publisher=Free Syria |accessdate=2 May 2013}}</ref> On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been killed since the civil war began, with UN ] ] saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking."<ref name=deathtolljump>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/02/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |title=U.N.'s Syria death toll jumps dramatically to 60,000-plus|date=3 January 2013 | work=CNN}}</ref> Four months later, the UN's updated figure for the death toll had reached 80,000.<ref name=UN80000Dead>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22886730 |title=Syria death toll at least 93,000, says UN |publisher=BBC News |date= 13 June 2013}}</ref> On 13 June, the UN released an updated figure of people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for up to the end of April 2013. ], UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure." The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000.<ref name=UN>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofoman.com/News/Article-20325.aspx |title=More than 2,000 killed in Syria since Ramadan began |work=Times of Oman |date=25 July 2013 |accessdate=27 August 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130904081753/http://www.timesofoman.com:80/News/Article-20325.aspx |archivedate=4 September 2013 }}</ref><ref name=UN1>{{cite news|title=U.N. says Syria death toll has likely surpassed 100,000|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-death-toll-20130613,0,2953708.story|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=13 June 2013|first=Patrick J.|last=McDonnell}}</ref> Some areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in the city of ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21228039|title=Syria crisis: Solidarity amid suffering in Homs|publisher=BBC|date=29 January 2013|accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref>


On 17 June 2020, James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement, signalled that the ] could be hit with sanctions under the Caesar Act if it pushed ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2017-2021.state.gov/special-representative-for-syria-engagement-james-jeffrey-on-syria-caesar-act-designations/index.html|title=Special Representative for Syria Engagement James Jeffrey On Syria Caesar Act Designations|access-date=17 June 2020|website=United States Department of States|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225119/https://www.state.gov/special-representative-for-syria-engagement-james-jeffrey-on-syria-caesar-act-designations/|url-status=live}}</ref>
One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians.<ref>{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/11/06/173808/deaths-in-syria-down-from-peak.html |title=Deaths in Syria down from peak; army casualties outpacing rebels'|date=6 November 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> At least half of those confirmed killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including 52,290 government fighters and 29,080 rebels, with an additional 50,000 unconfirmed combatant deaths.<ref name=SOHR /> In addition, ] reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/405908|title=400 children killed in Syria unrest |publisher=Arab News|date=8 February 2012 |accessdate=28 January 2013|location=Geneva }}</ref> and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons;<ref name="npr">{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |publisher=NPR |date=3 February 2012 }}</ref> both of these claims have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html |work=The New York Times |first=Kareem |last=Fahim |title=Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says |date=5 January 2012|accessdate=12 March 2013 }}</ref> In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group ] reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/160978#.UH2WesU3tCg |title=Fighting Continues in Syria |publisher=Arutz Sheva|date=16 October 2012 |accessdate=25 October 2012}}</ref> and in March 2013, opposition sources stated that over 5,000 children had been killed.<ref name="Violations Documenting Center" /> In January 2014, ] was released detailing the systematic killing of more than 11,000 detainees of the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ian Black, Middle East editor |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/evidence-industrial-scale-killing-syria-war-crimes?view=desktop |title=Syrian regime document trove shows evidence of 'industrial scale' killing of detainees |publisher=Theguardian.com |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref>


=== 2019 negotiations ===
On 20 August 2014, a new U.N. study concluded that at least 191,369 people have died in the Syrian conflict.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/22/world/meast/syria-conflict/index.html?hpt=imi_c2|title=More than 191,000 dead in Syria conflict, U.N. finds – CNN.com|author=Laura Smith-Spark, CNN|date=22 August 2014|work=CNN|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref> The UN thereafter stopped collecting statistics, but a study by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research released in February 2016 estimated the death toll at 470,000, with 1.9m wounded (reaching a total of 11.5% of the entire population wounded or killed).<ref>{{Cite news|title = Report on Syria conflict finds 11.5% of population killed or injured|url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/11/report-on-syria-conflict-finds-115-of-population-killed-or-injured|newspaper = The Guardian|date = 11 February 2016|access-date = 11 February 2016|first = Ian|last = Black}}</ref>
{{Syrian peace process}}
{{Main|Syrian peace process|Syrian civil war ceasefires|Safe Zone (Syria)}}
]
During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations and other actors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lundgren |first=Magnus |year=2016 |title=Mediation in Syria: initiatives, strategies, and obstacles, 2011–2016 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303312425 |journal=Contemporary Security Policy |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=273–288 |doi=10.1080/13523260.2016.1192377 |s2cid=156447200 |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000757/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303312425_Mediation_in_Syria_Initiatives_strategies_and_obstacles_2011-2016 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with what it describes as armed terrorist groups.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0TU2F920151211 |title=Syria's Assad says he will not negotiate with armed groups |work=Reuters |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421124913/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0TU2F920151211 |archive-date=21 April 2017 |url-status=live}}<br/>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-election-idUSKCN0SJ05R20151025 |title=Assad's priority to defeat 'terrorism' before elections: Russian lawmaker |work=Reuters |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224201836/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-election-idUSKCN0SJ05R20151025 |archive-date=24 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks<ref name=reutersstart>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VA2OT |title=U.N. announces start of Syria peace talks as government troops advance |work=Reuters |access-date=2 February 2016 |date=1 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201232558/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VA2OT |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> that had been agreed on by the ] (ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks.<ref name="reuterssuspend">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-idUSKCN0VC2U7 |title=Envoy suspended Syria talks over Russian escalation: U.N. official |work=Reuters |access-date=4 February 2016 |date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205005150/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-idUSKCN0VC2U7 |archive-date=5 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government stated that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's President Bashar al-Assad said he hoped ] would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |work=Reuters |date=14 March 2016 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-russia-idUSKCN0WG24T |title=Syria's Assad says hopes Geneva talks lead to concrete results: Kremlin |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215045646/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-russia-idUSKCN0WG24T |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=live}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/03/syria-talks-tackle-bashar-al-assad-presidency-160313090906103.html |title=Syria talks to tackle Bashar al-Assad's presidency |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315183154/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/03/syria-talks-tackle-bashar-al-assad-presidency-160313090906103.html |archive-date=15 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>


A ] between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 2017 in ], Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the ] brokered in late December 2016.<ref name="astanatalks">{{cite news |title=Russian negotiator positive after 'birth' of Astana Syria |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-idUSKBN15820K |work=Reuters |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215042019/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-idUSKBN15820K |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Astana Process talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than replacement, of the United Nations-led Geneva Process talks.<ref name=astanatalks/> On 4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran and Turkey signed a memorandum whereby four "] zones" in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May 2017.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623161919/http://www.interfax.ru/world/561157 |date=23 June 2017}} Interfax, 4 May 2017.</ref><ref name="tassdealmay4">{{cite news |title=Russia, Turkey and Iran continue cooperation on de-escalation zones in Syria |url=http://tass.com/world/953004 |agency=TASS |date=23 June 2017 |access-date=23 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625131708/http://tass.com/world/953004 |archive-date=25 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Illness ===


On 18 September 2019, Russia stated the United States and Syrian rebels were obstructing the evacuation process of a refugee camp in southern Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/news/region/russia-accuses-us-syria-rebels-blocking-refugee-evacuation|title=Russia accuses US, Syria rebels of blocking refugee evacuation|date=18 September 2019|website=Jordan Times|language=en|access-date=19 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919182324/http://jordantimes.com/news/region/russia-accuses-us-syria-rebels-blocking-refugee-evacuation|archive-date=19 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Once-rare infectious diseases have spread in rebel held areas, primarily affecting children, brought on by the collapse of sanitation and deteriorating living conditions. These include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], (a disfiguring parasitic skin disease). Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling ] which as of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies report more than 90 cases of. Critics of the government complain that it has brought on the spread of disease by cutting off vaccination, sanitation and safe-water services to "areas considered politically unsympathetic" even before the uprising.<ref name=Suppressed>{{cite journal|last=Sparrow|first=Annie|title=Syria's Polio Epidemic: The Suppressed Truth|journal=New York Review|date=20 February 2014|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/feb/20/syrias-polio-epidemic-suppressed-truth/?insrc=hpma&utm_source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_term=*Mideast%20Brief&utm_campaign=Mideast%20Brief%201-22-2014|accessdate=23 January 2014|quote=Even before the uprising, in areas considered politically unsympathetic like Deir Ezzor, the government stopped maintaining sanitation and safe-water services, and began withholding routine immunizations for preventable childhood diseases. Once the war began, the government started ruthless attacks on civilians in opposition-held areas, forcing millions to seek refuge in filthy, crowded, and cold conditions.}}</ref>


On 28 September 2019, Syria's top diplomat demanded the foreign forces, including that of US and Turkey, to immediately leave the country, saying that the Syrian government holds the right to protect its territory in all possible ways if they remain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/6411303/syria-demands-us-turkish-forces-withdraw/|title=Syria demands US, Turkish forces withdraw|last=Batrawy|first=Aya|date=29 September 2019|website=Newcastle Herald|language=en|access-date=29 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929135050/https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/6411303/syria-demands-us-turkish-forces-withdraw/|archive-date=29 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Refugees ===
{{Main article|Refugees of the Syrian Civil War}}


President RT Erdogan said Turkey was left with no choice other than going its own way on the Syria 'safe zone' after a deadline to co-jointly establish a "safe zone" with the US in northern Syria expired in September.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://ahvalnews.com/turkey-defence/turkey-strengthen-efforts-syria-safe-zone-says-security-council|title=Turkey to strengthen efforts for Syria safe zone, says Security Council|website=Ahval|date=October 2019|language=en|access-date=1 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001135727/https://ahvalnews.com/turkey-defence/turkey-strengthen-efforts-syria-safe-zone-says-security-council|archive-date=1 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The US indicated it would withdraw its forces from northern Syria after Turkey warned of incursion in the region that could instigate fighting with American-backed Kurds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://moneymaven.io/mishtalk/economics/us-avoids-war-with-turkey-as-trump-pulls-troops-out-of-syria-5zYYLH8dQEmrvyZuU5KFbg/|title=US Avoids War With Turkey as Trump Pulls Troops Out of Syria|website=Mish Talk|date=7 October 2019 |language=en|access-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007142609/https://moneymaven.io/mishtalk/economics/us-avoids-war-with-turkey-as-trump-pulls-troops-out-of-syria-5zYYLH8dQEmrvyZuU5KFbg/|archive-date=7 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
]


=== Buffer zone with Turkey ===
The violence in Syria has caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimates 10.9&nbsp;million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced.<ref name=aljazeera-3-17-2015 /> 3.8&nbsp;million have been made refugees.<ref name=aljazeera-3-17-2015 /><ref name=200krefugees>see also: {{cite news|title=Syria crisis: Number of refugees rises to 200,000|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19370506|accessdate=24 August 2012|date=24 August 2012|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, 1 in 3 of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in ] (normally 4.8&nbsp;million population).<ref name=NYT5Sep>"," ''The New York Times'', 5 September 2013</ref> Others have fled to Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq. Turkey has accepted 1,700,000 (2015) Syrian refugees, half of whom are spread around cities and a dozen camps placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs, and Hama were besieged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astrium-geo.com/en/4807-syrian-refugee-camps-in-turkish-territory-interactive-web-report |title=Syrian refugee camps in Turkish territory tracked by satellite |publisher=Astrium-geo.com}}</ref> In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 3&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/29/us-syria-crisis-refugees-idUSKBN0GT0AX20140829|title=Syrian refugees top 3 million, half of all Syrians displaced: U.N.|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2 October 2014|date=29 August 2014}}</ref> According to the ], Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Additionally, "the West Bank is undergoing emigration pressures which will certainly be copied in Gaza if emigration is allowed".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Inbari|first1=Pinhas|title=Demographic Upheaval: How the Syrian War is Reshaping the Region|url=http://jcpa.org/article/syrian-war-is-reshaping-the-region/|publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|accessdate=19 June 2014}}</ref> Greek Catholic Patriarch ] claims more than 450,000 ] have been displaced by the conflict.<ref>"". ''The Algemeiner Journal''. 18 October 2013.</ref>
{{See also|Northern Syria Buffer Zone|Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone|2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria}}
In October 2019, in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian government and the Kurdish-led forces.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022143750/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/middle-east/russia-calls-turkey-s-invasion-of-north-syria-unacceptable-1.4051499 |date=22 October 2019 }} Strongest words yet from Assad-supporting Moscow heaps pressure on Ankara. Tue, 15 October 2019, Henry Foy, Laura Pitel, Chloe Cornish</ref> Russia also negotiated a renewal of a cease-fire between Kurds and Turkey that was about to expire.<ref name="Newsweek middle east">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newsweek.com/new-mideast-us-russia-china-1465846 |title=The New Middle East: U.S. Military, Russia's Diplomacy and China's Money|first = Tom|last= O'Connor| website=] |date=22 October 2019 |access-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127212746/https://www.newsweek.com/new-mideast-us-russia-china-1465846 |archive-date=27 November 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>


