Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 09:16, 3 December 2024

Part of a series on
Philosophy
Philosophy portal Contents Outline Lists Glossary History Categories
Philosophies By period Ancient Ancient Egyptian Ancient Greek Medieval Renaissance Modern Contemporary Analytic Continental By region African Egypt Ethiopia South Africa Eastern philosophy Chinese Indian Indonesia Japan Korea Vietnam Indigenous American Aztec philosophy Middle Eastern philosophy Iranian Western American British French German Italian Russian By religion Buddhist Confucian Christian Hindu Islamic Jain Jewish Taoist
Branches Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Aesthetics Education History Language Law Metaphilosophy Mind Ontology Phenomenology Political Religion Science
Philosophers Aesthetic philosophers Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Philosophers of mind Social and political philosophers Women in philosophy
v t e

Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.

Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.

Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.

Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.

Etymology

The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek words φίλος (philos) 'love' and σοφία (sophia) 'wisdom'. Some sources say that the term was coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras, but this is not certain.

The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".

Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of rational inquiry, such as the individual sciences, as its subdisciplines. For instance, natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy. This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology. An example of this usage is the 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.

The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and mathematics.

Conceptions of philosophy

General conception

The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions. It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.

The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense. For example, Socrates stated that "the unexamined life is not worth living" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence. And according to Bertrand Russell, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."

Academic definitions

Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial and are studied in metaphilosophy. Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term. Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.

Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions. Such an approach is pursued by Immanuel Kant, who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?" Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.

Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, such as W. V. O. Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations. Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences. This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".

Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language. According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts. Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature. A further approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ordinary language.

Phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating essences. They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.

An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities. This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life. For example, the Stoics saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve eudaimonia and flourish in life.

History

As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines. Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant. The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.

Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Other philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.

Western

Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole. The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act, how to arrive at knowledge, and what the nature of reality and mind is. The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism. The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines.

The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. Humanism also emerged in this period. The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience. Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities. Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by German idealism and Marxism. Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic, the focus on the role of language as well as pragmatism, and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology, existentialism, and post-structuralism. The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions. There was also a noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers, but they still remained underrepresented.

Arabic–Persian

Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran.

Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith. Avicenna (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight. Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned. Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period. The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism, which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.

Indian

One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment. It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. They are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions. This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to liberate oneself from suffering. Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who emphasized non-violence as well as respect toward all forms of life.

The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism: Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It was systematized by Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE), who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion. A slightly different perspective was defended by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE), who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity. He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement, which taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE. The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought. Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.

Chinese

Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation. Many schools of thought emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism was founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society. Daoism was founded by Laozi (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the Dao or the natural order of the universe. Other influential early schools of thought were Mohism, which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism, and Legalism, which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.

Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into new forms of Buddhism. Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of Xuanxue emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations. Neo-Confucianism developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics. The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of Chinese Marxism—which focused on class struggle, socialism, and communism—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape. Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism, which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.

Other traditions

Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous Shinto religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination. Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following Edo period and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world. The Kyoto School emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (zettai-mu), place (basho), and the self.

Latin American philosophy in the pre-colonial period was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans. It has similarities to indigenous North American philosophy, which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things. Latin American philosophy during the colonial period, starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of scholasticism. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were positivism, the philosophy of liberation, and the exploration of identity and culture.

Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like Ubuntu. Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as ethnophilosophy, négritude, pan-Africanism, Marxism, postcolonialism, the role of cultural identity, relativism, African epistemology, and the critique of Eurocentrism.

Core branches

Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches. There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects. Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality. Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"

Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and knowledge by acquaintance, for example, knowing a celebrity personally.

One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem. Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of cognitive virtues instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.

Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony. According to empiricists, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like innate knowledge, are not acquired through experience. The regress problem is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning. Foundationalists avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves. Another solution is presented by coherentists, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.

Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.

Ethics

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right conduct. It is also concerned with the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life. Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"

The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like right action and obligation. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them. Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.

Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics are influential schools of thought. Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is utilitarianism, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty.

Logic

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad arguments. It is usually divided into formal and informal logic. Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.

Logic examines a variety of arguments. Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference, like modus ponens, which has the following logical form: "p; if p then q; therefore q". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".

The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true. One form is inductive reasoning. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens. Another form is abductive reasoning. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.

Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called fallacies and are divided into formal and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, space and time, events, and causation. There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages. Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "Why is there something rather than nothing?"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"

Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.

An important area in metaphysics is ontology. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like being, becoming, and reality. It studies the categories of being and asks what exists on the most fundamental level. Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical cosmology. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.

A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as souls and experiences) and abstract entities (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of identity. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity. According to one view, entities have essential and accidental features. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature. A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects. Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will.

Other major branches

There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.

Aesthetics in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and other aesthetic properties, like the sublime. Although it is often treated together with the philosophy of art, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty. In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature". A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience. Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments. Further topics include the essence of works of art and the processes involved in creating them.

The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language. It examines the concepts of meaning, reference, and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human thought and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics. The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal truth conditions of sentences and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with speech act theory.

The philosophy of mind studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world. It aims to understand different types of conscious and unconscious mental states, like beliefs, desires, intentions, feelings, sensations, and free will. An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The mind-body problem is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are materialism, which assumes that matter is more fundamental; idealism, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and dualism, which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is functionalism, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play. The mind-body problem is closely related to the hard problem of consciousness, which asks how the physical brain can produce qualitatively subjective experiences.

The philosophy of religion investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with religion. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the divine, and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of worldviews that reject religious doctrines. Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?"; "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?"; and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?" It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy. It differs from theology since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.

The philosophy of science examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from pseudoscience. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science. Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?"; "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?"; and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?" It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the natural sciences and the philosophy of the social sciences, with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.

Political philosophy is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of politics. It investigates the nature and purpose of government and compares its different forms. It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is legitimate, rather than a form of simple violence. In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and legal rights. Other topics are justice, liberty, equality, sovereignty, and nationalism. Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from political science, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states. Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics. Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are liberalism, conservativism, socialism, and anarchism.

Methods

Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories. A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment. The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them. This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence.

Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend. Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.

Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts. Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue. It is similar to how ordinary language philosophy approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.

Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles. For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories. The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.

Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true. According to the pragmatic maxim as formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.

Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or epoché. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.

Methodological naturalism places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.

Relation to other fields

Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an interdisciplinary perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope. Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.

The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In medicine, philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a person and under what conditions abortion is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for research experiments. In relation to business and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of corporate social responsibility.

Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs. This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already include theoretical assumptions. A closely connected problem is whether the available evidence is sufficient to decide between competing theories. Epistemological problems in relation to the law include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime. A related issue in journalism is how to ensure truth and objectivity when reporting on events.

In the fields of theology and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether revelation in the form of holy books and religious experiences of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.

Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and computer science. Further fields influenced by philosophy include psychology, sociology, linguistics, education, and the arts. The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.

In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just. Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution. In India, Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence movement.

An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the feminist movement through philosophers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone de Beauvoir, and Judith Butler. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of gender, how it differs from biological sex, and what role it plays in the formation of personal identity. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and equality and their implications with respect to the prejudicial treatment of women in male-dominated societies.

The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.

See also

• List of important publications in philosophy
• List of philosophical problems
• List of philosophy awards
• List of philosophy journals
• List of years in philosophy
• Lists of philosophers

References

Notes

1. The Ancient Greek philosophos ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the Ancient Egyptian term mer-rekh (mr-rḫ) meaning 'lover of wisdom'.
2. The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.
3. These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.
4. The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.

