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{{Short description|Pakistan's pre-history and history}} {{Short description|none}}
{{about|the pre-1947 history of Pakistan|post-1946 history|History of Pakistan (1947–present)}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=April 2020}} {{Use Pakistani English|date=April 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
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{{History of South Asia}} {{History of South Asia}}
] ]
The '''History of Pakistan''' prior to its ] in 1947 spans several ] and covers a vast geographical area known as the Greater Indus region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McIntosh |first=Jane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F6iBAAAAMAAJ&q=Greater+Indus+Valley |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-57607-907-2 |language=en}}</ref> ] modern humans arrived in what is now Pakistan between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=Hannah V. A. |last2=Petraglia |first2=Michael D. |date=2005 |title=Modern Human Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of South Asia |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/444365 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=S5 |pages=S3–S27 |doi=10.1086/444365 |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002B-0DBC-F |issn=0011-3204|hdl-access=free }}</ref> ], dating as far back as 2.1 million years, have been discovered in the ] of northern Pakistan, indicating early ] activity in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dennell |first1=R.W. |last2=Rendell |first2=H. |last3=Hailwood |first3=E. |date=1988 |title=Early tool-making in Asia: two-million-year-old artefacts in Pakistan |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X00073555/type/journal_article |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=62 |issue=234 |pages=98–106 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00073555 |issn=0003-598X}}</ref> The earliest known human remains in Pakistan are dated between 5000 BCE and 3000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oldest human remains found in Pakistan |url=https://www.rockartmuseum.com/oldest-human-remains-pakistan/#:~:text=At%20present%2C%20the%20oldest%20human,5000%20BCE%20to%203000%20BCE. |website=Rock Art Museum}}</ref> By around 7000 BCE, early human settlements began to emerge in Pakistan, leading to the development of urban centres such as ], one of the oldest in human history.<ref name="Mehrgarh">Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118071157/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm|date=18 January 2017}}. '' Guide to Archaeology''</ref><ref name="whc.unesco.org2">UNESCO World Heritage. 2004. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226013816/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1876/|date=26 December 2018}}. ''Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh''</ref> By 4500 BCE, the ] evolved, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE along the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asrar |first=Shakeeb |title=How British India was divided |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/8/14/how-india-pakistan-and-bangladesh-were-formed |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> The region that now constitutes ] served both as the ] of a major ancient civilization and as a strategic gateway connecting ] with ] and the ].<ref name="Srinivasan2007">{{citation|last=Neelis|first=Jason|editor=Srinivasan, Doris |title=On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCz8NczNbcMC&pg=PA55|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-90-04-15451-3|pages=55–94|chapter=Passages to India: Śaka and Kuṣāṇa migrations in historical contexts}} Quote: "Numerous passageways through the northwestern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan served as migration routes to South Asia from the Iranian plateau and the Central Asian steppes. Prehistoric and protohistoric exchanges across the ], ], and Himalaya ranges demonstrate earlier precedents for routes through the high mountain passes and river valleys in later historical periods. Typological similarities between Northern Neolithic sites in Kashmir and Swat and sites in the Tibetan plateau and northern China show that 'Mountain chains have often integrated rather than isolated peoples.' Ties between the trading post of ] in ] (northeastern Afghanistan) and the lower ] provide evidence for long-distance commercial networks and 'polymorphous relations' across the Hindu Kush until c. 1800 B.C.' The ] (BMAC) may have functioned as a 'filter' for the introduction of ] to the northwestern Indian subcontinent, although routes and chronologies remain hypothetical. (page 55)"</ref><ref name="Marshall2013">{{citation|last=Marshall|first=John|title=A Guide to Taxila|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEMbH2aDO0UC&pg=PA1|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-61544-1|pages=1–|orig-date=1960}} Quote: "Here also, in ancient days, was the meeting-place of three great trade-routes, one, from Hindustan and Eastern India, which was to become the `royal highway' described by ] as running from ] to the north-west of the ]; the second from Western Asia through ], ] and ] and so across the Indus at ] to Taxila; and the third from Kashmir and Central Asia by way of the ] valley and ] to ] and so down the ] valley. These three trade-routes, which carried the bulk of the traffic passing by land between India and Central and Western Asia, played an all-important part in the history of Taxila. (page 1)"</ref>