Russia and Turkey agreed via the ] to set up a ]. Syrian President Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also applied to the Syrian government.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50152235|title=Russia deploys troops to Turkey-Syria border|date=23 October 2019|access-date=24 October 2019|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211112121/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50152235|archive-date=11 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214115348/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/22/turkey-and-russia-agree-deal-over-buffer-zone-in-northern-syria |date=14 December 2019 }}. Erdoğan hails agreement with Putin in which Kurdish fighters will be moved from border area. guardian.com.</ref> The SDF stated that they considered themselves as "Syrian and a part of Syria", adding that they would agree to work with the Syrian Government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/23/772557773/kurdish-reaction-to-turkey-russia-deal-to-patrol-northern-syria|title=Kurdish Reaction To Turkey-Russia Deal To Patrol Northern Syria|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=24 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106112818/https://www.npr.org/2019/10/23/772557773/kurdish-reaction-to-turkey-russia-deal-to-patrol-northern-syria|archive-date=6 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The SDF officially announced their support for the deal on 27 October.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://syrianobserver.com/EN/news/53885/sdf-agrees-to-sochi-deal-for-northern-syria.html|title=SDF Agrees to Sochi Deal for Northern Syria|date=28 October 2019|website=The Syrian Observer|access-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105093347/https://syrianobserver.com/EN/news/53885/sdf-agrees-to-sochi-deal-for-northern-syria.html|archive-date=5 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite news|url=https://ekurd.net/syrian-kurds-say-pulling-2019-10-28|title=Syrian Kurds say pulling out from entire length of Turkey border |date=28 October 2019|website=Kurd Net – Ekurd.net Daily News|language=en-US|access-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209050826/https://ekurd.net/syrian-kurds-say-pulling-2019-10-28|archive-date=9 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223160415/https://mondediplo.com/2019/11/02turkey |date=23 December 2019 }}. With Operation Peace Spring, Turkey has gained control of part of northeast Syria, creating a buffer zone against Kurdish-led forces where it will be able to settle one million Syrian refugees. The Sochi agreement with Russia confirms Turkey's influence over the border zone, and may allow Assad's government to regain control of land held until now by the Kurds. Nov. 2019.</ref>
=== Human rights violations ===
{{Main article|Human rights violations during the Syrian Civil War}}


The agreement reportedly included the following terms:<ref name=":2"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/turkeys-erdogan-meets-with-putin-in-russia-to-discuss-syrian-operation/2019/10/22/764abcea-f43f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html|title=Russia and Turkey reach deal to push Kurdish forces out of zone in northern Syria|last1=Fahim|first1=Kareem|last2=DeYoung|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212022648/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/turkeys-erdogan-meets-with-putin-in-russia-to-discuss-syrian-operation/2019/10/22/764abcea-f43f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html|archive-date=12 December 2019|access-date=24 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="Fraser">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/german-defense-minister-proposes-security-zone-for-syria/2019/10/22/19af90b8-f49f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html|title=Russia, Turkey seal power in northeast Syria with new accord |last1=Fraser |first1=Suzan |last2=Isachenkov |first2=Vladimir |newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=24 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024130353/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/german-defense-minister-proposes-security-zone-for-syria/2019/10/22/19af90b8-f49f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html|archive-date=24 October 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-syria-map-troops-deal-turkey-1467252|title=Russia shows off new Syria map, sends troops to border after its deal with Turkey |last=O'Connor |first=Tom O'Connor |website=Newsweek|date=23 October 2019 |language=en|access-date=24 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125191513/https://www.newsweek.com/russia-syria-map-troops-deal-turkey-1467252|archive-date=25 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/ragipsoylu/status/1186692319703130119|title=LATEST — Here is the complete text of Turkish, Russian agreement on Northern Syria, that pushed YPG 30km from Turkish, Syria borderpic.twitter.com/jwiOurbfa3|last=Soylu|first=Ragıp|date=22 October 2019|website=@ragipsoylu|language=en|access-date=24 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127024059/https://twitter.com/ragipsoylu/status/1186692319703130119|archive-date=27 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210185003/https://lobelog.com/the-sochi-agreement-and-its-implications/ |date=10 December 2019 }} 25 October 2019.</ref>
According to various human rights organizations and United Nations, human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebels, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130313/un-must-refer-syria-war-crimes-icc-amnesty |title=UN must refer Syria war crimes to ICC: Amnesty |publisher=GlobalPost |accessdate=20 March 2014}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/16/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |title=Top Syrian general defects, says morale among forces at a low |publisher=CNN.com |accessdate=27 March 2014 |date=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="theguardian">{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2014/jan/20/torture-of-persons-under-current-syrian-regime-report |title=A report into the credibility of certain evidence with regard to torture and execution of persons incarcerated by the current Syrian regime &#124; World news &#124; theguardian.com |publisher=theguardian.com |accessdate=21 October 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910192222/http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2014/jan/20/torture-of-persons-under-current-syrian-regime-report |archivedate=10 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aa.com.tr/en/u/333013--aa-reveals-new-set-of-photos-documenting-syria-war-crimes |title=syria war crimes |publisher=Aa.com.tr |accessdate=27 May 2014}}</ref> The U.N. ] investigating human rights abuses in Syria confirms at least 9 intentional mass killings in the period 2012 to mid-July 2013, identifying the perpetrator as Syrian government and its supporters in eight cases, and the opposition in one.<ref>{{cite news|last=Heilprin |first=John |title=Syria Massacres: UN Probe Finds 8 Were Perpetrated By Syria Regime, 1 By Rebels |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/11/syria-massacres_n_3905323.html |publisher=Huffington Post |date=11 September 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125191923/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/11/syria-massacres_n_3905323.html |archivedate=25 January 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/8-massacres-by-syria-regime-and-1-by-rebels-since-april-2012-un-war-crimes-report-shows/|work=CBS News|title=CBS News article | date=11 September 2013}}</ref> ]By late November 2013, according to the ] (EMHRN) report entitled "Violence against Women, Bleeding Wound in the Syrian Conflict", approximately 6,000 women have been raped (including gang-rape) since the start of the conflict – with figures likely to be much higher given that most cases go unreported.<ref>, BBC, 26 November 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/11/25/Report-rape-used-as-weapon-of-war-against-Syria-women-.html |title=Report: rape used as weapon of war against Syria women |publisher=English.alarabiya.net |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/syria/131126/6000-women-raped-during-syrian-conflict |title=6,000 cases of women raped during Syrian conflict, human rights group says |publisher=Globalpost.com |date=26 November 2013 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref>


* A buffer zone would be established in northern Syria. The zone would be around {{Convert|30|km|abbr=}} deep,{{Efn|Starting from the ] and going south into Syria|name=|group=}} stretching from ] to ] and from ] to the Iraq-Syria border, but excluding the town of ], the Kurds' de facto capital.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Turkey v Syria's Kurds: The short, medium and long story |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49963649 |work=] |date=23 October 2019 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028073906/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49963649 |url-status=live}} Contains an explanatory map of the buffer zone.</ref>
According to three international lawyers,<ref>Sir Desmond de Silva QC, former chief prosecutor of the special court for Sierra Leone, Sir Geoffrey Nice QC, the former lead prosecutor of former Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević, and Professor David Crane, who indicted President Charles Taylor of Liberia at the Sierra Leone court</ref> Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about ]. Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |title=foreignaffairs.house.gov |publisher= |accessdate=2 October 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006083709/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |archivedate=6 October 2014 }}</ref> Experts say this evidence is more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that has yet emerged from the 34-month crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/evidence-industrial-scale-killing-syria-war-crimes|title=Syrian regime document trove shows evidence of 'industrial scale' killing of detainees|date=21 January 2014|publisher=theguardian|accessdate=21 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/|title=EXCLUSIVE: Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime|date=21 January 2014|publisher=CNN|accessdate=21 January 2014}}</ref> On 30 January 2014, Human Rights Watch released a report detailing, between June 2012 and July 2013, government forces razing to the ground seven anti-government districts in the cities of Damascus and Hama, equating to an area the size of 200 football fields. Witnesses spoke of explosives and bulldozers being used to knock down buildings.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Stay informed today |author2=every day |lastauthoramp=yes |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2014/01/syrias-civil-war |title=Syria's civil war: War crimes and peace talks |publisher=Economist.com |date=30 January 2014 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref> ] was provided as part of the report and the destruction was characterized as collective punishment against residents of rebel-held areas.<ref>{{cite web|author=Martin Chulov in Beirut |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/30/syria-neighbourhoods-residents |title=The Guardian, 30 January 2014 |publisher=Theguardian.com |date=30 January 2014 |accessdate=21 May 2014}}</ref>
* The buffer zone would be controlled jointly by the ] and ].
* All ] forces, which constitute the majority of the SDF, must withdraw from the buffer zone entirely, along with their weapons, within 150 hours from the announcement of the deal. Their withdrawal would be overseen by Russian Military Police and the Syrian Border Guards, which would then enter the zone.


=== Syrian Constitutional Committee ===
UN reported also that "] warfare is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts." Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access of humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: Muadamiyah, Daraya, Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama.<ref name="UNHCRfeb2014">{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-65_en.doc|title=Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic|date=12 February 2014|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="thenewage.co.za">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewage.co.za/120337-1020-53-UN_decries_use_of_sieges_starvation_in_Syrian_military_strategy |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014155/http://www.thenewage.co.za/120337-1020-53-UN_decries_use_of_sieges_starvation_in_Syrian_military_strategy |archivedate=13 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |title=UN decries use of sieges, starvation in Syrian military strategy &#124; The New Age Online |publisher=Thenewage.co.za |date=5 March 2014 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> In ] 20,000 residents are facing death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and ], which prevents food distribution by UNRWA.<ref name="UNHCRfeb2014" /><ref name="MMHYarmouk">{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/03/03/3971810/yarmouk-update-nusras-apparent.html|title=Yarmouk update: Nusra's apparent return complicates UNRWA's hopes for food program|date=3 March 2014|accessdate=6 March 2014}}</ref> In July 2015, the UN quietly removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to explain why it had done so.<ref name="IRIN removal">{{cite news | last = Dyke | first = Joe | date = 24 July 2015 | title = Yarmouk camp no longer besieged, UN rules | url = http://www.irinnews.org/report/101781/yarmouk-camp-no-longer-besieged-un-rules | agency = ] | accessdate = 28 July 2015 }}</ref>
{{Main|Syrian Constitutional Committee}}
In late 2019, a new ] began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and to draft a new constitution for Syria.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226003513/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/30/russia-backed-syria-constitution-talks-begin-in-geneva |date=26 December 2019 }}, Patrick Wintour, Wed 30 October 2019.</ref><ref name="Astana Sabah"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210230504/https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2019/12/10/regime-continues-to-violate-sochi-deal-amid-diplomatic-efforts-for-political-solution-in-syria |date=10 December 2019 }}. ''Daily Sabah'', Instanbul, 10 December 2019.</ref> This committee comprises about 150 members. It includes representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups and countries serving as guarantors of the process, such as Russia. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government. Fifty of the committee members represent the government, and 50 members represent the opposition.<ref name="Astana Sabah"/> Until the Assad government agrees to participate, it is unclear whether the third round of talks will proceed on a firm schedule.<ref name="Astana Sabah"/>


In December 2019, the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds, and called for the self-declared Autonomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in any new Syrian Constitution. The Kurds are concerned that the independence of their declared Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) in Rojava might be severely curtailed.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020920/https://www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/eu-affairs/84361/eu-condemns-turkey-again-while-sticking-to-its-position-on-the-kurdish-administration-in-north-east-syria/ |date=18 December 2019 }}, Tuesday, 17 December 2019.</ref>
In 2013, the UN estimated that sieges by government and opposition forces had left more than 250,000 subjected to relentless shelling and bombardment.<ref name="LAHT UN besieged">{{cite web|url=http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=1706092&CategoryId=12395 |title=Latin American Herald Tribune – UN: Assad Regime Causing Mass Civilian Casualties in Syria |publisher=Laht.com |date=15 June 2013 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref> The OCHA's figure for February 2015 was 212,000,<ref name="UNNC 26Mar2015" /> though a study published the following month by American doctors said this was a drastic underestimate, putting the number of people besieged by the Syrian military alone at some 640,000.<ref>Valerie Szybala et al. (March 2015). ''''. Canfield, OH: Syrian American Medical Society. p. 5.</ref> "They are denied humanitarian aid, food and such basic necessities as medical care, and must choose between surrender and starvation," the members of the UN Commission of Inquiry said.<ref name="LAHT UN besieged" /> At least 18,866 civilians have been killed in Syrian government air attacks on rebel-held areas.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/09/syria-civil-war-civilian-deaths/405496/ |title=Counting the Dead in Syria |work=] |date=15 September 2015}}</ref>


Rojava officials condemned the fact that they were excluded from the peace talks and stated that "having a couple of Kurds" in the committee did not mean that the Syrian Kurds were properly represented in it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/syrian-kurds-criticise-envoy-committee-190929161609096.html|title=Syrian Kurds criticise UN envoy over new committee|website=aljazeera.com|access-date=30 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030140106/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/syrian-kurds-criticise-envoy-committee-190929161609096.html|archive-date=30 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The co-chair of the ] accused Turkey of vetoing the representation of Syrian Kurds within the committee.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://ahvalnews.com/syrian-constitutional-committee/turkey-vetoed-inclusion-syrian-kurds-constitutional-committee|title=Turkey vetoed inclusion of Syrian Kurds in constitutional committee – official|website=Ahval|date=2 October 2019 |language=en|access-date=30 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030140104/https://ahvalnews.com/syrian-constitutional-committee/turkey-vetoed-inclusion-syrian-kurds-constitutional-committee|archive-date=30 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Kurdish administration also organized demonstrations in front of the UN office in ] to protest their exclusion from the committee.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20191002-syria-s-kurds-protest-exclusion-from-constitutional-committee|title=Syria's Kurds protest exclusion from constitutional committee|date=2 October 2019|publisher=France 24|language=en|access-date=30 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030140106/https://www.france24.com/en/20191002-syria-s-kurds-protest-exclusion-from-constitutional-committee|archive-date=30 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
ISIS forces have been accused by UN of using public executions, amputations and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqah governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27 August 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/27/syria-isis-war-crimes-united-nations-un|title=Syria and Isis committing war crimes, says UN|date=27 August 2014|accessdate=29 August 2014}}</ref>