Citations

1. • Pratt 2023, p. 169
   • Morujão, Dimas & Relvas 2021, p. 105
   • Mitias 2022, p. 3
2. • Hoad 1993, p. 350
   • Simpson 2002, Philosophy
   • Jacobs 2022, p. 23
3. • Herbjørnsrud 2021, p. 123
   • Herbjørnsrud 2023, p. X
4. • Bottin 1993, p. 151
   • Jaroszyński 2018, p. 12
5. • OED staff 2022, Philosophy, n.
   • Hoad 1993, p. 350
6. • Ten 1999, p. 9
   • Tuomela 1985, p. 1
   • Grant 2007, p. 303
7. • Kenny 2018, p. 189
   • Grant 2007, p. 163
   • Cotterell 2017, p. 458
   • Maddy 2022, p. 24
8. • Grant 2007, p. 318
   • Ten 1999, p. 9
9. • Cotterell 2017, p. 458
   • Maddy 2022, p. 24
   • Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe
10. • Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century
    • Regenbogen 2010
    • Ten 1999, p. 9
    • AHD Staff 2022
11. • Audi 2006, Lead Section, § Conclusion
    • Quinton 2005, p. 702
    • Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe
    • EB Staff 2023a
    • OUP Staff 2020
    • Adler 2000
12. Perry, Bratman & Fischer 2010, p. 4.
13. • Russell 1912, p. 91
    • Blackwell 2013, p. 148
    • Pojman 2009, p. 2
    • Kenny 2004, p. xv
    • Vintiadis 2020, p. 137
14. Plato 2023, Apology.
15. McCutcheon 2014, p. 26.
16. • Russell 1912, p. 91
    • Blackwell 2013, p. 148
17. • Quinton 2005, p. 702
    • Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe
18. Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. vii, 17.
19. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20, 44, What Is Philosophy?
    • Mittelstraß 2005, Philosophie
20. • Joll
    • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–21, 25, 35, 39, What Is Philosophy?
21. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–22, What Is Philosophy?
    • Rescher 2013, pp. 1–3, 1. The Nature of Philosophy
    • Nuttall 2013, pp. 12–13, 1. The Nature of Philosophy
22. • Guyer 2014, pp. 7–8
    • Kant 1998, p. A805/B833
    • Kant 1992, p. 9:25
23. Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–22, What Is Philosophy?.
24. Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe.
25. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 26–27, What Is Philosophy?
    • Hylton & Kemp 2020
26. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 25–27, What Is Philosophy?
    • Chalmers 2015, pp. 3–4
    • Dellsén, Lawler & Norton 2021, pp. 814–815
27. • Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe
    • Mittelstraß 2005, Philosophie
    • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 27–30, What Is Philosophy?
28. • Hacker 2013, p. 6
    • Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe
29. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 34–36, What Is Philosophy?
    • Rescher 2013, pp. 1–2, 1. The Nature of Philosophy
30. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–21, 29, What Is Philosophy?
    • Nuttall 2013, pp. 12–13, 1. The Nature of Philosophy
    • Shaffer 2015, pp. 555–556
31. • Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 36–37, 43, What Is Philosophy?
    • Nuttall 2013, p. 12, 1. The Nature of Philosophy
32. • Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe
    • Joll, Lead Section, § 2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein
    • Biletzki & Matar 2021
33. • Joll, § 4.a.i
    • Gelan 2020, p. 98, Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences
    • Ingarden 1975, pp. 8–11, The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science
    • Tieszen 2005, p. 100
34. Smith, § 2.b.
35. • Banicki 2014, p. 7
    • Hadot 1995, 11. Philosophy as a Way of Life
36. Grimm & Cohoe 2021, pp. 236–237.
37. Sharpe & Ure 2021, pp. 76, 80.
38. • Copleston 2003, pp. 4–6
    • Santinello & Piaia 2010, pp. 487–488
    • Verene 2008, pp. 6–8
39. • Laerke, Smith & Schliesser 2013, pp. 115–118
    • Verene 2008, pp. 6–8
    • Frede 2022, p. x
    • Beaney 2013, p. 60
40. • Scharfstein 1998, pp. 1–4
    • Perrett 2016, Is There Indian Philosophy?
    • Smart 2008, pp. 1–3
    • Rescher 2014, p. 173
    • Parkinson 2005, pp. 1–2
41. • Smart 2008, pp. v, 1–12
    • Flavel & Robbiano 2023, p. 279
    • Solomon & Higgins 2003, pp. xv–xvi
    • Grayling 2019, Contents, Preface
42. Shields 2022, Lead Section.
43. • Blackson 2011, Introduction
    • Graham 2023, Lead Section, 1. Presocratic Thought
    • Duignan 2010, pp. 9–11
44. • Graham 2023, Lead Section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle
    • Grayling 2019, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
45. • Long 1986, p. 1
    • Blackson 2011, Chapter 10
    • Graham 2023, 6. Post-Hellenistic Thought
46. • Duignan 2010, p. 9
    • Lagerlund 2020, p. v
    • Marenbon 2023, Lead Section
    • MacDonald & Kretzmann 1998, Lead Section
47. • Grayling 2019, Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy
    • Adamson 2019, pp. 3–4
48. • Parkinson 2005, pp. 1, 3
    • Adamson 2022, pp. 155–157
    • Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Renaissance
    • Chambre et al. 2023, Renaissance Philosophy
49. • Grayling 2019, The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment
    • Anstey & Vanzo 2023, pp. 236–237
50. • Grayling 2019, The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment
    • Kenny 2006, pp. 90–92
51. Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century.
52. • Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century
    • Livingston 2017, 6. 'Analytic' and 'Continental' Philosophy
    • Silverman & Welton 1988, pp. 5–6
53. Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century.
54. Waithe 1995, pp. xix–xxiii.
55. • Adamson & Taylor 2004, p. 1
    • EB Staff 2020
    • Grayling 2019, Arabic–Persian Philosophy
    • Adamson 2016, pp. 5–6
56. • Esposito 2003, p. 246
    • Nasr & Leaman 2013, 11. Al-Kindi
    • Nasr 2006, pp. 109–110
    • Adamson 2020, Lead Section
57. • Gutas 2016
    • Grayling 2019, Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
58. • Adamson 2016, pp. 140–146
    • Dehsen 2013, p. 75
    • Griffel 2020, Lead Section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî's "Refutations" of Falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam
59. • Grayling 2019, Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
    • Kaminski 2017, p. 32
60. • Rizvi 2021, Lead Section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology
    • Chamankhah 2019, p. 73
61. • Moaddel 2005, pp. 1–2
    • Masud 2009, pp. 237–238
    • Safi 2005, Lead Section
62. • Smart 2008, p. 3
    • Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy
63. • Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy
    • Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy
    • Pooley & Rothenbuhler 2016, p. 1468
    • Andrea & Overfield 2015, p. 71
64. ^
    • Perrett 2016, The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy
    • Ruether 2004, p. 57
65. • Perrett 2016, The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy
    • Vallely 2012, pp. 609–610
    • Gorisse 2023, Lead Section
66. • Phillips 1998, p. 324
    • Perrett 2016, Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview
    • Glenney & Silva 2019, p. 77
67. • Perrett 2016, Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy, The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy
    • Glenney & Silva 2019, p. 77
    • Adamson & Ganeri 2020, pp. 101–102
68. • Perrett 2016, The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy
    • Dalal 2021, Lead Section, 2. Metaphysics
    • Menon, Lead Section
69. Ranganathan, 1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works.
70. Ranganathan, Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses.
71. • Ranganathan, 4. Rāmānuja's Soteriology
    • Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p. 139
    • Seshadri 1996, p. 297
    • Jha 2022, p. 217
72. • Perrett 2016, Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Modern Period of Indian Philosophy
    • EB Staff 2023
73. • Banhatti 1995, pp. 151–154
    • Bilimoria 2018, pp. 529–531
    • Rambachan 1994, pp. 91–92
74. • Smart 2008, pp. 3, 70–71
    • EB Staff 2017, Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
    • Littlejohn 2023
    • Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
    • Cua 2009, pp. 43–45
    • Wei-Ming, Lead Section
75. • Perkins 2013, pp. 486–487
    • Ma 2015, p. xiv
    • Botz-Bornstein 2023, p. 61
76. • EB Staff 2017, Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
    • Smart 2008, pp. 70–76
    • Littlejohn 2023, 1b. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) of the Analects
    • Boyd & Timpe 2021, pp. 64–66
    • Marshev 2021, pp. 100–101
77. • EB Staff 2017, Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
    • Slingerland 2007, pp. 77–78
    • Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
78. • Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
    • Littlejohn 2023, 1c. Mozi (c. 470–391 B.C.E.) and Mohism
    • Defoort & Standaert 2013, p. 35
79. • Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
    • Kim 2019, p. 161
    • Littlejohn 2023, 2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods
80. ^
    • Littlejohn 2023, § Early Buddhism in China
    • EB Staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
81. • Littlejohn 2023, 4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era
    • EB Staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
82. • Littlejohn 2023, 5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy
    • Jiang 2009, pp. 473–480
    • Qi 2014, pp. 99–100
    • Tian 2009, pp. 512–513
83. • Van Norden 2022, § 6. Influence
    • Redse 2015, pp. 21–22
    • Makeham 2003, pp. 94–95
84. • Kasulis 2022, Lead Section, § 3.2 Confucianism, § 3.3 Buddhism
    • Kasulis 1998, Lead Section
85. • Kasulis 2022, § 4.3 Edo-period Philosophy (1600–1868)
    • Kasulis 1998, Lead Section
86. • Davis 2022, Lead Section, § 3. Absolute Nothingness: Giving Philosophical Form to the Formless
    • Kasulis 2022, § 4.4.2 Modern Academic Philosophies
87. • Gracia & Vargas 2018, Lead Section, § 1. History
    • Stehn, Lead Section, § 1. Indigenous Period
    • Maffie
88. • Arola 2011, pp. 562–563
    • Rivera Berruz 2019, p. 72
89. • Gracia & Vargas 2018, Lead Section, § 1. History
    • Stehn, Lead Section, § 4. Twentieth Century
90. • Grayling 2019, African Philosophy
    • Chimakonam 2023, Lead Section, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy
    • Mangena, Lead Section
91. • Chimakonam 2023, Lead Section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy
    • Bell & Fernback 2015, p. 44
    • Coetzee & Roux 1998, pp. 88
    • Wiredu 2005, p. 12
    • Chimakonam & Ogbonnaya 2021
92. • Brenner 1993, p. 16
    • Palmquist 2010, p. 800
    • Jenicek 2018, p. 31
93. Schroeder 2021, Lead Section: "In its broadest sense, 'value theory' is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist philosophy and the philosophy of religion – whatever areas of philosophy are deemed to encompass some 'evaluative' aspect.".
94. • Kenny 2018, p. 20
    • Lazerowitz & Ambrose 2012, pp. 9
95. • Martinich & Stroll 2023, Lead Section, The Nature of Epistemology
    • Steup & Neta 2020, Lead Section
    • Truncellito, Lead Section
    • Greco 2021, Article Summary
96. Mulvaney 2009, p. ix.
97. • Steup & Neta 2020, Lead Section, 2. What Is Knowledge?
    • Truncellito, Lead Section, 1. Kinds of Knowledge
    • Colman 2009a, Declarative Knowledge
98. • Martinich & Stroll 2023, The Nature of Knowledge
    • Truncellito, Lead Section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge
99. • Ichikawa & Steup 2018, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 11. Knowledge First
    • Truncellito, § 2d. The Gettier Problem
100. • Steup & Neta 2020, 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification
     • Truncellito, Lead Section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge
101. • Hetherington, § 3c. Knowing Purely by Thinking
     • Blackburn 2008, Empiricism
     • Blackburn 2008, Rationalism
102. • Steup & Neta 2020, 4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification
     • Truncellito, 3. The Nature of Justification
103. Olsson 2021, Lead Section, § 1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism.
104. • Steup & Neta 2020, 6. The Limits of Cognitive Success
     • Truncellito, 4. The Extent of Human Knowledge
     • Johnstone 1991, p. 52
105. Mill 1863, p. 51.
106. • Audi 2006, pp. 325–326
     • Nagel 2006, pp. 379–380
     • Lambert 2023, p. 26
107. Mulvaney 2009, pp. vii–xi.
108. • Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
     • Jeanes 2019, p. 66
     • Nagel 2006, pp. 379–380
109. • Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
     • Jeanes 2019, p. 66
     • Nagel 2006, pp. 390–391
     • Sayre-McCord 2023, Lead Section
110. • Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
     • Barsky 2009, p. 3
     • Jeanes 2019, p. 66
     • Nagel 2006, pp. 379–380, 390–391
111. • Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
     • Nagel 2006, pp. 382, 386–388
112. • Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
     • Nagel 2006, pp. 382, 386–388
     • Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2022, 1.2 Practical Wisdom
113. • Hintikka 2019
     • Haack 1978, Philosophy of Logics
114. • Blair & Johnson 2000, pp. 94–96
     • Walton 1996
     • Tully 2005, p. 532
     • Johnson 1999, pp. 265–267
     • Groarke 2021
115. • Velleman 2006, pp. 8, 103
     • Johnson-Laird 2009, pp. 8–10
     • Dowden 2020, pp. 334–336, 432
116. • Dowden 2020, pp. 432, 470
     • Anshakov & Gergely 2010, p. 128
117. • Vickers 2022
     • Nunes 2011, pp. 2066–2069, Logical Reasoning and Learning
     • Dowden 2020, pp. 432–449, 470
118. • Douven 2022
     • Koslowski 2017, pp. 366–368, Abductive Reasoning and Explanation
     • Nunes 2011, pp. 2066–2069, Logical Reasoning and Learning
119. • Hansen 2020
     • Dowden 2023
     • Dowden 2020, p. 290
     • Vleet 2011, p. ix
120. • van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023
     • Craig 1998
     • Audi 2006, § Metaphysics
121. van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, Lead Section.
122. Mulvaney 2009, pp. ix–x.
123. • van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023
     • Craig 1998
     • Gracia 1999, p. 149
124. • Haaparanta & Koskinen 2012, p. 454
     • Fiet 2022, p. 133
     • Audi 2006, § Metaphysics
     • van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics
125. • Audi 2006, § Metaphysics
     • Coughlin 2012, p. 15
126. Audi 2006, § Metaphysics.
127. • Robertson Ishii & Atkins 2023, Lead Section
     • Espín & Nickoloff 2007, p. 8
128. • Lowe 2005, p. 683
     • Kuhlmann 2010, Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien
129. • Kane 2009, pp. 22–23
     • Kane 2013, p. 258
130. • Stambaugh 1987, Philosophy: An Overview
     • Phillips 2010, p. 16
     • Ramos 2004, p. 4
     • Shand 2004, pp. 9–10
131. • Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019, p. 174
     • McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123
     • Janaway 2005, p. 9, Aesthetics, History Of
132. • Nanay 2019, p. 4
     • McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123
133. • Kelly 1998, p. ix
     • Riedel 1999
134. • McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123
     • Sartwell 2022, Lead Section, 1. Objectivity and Subjectivity
135. • Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019, p. 174
     • McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123
136. • Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Language
     • Russell & Fara 2013, pp. ii, 1–2
     • Blackburn 2022, Lead Section
137. Birner 2012, p. 33.
138. • Wolf 2023, §§ 1.a-b, 3–4
     • Ifantidou 2014, p. 12
139. • Lowe 2000, pp. 1–2
     • Crumley 2006, pp. 2–3
140. • Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Mind
     • Heidemann 2014, p. 140
141. • Heil 2013, pp. 1–3, 9, 12–13
     • Weir 2023, pp. 10–11
     • Shiraev 2010, pp. 83–84
     • Polger, Lead Section
142. • Heil 2013, pp. 1–3, 12–13
     • Weisberg, Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem
143. • Taliaferro 2023, Lead Section, § 5.2
     • Burns 2017, pp. i, 1–3
     • Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Religion
     • Meister, Lead Section
144. Taliaferro 2023, § 1.
145. Taliaferro 2023, § 5.1.1.
146. Taliaferro 2023, § 6.
147. • Taliaferro 2023, Introduction
     • Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Religion
148. • Bayne 2018, pp. 1–2
     • Louth & Thielicke 2014
149. • Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Science
     • Kitcher 2023
     • Losee 2001, pp. 1–3
     • Wei 2020, p. 127
     • Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 2–3
150. Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 7.
151. Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 5.
152. Papineau 2005, pp. 855–856.
153. • Papineau 2005, p. 852
     • Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Science
154. • Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9
     • Moseley, Lead Section
     • Duignan 2012, pp. 5–6
     • Bowle & Arneson 2023, Lead Section
     • McQueen 2010, p. 162
155. • Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9
     • Howard 2010, p. 4
156. Wolff 2006, pp. 1–2.
157. Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9.
158. • Moseley, Lead Section
     • Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9
159. Audi 2006, § Subfields of Ethics.
160. • Moseley, Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of Thought
     • McQueen 2010, p. 162
161. • McKeon 2002, Lead Section, § Summation
     • Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 4–5, Introduction
     • Mehrtens 2010, Methode/Methodologie
162. • Daly 2010, p. 9, Introduction
     • Williamson 2020
     • Ichikawa 2011
163. • Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 3–5, Introduction
     • Nado 2017, pp. 447–449, 461–462
     • Dever 2016, 3–6
164. • Daly 2010, pp. 9–11, Introduction
     • Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 3, Introduction
     • Dever 2016, pp. 3–4, What Is Philosophical Methodology?
165. • Daly 2015, pp. 1–2, 5, Introduction and Historical Overview
     • Mehrtens 2010, Methode/Methodologie
     • Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 3–5, Introduction
166. • Williamson 2020
     • Singer 1974, pp. 420–421
     • Venturinha 2013, p. 76
     • Walsh, Teo & Baydala 2014, p. 68
167. • Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, p. 915
     • Shaffer 2015, pp. 555–556
     • Audi 2006, § Philosophical Methods
168. • Ichikawa 2011
     • Reynolds 2010, pp. 231–232
     • EB Staff 2007
169. • Mehrtens 2010, Methode/Methodologie
     • Parker-Ryan, Lead Section, § 1. Introduction
     • EB Staff 2022
170. • Woollard & Howard-Snyder 2022, § 3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction
     • Rini, § 8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology
171. • Daly 2015, pp. 11–12, Introduction and Historical Overview
     • Duignan 2009
172. • Brown & Fehige 2019, Lead Section
     • Goffi & Roux 2011, pp. 165, 168–169
     • Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, pp. 915–916
173. • Daly 2015, pp. 12–13, Introduction and Historical Overview
     • Daniels 2020, Lead Section, § 1. The Method of Reflective Equilibrium
     • Little 1984, pp. 373–375
174. • McDermid, Lead Section
     • Legg & Hookway 2021, Lead Section
175. • McDermid, Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A Maxim
     • Legg & Hookway 2021, Lead Section, § 2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce
176. • Cogan, Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction
     • Mehrtens 2010, Methode/Methodologie
     • Smith 2018, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?
     • Smith, Lead Section, § 2.Phenomenological Method
177. • Fischer & Collins 2015, p. 4
     • Fisher & Sytsma 2023, Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy
     • Papineau 2023, § 2. Methodological Naturalism
178. ^ Audi 2006, pp. 332–337.
179. • Tuomela 1985, p. 1
     • Grant 2007, p. 303
180. • Dittmer, Lead Section, § 3. Bioethics
     • Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5
     • Uniacke 2017, pp. 34–35
     • Crary 2013, pp. 321–322
181. • Dittmer, Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics
     • Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5
     • Uniacke 2017, pp. 34–35
182. Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 51–53.
183. • Bird 2010, pp. 5–6, 8–9
     • Rosenberg 2013, pp. 129, 155
184. • Clark 2022, Lead Section, § 1. Reason/Rationality
     • Forrest 2021, Lead Section
     • Dougherty 2014, pp. 97–98
185. • Kakas & Sadri 2003, p. 588
     • Li 2014, pp. ix–x
     • Nievergelt 2015, pp. v–vi
186. • Audi 2006, pp. 332–37
     • Murphy 2018, p. 138
     • Dittmer, Lead Section, Table of Contents
     • Frankena, Raybeck & Burbules 2002, § Definition
187. Cropper 1997.
188. • Dittmer, Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics
     • Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5
189. Bristow 2023, Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory.
190. • Pipes 2020, p. 29
     • Wolff & Leopold 2021, § 9. Marx's Legacy
     • Shaw 2019, p. 124
191. • Singh 2014, p. 83
     • Bondurant 1988, pp. 23–24
192. • McAfee 2018, Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements
     • Ainley 2005, pp. 294–296
     • Hirschmann 2008, pp. 148–151
     • McAfee et al. 2023, Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism?
193. • Jones & Bos 2007, p. 56
     • Rickles 2020, p. 9
     • Lockie 2015, pp. 24–28