Situated on the first coastal migration route of '']'' out of Africa, the region was inhabited early by modern humans.<ref name="QamarAyub2002">{{cite journal|last1=Qamar|first1=Raheel|last2=Ayub|first2=Qasim|last3=Mohyuddin|first3=Aisha|last4=Helgason|first4=Agnar|last5=Mazhar|first5=Kehkashan|last6=Mansoor|first6=Atika|last7=Zerjal|first7=Tatiana|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Mehdi|first9=S. Qasim|title=Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=70|issue=5|year=2002|pages=1107–1124|issn=0002-9297|doi=10.1086/339929|pmid=11898125|pmc=447589}}</ref><ref name="DennellPorr2014">{{citation|last=Clarkson|first=Christopher |editor=Dennell, Robin |editor2=Porr, Martin |title=Southern Asia, Australia and the Search for Human Origins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuWfAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01785-6|pages=76–89|chapter=East of Eden: Founder Effects and Archaeological Signature of Modern Human Dispersal}} Quote: "The record from South Asia (Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka) has been pivotal in discussions of the archaeological signature of early modern humans east of Africa because of the well-excavated and well-dated sites that have recently been reported in this region and because of the central role South Asia played in early population expansion and dispersals to the east. Genetic studies have revealed that India was the gateway to subsequent colonisation of Asia and Australia and saw the first major population expansion of modern human populations anywhere outside of Africa. South Asia therefore provides a crucial stepping-scone in early modern migration to Southeast Asia and Oceania. (pages 81–2)"</ref> The 9,000-year history of village life in South Asia traces back to the ] (7000–4300 ]) site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan,<ref name=coningham-young-1>{{Citation | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin |author1-link=Robin Coningham | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} Quote: ""Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000&nbsp;BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."</ref><ref name=fisher1>{{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2}} Quote: "page 33: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map&nbsp;3.1). From as early as 7000&nbsp;BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."</ref><ref name=dyson1>{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}, Quote: "(p 29) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000&nbsp;years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500&nbsp;years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."</ref> and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the ], including ] and ].<ref name="AllchinAllchin1982">{{citation|last1=Allchin|first1=Bridget|last2=Allchin|first2=Raymond|title=The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC&pg=PA131|year=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-28550-6|page=131}}Quote: "During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system. (page 81)"</ref><ref name="DalesKenoyer1986">{{citation|last1=Dales|first1=George|last2=Kenoyer|first2=Jonathan Mark|last3=Alcock|first3=Leslie|title=Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iew_THp8foC&pg=PA4|year=1986|publisher=UPenn Museum of Archaeology|isbn=978-0-934718-52-3|page=4}}</ref>
The '''history of ]''' for the period preceding the country's independence in ]<ref>Pakistan was created as the ] on 14 August 1947 after the end of ] in, and ] of ].</ref> is shared with that of ], ], and ]. Spanning the western expanse of the ] and the eastern borderlands of the ], the region of present-day Pakistan served both as the fertile ground of a major civilization and as the gateway of South Asia to ] and the ].<ref name="Srinivasan2007">{{citation|last=Neelis|first=Jason|editor=Srinivasan, Doris |title=On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCz8NczNbcMC&pg=PA55|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-90-04-15451-3|pages=55–94|chapter=Passages to India: Śaka and Kuṣāṇa migrations in historical contexts}} Quote: "Numerous passageways through the northwestern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan served as migration routes to South Asia from the Iranian plateau and the Central Asian steppes. Prehistoric and protohistoric exchanges across the ], ], and Himalaya ranges demonstrate earlier precedents for routes through the high mountain passes and river valleys in later historical periods. Typological similarities between Northern Neolithic sites in Kashmir and Swat and sites in the Tibetan plateau and northern China show that 'Mountain chains have often integrated rather than isolated peoples.' Ties between the trading post of ] in ] (northeastern Afghanistan) and the lower ] provide evidence for long-distance commercial networks and 'polymorphous relations' across the Hindu Kush until c. 1800 B.C.' The ] (BMAC) may have functioned as a 'filter' for the introduction of ] to the northwestern Indian subcontinent, although routes and chronologies remain hypothetical. (page 55)"</ref><ref name="Marshall2013">{{citation|last=Marshall|first=John|title=A Guide to Taxila|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEMbH2aDO0UC&pg=PA1|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-61544-1|pages=1–|orig-date=1960}} Quote: "Here also, in ancient days, was the meeting-place of three great trade-routes , one, from Hindustan and Eastern India, which was to become the `royal highway' described by ] as running from ] to the north-west of the ]; the second from Western Asia through ], ] and ] and so across the Indus at ] to Taxila; and the third from Kashmir and Central Asia by way of the ] valley and ] to ] and so down the ] valley. These three trade-routes, which carried the bulk of the traffic passing by land between India and Central and Western Asia, played an all-important part in the history of Taxila. (page 1)"</ref>