=== Arab League ===
Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29653526|title=syrias disappeared|date=11 November 2014|accessdate=11 November 2014|work=BBC News}}</ref>
{{See also|Saudi Arabia–Syria relations}}
On 13 April 2023, Syrian Foreign Minister ] arrived in ] to meet Saudi foreign minister, Prince ]. After frayed relations during the Syrian civil war, both nations now seek "a political solution to the Syrian crisis that preserves the unity, security and stability of Syria", according to the Saudi foreign ministry. The high level talks are "facilitating the ] to their homeland, and securing humanitarian access to the affected areas in Syria". Al-Assad previously visited the UAE, Oman as well as Saudi Arabia. The discussion also included the possible resumption of consular services between the two countries. This is the first visit to Saudi Arabia by a Syrian foreign minister since the onset of the civil war in 2011. The same week all foreign ministers of the ] would meet again to discuss the return of Syria to the regional organisation.<ref>"", ''AlJazeera''. 13 April 2023. Accessed 13 April 2023.</ref><ref> ''Arab News''. 13 April 2023. Accessed 13 April 2023.</ref>


== Reconstruction ==
=== Threats against Syrian sects and minorities ===
{{See also|Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act}}
{{Main article|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War}}
] in 2013, after destruction of the minaret]]
] suffered extensive damage during the ].]]
=== During the Assad government ===
United Nations authorities have estimated that the war in Syria has caused destruction amounting to about $400 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.radiofarda.com/a/sanctions-on-damascus-and-tehran-have-led-to-serious-fuel-shortages-in-syria/29880330.html |title=Sanctions On Damascus And Tehran Have Led To Serious Fuel Shortages In Syria |date=14 April 2019 |access-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414223031/https://en.radiofarda.com/a/sanctions-on-damascus-and-tehran-have-led-to-serious-fuel-shortages-in-syria/29880330.html |archive-date=14 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] reported in 2017 that the war has rendered around 39% of ] unserviceable for worship. More than 13,500 ]s were destroyed in Syria between 2011 and 2017. Around 1,400 were dismantled by 2013, while 13,000 mosques were demolished between 2013 and 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Celik |first=Ersin |date=1 September 2017 |title=Over 13,500 mosques destroyed in Syria |work=Yeni Safak |url=https://www.yenisafak.com/en/world/over-13500-mosques-destroyed-in-syria-2788861 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905105402/https://www.yenisafak.com/en/world/over-13500-mosques-destroyed-in-syria-2788861 |archive-date=5 September 2017}}</ref> According to a Syrian war monitor, ] by during the course of Syrian war since 2011, 60% of which attacks were perpetrated by pro-Assad forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citynews1130.com/2019/09/09/report-over-120-churches-damaged-war-in-syria-since-2011/|title=Report: Over 120 churches damaged war in Syria since 2011|website=citynews1130.com|date=9 September 2019 |access-date=10 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921075911/https://www.citynews1130.com/2019/09/09/report-over-120-churches-damaged-war-in-syria-since-2011/|archive-date=21 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>


While the war is still ongoing, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the war-torn country on its own. {{As of |July 2018}}, the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of US$400{{nbs}}billion. Assad said he would be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tass.com/world/1010788|title=Syrians will reconstruct country after war themselves, Assad says|newspaper=Tass |access-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627192505/http://tass.com/world/1010788|archive-date=27 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 September 2023 |title=Iran Criticizes its 'Meager' Share in Rebuilding of Syria |url=https://english.aawsat.com/arab-world/4535566-iran-criticizes-its-%E2%80%98meager%E2%80%99-share-rebuilding-syria |work=Asharq Al Awsat}}</ref> One year later this seemed to be materializing, Iran and the Syrian government signed a deal where Iran would help rebuild the Syrian energy grid, which has taken damage to 50% of the grid.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iran-syria-electricity/iran-strikes-initial-deal-to-rebuild-syrian-power-grid-idUKKBN1XC07L |title=Iran strikes initial deal to rebuild Syrian power grid |newspaper=Reuters |date=2 November 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102122614/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iran-syria-electricity/iran-strikes-initial-deal-to-rebuild-syrian-power-grid-idUKKBN1XC07L |archive-date=2 November 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> International donors have been suggested as one financier of the reconstruction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/06/reconstructing-syria-break-mold-160614080700416.html|title=Reconstructing Syria: The need to break the mould|first=Yezid|last=Sayigh|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021554/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/06/reconstructing-syria-break-mold-160614080700416.html|archive-date=25 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of |November 2018}}, reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citymetric.com/fabric/upon-land-soaked-blood-architects-planning-reconstruction-syria-4298|title="Upon land soaked with the blood": on the architects planning the reconstruction of Syria – CityMetric|website=citymetric.com|access-date=20 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215223511/https://www.citymetric.com/fabric/upon-land-soaked-blood-architects-planning-reconstruction-syria-4298|archive-date=15 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
]


Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia says it will spend $500{{nbs}}million to modernize Syria's port of ]. Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian Gulf.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218144315/https://www.timesofisrael.com/russia-to-modernize-syria-port-build-railway-across-syria-to-persian-gulf/ |date=18 December 2019 }}. Major commercial projects could potentially make it easier for Tehran to increase its influence in Israel's northeastern neighbor.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/syria-security-russia-grains/update-1-russia-to-invest-500-mln-in-syrian-port-build-grain-hub-interfax-idUSL8N28R32J|title=UPDATE 1-Russia to invest $500 mln in Syrian port, build grain hub -Interfax – Reuters|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218142152/https://www.reuters.com/article/syria-security-russia-grains/update-1-russia-to-invest-500-mln-in-syrian-port-build-grain-hub-interfax-idUSL8N28R32J|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=18 December 2019}}</ref> Russia will also contribute to recovery efforts by the UN.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/12/18/5-russian-syrian-projects-announced-this-week-a68655|title=5 Russian-Syrian Projects Announced This Week – The Moscow Times|date=18 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218142118/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/12/18/5-russian-syrian-projects-announced-this-week-a68655|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=18 December 2019}}</ref> Syria awarded oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oilandgas360.com/syria-hands-oil-exploration-contracts-to-two-russian-firms/|title=Syria hands oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms – Oil & Gas 360|date=18 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218143018/https://www.oilandgas360.com/syria-hands-oil-exploration-contracts-to-two-russian-firms/|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=18 December 2019}}</ref>
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority ] religious group,<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria: Sunnis Threatening to Massacre Minority Alawites|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/151013#.T1zwtitSSMd|agency=Arutz Sheva|date=23 December 2011|accessdate=11 March 2011|first=Elad|last=Behari}}</ref> an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is ]. Alawites started to be threatened and attacked by dominantly Sunni rebel fighting groups like ] and the ] since December 2012 (see ]).


Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's "]" designed to foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/12/16/syria-serious-dialogue-china-joining-belt-road-initiative-says/|title=Syria in 'serious dialogue' with China about joining Belt and Road initiative, says Assad|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=17 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217125043/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/12/16/syria-serious-dialogue-china-joining-belt-road-initiative-says/|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=17 December 2019|last1=Ensor|first1=Josie}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.silkroadbriefing.com/news/2019/12/17/syria-reaches-join-chinas-belt-road-initiative/ |title=Syria Reaches Out To Join China's Belt & Road Initiative, December 17, 2019Posted bySilk Road Briefing. |date=17 December 2019 |access-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218142838/https://www.silkroadbriefing.com/news/2019/12/17/syria-reaches-join-chinas-belt-road-initiative/ |archive-date=18 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> On Wednesday 12 January 2022, China and Syria signed a ] in Damascus. The memorandum was signed by Fadi al-Khalil, the Head of Planning and International Cooperation Commission for the Syrian Side and Feng Biao, the Chinese ambassador in Damascus for the Chinese side. The memorandum sees Syria join the initiative whose aim is to help expand cooperation with China and other partner countries in areas such as trade, technology, capital, human movement and cultural exchange. Among other things, it aims to define the future of this cooperation with partner states.<ref>{{cite web|title=Syria, China sign MoU in framework of Silk Road Economic Belt Initiative|url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=260411|date=12 January 2022|access-date=15 January 2022}}</ref>
A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |title= In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad | publisher= The Daily Telegraph |last= Sherlock |first= Ruth |date= 7 April 2015 |location=London}}</ref> In May 2013, ] stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, at least 41,000 were Alawites.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/14/us-syria-crisis-deaths-idUSBRE94D0L420130514 |title=Syria Death Toll Likely As High As 120,000, Group Says |publisher=Reuters |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=6 October 2013 |first=Mariam |last=Karouny}}</ref>


=== Syrian transitional government ===
Many ] reported that they had fled after they were targeted by the anti-government rebels.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/14/world/middleeast/christians-squeezed-out-by-violent-struggle-in-north-syria.html?pagewanted=all | title=Christians Squeezed Out by Violent Struggle in North Syria | date=13 February 2013 | accessdate=6 April 2013 | author=Güsten, Susanne | work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/11/19/syria-s-christians-flee-kidnappings-rape-executions.html|title=Syria's Christians Flee Kidnappings, Rape, Executions |last=Dettmet|first=Jamie|date=19 November 2013|publisher=The Daily Beast |accessdate=20 November 2013}}</ref> (See: ].)
{{Update section|date=December 2024}}
A few days prior to the ], the ] (SAC) successfully ] for the ] sanctions to be renewed via the US ] (NDAA 2025). However after the fall of Assad on 8 December 2024 and establishment of the ], the SAC failed to have the sanctions clause removed from the bill in time.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newarab.com/news/despite-extending-2029-syria-caesar-act-temporarily-paused|work=]|title=Despite extending to 2029, Syria Caesar Act temporarily 'ceased to be in effect' |date=24 December 2024|access-date=27 December 2024}}</ref> On 23 December the ] signed NDAA 2025 into law,<ref>{{cite news|work=Politico|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2024/12/23/biden-signs-defense-bill-despite-transgender-care-restrictions-00195980|date=23 December 2024|access-date=27 December 2024|title=Biden signs defense bill despite transgender care restrictions}}</ref> renewing the sanctions for another five years, with '']'' magazine labeling the sanctions "a serious obstacle to Syria's reconstruction" post-Assad.<ref>{{cite web|work=]|url=https://reason.com/2024/12/26/congress-sanctions-a-syrian-government-that-no-longer-exists/|date=26 December 2024|access-date=27 December 2024|title=Congress Sanctions a Syrian Government That No Longer Exists}}</ref>


== See also ==
Al Jazeera reported that "The ] accuse rebels of committing atrocities against their community in Syria … Syria's Druze minority has largely remained loyal to President Bashar al-Assad since the war began in 2011."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/06/druze-israel-syria-ambulance-attacked-150623010047887.html |title=Druze attack Israeli ambulance carrying wounded Syrians|date=23 June 2015|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>
{{Portal|Asia|Current events|Middle East|Modern history}}
{{div col}}
* ]


=== Crime wave === === Events within Syrian society ===
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


=== Historical aspects ===
]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


=== Lists and statistical records ===
As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cave|first=Damein|title=Crime Wave Engulfs Syria as Its Cities Reel From War|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/middleeast/crime-wave-engulfs-syria-as-its-cities-reel-from-war.html|accessdate=26 August 2012|work=The New York Times|date=9 August 2012}}</ref>
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


=== Specific offensives ===
By July 2012, the human rights group ] had documented over 100 cases of rape and ] during the conflict, with many of these crimes believed to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women, and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/the-ultimate-assault-charting-syrias-use-of-rape-to-terrorize-its-people|title=The ultimate assault: Charting Syria's use of rape to terrorize its people|publisher=Women Under Siege|date=11 July 2012|accessdate=27 August 2012}}</ref>
* ] ("Battle of Victory")
* ]
* ]
* ]


=== Peace efforts and civil society groups ===
Local ] commanders often engaged "in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings, and extortions throughout regime-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.<ref name=ISW>{{cite web | url= http://iswsyria.blogspot.co.uk/2015/05/the-regimes-military-capabilities-part-1.html |title= The Regime's Military Capabilities: Part 1 |publisher= ISW |last=Kozak |first=Christopher |date= 26 May 2015 |accessdate= 31 May 2015 |quote= Local NDF commanders often engage in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and organized crime. NDF members have been implicated in waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings, and extortions throughout regime-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013.}}</ref>
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


=== History of other local conflicts ===
Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings.<ref name="Organized crime" />
* ]

* ] from 1976 until 1982
Rebel forces sometimes rely on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. ] in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, theft, and kidnapping.<ref name="Organized crime" />

=== Cultural heritage ===
{{Main article|Tourism in Syria|List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian Civil War|Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL}}

] in Palmyra, which was destroyed by ISIL in August 2015]]