Bibliography

• Adamson, Peter; Ganeri, Jonardon (2020). Classical Indian Philosophy. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 5. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-885176-9. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Adamson, Peter; Taylor, Richard C. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-49469-5. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
• Adamson, Peter (2020). "Al-Kindi". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
• Adamson, Peter (2022). Byzantine and Renaissance Philosophy. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 6. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-266992-6. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Adamson, Peter (2019). Medieval Philosophy. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884240-8. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Adamson, Peter (2016). Philosophy in the Islamic World. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Adler, Mortimer J. (2000). How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9412-3. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• "Philosophy". The American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2022. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
• Ainley, Alison (2005). "Feminist Philosophy". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
• Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (2015). The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-53746-0. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
• Anshakov, Oleg M.; Gergely, Tamás (2010). Cognitive Reasoning: A Formal Approach. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-68875-4. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Anstey, Peter R.; Vanzo, Alberto (2023). Experimental Philosophy and the Origins of Empiricism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-03467-8. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
• Arola, Adam (2011). "40 Native American Philosophy". In Garfield, Jay L.; Edelglass, William (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0048. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
• Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Banhatti, G. S. (1995). Life and Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-7156-291-6. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Banicki, Konrad (2014). "Philosophy As Therapy: Towards a Conceptual Model". Philosophical Papers. 43 (1): 7–31. doi:10.1080/05568641.2014.901692. ISSN 0556-8641. S2CID 144901869. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Barsky, Allan E. (2009). Ethics and Values in Social Work: An Integrated Approach for a Comprehensive Curriculum. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971758-3. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Bayne, Tim (2018). The Philosophy of Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875496-1.
• Beaney, Michael (2013). The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-166266-9. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Bell, Richard H.; Fernback, Jan (2015). Understanding African Philosophy: A Cross-cultural Approach to Classical and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-94866-5. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
• Biletzki, Anat; Matar, Anat (2021). "Ludwig Wittgenstein". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 3.7 The Nature of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
• Bilimoria, Puruṣottama (2018). History of Indian Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30976-9.
• Bird, Alexander (2010). "The Epistemology of Science—a Bird's-eye View". Synthese. 175 (S1): 5–16. doi:10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4. S2CID 15228491.
• Birner, Betty J. (2012). Introduction to Pragmatics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-34830-7. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
• Blackburn, Simon W. (2022). "Philosophy of Language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
• Blackburn, Simon W. (2008). The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954143-0.
• Blackson, Thomas A. (2011). Ancient Greek Philosophy: From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9608-9. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
• Blackwell, Kenneth (2013). The Spinozistic Ethics of Bertrand Russell. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-10711-6. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Blair, J. Anthony; Johnson, Ralph H. (2000). "Informal Logic: An Overview". Informal Logic. 20 (2). doi:10.22329/il.v20i2.2262. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
• Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1988). Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (New rev. ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02281-9.
• Bottin, Francesco (1993). Models of the History of Philosophy: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica': Volume I: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica'. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-7923-2200-9. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
• Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten (2023). Daoism, Dandyism, and Political Correctness. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-9453-1. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Bowle, John Edward; Arneson, Richard J. (2023). "Political Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Boyd, Craig A.; Timpe, Kevin (2021). The Virtues: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-258407-6. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
• Brenner, William H. (1993). Logic and Philosophy: An Integrated Introduction. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 978-0-268-15898-9. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Bristow, William (2023). "Enlightenment". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 December 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
• Brown, James Robert; Fehige, Yiftach (2019). "Thought Experiments". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
• Burns, Elizabeth (2017). What Is This Thing Called Philosophy of Religion?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-59546-5. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Chalmers, David J. (2015). "Why Isn't There More Progress in Philosophy?". Philosophy. 90 (1): 3–31. doi:10.1017/s0031819114000436. hdl:1885/57201. S2CID 170974260. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
• Chamankhah, Leila (2019). The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-22692-3. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
• Chambre, Henri; Maurer, Armand; Stroll, Avrum; McLellan, David T.; Levi, Albert William; Wolin, Richard; Fritz, Kurt von (2023). "Western Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
• Chimakonam, Jonathan O. (2023). "History of African Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
• Chimakonam, Johnathan O.; Ogbonnaya, L. Uchenna (2021). "Toward an African Theory of Knowledge". African Metaphysics, Epistemology and a New Logic. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8. ISBN 9783030724474.
• Clark, Kelly James (2022). "Religious Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
• Coetzee, Pieter Hendrik; Roux, A. P. J. (1998). The African Philosophy Reader. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-18905-7. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Cogan, John. "Phenomenological Reduction, The". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
• Colman, Andrew M. (2009a). "Declarative Knowledge". A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953406-7. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
• Copleston, Frederick (2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Cotterell, Brian (2017). Physics and Culture. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-78634-378-9. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
• Coughlin, John J. (2012). Law, Person, and Community: Philosophical, Theological, and Comparative Perspectives on Canon Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-987718-8. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Craig, Edward (1998). "Metaphysics". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
• Crary, Alice (2013). "13. Eating and Experimenting on Animals". In Petrus, Klaus; Wild, Markus (eds.). Animal Minds & Animal Ethics. transcript Verlag. doi:10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN 978-3-8394-2462-9. Retrieved 10 November 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
• Cropper, Carol Marie (1997). "Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
• Crumley, Jack S (2006). A Brief Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-7212-6. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Cua, Antonio S. (2009). "The Emergence of the History of Chinese Philosophy". In Mou, Bo (ed.). History of Chinese Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-00286-5.
• Dalal, Neil (2021). "Śaṅkara". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
• Daly, Christopher (2015). "Introduction and Historical Overview". The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1057/9781137344557_1 (inactive 3 December 2024). ISBN 978-1-137-34455-7. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
• Daly, Christopher (2010). "Introduction". An Introduction to Philosophical Methods. Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-934-2. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
• Daniels, Norman (2020). "Reflective Equilibrium". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 22 February 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
• Davis, Bret W. (2022). "The Kyoto School". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
• Defoort, Carine; Standaert, Nicolas (2013). The Mozi as an Evolving Text: Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-23434-5. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
• Dehsen, Christian von (2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-95102-3. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
• Dellsén, Finnur; Lawler, Insa; Norton, James (2021). "Thinking about Progress: From Science to Philosophy". Noûs. 56 (4): 814–840. doi:10.1111/nous.12383. hdl:11250/2836808. S2CID 235967433.
• Dever, Josh (2016). "What Is Philosophical Methodology?". In Cappelen, Herman; Gendler, Tamar Szabó; Hawthorne, John (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–24. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.34. ISBN 978-0-19-966877-9. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Dittmer, Joel. "Ethics, Applied". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
• Dougherty, Trent (2014). "Faith, Trust, and Testimony". Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue: 97–123. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672158.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-967215-8.
• Douven, Igor (2022). "Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
• Dowden, Bradley H. (2023). "Fallacies". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
• Dowden, Bradley H. (2020). Logical Reasoning (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023. (for an earlier version, see: Dowden, Bradley H. (1993). Logical Reasoning. Wadsworth Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-534-17688-4. Retrieved 17 July 2023.)
• Duignan, Brian (2009). "Intuitionism (Ethics)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
• Duignan, Brian (2010). Ancient Philosophy: From 600 BCE to 500 CE. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-61530-141-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Duignan, Brian, ed. (2012). The Science and Philosophy of Politics. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-748-7. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• "Chinese Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2017. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
• "History and Periods of Indian Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023. Archived from the original on 11 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
• "Islamic Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
• "Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
• "Philosophy of Common Sense". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
• "Ordinary Language Analysis". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2022. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