Following the decline of the Indus valley civilization, ] moved into the ] from Central Asia originally from the ] in several ] in the ] (1500–500 BCE), bringing with them came their ] which fused with local culture.<ref name="White 2003 28">{{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |url=https://archive.org/details/kissyoginitantri00whit |title=Kiss of the Yogini |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-89483-6 |location=Chicago |page= |url-access=limited}}</ref> The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the ] and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley Civilisation eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes.<ref>. Retrieved 12 May 2007.</ref>{{refn|Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic culture include the ], the ], the ] and the ].{{sfn|Witzel|1989}}|group=note}} Most notable among them was ], which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting ] and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations.<ref>Kurt A. Behrendt (2007), , pp.4—5, 91</ref> The initial early Vedic culture was a tribal, ] society centred in the Indus Valley, of what is today Pakistan. During this period the ], the oldest ] of ], were composed.{{refn|The precise time span of the period is uncertain. ] and ] evidence indicates that the ], the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.<ref name="Oberlies p. 158">Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a ''terminus post quem'' of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100</ref>|group=note}}
Situated on the first coastal migration route of '']'' out of Africa, the region was inhabited early by modern humans.<ref name="QamarAyub2002">{{cite journal|last1=Qamar|first1=Raheel|last2=Ayub|first2=Qasim|last3=Mohyuddin|first3=Aisha|last4=Helgason|first4=Agnar|last5=Mazhar|first5=Kehkashan|last6=Mansoor|first6=Atika|last7=Zerjal|first7=Tatiana|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Mehdi|first9=S. Qasim|title=Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=70|issue=5|year=2002|pages=1107–1124|issn=0002-9297|doi=10.1086/339929|pmid=11898125|pmc=447589}}</ref><ref name="DennellPorr2014">{{citation|last=Clarkson|first=Christopher |editor=Dennell, Robin |editor2=Porr, Martin |title=Southern Asia, Australia and the Search for Human Origins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuWfAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01785-6|pages=76–89|chapter=East of Eden: Founder Effects and Archaeological Signature of Modern Human Dispersal}} Quote: "The record from South Asia (Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka) has been pivotal in discussions of the archaeological signature of early modern humans east of Africa because of the well-excavated and well-dated sites that have recently been reported in this region and because of the central role South Asia played in early population expansion and dispersals to the east. Genetic studies have revealed that India was the gateway to subsequent colonisation of Asia and Australia and saw the first major population expansion of modern human populations anywhere outside of Africa. South Asia therefore provides a crucial stepping-scone in early modern migration to Southeast Asia and Oceania. (pages 81–2)"</ref> The 9,000-year history of village life in South Asia traces back to the ] (7000–4300 ]) site of ] in Pakistan,<ref name=coningham-young-1>{{Citation | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin |author1-link=Robin Coningham | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} Quote: ""Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000&nbsp;BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."</ref><ref name=fisher1>{{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2}} Quote: "page 33: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map&nbsp;3.1). From as early as 7000&nbsp;BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."</ref><ref name=dyson1>{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}, Quote: "(p 29) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000&nbsp;years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500&nbsp;years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."</ref> and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the ], including ] and ].<ref name="AllchinAllchin1982">{{citation|last1=Allchin|first1=Bridget|last2=Allchin|first2=Raymond|title=The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC&pg=PA131|year=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-28550-6|page=131}}Quote: "During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system. (page 81)"</ref><ref name="DalesKenoyer1986">{{citation|last1=Dales|first1=George|last2=Kenoyer|first2=Jonathan Mark|last3=Alcock|first3=Leslie|title=Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iew_THp8foC&pg=PA4|year=1986|publisher=UPenn Museum of Archaeology|isbn=978-0-934718-52-3|page=4}}</ref>


The ensuing millennia saw the region of present-day Pakistan absorb many influences—represented among others in the ancient, mainly ]-], sites of ], and ], the 14th-century ]-]i monuments of ], and the 17th-century ] monuments of ]. In the first half of the 19th century, the region was appropriated by the ], followed, after 1857, by 90 years of direct ], and ending with the creation of Pakistan in 1947, through the efforts, among others, of its future national poet ] and its founder, ]. Since then, the country has experienced both civilian-democratic and military rule, resulting in periods of significant economic and military growth as well those of instability; significant during the latter, was the ] of ] as the new nation of ]. The ensuing millennia saw the region of present-day Pakistan absorb many influences represented among others in the ancient, mainly ]-], sites of ], and ], the 14th-century ]-]i monuments of ], and the 17th-century ] monuments of ]. In the first half of the 19th century, the region was appropriated by the ], followed, after 1857, by 90 years of direct ], and ending with the creation of Pakistan in 1947, through the efforts, among others, of its future national poet ] and its founder, ]. Since then, the country has experienced both civilian democratic and military rule, resulting in periods of significant economic and military growth as well as those of instability; significant during the latter, was the 1971 ] of ] as the new nation of ].{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

== History by region ==
{{main|Timeline of Pakistani history}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
}}


== Prehistory == == Prehistory ==
=== Paleolithic period === === Paleolithic period ===
The ] is archaeological culture of the ], ]. It is named after the ] in the Sivalik Hills, near modern-day ]/]. In ] and ], about {{convert|16|km|mi}} from Rawalpindi, on the bend of the ] hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} The ] is archaeological culture of the ], ]. It is named after the ] in the Sivalik Hills, near modern-day ] and is dated between c.774,000 and c.11,700 BCE.<ref name="murray">{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Murray (archaeologist) |title=Time and Archaeology |url=https://archive.org/details/timearchaeology00murr |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |location=London | page= |isbn=978-0-415-11762-3}}</ref>