As of March 2015, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24. Five of the six UNESCO ]s in Syria have been damaged.<ref name=aljazeera-3-17-2015>{{cite news|last1=Al Rifai|first1=Diana|last2=Haddad|first2=Mohammed |title=What's left of Syria?|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2015/03/left-syria-150317133753354.html|accessdate=21 March 2015|agency=Al-jazeera|date=17 March 2015}}</ref> Destruction of antiquities has been caused by ], army entrenchment, and ] at various ]s, museums, and monuments.<ref>Cunliffe, Emma. . ] and the ]. 1 May 2012.</ref> A group called ] is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of ] and architecture.<ref>Fisk, Robert. . ''The Independent''. 5 August 2012.</ref>

UNESCO listed all six Syria's ]s as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the ] was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while ] and ] suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is considered a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqah some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/world/middleeast/syrian-war-takes-heavy-toll-at-a-crossroad-of-cultures.html|title=Syrian War Takes Heavy Toll at a Crossroad of Cultures|date=16 April 2014|accessdate=18 April 2014|work=The New York Times|first=Anne|last=Barnard}}</ref>

In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the ], several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of ]. In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the ] and ], many tombs including the ], and part of the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Palmyra's Temple of Bel destroyed, says UN|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34111092|accessdate=3 September 2015|work=BBC News|date=1 September 2015}}</ref> The 13th-century ] was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the ] in March 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Said|first1=H.|last2=Raslan|first2=Rasha|last3=Sabbagh|first3=Hazem|title=Palmyra Castle partially damaged due to ISIS acts, plans to restore it to its former glory|url=http://sana.sy/en/?p=72903|work=]|date=26 March 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327133431/http://sana.sy/en/?p=72903|archivedate=27 March 2016}}</ref> ISIL also destroyed ancient statues in ],<ref>{{cite web|title=Threats to Cultural Heritage in Iraq and Syria|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/232028.htm|website=US Department of State|accessdate=3 September 2015|date=23 September 2014}}</ref> and a number of churches, including the ] in ].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hayrumyan|first1=Naira|title=Middle East Terror: Memory of Armenian Genocide victims targeted by ISIS militants|url=http://www.armenianow.com/commentary/analysis/57070/armenia_church_syria_isis_aram_catholicos|accessdate=3 September 2015|work=]|date=24 September 2014}}</ref>

The war has produced its own particular artwork. A late Summer 2013 exhibition in London at the ] was able to show some of this work.<ref>{{cite news|author=David Batty |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jun/22/syria-art-smuggled-exhibition-london-uk |title=Syrian art smuggled from the midst of civil war to show in London |work=The Guardian |date=22 June 2013}}</ref>

== Spillover ==
{{Main article|Spillover of the Syrian Civil War}}

With porous borders with most of its neighbors, the fighting has spilled over them, causing fears of a regional war. In June 2014, members of the ] (ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern ], and have ] of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the ] abandoned its positions. The Syrian civil war has led to incidents of sectarian violence in ] between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.html|title=Syrian War Plays Out Along a Street in Lebanon|work=The New York Times|date=24 August 2012|first=Damien|last=Cave}}</ref> Fighting between rebels and government forces has spilled into Lebanon on several occasions.

The fight between ISIL and the Kurds in the town of Kobanî on the Turkish border has led to rioting throughout Turkey and to brief occupations of a number of parliament buildings in Western Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/193844-protests-turkey-isis-kurdish/|title=Tear gas, clashes, fatality: Anti-ISIS rally in Turkey turns violent (PHOTOS)|publisher=|accessdate=14 October 2014}}</ref>

== Peace initiatives ==
{{Main article|Syrian peace process|Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)}}

]

On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks<ref name=reutersstart /> that had been agreed on by the ] in ]. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks.<ref name="reuterssuspend">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-idUSKCN0VC2U7 |title=Envoy suspended Syria talks over Russian escalation: U.N. official |work=Reuters|accessdate=4 February 2016|date=3 February 2016}}</ref> On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government insisted that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's President Bashar al-Assad said he hoped ] would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Reuters|work=|date=14 March 2016|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-russia-idUSKCN0WG24T|title=Syria's Assad says hopes Geneva talks lead to concrete results: Kremlin}}</ref><ref></ref>

== In popular culture ==

=== Films ===
* '']'' (2013)
* '']'' (2014)
* '']'' (2015)

=== Video Games ===
* '']''

== See also ==
{{Portal|Syrian Civil War}}

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* ] 2014 till now
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== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}


== References == == References ==
{{reflist|25em}} {{reflist}}


== Further reading == == Further reading ==
* {{Cite report |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/comparative-metrics-isis-and-failed-state-wars-syria-and-iraq-0 |title=The Comparative Metrics of ISIS and 'Failed State Wars' in Syria and Iraq |last1=Cordesman |first1=Anthony H. |last2=Markusen |first2=Max |date=23 March 2016 |publisher=] |location=Washington, DC |chapter-url=https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/160302_Syria_Iraq_ISIS_III-Syria.pdf |chapter=Part Three: Stability and Conflict in Syria}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hinnebusch |first=Raymond |year=2012 |title=Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution? |journal=] |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=95–113 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hinnebusch |first=Raymond |year=2012 |title=Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution? |journal=] |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=95–113 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x}}
* {{cite journal |last=International Crisis Group |title=Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regimes Slow-Motion Suicide |journal=Middle East/North Africa Report N°109 |format=PDF |date=13 July 2011 |url= http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf |accessdate=22 July 2011}}{{dead link|date=August 2016}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to Survive to 2013 |first=Joshua |last=Landis |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x |journal=Middle East Policy |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=72–84 |year=2012 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Landis |first=Joshua |title=The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to Survive to 2013 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x |journal=Middle East Policy |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=72–84 |year=2012|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Lawson |editor-first=Fred Haley |date=1 February 2010 |title=Demystifying Syria |url=http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Demystifying-Syria.php |publisher=Saqi |isbn=978-0-86356-654-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Malek |first=Alia |author-link=Alia Malek |year=2017 |title=The Home That Was Our Country: A Memoir of Syria |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-56858-532-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnT8sgEACAAJ }}
* {{Cite book |last=Pearlman |first=Wendy |year=2017 |title=We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices from Syria |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-06-265445-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BoGDQAAQBAJ }}
* Rashdan, Abdelrahman. ''OnIslam.net.'' 21 March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
* {{cite book |last1=Sorenson |first1=David S. |title=Syria in Ruins: The Dynamics of the Syrian Civil War |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-3837-8 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Dam |first=Nikolaos |url=http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-struggle-for-power-in-Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php |title=The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party |publisher=I. B. Tauris |date=15 July 2011 |isbn=1-84885-760-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Robin |title=Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East |location=New York|publisher=Penguin Press |year=2008 |isbn=1-59420-111-0 |pages=212–261 }} * {{Cite book |last=van Dam |first=Nikolaos |author-link=Nikolaos van Dam |year=2017 |title=Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78672-248-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MARsDgAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last=Ziadeh |first=Radwan |title=Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East |year=2011 |location=London|publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-84885-434-5 }}
* Cordesman, Anthony ''Center for Strategic and International Studies.'' 2 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.


== External links == == External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Category:Syrian Civil War (2011-present)|b=no|n=Category:Syrian Civil War|q=no|s=no|v=no|voy=no|display=the Syrian Civil War}} {{sister project links|c=Category: Syrian civil war|d=yes|q=no|n=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}}
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{{Russia–United States relations}}
{{Iran–Saudi Arabia relations}}
{{Iran–United States relations}}
{{Iran–Israel proxy conflict}}
{{Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict}}


{{Middle East conflict}}
'''Interviews'''
{{Authority control}}


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'''Media'''

* at '']''
* at '']''
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* at '']''
* {{Guardian topic|world/syria|Syria}}
* collected news and commentary at '']''
* at '']''
* collected coverage at '']''
* collected news at '']''
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'''Films'''

* The battle for Syria (documentary films). Sources: TV news air footage (video documentary + English subtitles {{YouTube|2iAnhGCaG6s|The battle for Syria}}, official video documentary and the official text of the ).]
* Syrian diary (documentary films). Sources: TV news air footage (video documentary + English subtitles {{YouTube|M5MQZ8azNx0| Syrian diary}}), official video documentary of the .]

{{Syrian Civil War}}

{{Arab Spring}}

{{Syria topics}}

{{Ongoing military conflicts}}

{{Middle East conflicts}}

{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}}

{{Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant}}

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Latest revision as of 03:27, 28 December 2024

Multi-sided war in Syria (2011–present)

Syrian civil war
Part of the First Arab Spring, Arab Winter, Second Arab Spring, Iraqi Civil War, War against the Islamic State, War on Terror, Kurdish–Turkish and Arab–Israeli conflicts; and the Iran–Turkey, Iran–Israel, Iran–Saudi, Qatar–Saudi and Russia-U.S. proxy wars

Military situation as of December 24, 2024 at 2:00pm ET
Syrian transitional government:   Tahrir al-Sham and allies   Arab defectors from the SDF   Southern Operations Room
Autonomous Administration of
North and East Syria:   Syrian Democratic Forces and American occupation
Syrian Interim Government:   Syrian National Army and Turkish occupation
Other former rebel forces:   Syrian Free Army   Syrian Free Army and American occupation
Others:   Russian occupation   Israeli occupation   Uncertain/mixed (full list of factions, detailed map)
Date15 March 2011 (2011-03-15) – present
(13 years, 9 months, 1 week and 6 days)
LocationSyria (with spillovers in neighboring countries)
Status Ongoing
Belligerents
Full list of factions
Casualties and losses
Total deaths
580,000–617,910+
Civilian deaths
219,223–306,887+
Displaced people
Syrian civil war
Timeline
Civil uprising in Syria (March–August 2011)
Start of insurgency (Sept. 2011 – April 2012)
UN ceasefire; Rebel advances (May 2012 – Dec. 2013)
Rise of ISIS in 2014
U.S.-led intervention, Rebel and ISIL advances (Sept. 2014 – Sept. 2015)
Russian intervention (Sept. 2015 – March 2016)
Aleppo escalation and Euphrates Shield (March 2016 – February 2017)
Collapse of ISIS in Syria (2017)
Rebels in retreat and Operation Olive Branch
(Nov. 2017 – Sep. 2018)
Idlib demilitarization
(Sep. 2018 – April 2019)
First Idlib offensive, Operation Peace Spring, & Second Idlib offensive (April 2019 – March 2020)
Idlib ceasefire (March 2020 – Nov. 2024)
Opposition offensives and Fall of the Assad regime (Nov. – Dec. 2024)
Transitional government and SNA–SDF conflict (Dec. 2024 – present)
Syrian War spillover and international incidents
Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war
Foreign intervention on behalf of Syrian Arab Republic

Foreign intervention in behalf of Syrian rebels

U.S.-led intervention against ISIL

This article is part of
a series aboutBashar al-Assad
Personal
Presidency
Syrian civil war
Governments
Elections
Bashar al-Assad's signature
Part of a series on
Ba'athism
Flag of the Ba'ath Party
Organizations
Arab Ba'ath1940–1947
Arab Ba'ath Movement1940–1947
Ba'ath Party1947–1966
Baath Party (pro-Iraqi)1968–2003
Baath Party (pro-Syrian)1966–present
Variants
Neo-Ba'athism1966–2024
Saddamism1979–2003
People
Literature
History
Regional organizations
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Mauritania
Palestine
Sudan
Syria
Tunisia
Yemen
Splinter groups
Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party1960–1962/63
Socialist Lebanon1965–1970
Arab Revolutionary Workers Party1966–present
Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party1970–present
Sudanese Ba'ath Party2002–present
Armed groups
Related topics

The Syrian civil war is an ongoing multi-sided conflict in Syria involving various state-sponsored and non-state actors. In March 2011, popular discontent with the rule of Bashar al-Assad triggered large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region. After months of crackdown by the government's security apparatus, various armed rebel groups such as the Free Syrian Army began forming across the country, marking the beginning of the Syrian insurgency. By mid-2012, the insurgency had escalated into a full-blown civil war.

Rebel forces, which received arms from Gulf Cooperation Council states, Turkey and some Western countries, initially made significant advances against the government forces, which were receiving financial and military support from Iran and Russia. Rebels captured the regional capitals of Raqqa in 2013 and Idlib in 2015. Consequently, Iran launched a military intervention in support of the Syrian government in 2014 and Russia followed in 2015, shifting the balance of the conflict. By late 2018, all rebel strongholds except parts of Idlib region had fallen to the government forces.

In 2014, the Islamic State won many battles against both the rebel factions and the Syrian government. Combined with simultaneous success in Iraq, the group was able to seize control of large parts of Eastern Syria and Western Iraq, prompting the US-led CJTF coalition to launch an aerial bombing campaign against it, while providing ground support and supplies to the Kurdish-majority Syrian Democratic Forces. By way of battles that culminated in the Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor offensives, the Islamic State was territorially defeated by late 2017. In August 2016, Turkey launched a multi-pronged invasion of northern Syria, in response to the creation of Rojava, while also fighting the Islamic State and government forces in the process. Between the March 2020 Idlib ceasefire and late 2024, frontline fighting mostly subsided, but there were regular skirmishes.

Heavy fighting renewed with a major rebel offensive in the northwest led by Tahrir al-Sham and supported by allied groups in the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army in November 2024, during which Aleppo, Hama and Homs were seized. Southern rebels who had previously reconciled with the government subsequently launched their own offensive, capturing Daraa and Suwayda. The Syrian Free Army and the Syrian Democratic Forces launched their own offensives in Palmyra and Deir ez-Zor, respectively. By 8 December, rebel forces had seized the capital, Damascus. Following this, the Assad regime collapsed, with al-Assad fleeing to Moscow. On the same day, Israel launched an invasion of Syria's Quneitra Governorate, aiming to seize the UN buffer zone in the Golan Heights. The SNA continued to clash with the SDF.