• Eder, Anna-Maria A.; Lawler, Insa; van Riel, Raphael (2020). "Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny: Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods". Synthese. 197 (3): 915–923. doi:10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 54631297.
• Espín, Orlando O.; Nickoloff, James B. (2007). An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5856-7. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512559-7. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Fischer, Eugen; Collins, John (2015). Experimental Philosophy, Rationalism, and Naturalism: Rethinking Philosophical Method. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-50027-8. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Fisher, Eugen; Sytsma, Justin (2023). "Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy". In Bauer, Alexander Max; Kornmesser, Stephan (eds.). The Compact Compendium of Experimental Philosophy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-071702-0. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Fiet, James O. (2022). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-80037-147-7. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Flavel, Sarah; Robbiano, Chiara (2023). Key Concepts in World Philosophies: A Toolkit for Philosophers. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-16814-5. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
• Forrest, Peter (2021). "The Epistemology of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
• Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9.
• Frede, Michael (2022). The Historiography of Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884072-5. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
• Gelan, Victor Eugen (2020). "Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences". The Subject(s) of Phenomenology. Contributions to Phenomenology. Vol. 108. Springer International Publishing. pp. 97–105. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 (inactive 3 December 2024). ISBN 978-3-030-29357-4. S2CID 213082313. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
• Glenney, Brian; Silva, José Filipe (2019). The Senses and the History of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-73106-5. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
• Goffi, Jean-Yves; Roux, Sophie (2011). "On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment". Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts. Brill: 165–191. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35. ISBN 978-90-04-20177-4. S2CID 260640180. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Gorisse, Marie-Hélène (2023). "Jaina Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 19 November 2023.
• Gracia, Jorge J. E. (1999). Metaphysics and Its Task: The Search for the Categorial Foundation of Knowledge. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4214-2. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Vargas, Manuel (2018). "Latin American Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
• Graham, Jacob N. (2023). "Ancient Greek Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 25 August 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Grant, Edward (2007). A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86931-7. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
• Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Greco, John (2021). "Epistemology". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
• Griffel, Frank (2020). "Al-Ghazali". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
• Grimm, Stephen R.; Cohoe, Caleb (2021). "What Is Philosophy as a Way of Life? Why Philosophy as a Way of Life?". European Journal of Philosophy. 29 (1): 236–251. doi:10.1111/ejop.12562. ISSN 1468-0378. S2CID 225504495. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Groarke, Leo (2021). "Informal Logic". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
• Gutas, Dimitri (2016). "Ibn Sina [Avicenna]". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
• Guyer, Paul (2014). Kant. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-01563-3. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
• Haack, Susan (1978). "1. 'Philosophy of Logics'". Philosophy of Logics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29329-7. Archived from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
• Haaparanta, Leila; Koskinen, Heikki J. (2012). Categories of Being: Essays on Metaphysics and Logic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-989057-6. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Hacker, P. M. S. (2013). Wittgenstein: Comparisons and Context. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967482-4. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
• Hadot, Pierre (1995). "11. Philosophy as a Way of Life". Philosophy as a Way of Life: Spiritual Exercises From Socrates to Foucault. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18033-3. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Hansen, Hans (2020). "Fallacies". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
• Heidemann, Dietmar H. (2014). Kant and Non-conceptual Content. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-98155-8. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Heil, John Fergusson (2013). Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89175-2.
• Herbjørnsrud, Dag (2021). "The Quest for a Global Age of Reason". Dialogue and Universalism. 31 (3): 113–131. doi:10.5840/du202131348. ISSN 1234-5792.
• Herbjørnsrud, Dag (2023). "Preface". In Lee, Ralph; Worku, Mehari; Belcher, Wendy Laura (eds.). The Hatata Inquiries. De Gruyter. pp. IX–XIV. doi:10.1515/9783110781922-203 (inactive 3 December 2024). ISBN 978-3-11-078192-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
• Hetherington, Stephen. "Knowledge". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. § 3c. Knowing Purely by Thinking. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
• Hintikka, Jaakko J. (2019). "Philosophy of Logic". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
• Hirschmann, Nancy (2008). "8. Feminist Political Philosophy". In Kittay, Eva Feder; Alcoff, Linda Martín (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to Feminist Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-69538-8. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
• Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283098-8.
• Howard, Dick (2010). The Primacy of the Political: A History of Political Thought From the Greeks to the French and American Revolutions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13595-5.
• Hursthouse, Rosalind; Pettigrove, Glen (2022). "Virtue Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
• Hylton, Peter; Kemp, Gary (2020). "Willard Van Orman Quine: 3. The Analytic-Synthetic Distinction and the Argument Against Logical Empiricism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
• Ichikawa, Jonathan (2011). "Chris Daly: An Introduction to Philosophical Methods". Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
• Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins; Steup, Matthias (2018). "The Analysis of Knowledge". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2 May 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
• Ifantidou, Elly (2014). Pragmatic Competence and Relevance. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-7037-5. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
• Ingarden, Roman (1975). "The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science". On the Motives which led Husserl to Transcendental Idealism. Phaenomenologica. Vol. 64. Springer Netherlands. pp. 8–11. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1689-6_3. ISBN 978-94-010-1689-6. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
• Jacobs, James M. (2022). Seat of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy in the Catholic Tradition. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-3465-6. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
• Janaway, C. (2005). "Aesthetics, History of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
• Jaroszyński, Piotr (2018). Metaphysics or Ontology?. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-35987-1. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
• Jeanes, Emma (2019). A Dictionary of Organizational Behaviour. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-252756-1. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Jenicek, Milos (2018). How to Think in Medicine: Reasoning, Decision Making, and Communication in Health Sciences and Professions. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-351-68402-6. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Jha, Meenakshi (2022). Subaltern Saints in India: Women and Sudras in Bhakti Movement. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-4299-1. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Jiang, Xinyan (2009). "Enlightenment Movement". In Mou, Bo (ed.). History of Chinese Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-00286-5.
• Johnson, Ralph H. (1999). "The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic". Argumentation. 13 (3): 265–274. doi:10.1023/A:1007789101256. S2CID 141283158. Archived from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
• Johnson-Laird, Phil (2009). "Deductive Reasoning". WIREs Cognitive Science. 1 (1): 8–17. doi:10.1002/wcs.20. ISSN 1939-5078. PMID 26272833. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Johnstone, Albert A. (1991). Rationalized Epistemology: Taking Solipsism Seriously. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0787-5. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
• Joll, Nicholas. "Metaphilosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
• Jones, Campbell; Bos, René ten (2007). Philosophy and Organization. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19659-3. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Kakas, Antonis C.; Sadri, Fariba (2003). Computational Logic: Logic Programming and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Robert A. Kowalski, Part II. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-45632-2. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Kaminski, Joseph J. (2017). The Contemporary Islamic Governed State: A Reconceptualization. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-57012-9. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Kane, Robert (2009). "Free Will". In Kim, Jaekwon; Sosa, Ernest; Rosenkrantz, Gary S. (eds.). A Companion to Metaphysics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0853-2. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Kant, Immanuel (1992) . Lectures on Logic. Translated by J. Michael Young. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36013-5.
• Kant, Immanuel (1998). Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (ed.). Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35402-8.
• Kasulis, Thomas P. (1998). "Japanese philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
• Kasulis, Thomas P. (2022). "Japanese Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
• Kelly, Michael, ed. (1998). Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5.
• Kenny, Anthony (2004). A New History of Western Philosophy, vol.1: Ancient Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875272-1.
• Kenny, Anthony (2006). The Rise of Modern Philosophy. A new history of Western philosophy. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875277-6.
• Kenny, Anthony (2018). An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 20th Anniversary Edition. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-45279-9. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Kim, Sungmoon (2019). Theorizing Confucian Virtue Politics: The Political Philosophy of Mencius and Xunzi. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-57739-7. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
• Kitcher, Philip S. (2023). "Philosophy of Science". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Koslowski, Barbara (2017). "Abductive Reasoning and Explanation". International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315725697. ISBN 978-1-315-72569-7. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Kuhlmann, Meinard (2010). "Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. ISBN 978-3-7873-3545-9.
• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998). A History of India. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-15482-6. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Laerke, Mogens; Smith, Justin E. H.; Schliesser, Eric (2013). Philosophy and Its History: Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-985716-6.
• Lagerlund, Henrik, ed. (2020). Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500 (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-94-024-1663-3.
• Lambert, Joseph (2023). Translation Ethics. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-84163-3. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Lazerowitz, Morris; Ambrose, Alice (2012). Philosophical Theories. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-080708-0. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Legg, Catherine; Hookway, Christopher (2021). "Pragmatism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
• Li, Wei (2014). Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science. Springer. ISBN 978-3-0348-0862-0. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper (2017). "The Nature of Applied Philosophy". In Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper; Brownlee, Kimberley; Coady, David (eds.). A Companion to Applied Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-86911-6.
• Little, Daniel (1984). "Reflective Equilibrium and Justification". Southern Journal of Philosophy. 22 (3): 373–387. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.1984.tb00354.x. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Littlejohn, Ronnie (2023). "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of History". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
• Livingston, Paul M. (2017). "Twentieth-century philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
• Lockie, Robert (2015). "Is Philosophy Useless?". The Philosophers' Magazine (71): 24–28. doi:10.5840/tpm20157197. Archived from the original on 11 August 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
• Long, A. A. (1986). Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05808-8. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
• Losee, John (2001). A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-870055-5. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Louth, Andrew; Thielicke, Helmut (2014). "Relationship to Philosophy Theology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Lowe, E. Jonathan (2000). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65428-9. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Lowe, E. Jonathan (2005). "Particulars and Non-particulars". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
• Ma, Licheng (2015). Leading Schools of Thought in Contemporary China. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4656-40-5. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
• MacDonald, Scott; Kretzmann, Norman (1998). "Medieval philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
• Maddy, Penelope (2022). A Plea for Natural Philosophy: And Other Essays. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-750885-5. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
• Maffie, James. "Aztec Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
• Makeham, J. (2003). New Confucianism: A Critical Examination. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4039-8241-4. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Mangena, Fainos. "Hunhu/Ubuntu in Traditional Southern African Thought". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
• Marenbon, John (2023). "Medieval Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
• Marshev, Vadim I. (2021). History of Management Thought: Genesis and Development From Ancient Origins to the Present Day. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-62337-1. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
• Martinich, A. P.; Stroll, Avrum (2023). "Epistemology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
• Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2009). Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debates. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3794-2. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• McAfee, Noëlle (2018). "Feminist Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
• McAfee, Noëlle; Garry, Ann; Superson, Anita; Grasswick, Heidi; Khader, Serene (2023). "Feminist Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
• McCutcheon, Russell T. (2014). Studying Religion: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49166-8. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• McDermid, Douglas. "Pragmatism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
• McKeon, R. (2002). "Methodology (Philosophy)". New Catholic Encyclopedia. Gale Research Inc. ISBN 978-0-7876-4004-0. Archived from the original on 30 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• McQueen, Paddy (2010). Key Concepts in Philosophy. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-137-09339-4. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• McQuillan, J. Colin (2015). Early Modern Aesthetics. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-78348-213-9. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Meister, Chad. "Philosophy of Religion". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Menon, Sangeetha. "Vedanta, Advaita". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
• Mehrtens, Arnd (2010). "Methode/Methodologie". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. ISBN 978-3-7873-3545-9. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Mill, John Stuart (1863). Utilitarianism. Parker, Son, and Bourn. OCLC 78070085. Archived from the original on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
• Mitias, Michael H. (11 March 2022). The Philosophical Novel as a Literary Genre. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97385-8. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
• Mittelstraß, Jürgen (2005). "Philosophie". Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie (in German). Metzler. ISBN 978-3-476-02107-6. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
• Moaddel, Mansoor (2005). Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53333-9. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
• Molefe, Motsamai; Allsobrook, Christopher (2021). Towards an African Political Philosophy of Needs. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-64496-3. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Morujão, Carlos; Dimas, Samuel; Relvas, Susana (7 September 2021). The Philosophy of Ortega y Gasset Reevaluated. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-79249-7. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
• Moseley, Alexander. "Political Philosophy: Methodology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2 April 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Mulvaney, Robert J. (2009). Classical Philosophical Questions (13th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-600652-7.
• Murphy, P. Karen (2018). Rediscovering the Philosophical Roots of Educational Psychology: A Special Issue of educational Psychologist. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-06617-8. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
• Nado, Jennifer (2017). "How to Think About Philosophical Methodology". Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research. 34 (3): 447–463. doi:10.1007/s40961-017-0116-8. ISSN 2363-9962. S2CID 171569977. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Nagel, Thomas (2006). "Ethics". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 3: Determinables–Fuzzy Logic (2nd ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-866072-1.
• Nanay, Bence (2019). Aesthetics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-882661-3.
• Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver (2013). History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78043-1. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
• Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2006). Islamic Philosophy From Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6800-5. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
• Newton-Smith, W. H. (2000). "Introduction". In W. H. Newton-Smith (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of Science. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23020-5.
• Nievergelt, Yves (2015). Logic, Mathematics, and Computer Science: Modern Foundations With Practical Applications (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-1-4939-3222-1.
• Nunes, Terezinha (2011). "Logical Reasoning and Learning". In Seel, Norbert M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Nuttall, Jon (2013). "1. The Nature of Philosophy". An Introduction to Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-6807-9. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• "Philosophy, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2022. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Olsson, Erik (2021). "Coherentist Theories of Epistemic Justification". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
• "Philosophy". Lexico. University of Oxford Press. 2020. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
• Overgaard, Søren; D'Oro, Giuseppina (2017). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Philosophical Methodology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-54736-0. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Palmquist, Stephen (2010). Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-022623-2. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Papineau, David (2005). "Science, Problems of the Philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
• Papineau, David (2023). "Naturalism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 26 April 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2023.
• Parker-Ryan, Sally. "Ordinary Language Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
• Parkinson, G. H. R., ed. (2005). IV. The Renaissance and Seventeenth-Century Rationalism. Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-02914-5.
• Perkins, Dorothy (2013). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93562-7. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
• Perry, John; Bratman, Michael; Fischer, John Martin (2010). Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539036-0. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
• Phillips, D. C. (2010). "What Is Philosophy of Education?". In Bailey, Richard; Barrow, Robin; Carr, David; McCarthy, Christine (eds.). The SAGE Handbook of Philosophy of Education. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4462-0697-3. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
• Phillips, Stephen H. (1998). Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of New Logic. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1488-2. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
• Pipes, Richard (2020). "Reflections on the Russian Revolution". In Stockdale, Melissa K. (ed.). Readings on the Russian Revolution. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-03743-4. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Plato (2023) . "Apology". Dialogues. Translated by Jowett, Benjamin. Standard Ebooks. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
• Pojman, Louis P. (2009). "I. What Is Philosophy?". In Pojman, Louis P.; Vaughn, Lewis (eds.). Philosophy: The Quest for Truth (7th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-998108-3.
• Polger, Thomas W. "Functionalism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 19 May 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Pooley, Jefferson D.; Rothenbuhler, Eric W. (2016). The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy, 4 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-29073-6. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
• Pratt, Menah (15 September 2023). "The Personal Evolution of a Critical Black Girl Feminist Identity: A Philosophical Autoethnographic Journey". In Grant, Alec (ed.). Writing Philosophical Autoethnography. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-95761-7. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
• Qi, Xiaoying (2014). Globalized Knowledge Flows and Chinese Social Theory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-69162-3. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
• Quinton, Anthony Meredith (2005). "Philosophy". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