=== Neolithic period === === Neolithic period ===
{{Main|Mehrgarh}} {{Main|Mehrgarh}}
] is an important ] site discovered in 1974, which shows early evidence of farming and herding,<ref>Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. . ''Guide to Archaeology''</ref> and dentistry.<ref name="coppa">{{cite journal |last=Coppa|first=A.|author2=L. Bondioli |author3=A. Cucina |author4=D. W. Frayer |author5=C. Jarrige |author6=J. F. Jarrige |author7=G. Quivron |author8=M. Rossi |author9=M. Vidale |author10=R. Macchiarelli |title=Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry|journal=Nature|volume=440|pages=755–756|doi=10.1038/440755a |pmid=16598247 |issue=7085|year=2006|bibcode=2006Natur.440..755C|s2cid=6787162}}</ref> The site dates back to 7000–5500 ] and is located on the Kachi Plain of ]. The residents of Mehrgarh lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with ], cultivated barley, wheat, ]s and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed (5500–2600 BCE) residents began to engage in crafts, including ], ], bead production, and ]. The site was occupied continuously until 2600 BCE,<ref>] 1996. "Mehrgarh." ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press, Oxford</ref> when climatic changes began to occur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favor of the Indus Valley,<ref name=guimet> ] is an important ] site discovered in 1974, which shows early evidence of farming and herding,<ref>Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118071157/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm |date=18 January 2017 }}. ''Guide to Archaeology''</ref> and dentistry.<ref name="coppa">{{cite journal |last=Coppa|first=A.|author2=L. Bondioli |author3=A. Cucina |author4=D. W. Frayer |author5=C. Jarrige |author6=J. F. Jarrige |author7=G. Quivron |author8=M. Rossi |author9=M. Vidale |author10=R. Macchiarelli |title=Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry|journal=Nature|volume=440|pages=755–756|doi=10.1038/440755a |pmid=16598247 |issue=7085|year=2006|bibcode=2006Natur.440..755C|s2cid=6787162}}</ref> The site dates back to 7000–5500 ] and is located on the Kachi Plain of ]. The residents of Mehrgarh lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools from ], cultivated barley, wheat, ]s and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed (5500–2600 BCE) residents began to engage in crafts, including ], ], bead production, and ]. The site was occupied continuously until 2600 BCE,<ref>] 1996. "Mehrgarh." ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press, Oxford</ref> when climatic changes began to occur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favor of the Indus Valley,<ref name=guimet>
{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928044049/http://www.guimet.fr/Indus-and-Mehrgarh-archaeological |date=28 September 2007 }}, Musée National des Arts Asiatiques&nbsp;– Guimet {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928044049/http://www.guimet.fr/Indus-and-Mehrgarh-archaeological |date=28 September 2007 }}, Musée National des Arts Asiatiques&nbsp;– Guimet
</ref> where a ] was in the early stages of development.<ref> </ref> where a ] was in the early stages of development.<ref>
Line 38: Line 27:
</ref> </ref>


==Bronze age==
===Indus Valley Civilisation=== ===Indus Valley Civilisation===
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}} {{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}}
{{multiple image {{multiple image
| align = | align =
| direction = | direction =
| width = | width =
| header = ] | header = ]
| total_width = 300 | total_width = 300
| perrow = 2 | perrow = 2
| image1 = Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg | image1 = Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg
| caption1 = The ] sculpture is carved from ]. | caption1 = The ] sculpture is carved from ].
| image2 = Shiva Pashupati.jpg | image2 = Shiva Pashupati.jpg
| caption2 = The '']''. | caption2 = The '']''
| image3 = Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg | image3 = Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg
| caption3 = The ] of Mohenjo-daro. | caption3 = The ] of Mohenjo-daro
| image4 = Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg | image4 = Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg
| caption4 = Excavated ruins of the Great Bath at ] in ]. | caption4 = Excavated ruins of the Great Bath at ] in ]
}} }}
]

The ] in the ] began around 3300&nbsp;BCE with the Indus Valley Civilization.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}} Along with ] and ], it was one of three early civilizations of the ], and of the three the most widespread,{{Sfn|Wright|2009|ps=: Quote: "The Indus civilization is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with ] and ], was a cradle of early civilization in the Old World (Childe 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."}} covering an area of 1.25&nbsp;million km<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Blanc De La|first1=Paul|title=Indus Epigraphic Perspectives: Exploring Past Decipherment Attempts & Possible New Approaches 2013 Pg 11|url=http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdf|website=University of Ottawa Research|publisher=University of Ottawa|access-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904103021/http://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> It flourished in the basins of the ], in what is today the Pakistani provinces of ], ] and ], and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal ] in parts of north-west India.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}} At its peak, the civilization hosted a population of approximately 5 million spread across hundreds of settlements extending as far as the ] to present-day southern and eastern ], and the ].<ref name="feuerstein">{{cite book|last=Feuerstein|first=Georg|author2=Subhash Kak |author3=David Frawley |title=In search of the cradle of civilization: new light on ancient India|publisher=Quest Books|location=Wheaton, Illinois|year=1995|page=147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbx7q0gxyTcC|isbn=978-0-8356-0720-9}}</ref> Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The ] in the ] began around 3300&nbsp;BCE with the Indus Valley Civilization.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}} Along with ] and ], it was one of three early civilizations of the ], and of the three the most widespread,{{Sfn|Wright|2009|ps=: Quote: "The Indus civilization is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with ] and ], was a cradle of early civilization in the Old World (Childe 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."}} covering an area of 1.25&nbsp;million km<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Blanc De La|first1=Paul|title=Indus Epigraphic Perspectives: Exploring Past Decipherment Attempts & Possible New Approaches 2013 Pg 11|url=http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdf|website=University of Ottawa Research|publisher=University of Ottawa|access-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904103021/http://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> It flourished in the basins of the ], in what is today the Pakistani provinces of ], ] and ], and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal ] in parts of north-west India.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}} At its peak, the civilization hosted a population of approximately 5 million spread across hundreds of settlements extending as far as the ] to present-day southern and eastern ], and the ].<ref name="feuerstein">{{cite book|last=Feuerstein|first=Georg|author2=Subhash Kak |author3=David Frawley |title=In search of the cradle of civilization: new light on ancient India|publisher=Quest Books|location=Wheaton, Illinois|year=1995|page=147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbx7q0gxyTcC|isbn=978-0-8356-0720-9}}</ref> Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.