Overview

Origins of the conflict (2011–2012)

Main articles: Arab Spring and Syrian revolution

In March 2011, popular discontent with President Bashar al-Assad's Ba'athist government led to large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region. Numerous protests were violently suppressed by security forces in deadly crackdowns ordered by Assad, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and detentions, many of whom were civilians. The Syrian revolution transformed into an insurgency with the formation of resistance militias across the country, developing into a full civil war by 2012.

Peak of violence, foreign interventions (2012–2019)

The war has been fought by several factions. From 2011 to December 2024, the Syrian Arab Armed Forces, alongside its domestic and foreign allies, represented the Syrian Arab Republic and Assad government. Alternative governments rose in opposition to Assad's rule, including the Syrian Interim Government, a big-tent alliance of pro-democratic, nationalist opposition groups whose military forces consist of the Syrian National Army (SNA) and allied Free Syrian militias. Another is the Syrian Salvation Government, whose armed forces were represented by a coalition of Sunni militias led by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS). Independent of them is the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), also known as Rojava, whose military force is the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), a multi-ethnic, Arab-majority force led by the Kurdish People's Defense Units (YPG). Other competing factions include jihadist organizations such as al-Qaeda's Syrian branch Hurras al-Din (the successor of Al-Nusra Front) and the Islamic State (IS).

The civil war has also served as a proxy war as a number of foreign countries–including Turkey, Iran, Russia and the United States–have been directly involved in the conflict, providing support to opposing factions. Iran, Russia and Hezbollah supported Assad's government militarily, with Iran intervening in 2013 and Russia conducting airstrikes and ground operations in the country beginning in September 2015. In 2014 the US-led international coalition officially began conducting air and ground operations–primarily against the Islamic State, al-Qaeda elements such as Hurras al-Din and the Khorasan group, and occasionally against pro-Assad forces–and has been militarily and logistically supporting factions such as the Syrian Free Army and the SDF. Turkish forces occupied parts of northern Syria and have fought the SDF, Assad government and Islamic State alike while actively supporting the SNA. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian civil war spilled over into Lebanon as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil. While officially neutral, Israel exchanged border fire and conducted repeated strikes against Hezbollah and Iranian elements inside Syria, whose presence in the country it viewed as a security threat.

Violence in the war peaked during 2012–2017 amid rebel and government offensives and sectarian and Islamist violence. International organizations had accused virtually all sides involved—the Assad government, the Islamic State, opposition groups, Iran, Russia, Turkey and the US-led coalition—of severe human rights violations and massacres. The conflict had caused a major refugee crisis, with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan; however, a sizable minority also sought refuge in countries outside of the Middle East, with Germany alone accepting over half a million Syrians since 2011. Since 2011 a number of peace initiatives had been launched, including the March 2017 Geneva peace talks on Syria led by the United Nations, but fighting continued.

In October 2019, Kurdish leaders of the AANES announced they had reached a major deal with the Assad government, allowing for Syrian Army forces to enter Kurdish-held towns along the Syria–Turkey border. The deal was part of an effort to resist Turkey's cross-border incursion into AANES territory after US forces withdrew from the area after the collapse of the Northern Syria Buffer Zone. In November 2019, Russia, Turkey and the Assad government established a new buffer zone in northern Syria that deescalated the Kurdish-Turkish clashes. US-led coalition forces regrouped in eastern Syria in continued support of the SDF against the Islamic State insurgency, amid tensions with local Russian forces and Iranian elements in the region.

By the end of the decade, the war had resulted in an estimated 470,000–610,000 violent deaths, making it the second-deadliest conflict of the 21st century, after the Second Congo War.

Stalemate and frozen conflict (2020–2024)

Following the March 2020 Idlib ceasefire, frontline fighting between the Syrian government under Assad and opposition groups had mostly subsided. By 2021, the Assad government controlled about two-thirds of the country and was consolidating power. Although, regular flare-ups occurred among factions in northwestern Syria, and large-scale protests emerged in southern Syria and spread nationwide in response to extensive autocratic policies and the economic situation. The protests were noted at the time as resembling the 2011 revolution that preceded the civil war.

The civil war had largely settled into a stalemate by early 2023. The United States Institute of Peace said:

"Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state. Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Over the last decade, the conflict erupted into one of the most complicated in the world, with a dizzying array of international and regional powers, opposition groups, proxies, local militias and extremist groups all playing a role. The Syrian population has been brutalized, with nearly a half a million killed, 12 million fleeing their homes to find safety elsewhere, and widespread poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, efforts to broker a political settlement have gone nowhere, leaving the Assad regime firmly in power."

The US Council on Foreign Relations said:

"The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of the country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure."

However, major clashes continued between Turkish forces and factions within Syria. In late 2023, Turkish forces continued to attack Kurdish forces in northern Syria. Starting on 5 October 2023, the Turkish Armed Forces launched a series of air and ground strikes targeting the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeastern Syria (AANES territory). The airstrikes were launched in response to the 2023 Ankara bombing, which the Turkish government alleged was carried out by attackers originating from northeastern Syria.

Renewed rebel offensives and fall of the Assad regime (2024)

Main article: Fall of the Assad regime
Syrian opposition offensives that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days

On 27 November 2024, a coalition of opposition groups called the Military Operations Command, led by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, launched a major offensive against the Syrian Army and other pro-government forces in Aleppo, Idlib, Hama and Homs Governorates. This was followed by other rebel offensives from the Southern Operations Room, the SDF and the Syrian Free Army which all began seizing Syrian government territory in the country's south and east. On 29 November, rebel forces entered Aleppo as Syrian Army positions collapsed across the country. On 7 December, rebel forces entered Damascus and the next day, on 8 December, Bashar al-Assad was reported to have fled the capital. The Syrian Army confirmed Assad was no longer in power and had fled the country, resulting in the collapse of his regime and ending over 60 years of Ba'athist rule under the Assad dynasty. Assad and his family had fled to Moscow and was granted asylum in Russia. Syrian Prime Minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali announced his willingness to cooperate with any new leadership "chosen by the people".

The Syrian Salvation Government established a transitional government in Damascus, with Mohammed al-Bashir serving as the prime minister during the transition, succeeding al-Jalali. Ahmed al-Sharaa, the leader of the Syrian Salvation Government and emir of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, became de facto leader of Syria.

On 8 December 2024, Israel invaded southern Syria, subsuming the Golan Heights buffer zone and capturing Quneitra, the Syrian portion of Mount Hermon, and surrounding towns and villages. Israel also launched a strategic bombing campaign against remnant Syrian Armed Forces airbases, air defense networks, missile systems, coastal defense installations, naval assets, weapons storage and production facilities and alleged chemical weapons stockpiles to neutralize Assad's former military assets.

Background

Main articles: Background and causes of the Syrian revolution and Modern history of Syria

Assad government

See also: Ba'athist Syria, Presidency of Hafez al-Assad, Presidency of Bashar al-Assad, and Assad family

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party government came to power through a coup d'état in 1963 by overthrowing the Second Syrian Republic. A second coup in 1966 ousted the old Baathist leadership of Michel Aflaq, replacing it with a militaristic, hard-left, pro-Soviet regime led by Salah Jadid, causing a split between the Syrian branch of Ba'ath, which supported Jadid, and the Iraqi branch, which remained loyal to Aflaq. Jadid was in turn removed in November 1970 by General Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite who declared himself President in March 1971. This marked the beginning of the domination of personality cults centred around the Assad family that pervaded all aspects of Syrian daily life and was accompanied by a systematic suppression of civil and political freedoms, becoming the central feature of state propaganda. Authority in Ba'athist Syria was monopolised by three power-centres: Alawite loyalist clans, the Ba'ath Party and the Syrian Armed Forces. All three united by their allegiance to the Assad family.

The Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a one-party state until the first multi-party election to the People's Council of Syria was held in 2012. On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, leading to a national crisis. The 1973 Constitution entrusted the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party with the distinctive role as the "leader of the state and society", empowering it to mobilise the civilians for party programmes, issue decrees to ascertain their loyalty and supervise all legal trade unions. Ba'athist ideology was imposed upon children as a compulsory part of school curricula as the Armed Forces became highly monitored by the Party. The constitution removed Islam from being recognised as the state religion and stripped existing provisions such as the requirement that the president of Syria be Muslim. These measures caused widespread furor amongst the public, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. The Assad regime violently crushed the Islamic revolts that occurred during 1976–1982, waged by revolutionaries from the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood.

The Ba'ath Party carefully constructed Assad as the guiding father figure of the party and modern Syrian nation, advocating the continuation of Assad dynastic rule of Syria. As part of the publicity efforts to brand the nation and Assad family as inseparable, slogans such as "Assad or we burn the country", "Assad or to hell with the country" and "Hafez Assad, forever" became an integral part of the state and party discourse during the 1980s. Eventually the party organisation itself became a rubber stamp and the power structures became deeply dependent on sectarian affiliation to the Assad family and the central role of armed forces needed to crack down on dissent in the society. Critics of the regime have pointed out that deployment of violence is central to the rule of Ba'athist Syria and describe it as "a dictatorship with genocidal tendencies". Hafez al-Assad's nearly three-decade rule was marked by its methods, ranging from censorship to violent measures of state terror such as mass murders, forced deportations and brutal practices such as torture, which were unleashed collectively upon the civilian population. Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him as the President of Syria.

Bashar's wife Asma, a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain, was initially hailed in the Western press as a "rose in the desert". The couple once raised hopes amongst Syrian intellectuals and outside Western observers, being seen as a path towards implementing economic and political reforms. However, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms, instead cracking down on the civil society groups, political reformists and democratic activists that emerged during the Damascus Spring in the 2000s. Bashar Al-Assad claims that no 'moderate opposition' to his government exists, and that all opposition forces are Islamists focused on destroying his secular leadership; his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are "linked to the agendas of foreign countries".

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Syria

The total Syrian population in July 2018 was estimated at 19,454,263 people. By ethnic groups, Syria was approximately Arab 50%, Alawite 15%, Kurd 10%, Levantine 10% and 15% of other ethnic groups (includes Druze, Ismaili, Imami, Assyrian, Turkmen and Armenian). Its religious breakdown was: Muslim 87% (official; includes Sunni 74% and Alawi, Ismaili and Shia 13%), Christian 10% (mainly of Eastern Christian churches—may now be smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country), Druze 3% and Jewish (uncounted in the estimate, but with few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo).

Socioeconomic background

Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector, these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo. In 2010, Syria's nominal GDP per capita was only $2,834, comparable to sub-Saharan African countries such as Nigeria and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other developing countries.

The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates. At the start of the war, discontent with the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis. These included cities with high poverty rates, such as Daraa and Homs, and the poorer districts of large cities.

Drought

The unrest coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in food prices and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers. This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million refugees from the Iraq War. The drought has been linked to anthropogenic global warming. Subsequent analysis, however, has challenged the narrative of the drought as a major contributor to the start of the war. Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and is frequently the target of military action.

Human rights

Main articles: Human rights in Syria and Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war

The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations. The rights of free expression, association and assembly were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising. The country remained under a state of emergency from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned. Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention. Despite hopes for democratic change with the 2000 Damascus Spring, Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed to implement any improvements. In 2010, he imposed a controversial national ban on female Islamic dress codes (such as face veils) across universities, where reportedly over a thousand primary school teachers that wore the niqab were reassigned to administrative jobs. A Human Rights Watch report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that Assad had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.

Timeline

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Syrian civil war.
Military situation in March 2013
Military situation in August 2016
Military situation from March 2020 to November 2024
Military situation in December 2024
Protests, civil uprising, and armed insurgency (January 2011 – April 2012)
For a chronological guide, see January–April 2011, May–August 2011, September–December 2011 and January–April 2012 timelines. Further information: Syrian revolution, Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war, and Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan
Escalation (2012–2013)
For a chronological guide, see May–August 2012, September–December 2012, January–April 2013 and May–December 2013 timelines. Further information: 2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war
Rise of the Islamist groups (January–August 2014)
For a chronological guide, see January–July 2014 timeline. Further information: Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war
US intervention (September 2014 – August 2015)
For a chronological guide, see August–December 2014 and January–July 2015 timelines. Further information: US intervention in the Syrian civil war, 2015 Southern Syria offensive, Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015), Battle of Idlib (2015), Palmyra offensive (May 2015), Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015), and Battle of al-Hasakah (2015)
Russian intervention; first partial ceasefire (September 2015 – August 2016)
For a chronological guide, see August–December 2015 and January–April 2016 and May–August 2016 timelines. Further information: Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war
Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (September 2016 – April 2017)
For a chronological guide, see September–December 2016 and January–April 2017 timeline. Further information: Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016)
Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation zones (April–August 2017)
For a chronological guide, see May–August 2017 timeline. Further information: Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, 2017 Shayrat missile strike, and Hama offensive (March–April 2017)
ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted; Russian forces permanent (September–December 2017)
For a chronological guide, see September–December 2017 timeline. Further information: Deir ez-Zor offensive (September–November 2017) and Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)
Army advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018)
For a chronological guide, see January–April 2018 timeline. Further information: Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017 – February 2018), Operation Olive Branch, Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018), and February 2018 Israel–Syria incident
Douma chemical attack; US-led missile strikes; southern Syria offensive (April–August 2018)
For a chronological guide, see May–August 2018 timeline. Further information: Douma chemical attack, Operation House of Cards, and Syria missile strikes (September 2018)
Idlib demilitarization; Partial US withdrawal; Iraq strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018)
For a chronological guide, see September–December 2018 timeline. Further information: Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)
ISIL attacks continue; US states conditions of withdrawal; fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–April 2019)
For a chronological guide, see January–April 2019 timeline. Further information: National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict
New outbreaks of civil war; northwestern offensive; northern buffer zone established (May–August 2019)
For a chronological guide, see May–August 2019 timeline. Further information: Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)
US forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (September–December 2019)
For a chronological guide, see September–December 2019 timeline. Further information: 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria
Northwestern Syria offensive; Operation Spring Shield; new economic crisis and stalemate conflict (2020 – October 2024)
For a chronological guide, see 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023 and January–October 2024 timelines. Further information: Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020), Operation Spring Shield, and Southern Syria protests (2023–24)
Renewed rebel offensive and collapse of the Assad regime (November 2024–present)
For a chronological guide, see November 2024–present timeline. Main articles: 2024 Syrian opposition offensives, Operation Dawn of Freedom, and Fall of the Assad regime Further information: Southern Syria offensive (2024), Deir ez-Zor offensive (2024), Battle of Aleppo (2024), 2024 Hama offensive, 2024 Homs offensive, Palmyra offensive (2024), Fall of Damascus, and 2024 Israeli invasion of Syria

Belligerents

Main article: Belligerents in the Syrian civil war
Local, regional and international actors involved in the Syrian civil war prior to the fall of the Assad regime.