• Rambachan, Anantanand (1994). The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1542-4. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
• Ramos, Christine Carmela R. (2004). Introduction to Philosophy. Rex Bookstore, Inc. ISBN 978-971-23-3955-4. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
• Ranganathan, Shyam. "Ramanuja". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
• Redse, Arne (2015). 'Justification by Grace Alone' Facing Confucian Self-Cultivation: The Christian Doctrine of Justification Contextualized to New Confucianism. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-30258-7. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Regenbogen, Arnim (2010). "Philosophiebegriffe". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Rescher, Nicholas (2014). Metaphilosophy: Philosophy in Philosophical Perspective. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-9978-7. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
• Rescher, Nicholas (2013). "1. The Nature of Philosophy". On the Nature of Philosophy and Other Philosophical Essays. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-032020-6. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Reynolds, Jack (2010). "Common Sense and Philosophical Methodology: Some Metaphilosophical Reflections on Analytic Philosophy and Deleuze". The Philosophical Forum. 41 (3): 231–258. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30061043. ISSN 0031-806X. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Rickles, Dean (2020). What Is Philosophy of Science?. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-3418-0. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Riedel, Tom (1999). "[Review:] Encyclopedia of Aesthetics" (PDF). Art Documentation. 18 (2). doi:10.1086/adx.18.2.27949030. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Rini, Regina A. "Morality and Cognitive Science". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
• Rivera Berruz, Stephanie (2019). "The Quest for Recognition: the Case of Latin American Philosophy". Comparative Philosophy. 10 (2). doi:10.31979/2151-6014(2019).100206.
• Rizvi, Sajjad (2021). "Mulla Sadra". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
• Robertson Ishii, Teresa; Atkins, Philip (2023). "Essential vs. Accidental Properties". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Lead Section. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Rosenberg, Alex (2013). Philosophy of Science: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-74350-6. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Ruether, Rosemary Radford (2004). Integrating Ecofeminism, Globalization, and World Religions. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4616-3822-3. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
• Russell, Bertrand (1912). The Problems of Philosophy. H. Holt and Company. OCLC 542749.
• Russell, Gillian; Fara, Delia Graff (2013). Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Language. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-59407-6. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Safi, Omid (2005). "Modernism: Islamic Modernism". Encyclopedia of Religion. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Santinello, Giovanni; Piaia, Gregorio (2010). Models of the History of Philosophy: Volume II: From Cartesian Age to Brucker. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-481-9507-7. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Sartwell, Crispin (2022). "Beauty". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Lead Section, 1. Objectivity and Subjectivity. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Sayre-McCord, Geoff (2023). "Metaethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
• Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3683-7. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Schroeder, Mark (2021). "Value Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
• Seshadri, Kandadai (1996). "Ramanuja: Social Influence of His Life and Teaching". Economic and Political Weekly. 31 (5): 292–298. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 4403749. Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Shaffer, Michael J. (2015). "The Problem of Necessary and Sufficient Conditions and Conceptual Analysis". Metaphilosophy. 46 (4/5): 555–563. doi:10.1111/meta.12158. ISSN 0026-1068. JSTOR 26602327. S2CID 148551744. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
• Shand, John (2004). Fundamentals of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-58831-2. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
• Sharpe, Matthew; Ure, Michael (2021). Philosophy as a Way of Life: History, Dimensions, Directions. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-10216-3. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
• Shaw, Yu-ming (2019). Changes and Continuities in Chinese Communism: Volume I: Ideology, Politics, and Foreign Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-71285-2. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Shields, Christopher (2022). "Aristotle". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 26 December 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
• Shiraev, Eric (2010). A History of Psychology: A Global Perspective: A Global Perspective. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-7383-0. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Kane, Robert (2013). "7.1 Incompatibilism". In Sider, Theodore; Hawthorne, John; Zimmerman, Dean W. (eds.). Contemporary Debates in Metaphysics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-71232-0. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Silverman, Hugh J.; Welton, Donn (1988). Postmodernism and Continental Philosophy. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-521-7. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
• Simpson, John A. (2002). "Philosophy". Oxford English Dictionary: Version 3.0 : Upgrade Version. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-521889-3.
• Singer, Marcus G. (1974). "The Many Methods of Sidgwick's Ethics". Monist. 58 (3): 420–448. doi:10.5840/monist197458326.
• Singh, Rana P. B. (2014). "3. Rethinking Development in India". In Simon, David; Narman, Anders (eds.). Development as Theory and Practice: Current Perspectives on Development and Development Co-operation. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-87658-8. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
• Slingerland, Edward (2007). Effortless Action: Wu-wei As Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-987457-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Smart, Ninian (2008). World Philosophies (Rev. 2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41188-2.
• Smith, David Woodruff (2018). "Phenomenology: 1. What Is Phenomenology?". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
• Smith, Joel. "Phenomenology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
• Smith, Matthew J.; Brown, Matthew; Duncan, Randy (2019). More Critical Approaches to Comics: Theories and Methods. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-78275-6. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Solomon, Robert C.; Higgins, Kathleen M. (2003). From Africa to Zen: An Invitation to World Philosophy. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-8086-2. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
• Stambaugh, Joan (1987). "Philosophy: An Overview". In Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-909480-8. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Stehn, Alexander V. "Latin American Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
• Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020). "Epistemology". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
• Taliaferro, Charles (2023). "Philosophy of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
• Ten, C. L. (1999). Routledge History of Philosophy: The nineteenth century. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-05604-5. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Tian, Chenshan (2009). "Development of Dialectical Materialism in China". In Mou, Bo (ed.). History of Chinese Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-00286-5.
• Tieszen, Richard L. (2005). Phenomenology, Logic, and the Philosophy of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83782-8. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Truncellito, David A. "Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
• Tully, Robert (2005). "Logic, Informal". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
• Tuomela, Raimo (1985). Science, Action, and Reality. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-277-2098-6. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Uniacke, Suzanne (2017). "The Value of Applied Philosophy". In Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper; Brownlee, Kimberley; Coady, David (eds.). A Companion to Applied Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-86911-6.
• Vallely, Anne (2012). "Jainism". In Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (eds.). Encyclopedia of Global Religion. SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-2729-7. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
• van Inwagen, Peter; Sullivan, Meghan; Bernstein, Sara (2023). "Metaphysics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
• Van Norden, Bryan (2022). "Wang Yangming". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
• Velleman, Daniel J. (2006). How to Prove It: A Structured Approach. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67599-4. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Venturinha, Nuno (2013). The Textual Genesis of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-17998-3. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Verene, Donald Phillip (2008). The History of Philosophy: A Reader's Guide. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-5197-0. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Vickers, John M. (2022). "Inductive Reasoning". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
• Vintiadis, Elly (2020). Philosophy by Women: 22 Philosophers Reflect on Philosophy and Its Value. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-20324-0. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Vleet, Jacob E. Van (2011). Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-5433-3. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Waithe, Mary Ellen (1995). A History of Women Philosophers. 4: Contemporary Women Philosophers 1900 - today. Nijhoff. ISBN 978-0-7923-2808-7.
• Walsh, Richard T. G.; Teo, Thomas; Baydala, Angelina (2014). A Critical History and Philosophy of Psychology: Diversity of Context, Thought, and Practice. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87076-4. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
• Walton, Douglas (1996). "Formal and Informal Logic". In Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
• Wei, Wang (2020). Philosophy of Science: An Introduction to the Central Issues. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-54231-5. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
• Wei-Ming, Tu. "Self-cultivation in Chinese Philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
• Weir, Ralph Stefan (2023). The Mind-Body Problem and Metaphysics: An Argument From Consciousness to Mental Substance. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-91432-0. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Weisberg, Josh. "Hard Problem of Consciousness". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Williamson, Timothy (2020). "1. Introduction". Philosophical Method: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-184724-0. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
• Wiredu, Kwasi (2005). "Introduction: African Philosophy in Our Time". A Companion to African Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–27. doi:10.1002/9780470997154.ch1. ISBN 978-0-470-99715-4.
• Wolf, Michael P. (2023). "Philosophy of Language". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 15 June 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
• Wolff, Jonathan; Leopold, David (2021). "Karl Marx". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
• Wolff, Jonathan (2006). An Introduction to Political Philosophy (Rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-965801-5.
• Woollard, Fiona; Howard-Snyder, Frances (2022). "Doing vs. Allowing Harm". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2023.