Line 63: Line 53:
During the ] of this civilisation, signs of a ] began to emerge, and by around 1700&nbsp;BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived. ] of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. The civilization collapsed around 1700 BCE, though the reasons behind its fall are still unknown. Through the excavation of the Indus cities and analysis of town planning and seals, it has been inferred that the Civilization had high level of sophistication in its town planning, arts, crafts, and trade.<ref>P. Biagi and E. Starnini 2021 - Indus Civilization. In Smith, C. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer Nature, Switzerland: 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51726-1_3491-1</ref> During the ] of this civilisation, signs of a ] began to emerge, and by around 1700&nbsp;BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived. ] of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. The civilization collapsed around 1700 BCE, though the reasons behind its fall are still unknown. Through the excavation of the Indus cities and analysis of town planning and seals, it has been inferred that the Civilization had high level of sophistication in its town planning, arts, crafts, and trade.<ref>P. Biagi and E. Starnini 2021 - Indus Civilization. In Smith, C. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer Nature, Switzerland: 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51726-1_3491-1</ref>


== {{anchor|Early history}} Early history – Iron Age == == Early history – Iron Age ==

===Vedic period=== ===Vedic period===
{{Main|Vedic period}} {{Main|Vedic period|Indo-Aryan Migration|Indo-Aryans|Vedas}}
{{Further|Sintashta culture}}
{{See also|Indo-Aryan Migration|Indo-Aryans|Vedas}}
].]] ].|left]]


The Vedic Period ({{circa|1500|500 BCE}}) is postulated to have formed during the 1500 BCE to 800 BCE. As Indo-Aryans migrated and settled into the Indus Valley, along with them came their distinctive religious traditions and practices which fused with local culture.<ref name="White 2003 28">{{cite book|last=White|first=David Gordon|title=Kiss of the Yogini|url=https://archive.org/details/kissyoginitantri00whit|url-access=limited|year=2003|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-89483-6|page=}}</ref> The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the ] and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley Civilisation eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes.<ref>. Retrieved 12 May 2007.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic culture include the ], the ], the ] and the ].{{sfn|Witzel|1989}}}} The initial early Vedic culture was a tribal, ] society centred in the Indus Valley, of what is today Pakistan. During this period the ], the oldest ] of ], were composed.{{refn|group=note|The precise time span of the period is uncertain. ] and ] evidence indicates that the ], the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.<ref>Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a ''terminus post quem'' of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100</ref>}} The Vedic Period ({{circa|1500|500 BCE}}) is postulated to have formed during the 1500 BCE to 800 BCE. As Indo-Aryans migrated and settled into the Indus Valley, along with them came their distinctive religious traditions and practices which fused with local culture.<ref name="White 2003 28"/> The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the ] and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley Civilisation eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes.<ref>. Retrieved 12 May 2007.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic culture include the ], the ], the ] and the ].{{sfn|Witzel|1989}}}} Early ] were a ] society centred in the ], organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a ] way of life. During this period the ], the oldest ] of ], were composed.{{refn|group=note|The precise time span of the period is uncertain. ] and ] evidence indicates that the ], the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.<ref name="Oberlies p. 158">Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a ''terminus post quem'' of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100</ref>}}


==Ancient history==
=== Achaemenid Empire === === Achaemenid Empire ===
{{Main|Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley}} {{Main|Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley}}
] ]
] representing the city of ] during the Achaemenid period]]

The main Vedic tribes remaining in the ] by 550 BC were the ''Kamboja'', ''Sindhu'', ''Taksas'' of Gandhara, the ''Madras'' and ''Kathas'' of the ], ''Mallas'' of the ] and ''Tugras'' of the ]. These several tribes and principalities fought against one another to such an extent that the Indus Valley no longer had one powerful Vedic tribal kingdom to defend against outsiders and to wield the warring tribes into one organized kingdom. The area was wealthy and fertile, yet infighting led to misery and despair. King Pushkarasakti of ] was engaged in power struggles against his local rivals and as such the ] remained poorly defended. ] of the ] took advantage of the opportunity and planned for an invasion. The Indus Valley was fabled in Persia for its gold and fertile soil and conquering it had been a major objective of his predecessor ].<ref> The main Vedic tribes remaining in the ] by 550 BC were the ''Kamboja'', ''Sindhu'', ''Taksas'' of Gandhara, the ''Madras'' and ''Kathas'' of the ], ''Mallas'' of the ] and ''Tugras'' of the ]. These several tribes and principalities fought against one another to such an extent that the Indus Valley no longer had one powerful Vedic tribal kingdom to defend against outsiders and to wield the warring tribes into one organized kingdom. King ] of ] was engaged in power struggles against his local rivals and as such the ] remained poorly defended. ] of the ] took advantage of the opportunity and planned for an invasion. The Indus Valley was fabled in Persia for its gold and fertile soil and conquering it had been a major objective of his predecessor ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Petrie |first1=Cameron A. |last2=Magee |first2=Peter |title=Histories, epigraphy and authority: Achaemenid and indigenous control in Pakistan in the 1st millennium BC |url=https://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/bannu-archaeological-project/petrie2007_02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611053344/https://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/bannu-archaeological-project/petrie2007_02.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-11 |access-date=18 April 2024}}</ref> In 542 BC, Cyrus had led his army and conquered the Makran coast in southern ]. However, he is known to have campaigned beyond Makran (in the regions of ], ] and ]) and lost most of his army in the ''Gedrosian Desert'' (speculated today as the ]).
Histories, epigraphy and authority: Achaemenid and indigenous control in Pakistan in the 1st millennium BC {{Dead link|date=March 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
</ref> In 542 BC, Cyrus had led his army and conquered the Makran coast in southern ]. However, he is known to have campaigned beyond Makran (in the regions of ], ] and ]) and lost most of his army in the ''Gedrosian Desert'' (speculated today as the ]).