Syrian factions

There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be divided into four main groups.

The Syrian government, the opposition and the SDF have all received support—militarily, logistically and diplomatically—from foreign countries, leading the conflict to often be described as a proxy war.

Foreign involvement

Main article: Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war See also: Israel–Syria relations
Map of states with military/paramilitary forces deployed in Syria.  Syria  Supported the Assad government with troops  Supported the Assad government with militia  Supporting Syrian rebels or a non-government faction with troops

The major parties that supported the Syrian government were Iran, Russia and Lebanese militia Hezbollah. Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the United States, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Britain, France, Israel and the Netherlands. Under the aegis of operation Timber Sycamore and other clandestine activities, CIA operatives and US special operations troops have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of $1 billion a year since 2012. Iraq had also been involved in supporting the Syrian government, but mostly against ISIL.

Hezbollah, the Lebanese Shia militant group, was significantly involved in the Syrian Civil War. Starting from the 2011 Syrian revolution, Hezbollah provided active support to the Ba'athist government forces. By 2012, the group escalated its involvement, deploying troops across Syria. In 2013, Hezbollah publicly acknowledged its presence in Syria, intensifying its ground commitment. This involvement included an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 fighters at any given time, comprising Special Forces, standing forces from all units, part-time fighters and new recruits with accelerated combat training. Hezbollah's presence, supported by Iranian weaponry and training, further complicated the conflict dynamics, drawing Israeli airstrikes against Hezbollah and Iranian targets in Syria.

Spillover

Main article: Spillover of the Syrian civil war Further information: War in Iraq (2013–2017)

In June 2014, members of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and took control of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the Iraqi Army abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the North Governorate of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.

Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the Syrian Arab Air Force used airstrikes targeted against ISIL in Raqqa and al-Hasakah in coordination with the Iraqi government.

Weaponry and warfare

See also: List of equipment of the Syrian Army, List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces, and Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war
Improvised artillery found after the battle of Aleppo in 2016
Syrian Army T-72 tank during the 2018 Rif Dimashq offensive

Chemical weapons

Main articles: Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war and Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons See also: Syria and weapons of mass destruction and Syria chemical weapons program

Sarin, mustard agent and chlorine gas have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the 2013 Ghouta chemical attack. A UN fact-finding mission was requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four cases, UN inspectors confirmed the use of sarin gas. In August 2016, a confidential report by the UN and the OPCW explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al-Assad for dropping chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIL for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August 2015.

The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds at a "military research site". After the April 2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, the United States launched its first intentional attack against Syrian government forces. An investigation conducted by Tobias Schneider and Theresa Lutkefend of the GPPi research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total chemical attacks to the Assad regime. Almost 90% of the attacks occurred after Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013.

In April 2020, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons watchdog, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which found that the Syrian Air Force used sarin and chlorine during multiple attacks in 2017. Syria's close allies, Russia, and other European countries debated the issue, during which Moscow dismissed the OPCW findings while many Western European countries called for accountability for the government's war crimes. The UN Deputy ambassador from Britain, Jonathan Allen, stated that the report by the OPCW's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) claimed that the Syrian regime is responsible for using chemical weapons in the war on at least four occasions. The information was also noted in two UN-mandated investigations.

In April 2021, Syria was suspended from the OPCW through the public vote of member states for not cooperating with the IIT and for violating the Chemical Weapons Convention. Findings of another OPCW investigation report published in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the 77 reported incidents of chemical weapons usage attributed to Assadist forces.

Cluster bombs

Syria is not a party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions and does not recognize the ban on the use of cluster bombs. The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at Human Rights Watch, said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs." He adds of the weapons that "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."

Thermobaric weapons

Russian thermobaric weapons, also known as "fuel-air bombs", were used by the government's side during the war. On 2 December 2015, The National Interest reported that Russia was deploying the TOS-1 Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas". One Buratino thermobaric rocket launcher "can obliterate a roughly 200 by 400 metres (660 by 1,310 feet) area with a single salvo". Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the Battle of Aleppo and also in Kafr Batna. A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013. In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.

Anti-tank missiles

An Army of Glory fighter launches a BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile at a Syrian government position during the 2017 Hama offensive.

Several types of anti-tank missiles are in use in Syria. Russia has sent 9M133 Kornet, third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight jihadists and rebels. US-made BGM-71 TOW missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia. The US has also supplied many Eastern European sourced 9K111 Fagot launchers and warheads to Syrian rebel groups under its Timber Sycamore program.

Ballistic missiles

See also: Operation Laylat al-Qadr

In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the Deir ez-Zor area in eastern Syria with Zolfaghar ballistic missiles fired from western Iran, in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years. According to Jane's Defence Weekly, the missiles travelled 650–700 kilometres.

Sectarianism

Main articles: Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war and Federalization of Syria
Map of Syria's ethno-religious composition in 1976

The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious group an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. This resulted in calls for persecution of the Alawites by parts of the opposition.

A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war. In May 2013, SOHR stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, 41,000 of which being Alawites.

According to The Daily Beast news website, many Syrian Christians stated in November 2013 that they had fled after they were targeted by the anti-government rebels.

As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government—have taken over fighting the anti-government forces from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well"—reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders. According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, human rights abuses have been committed by the militias including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians dead".

Kurdish autonomy in northeastern Syria

Main articles: Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria and Rojava conflict

The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), also known as Rojava, is a de facto autonomous region in northeastern Syria. The region does not claim to pursue full independence but autonomy within a federal and democratic Syria. Rojava consists of self-governing sub-regions in the areas of Afrin, Jazira, Euphrates, Raqqa, Tabqa, Manbij and Deir Ez-Zor. The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing Rojava conflict, in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.

While entertaining some foreign relations, the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state except for the Catalan Parliament. The AANES has widespread support for its universal democratic, sustainable, autonomous pluralist, equal and feminist policies in dialogues with other political parties and organizations. Northeastern Syria is polyethnic and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic Turkmen, Armenians, Circassians and Yazidis.

The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially secular polity with direct democratic ambitions based on an anarchistic, feminist and libertarian socialist ideology promoting decentralization, gender equality, environmental sustainability, social ecology and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and political diversity, and that these values are mirrored in its constitution, society and politics, stating it to be a model for a federalized Syria as a whole, rather than outright independence. The region's administration has also been accused by some partisan and nonpartisan sources of authoritarianism, support of the Syrian government, Kurdification and displacement. However, despite this the AANES has been the most democratic system in Syria, with direct open elections, universal equality, respecting human rights within the region, as well as defense of minority and religious rights within Syria.

In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution". While the region's administration was not invited to the Geneva III peace talks on Syria, or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular called for the region's inclusion and did to some degree carry the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May 2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.

The Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces announcing the Deir ez-Zor campaign in 2017

An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic". In late September 2017, Syria's Foreign Minister said that Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL was defeated.

On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels. The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer. Following the creation of the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.

According to information gathered in December 2021, Iraqi authorities have repatriated 100 Iraqi fighters from the ISIL (ISIS) group who were being held by Kurdish forces in northeast Syria.

As of 2022, the main military threat and conflict faced by Rojava's official defense force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), are firstly, an ongoing conflict with ISIS; and secondly, ongoing concerns of possible invasion of the northeast regions of Syria by Turkish forces, in order to strike Kurdish groups in general, and Rojava in particular. An official report by the Rojava government noted Turkey-backed militias as the main threat to the region of Rojava and its government.

In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey's Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ. The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30-kilometre-wide (19 mi) "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, President Erdoğan said in a statement. The operation aims at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President Erdoğan reiterated his determination for the operation on 8 August 2022.

On 5 June 2022, the leader of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), Mazloum Abdi, said that forces of the Kurdish government in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying "Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy. The joint discussions were a result of the negotiation processes that had begun in October 2019. In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of Islamic State in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.

As of 2023, Turkey was continuing its support for various militias within Syria, consisting mostly of the Syrian National Army, which periodically attempted some operations against Kurdish groups. One stated goal was to create "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, according to a statement by Turkish President Erdoğan. The operations were generally aimed at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east. President Erdoğan openly stated his support for the operations, in talks with Moscow in mid-2022.

Humanitarian impact

Human toll of the Syrian civil war
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.
Pre-war population 22 ±.5; Internally displaced 6 ±.5, Refugees 5.5 ±.5, Fatalities 0.5 ±.1 (millions)
Syrian refugees
By countryTurkey, Lebanon, Egypt, Jordan
SettlementsCamps: Jordan
Internally displaced Syrians
Casualties of the war
CrimesWar crimes, massacres, rape
Return of refugees, Refugees as weapons, Prosecution of war criminals

Refugees

Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in cramped quarters (6 August 2012)
Main article: Refugees of the Syrian civil war
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2024)

As of December 2022, an estimated 6.7 million refugees have been forced to flee Syria, with approximately 5.5 million Syrian refugees residing across the five nearby countries of Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt. Germany hosts the largest refugee population out of any non-neighboring nation with more than 850,000 Syrian refugees.

Over 3.7 million Syrian refugees are in Turkey. Many refugees are housed in a system of a dozen Syrian refugee camps placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged. The massive sustained presence of Syrian refugees has fueled resentment from Turkish citizens and figures across the country's political spectrum. They have been employed as scapegoats during periods of crisis within the country. Measures have been put in place to "drive them out" including raised fees on utilities such as water and services such as marriage licences. There has been an increase on attacks targeting Syrian refugees in the country.

In 2013, one in three of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon, which had a population of 5.2 million in 2012.

In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded three million. According to the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Greek Catholic Patriarch Gregorios III Laham claimed in 2014 that more than 450,000 Syrian Christians have been displaced by the conflict. As of September 2016, the European Union has reported that there are 13.5 million refugees in need of assistance in the country. Australia is being appealed to rescue more than 60 women and children stuck in Syria's Al-Hawl camp ahead of a potential Turkish invasion.

A report from NGO ACT Alliance found that refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled in 2019. Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially during the winter. In 2019, 4,000 people were housed at the Washokani Camp. The Kurdish Red Cross was the only organization known to have helped the camp's refugees. Numerous camp residents called for assistance from international groups.

On 30 December 2019, over 50 Syrian refugees, including 27 children, were welcomed in Ireland, where they started afresh in their new temporary homes at the Mosney Accommodation Centre in Co Meath. The migrant refugees were pre-interviewed by Irish officials under the Irish Refugee Protection Programme (IRPP).

Return of refugees

Main article: Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war

Another aspect of the post-war years will be how to repatriate the millions of refugees. The Syrian government has put forward a law commonly known as "law 10", which could strip refugees of property, such as damaged real estate. There are also fears among some refugees that if they return to claim this property they will face negative consequences, such as forced conscription or prison. The Syrian government has been criticized for using this law to reward those who have supported the government. However, the government said this statement was false and has expressed that it wants the return of refugees from Lebanon. In December 2018, it was also reported that the Syrian government has started to seize property under an anti-terrorism law, which is affecting government opponents negatively, with many losing their property. Some people's pensions have also been cancelled.

Erdogan said that Turkey expects to resettle about 1 million refugees in the "buffer zone" that it controls. Erdogan claimed that Turkey had spent billions on approximately five million refugees now being housed in Turkey; and called for more funding from wealthier nations and from the EU. This plan raised concerns amongst Kurds about displacement of existing communities and groups in that area.

Internally displaced refugees

Main article: Internally displaced persons in Syria

The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimated 10.9 million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced. Violence in the ongoing crisis in northwest Syria had forced 6,500 children to flee every day over the last week of January 2020. The recorded count of displaced children in the area has reached more than 300,000 since December 2019.

As of 2022, there are 6.2 million internally displaced persons in Syria according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 2.5 million of those are children. 2017 alone saw the displacement of at least 1.8 million people, many of them being displaced for the second and third time.

Hundreds of boys are being held hostage by ISIS. As of 25 January 2022, The New York Times stated that the fight over a prison in northeastern Syria has brought attention to the plight of thousands of foreign children who were brought to Syria by their parents to join the Islamic State caliphate and have been detained for three years in camps and prisons in the region, abandoned by their home countries.

An estimated 40,000 foreigners, including children, travelled to Syria to fight for the caliphate or work for it. Thousands of them had brought their small children with them. There were also other children born there. When ISIS lost control of the last piece of territory in Syria, Baghuz, three years ago, surviving women and young children were detained in camps, while suspected militants and boys, some as young as 10, were imprisoned.

Furthermore, when the boys in the camps reach the age of adolescence, they are usually transferred to Hasaka's Sinaa prison, where they are packed into overcrowded cells with no access to sunlight. According to prison guards in the area, there is insufficient food and medical attention. When the boys reach the age of 18, they are sent to the regular prison population, where wounded ISIS members are placed three to a bed.

Casualties

Main article: Casualties of the Syrian civil war
Total deaths over the course of the conflict in Syria (18 March 2011 – 18 October 2013) based on data from the Syrian National Council

On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been killed since the civil war began, with UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking". Four months later, the UN's updated figure for the death toll had reached 80,000. On 13 June 2013, the UN released an updated figure of people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for up to the end of April 2013. Navi Pillay, UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure". The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000. Some areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in the city of Homs.

One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians. At least half of those confirmed killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including 52,290 government fighters and 29,080 rebels, with an additional 50,000 unconfirmed combatant deaths. In addition, UNICEF reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012, and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons; both of these reports have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture. In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group SOHR reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300, and in March 2013, opposition sources stated that over 5,000 children had been killed. In January 2014, a report was released detailing the systematic killing of more than 11,000 detainees of the Syrian government.

Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012
A girl from the Syrian city of Qamishli who lost her leg during the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria in October 2019

On 20 August 2014, a new U.N. study concluded that at least 191,369 people have died in the Syrian conflict. The UN thereafter stopped collecting statistics, but a study by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research released in February 2016 estimated the death toll to be 470,000, with 1.9m wounded (reaching a total of 11.5% of the entire population either wounded or killed). A report by the pro-opposition SNHR in 2018 mentioned 82,000 victims that had been forcibly disappeared by the Syrian government, added to 14,000 confirmed deaths due to torture. According to various war monitors, Syrian Armed Forces and pro-Assad forces has been responsible for over 90% of the total civilian casualties in the civil war.

On 15 April 2017, a convoy of buses carrying evacuees from the besieged Shia towns of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya, which were surrounded by the Army of Conquest, was attacked by a suicide bomber west of Aleppo, killing more than 126 people, including at least 80 children. On 1 January 2020, at least eight civilians, including four children, were killed in a rocket attack on a school in Idlib by Syrian government forces, the Syrian Human Rights Observatory (SOHR) said.

In January 2020, UNICEF warned that children were bearing the brunt of escalating violence in northwestern Syria. More than 500 children were wounded or killed during the first three quarters of 2019, and over 65 children fell victim to the war in December alone.

Over 380,000 people have been killed since the war in Syria started nine years ago, war monitor Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said on 4 January 2020. The death toll comprises civilians, government soldiers, militia members and foreign troops.

In an airstrike by Russian forces loyal to the Syrian government, at least five civilians were killed, out of which four belonged to the same family. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that the death toll included three children following the attack in the Idlib region on 18 January 2020.

On 30 January 2020, Russian airstrikes on a hospital and a bakery killed over 10 civilians in Syria's Idlib region. Moscow immediately rejected the allegation.

On 23 June 2020, Israeli raids killed seven fighters, including two Syrian in a central province. State media cited a military official as saying the attack targeted posts in rural areas of Hama province.

Just four days after the start of 2022, two children were killed and five others injured in northwest Syria. In 2021 alone, over 70% of violent attacks against children have been recorded in the region.

On 14 January 2022, one person was killed by a car bomb and several others were wounded in the city of Azaz in northwest Syria, three people were wounded at a marketplace in a suspected suicide bombing in the town of al Bab and another suicide bomb went off in the city of Afrin at a roundabout.

Human rights violations and war crimes

Main articles: Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war and Human rights in Syria See also: Syrian mass graves, Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory, List of massacres during the Syrian civil war, Rape during the Syrian civil war, Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war, and Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals
Victims of the Ghouta chemical attack perpetrated by Syrian regime forces in August 2013

United Nations and human rights organizations have asserted that human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebel forces, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government". Numerous human rights abuses, political repression, war crimes and crimes against humanity perpetrated by the Assad government throughout the course of the conflict has led to international condemnation and widespread calls to convict Bashar al-Assad in the International Criminal Court (ICC). The unprecedented scale of the atrocities launched by government forces since the outbreak of the Syrian revolution has led to international outrage, and Syria's membership was suspended from various international organizations.

According to three international lawyers, Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about 11,000 detainees. Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution. Experts said this evidence was more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that had emerged from the then 34-month crisis. Atrocities committed by the Assad regime have been described as the "greatest war crimes of the 21st century", with chilling revelations of torture, rapes, massacres, and extermination being leaked through the 2014 Caesar Report, which contained photographic evidence gathered by a dissident army photographer who worked in Ba'athist military prisons. According to international lawyer Stephen Rapp:

We've got better evidence—against Assad and his clique—than we had against Milosevic in Yugoslavia, or we had in any of the war crimes tribunals in which I've involved in, some extent, even better than we had against the Nazis at Nuremberg, because the Nazis didn't actually take individual pictures of each of their victims with identifying information on them.

The UN reported in 2014 that "siege warfare is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access to humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: Muadamiyah, Daraya, Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama. In Yarmouk Camp 20,000 residents faced death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and Jabhat al-Nusra, which prevents food distribution by UNRWA. In July 2015, the UN removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to say why it had done so. After intense fighting in April/May 2018, Syrian government forces finally took the camp, its population now reduced to 100–200.

ISIS forces have also been criticized by the UN of using public executions and killing of captives, amputations, and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27 August 2014. ISIS also persecuted gay and bisexual men.

Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began. An Amnesty International report, published in November 2015, stated the Syrian government has forcibly disappeared more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian civil war. According to a report in May 2016 by the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, at least 60,000 people have been killed since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.

In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the Saydnaya military prison. They stated the killings began in 2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government". Three months later, the United States State Department stated a crematorium had been identified near the prison. According to the US, it was being used to burn thousands of bodies of those killed by the government's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war crimes. Amnesty International expressed surprise at the reports about the crematorium, as the photographs used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus. The Syrian government said the reports were not true.

By July 2012, the human rights group Women Under Siege had documented over 100 cases of rape and sexual assault during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.

On 11 September 2019, the UN investigators said that air strikes conducted by the US-led coalition in Syria have killed or wounded several civilians, denoting that necessary precautions were not taken leading to potential war crimes.

Protest in Berlin, showing image of murdered Syrian-Kurdish politician Hevrin Khalaf

In late 2019, as the violence intensified in northwest Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators. In October 2019, Amnesty International stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by Turkish and Turkey-backed Syrian forces who are said to "have displayed a shameful disregard for civilian life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and unlawful attacks that have killed and injured civilians".

According to a 2020 report by UN-backed investigators into the Syrian civil war, young girls aged nine and above have been raped and inveigled into sexual slavery, while boys have been put through torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children have been attacked by sharpshooters and lured to be bargaining chips for ransoms.

On 6 April 2020, the United Nations published its investigation into the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. In its reports, the UN said it had examined six sites of attacks and concluded that the airstrikes had been carried out by the "Government of Syria and/or its allies." However, the report was criticized for being partial towards Russia and not naming it, despite proper evidence. "The refusal to explicitly name Russia as a responsible party working alongside the Syrian government ... is deeply disappointing", the HRW quoted.

On 27 April 2020, the Syrian Network for Human Rights reported the continuation of multiple crimes in the month of March and April in Syria. The rights organization claimed that the Syrian regime killed 44 civilians, including six children, during the COVID-19 pandemic. It also said that Syrian forces held 156 people captive while committing at least of four attacks on vital civilian facilities. The report further recommended that the UN impose sanctions on the Bashar al-Assad regime if it continues to commit human rights violations.

On 8 May 2020, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, raised serious concern that rebel groups, including ISIL terrorist fighters, may be using the COVID-19 pandemic as "an opportunity to re-group and inflict violence in the country".

On 21 July 2020, the Syrian government forces carried out an attack and killed two civilians with four Grad rockets in western al-Bab sub-district.

On 14 January 2022, in the rebel-held city of Azaz in northwest Syria, a car bomb went off killing one and wounding several bystanders. According to a rescue worker, an improvised explosive device had been housed inside a car and then the car was planted near a local transport office in the city which is close to the Turkish border. In the town of al Bab, a suicide bomb went off wounding three and in the city of Afrin, another suicide bomb went off at a roundabout. All these three bombings happened in a span of hours and minutes from each other.

According to Al-Jazeera, a rocket attack on a northern Syrian town controlled by Turkey-backed opposition fighters killed six civilians and injured more than a dozen others on 21 January 2022. According to the British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, it was unclear who fired the artillery shells, but the attack came from a region populated by Kurdish fighters and Syrian government forces.

After an attack on a Syrian jail on 23 January 2022, over 120 individuals were killed in an ongoing conflict between Kurdish-led troops and ISIL (ISIS) fighters. According to the UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, "at least 77 IS members and 39 Kurdish fighters, including internal security forces, prison guards and counter-terrorism forces were killed" in the attack. On 17 December 2023, eight civilians, including a pregnant woman, were killed during bombardments by the Syrian Arab Army on the town of Darat Izza. War monitor SOHR reported that pro-Assad forces deliberately perpetrated a massacre by "directly targeting residential areas, using artillery shells and rocket launchers".

Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals

Main article: Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals

In 2022, a German court sentenced Anwar Raslan, 58, a high-ranking official of President Bashar al-Assad's regime to life imprisonment after he sought asylum in Germany and was arrested in 2019. He was charged with being complicit to the murder of at least 27 people coupled with the sexual assault and torture of at least another 4,000 people between 29 April 2011, and 7 September 2012. Raslan was a mid-level officer in Branch 251 and oversaw the torture of detainees. His trial was one of an unprecedented nature because Germany took on a trial of crimes committed in the Syrian war and the human rights lawyers took this on under the principle of "universal jurisdiction". Universal Jurisdiction is a concept in German law that allows for serious crimes to be tried in Germany even if they did not happen in the country. His co-defendant Eyad al-Gharib, 44, a low-level officer in Branch 251 was also sentenced to 4 years and 6 months in prison on 24 February 2021. Eyad's duties included the transport of detainees to locations where they would be tortured for days on end. It was his knowledge of the fact that torture was happening there that landed him the sentence.

Crime wave

Doctors and medical staff treating injured rebel fighters and civilians in Aleppo

As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.

Local National Defense Forces commanders often engaged "in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.

Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings. Rebel forces sometimes rely on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. Black market weapon prices in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, theft and kidnapping.

Syria has become the chief location for manufacturing Captagon, an illegal amphetamine. Drugs manufactured in Syria have found their way across the Gulf, Jordan and Europe but have at times been intercepted. In January 2022, a Jordanian army officer was shot and killed and three army personnel injured after a shoot out erupted between drug smugglers and the army. The Jordanian army has said that it shot down a drone in 2021 that was being used to smuggle a substantial amount of drugs across the Jordanian border.

Epidemics

Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in Syria

The World Health Organization has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a disease risk to countries to which they have fled. Four hundred thousand civilians were isolated by the Siege of Eastern Ghouta from April 2013 to April 2018, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United Nations Special Advisor, Jan Egeland, who urged the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also isolated in the Rukban refugee camp between Syria and Jordan, where humanitarian relief access is difficult due to the harsh desert conditions. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking three months between shipments.

Formerly rare infectious diseases have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor sanitation and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include measles, typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping cough and the disfiguring skin disease leishmaniasis. Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling Poliomyelitis. As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to vaccination, sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".

In June 2020, the United Nations reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 26 June, a total of 248 people were infected by COVID-19, out of which nine people died. Restrictions on the importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its population. Syrian communities were additionally facing unprecedented levels of hunger crisis.

In September 2022, the UN representative in Syria reported that several regions in the country were witnessing a cholera outbreak. UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator Imran Riza called for an urgent response to contain the outbreak, saying that it posed "a serious threat to people in Syria". The outbreak was linked to the use of contaminated water for growing crops and the reliance of people on unsafe water sources.

Humanitarian aid

Main article: Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war
US aid to Syrian opposition forces, May 2013

The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, $6.5 billion worth of requests of December 2013. The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) in accordance with General Assembly Resolution 46/182. The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for US$1.41 billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict. Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman). UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need. Financial information on the response to the SHARP and assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE and Norway.

The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food. USAID and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385 million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies. Islamic Relief has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.

Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria. Israel supplied aid through Operation Good Neighbor, providing medical treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in Golan Heights where rebels say that 250 of their fighters were treated. Israel established two medical centers inside Syria. Israel also delivered heating fuel, diesel fuel, seven electric generators, water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food, diapers, shoes and clothing. Syrian refugees in Lebanon make up one quarter of Lebanon's population, mostly consisting of women and children. In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.

On 9 April 2020, the UN dispatched 51 truckloads of humanitarian aid to Idlib. The organization said that the aid would be distributed among civilians stranded in the northwestern part of the country.