In 518 BC, Darius led his army through the Khyber Pass and southwards in stages, eventually reaching the ] coast in Sindh by 516 BC. Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were established with provincial capitals: In 518 BC, Darius led his army through the Khyber Pass and southwards in stages, eventually reaching the ] coast in Sindh by 516 BC. Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time, establishing several ]ies: ] around the general region of Gandhara, ] around Punjab and Sindh, ], encompassing parts of present-day ], and ],<ref name="Iranicaarticle">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|title=Arachosia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia |date=10 August 2011}}</ref> ] around the ] basin,<ref name="arch.cam.ac.uk" /> and ] covering much of the ] region of southern Balochistan.<ref></ref>
* '''] satrapy''', established 518 BC with its capital at ] (]). Gandhara Satrapy was established in the general region of the old Gandhara grave culture, in what is today ]. During Achaemenid rule, the ] alphabet, derived from the one used for Aramaic (the official language of Achaemenids), developed here and remained the national script of Gandhara until 200 AD.
* '''] satrapy''', established in 518 BC with its capital at ]. The satrapy was established in upper Punjab (presumably in the ] region).
* '''] satrapy''', established in 517 BC with its capital at ] in southern Afghanistan, extended as far as ] in the east; encompassing parts of present-day ], and ] provinces of Pakistan.<ref name=Iranicaarticle>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|title=Arachosia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica|location=United States|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia |date=August 10, 2011}}</ref>
* '''] satrapy''', established in 516 BC in what is today ]. Sattagydia is mentioned for the first time in the ] of Darius the Great as one of the provinces in revolt while the king was in Babylon. The revolt was presumably suppressed in 515 BC. The satrapy disappears from sources after 480 BC, possibly being mentioned by another name or included with other regions.<ref name="arch.cam.ac.uk"/>
* '''] satrapy''', established in 542 BC, covered much of the ] region of southern ]. It had been conquered much earlier by Cyrus The Great.<ref></ref>


Despite all this, there is no archaeological evidence of Achaemenid control over these region as not a single archaeological site that can be positively identified with the Achaemenid Empire has been found anywhere in Pakistan, including at ]. What is known about the easternmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Empire is alluded to in the ] inscriptions and from Greek sources such as the ''Histories'' of ] and the later ''Alexander Chronicles'' (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources list three Indus Valley tributaries or conquered territories that were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings: Gandhara, Sattagydia and Hindush.<ref name="arch.cam.ac.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/bannu-archaeological-project/petrie2007_02.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - GS_Alexander_Arrian.doc |access-date=4 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519044446/http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/bannu-archaeological-project/petrie2007_02.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2012 }}</ref> What is known about the easternmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Empire is alluded to in the ] inscriptions and from Greek sources such as the ''Histories'' of ] and the later ''Alexander Chronicles'' (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources list three Indus Valley tributaries or conquered territories that were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings.<ref name="arch.cam.ac.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/bannu-archaeological-project/petrie2007_02.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - GS_Alexander_Arrian.doc |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519044446/http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/bannu-archaeological-project/petrie2007_02.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2012}}</ref>


===Macedonian Empire=== ===Macedonian Empire===
{{Main|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Macedonian Empire}} {{Main|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Macedonian Empire}}
]
]
], with ]]]
By spring of 326 BC, Alexander began on his Indus expedition from Bactria, leaving behind 3500 horses and 10,000 soldiers. He divided his army into two groups. The larger force would enter the Indus Valley through the ], just as Darius had done 200 years earlier, while a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander entered through a northern route, possibly through ] or ] near ]. Alexander was commanding a group of shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians, and horse-javelin-men and led them against the tribes of the former Gandhara satrapy.
By spring of 326 BC, Alexander began on his Indus expedition from Bactria, leaving behind 3500 horses and 10,000 soldiers. He divided his army into two groups. The larger force would enter the Indus Valley through the Khyber Pass, just as Darius had done 200 years earlier, while a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander entered through a northern route, possibly through ] or ] near ]. Alexander was commanding a group of shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians, and horse-javelin-men and led them against the tribes of the former Gandhara satrapy.


The first tribe they encountered were the ] tribe of the ], who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved. Alexander then continued in a southwestern direction where he encountered the ] tribe of the ] & ] valleys in April 326 BC. The Assakenoi fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander and his army in the cities of Ora, Bazira (]) and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander about the resistance put up by the Assakenoi that he killed the entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubble – similar slaughters followed in Ora.<ref>{{cite book|title=History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion|author=Mukerjee, R. K.|page=46}}</ref> A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters reached numerous Assakenians, who began fleeing to Aornos, a hill-fort located between ] and ]. Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort, eventually capturing and destroying the fort and killing everyone inside. The remaining smaller tribes either surrendered or like the Astanenoi tribe of ] (]) were quickly neutralized where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen were captured by Alexander.<ref>Curtius in McCrindle, p. 192, J. W. McCrindle; ''History of Punjab'', Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punjabi University, Patiala (editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; ''Kambojas Through the Ages'', 2005, p. 134, Kirpal Singh.</ref> Eventually Alexander's smaller force would meet with the larger force which had come through the Khyber Pass met at ]. With the conquest of Gandhara complete, Alexander switched to strengthening his military supply line, which by now stretched dangerously vulnerable over the ] back to ] in Bactria. The first tribe they encountered were the ] tribe of the ], who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved. Alexander then continued in a southwestern direction where he encountered the ] tribe of the ] & ] valleys in April 326 BC. The Assakenoi fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander and his army in the cities of Ora, Bazira (]) and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander about the resistance put up by the Assakenoi that he killed the entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubble – similar slaughters followed in Ora.<ref>{{cite book|title=History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion|author=Mukerjee, R. K.|page=46}}</ref> A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters reached numerous Assakenians, who began fleeing to Aornos, a hill-fort located between ] and ]. Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort, eventually capturing and destroying the fort and killing everyone inside. The remaining smaller tribes either surrendered or like the Astanenoi tribe of ] (]) were quickly neutralized where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen were captured by Alexander.<ref>Curtius in McCrindle, p. 192, J. W. McCrindle; ''History of Punjab'', Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punjabi University, Patiala (editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; ''Kambojas Through the Ages'', 2005, p. 134, Kirpal Singh.</ref> Eventually Alexander's smaller force would meet with the larger force which had come through the Khyber Pass met at ]. With the conquest of Gandhara complete, Alexander switched to strengthening his military supply line, which by now stretched dangerously vulnerable over the ] back to ] in Bactria.


After conquering Gandhara and solidifying his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander combined his forces with the King Ambhi of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in July 326 BC to begin the Archosia (Punjab) campaign. His first resistance would come at the ] near ] against King ] of the ] tribe. The famous ] (]) between Alexander (with Ambhi) and Porus would be the last major battle fought by him. After defeating ], his battle weary troops refused to advance into India<ref name="Plutarch1994">{{cite book|last1=Plutarch|first1=Mestrius|translator-last=Perrin|translator-first=Bernadotte|title=Plutarch's Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJhpAAAAMAAJ|access-date=23 May 2016 |volume=7|year=1994|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|isbn=978-0-674-99110-1|chapter=Chapter LXII}}</ref> to engage the army of ] and its vanguard of trampling elephants. Alexander, therefore proceeded south-west along the Indus Valley.<ref name="PlutarchLXIII">{{cite book|last1=Plutarch|first1=Mestrius|translator-last=Perrin|translator-first=Bernadotte|title=Plutarch's Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJhpAAAAMAAJ|access-date=23 May 2016|volume=7|year=1994|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|isbn=978-0-674-99110-1|chapter=Chapter LXIII}}</ref> Along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms in ] and ], before marching his army westward across the ] desert towards what is now ]. In crossing the desert, Alexander's army took enormous casualties from hunger and thirst, but fought no human enemy. They encountered the "Fish Eaters", or Ichthyophagi, primitive people who lived on the Makran coast, who had matted hair, no fire, no metal, no clothes, lived in huts made of whale bones, and ate raw seafood. After conquering Gandhara and solidifying his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander combined his forces with the King Ambhi of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in July 326 BC to begin the Archosia (Punjab) campaign. His first resistance would come at the ] near ] against King ] of the ] tribe. The famous ] (]) between Alexander (with Ambhi) and Porus would be the last major battle fought by him. After defeating Porus, his battle weary troops refused to advance into India<ref name="Plutarch1994">{{cite book|last1=Plutarch|first1=Mestrius|translator-last=Perrin|translator-first=Bernadotte|title=Plutarch's Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJhpAAAAMAAJ|access-date=23 May 2016 |volume=7|year=1994|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|isbn=978-0-674-99110-1|chapter=Chapter LXII}}</ref> to engage the army of ] and its vanguard of trampling elephants. Alexander, therefore proceeded south-west along the Indus Valley.<ref name="PlutarchLXIII">{{cite book|last1=Plutarch|first1=Mestrius|translator-last=Perrin|translator-first=Bernadotte|title=Plutarch's Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJhpAAAAMAAJ|access-date=23 May 2016|volume=7|year=1994|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|isbn=978-0-674-99110-1|chapter=Chapter LXIII}}</ref> Along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms in ] and ], before marching his army westward across the ] desert towards what is now ]. In crossing the desert, Alexander's army took enormous casualties from hunger and thirst, but fought no human enemy. They encountered the "Fish Eaters", or Ichthyophagi, primitive people who lived on the Makran coast, who had matted hair, no fire, no metal, no clothes, lived in huts made of whale bones, and ate raw seafood.