On 30 April 2020, Human Rights Watch condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction on the entry of aid supplies. It also demanded the World Health Organization to keep pushing the UN to allow medical aid and other essentials to reach Syria via the Iraq border crossing, to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the war-torn nation. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect themselves from contracting the COVID-19 virus.

2019 UN cross-border aid dispute

As of December 2019, a diplomatic dispute is occurring at the UN over re-authorization of cross-border aid for refugees. China and Russia oppose the draft resolution that seeks to re-authorize crossing points in Turkey, Iraq and Jordan; China and Russia, as allies of Assad, seek to close the two crossing points in Iraq and Jordan, and to leave only the two crossing points in Turkey active. The current authorization expired on 10 January 2020.

All of the ten individuals representing the non-permanent members of the Security Council stood in the corridor outside of the chamber speaking to the press to state that all four crossing points are crucial and must be renewed.

United Nations official Mark Lowcock is asking the UN to re-authorize cross-border aid to enable aid to continue to reach refugees in Syria. He says there is no other way to deliver the aid that is needed. He noted that four million refugees out of the over eleven million refugees who need assistance are being reached through four specific international crossing points. Lowcock serves as the United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator and the Head of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.

Russia, aided by China's support, has vetoed the resolution to retain all four border crossings. An alternate resolution also did not pass. The US strongly criticized the vetoes and opposition by Russia and China. China explained the reason for veto is the concern of "unilateral coercive measures" by certain states causing humanitarian suffering on the Syrian people. It views lifting all unilateral sanctions respecting Syrian sovereignty and for humanitarian reasons is a must.

Cultural impact

Main articles: Tourism in Syria, List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian civil war, and Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State See also: Syrian civil war in popular culture
The Temple of Bel in Palmyra, which was destroyed by ISIL in August 2015

As of March 2015, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24. Five of the six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Syria have been damaged. Destruction of antiquities has been caused by shelling, army entrenchment, and looting at various tells, museums and monuments. A group called Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of Syrian archaeology and architecture.

UNESCO listed all six Syria's World Heritage Sites as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the Old City of Aleppo was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while Palmyra and Krak des Chevaliers suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.

In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State, several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites. In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the Temples of Baalshamin and Bel, many tombs including the Tower of Elahbel and part of the Monumental Arch. The 13th-century Palmyra Castle was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the Palmyra offensive in March 2016. IS also destroyed ancient statues in Raqqa, and a number of churches, including the Armenian Genocide Memorial Church in Deir ez-Zor.

In January 2018 Turkish airstrikes seriously damaged an ancient Neo-Hittite temple in Syria's Kurdish-held Afrin region. It was built by the Arameans in the first millennium BC. According to a September 2019 report published by the Syrian Network for Human Rights, more than 120 Christian churches have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since 2011.

The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at the P21 Gallery showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.

As a result of the war many children's books have been published surrounding themes and stories of Syrian children of war. Some examples of this would be Tomorrow by Nadine Kaadan, My Beautiful Birds by Suzanne del Rizzo and Nowhere Boy by Katherine Marsh.

Media coverage

Main article: Media coverage of the Syrian civil war

The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria.

ISIL executions

On 19 August 2014, American journalist James Foley was executed by ISIL, who said it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by Shabiha militia. ISIL also threatened to execute Steven Sotloff, who was kidnapped at the Syrian–Turkish border in August 2013. There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well. Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists. On 22 August 2014, the al-Nusra Front released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.

International reactions and diplomacy

Main article: International reactions to the Syrian civil war See also: Vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions on Syria
Esther Brimmer (US) speaks at a United Nations Human Rights Council urgent debate on Syria, February 2012

During the early period of the civil war, The Arab League, European Union, the United Nations and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech. Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted United Nations Security Council resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.

Economic sanctions

See also: Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act and Syria–United States relations § Economic sanctions

The US Congress has enacted punitive sanctions on the Syrian government for its actions during the Civil War. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any companies operating in Syria. US President Donald Trump tried to protect the Turkish President Erdogan from the effects of such sanctions.

Some activists welcomed this legislation. Some critics contend that these punitive sanctions are likely to backfire or have unintended consequences; they argue that ordinary Syrian people will have fewer economic resources due to these sanctions (and will thus need to rely more the Syrian government and its economic allies and projects), while the sanctions' impact on ruling political elites will be limited.

Mohammad al-Abdallah, executive director of Syria Justice and Accountability Center (SJAC), said that the sanctions will likely hurt ordinary Syrian people, saying, "it is an almost unsolvable unfeasible equation. If they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means."

Peter Ford, the former UK Ambassador to Syria, said "...going forward, we're seeing more economic warfare. It seems that the US, having failed to change the regime in Syria by military force or by proxies, is tightening the economic screws and the main reason why the US is keeping hold of the production facilities in eastern Syria. So, the economic situation is becoming more and more serious and dire in Syria and it's a major reason why refugees are not going back."

In June, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced new economic sanctions on Syria targeting foreign business relations with the Syrian government. Under the Caesar Act, the latest sanctions were to be imposed on 39 individuals and entities, including Asma al-Assad, wife of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.

On 17 June 2020, James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement, signalled that the UAE could be hit with sanctions under the Caesar Act if it pushed ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime.

2019 negotiations

Part of a series on
the Syrian civil war
Syrian peace process
History
Arab League initiative I2011
Arab League initiative II2011–12
Churkin peace plan2012
Kofi Annan peace plan (Geneva I)2012
Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan2012
U.S.–Russia peace proposal (2013)2013
Geneva II Mideast peace conference2014
Staffan de Mistura peace plan2015
Zabadani agreement2015
Vienna talks2015
Geneva III2016
US-Russia ceasefire proposal (2016)2016
Geneva IV2017
Idlib demilitarization2018
Northern Syria Buffer Zone2019
Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone2019
Syrian Constitutional Committee2019
Syrian-Turkish normalization2022–24
Primary concerns
Secondary concerns
International brokers
Proposals
Projects
Main articles: Syrian peace process, Syrian civil war ceasefires, and Safe Zone (Syria)
Syria peace talks in Vienna, 30 October 2015

During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations and other actors. The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with what it describes as armed terrorist groups. On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks that had been agreed on by the International Syria Support Group (ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks. On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government stated that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's President Bashar al-Assad said he hoped peace talks in Geneva would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.

A new round of talks between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 2017 in Astana, Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the ceasefire agreement brokered in late December 2016. The Astana Process talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than replacement, of the United Nations-led Geneva Process talks. On 4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran and Turkey signed a memorandum whereby four "de-escalation zones" in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May 2017.

On 18 September 2019, Russia stated the United States and Syrian rebels were obstructing the evacuation process of a refugee camp in southern Syria.

On 28 September 2019, Syria's top diplomat demanded the foreign forces, including that of US and Turkey, to immediately leave the country, saying that the Syrian government holds the right to protect its territory in all possible ways if they remain.

President RT Erdogan said Turkey was left with no choice other than going its own way on the Syria 'safe zone' after a deadline to co-jointly establish a "safe zone" with the US in northern Syria expired in September. The US indicated it would withdraw its forces from northern Syria after Turkey warned of incursion in the region that could instigate fighting with American-backed Kurds.

Buffer zone with Turkey

See also: Northern Syria Buffer Zone, Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone, and 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria

In October 2019, in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian government and the Kurdish-led forces. Russia also negotiated a renewal of a cease-fire between Kurds and Turkey that was about to expire.

Russia and Turkey agreed via the Sochi Agreement of 2019 to set up a Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone. Syrian President Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also applied to the Syrian government. The SDF stated that they considered themselves as "Syrian and a part of Syria", adding that they would agree to work with the Syrian Government. The SDF officially announced their support for the deal on 27 October.

The agreement reportedly included the following terms:

  • A buffer zone would be established in northern Syria. The zone would be around 30 kilometres (19 mi) deep, stretching from Euphrates River to Tall Abyad and from Ras al-Ayn to the Iraq-Syria border, but excluding the town of Qamishli, the Kurds' de facto capital.
  • The buffer zone would be controlled jointly by the Syrian Army and Russian Military Police.
  • All YPG forces, which constitute the majority of the SDF, must withdraw from the buffer zone entirely, along with their weapons, within 150 hours from the announcement of the deal. Their withdrawal would be overseen by Russian Military Police and the Syrian Border Guards, which would then enter the zone.

Syrian Constitutional Committee

Main article: Syrian Constitutional Committee

In late 2019, a new Syrian Constitutional Committee began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and to draft a new constitution for Syria. This committee comprises about 150 members. It includes representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups and countries serving as guarantors of the process, such as Russia. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government. Fifty of the committee members represent the government, and 50 members represent the opposition. Until the Assad government agrees to participate, it is unclear whether the third round of talks will proceed on a firm schedule.

In December 2019, the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds, and called for the self-declared Autonomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in any new Syrian Constitution. The Kurds are concerned that the independence of their declared Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) in Rojava might be severely curtailed.

Rojava officials condemned the fact that they were excluded from the peace talks and stated that "having a couple of Kurds" in the committee did not mean that the Syrian Kurds were properly represented in it. The co-chair of the Syrian Democratic Council accused Turkey of vetoing the representation of Syrian Kurds within the committee. The Kurdish administration also organized demonstrations in front of the UN office in Qamishli to protest their exclusion from the committee.

Arab League

See also: Saudi Arabia–Syria relations

On 13 April 2023, Syrian Foreign Minister Faisal Mekdad arrived in Jeddah to meet Saudi foreign minister, Prince Faisal bin Farhan. After frayed relations during the Syrian civil war, both nations now seek "a political solution to the Syrian crisis that preserves the unity, security and stability of Syria", according to the Saudi foreign ministry. The high level talks are "facilitating the return of Syrian refugees to their homeland, and securing humanitarian access to the affected areas in Syria". Al-Assad previously visited the UAE, Oman as well as Saudi Arabia. The discussion also included the possible resumption of consular services between the two countries. This is the first visit to Saudi Arabia by a Syrian foreign minister since the onset of the civil war in 2011. The same week all foreign ministers of the Arab League would meet again to discuss the return of Syria to the regional organisation.

Reconstruction

See also: Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act
Great Mosque of Aleppo in 2013, after destruction of the minaret
Most of Raqqa suffered extensive damage during the Second Battle of Raqqa.

During the Assad government

United Nations authorities have estimated that the war in Syria has caused destruction amounting to about $400 billion. The SNHR reported in 2017 that the war has rendered around 39% of Syrian mosques unserviceable for worship. More than 13,500 mosques were destroyed in Syria between 2011 and 2017. Around 1,400 were dismantled by 2013, while 13,000 mosques were demolished between 2013 and 2017. According to a Syrian war monitor, over 120 churches have been damaged or demolished by during the course of Syrian war since 2011, 60% of which attacks were perpetrated by pro-Assad forces.

While the war is still ongoing, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the war-torn country on its own. As of July 2018, the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of US$400 billion. Assad said he would be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury. Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria. One year later this seemed to be materializing, Iran and the Syrian government signed a deal where Iran would help rebuild the Syrian energy grid, which has taken damage to 50% of the grid. International donors have been suggested as one financier of the reconstruction. As of November 2018, reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people.

Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia says it will spend $500 million to modernize Syria's port of Tartus. Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian Gulf. Russia will also contribute to recovery efforts by the UN. Syria awarded oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms.

Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's "Belt and Road Initiative" designed to foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide. On Wednesday 12 January 2022, China and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding in Damascus. The memorandum was signed by Fadi al-Khalil, the Head of Planning and International Cooperation Commission for the Syrian Side and Feng Biao, the Chinese ambassador in Damascus for the Chinese side. The memorandum sees Syria join the initiative whose aim is to help expand cooperation with China and other partner countries in areas such as trade, technology, capital, human movement and cultural exchange. Among other things, it aims to define the future of this cooperation with partner states.

Syrian transitional government

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2024)

A few days prior to the fall of the Assad regime, the Syrian American Council (SAC) successfully lobbied for the Caesar Act sanctions to be renewed via the US National Defense Authorization Act 2025 (NDAA 2025). However after the fall of Assad on 8 December 2024 and establishment of the Syrian transitional government, the SAC failed to have the sanctions clause removed from the bill in time. On 23 December the Biden administration signed NDAA 2025 into law, renewing the sanctions for another five years, with Reason magazine labeling the sanctions "a serious obstacle to Syria's reconstruction" post-Assad.

See also

Events within Syrian society

Historical aspects

Lists and statistical records

Specific offensives

Peace efforts and civil society groups

History of other local conflicts

Notes

  1. The Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights is shown in light grey. The Golan Heights has been under de facto Israeli control since 1967. Israeli sovereignty was recognized by the United States in 2019, but is not recognized by the United Nations or any member states except the United States and Israel.
  2. Attributed to multiple sources:
  3. With Ba'athist regime prevailing, the hostilities were mostly put on hold between 6 March 2020 and 27 November 2024, when the Syrian opposition launched a campaign of quick successful military offensives in Northwestern Syria, toppling the Assad regime on 8 December. Further fate of the ongoing conflict remains uncertain.
  4. 88% of whom were killed by government or Russian forces, according to the SOHR
  5. Sources:
  6. The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's PYD-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016. Since then, the name is still used by some locals and international observers.
  7. Sources:
  8. Sources:
  9. Starting from the Syria–Turkey border and going south into Syria

References

  1. Sources:
  2. Sources:
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