=== Mauryan Empire === === Mauryan Empire ===
{{Main|Maurya Empire|Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Buddhism}} {{Main|Maurya Empire|Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Buddhism}}
] under king ], c.250 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924022983567/page/n23/mode/1up|title=Historical atlas of India, for the use of high schools, colleges and private students|last=Joppen|first=Charles|date=1907|publisher=London; New York : Longmans, Green|others=Cornell University Library|pages=map 2}}</ref>]]
]


The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive ] ] in ] based in ], having been founded by ] in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE.<ref name="Dyson2018-lead-maurya"> The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive ] ] in ] based in ], having been founded by ] in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE.<ref name="Dyson2018-lead-maurya">
{{citation {{citation
|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=16–17}} Quote: "Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south."</ref> The Maurya Empire was centralized by the conquest of the ], and its capital city was located at ] (modern ]). Outside this imperial center, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities sprinkling it.<ref name="Ludden2013-lead-maurya"> |last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=16–17}} Quote: "Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south."</ref> The Maurya Empire was centralized by the conquest of the ], and its capital city was located at ] (modern ]). Outside this imperial centre, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities sprinkling it.<ref name="Ludden2013-lead-maurya">
{{citation {{citation
|last=Ludden |last=Ludden
|first=David|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|year=2013|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-108-6|pages=29–30}} |quote=The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. Outside the palace, in the capital cities, the highest ranks in the imperial elite were held by military commanders whose active loyalty and success in war determined imperial fortunes. Wherever these men failed or rebelled, dynastic power crumbled. ... Imperial society flourished where elites mingled; they were its backbone, its strength was theirs. Kautilya's ''Arthasastra'' indicates that imperial power was concentrated in its original heartland, in old ''Magadha'', where key institutions seem to have survived for about seven hundred years, down to the age of the Guptas. Here, Mauryan officials ruled local society, but not elsewhere. In provincial towns and cities, officials formed a top layer of royalty; under them, old conquered royal families were not removed, but rather subordinated. In most ''janapadas'', the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left.</ref>{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|2004|pp=xii, 448}}<ref>{{cite book | first1=Romila | last1=Thapar | title=A History of India, Volume 1 | publisher=Penguin Books | author-link=Romila Thapar | year=1990 | page=384 | isbn=0-14-013835-8}}</ref> During ]'s rule (ca. 268–232 BCE) the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the ] excepting the deep south.<ref name="Dyson2018-lead-maurya"/> It declined for about 50&nbsp;years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185&nbsp;BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha by ] and foundation of the ] in ]. |first=David|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|year=2013|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-108-6|pages=29–30}} |quote=The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. Outside the palace, in the capital cities, the highest ranks in the imperial elite were held by military commanders whose active loyalty and success in war determined imperial fortunes. Wherever these men failed or rebelled, dynastic power crumbled. ... Imperial society flourished where elites mingled; they were its backbone, its strength was theirs. Kautilya's ''Arthasastra'' indicates that imperial power was concentrated in its original heartland, in old ''Magadha'', where key institutions seem to have survived for about seven hundred years, down to the age of the Guptas. Here, Mauryan officials ruled local society, but not elsewhere. In provincial towns and cities, officials formed a top layer of royalty; under them, old conquered royal families were not removed, but rather subordinated. In most ''janapadas'', the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left.</ref>{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|2004|pp=xii, 448}}<ref>{{cite book | first1=Romila | last1=Thapar | title=A History of India, Volume 1 | publisher=Penguin Books | author-link=Romila Thapar | year=1990 | page=384 | isbn=0-14-013835-8}}</ref> During ]'s rule (ca. 268–232 BCE) the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the ] excepting the deep south.<ref name="Dyson2018-lead-maurya"/> It declined for about 50&nbsp;years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185&nbsp;BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha by ] and foundation of the ] in Magadha.


Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of ], author of ],<ref>{{Cite book|title=India: A History|last=Keay|first=John|publisher=Grove Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8021-3797-5|pages=82}}</ref> and overthrew the ] in {{circa|322 BCE}}. Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the ]s left by ], and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India.{{sfn|R. K. Mookerji|1966|p=31}} The Mauryan Empire then defeated ], a ] and founder of the ], during the ], thus acquiring territory west of the ].<ref>] ceded the territories of ] (modern Kandahar), ] (modern ]), and ] (or ]). ] (modern ]) "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars ... on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo ... and a statement by Pliny" (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).</ref>{{sfn|John D Grainger|2014|p=109|ps=: Seleucus "must ... have held Aria", and furthermore, his "son ] was active there fifteen years later".}} Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of ], author of ],<ref>{{Cite book|title=India: A History|last=Keay|first=John|publisher=Grove Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8021-3797-5|pages=82}}</ref> and overthrew the ] in {{circa|322 BCE}}. Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the ]s left by ], and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India.{{sfn|R. K. Mookerji|1966|p=31}} The Mauryan Empire then defeated ], a ] and founder of the ], during the ], thus acquiring territory west of the Indus River.<ref>] ceded the territories of ] (modern Kandahar), ] (modern ]), and ] (or ]). ] (modern ]) "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars ... on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo ... and a statement by Pliny" (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).</ref>{{sfn|John D Grainger|2014|p=109|ps=: Seleucus "must ... have held Aria", and furthermore, his "son ] was active there fifteen years later".}}


Under the Mauryas, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built a precursor of the ] from Patliputra to Taxila.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/|title=Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road|last=Bhandari|first=Shirin|date=2016-01-05|publisher=Roads & Kingdoms|language=en-US|access-date=2016-07-19}}</ref> After the ], the Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka. Ashoka's embrace of ] and sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith into ], northwest India, and Central Asia.{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|2004|p=67}} Under the Mauryas, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built a precursor of the ] from Patliputra to Taxila.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/|title=Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road|last=Bhandari|first=Shirin|date=2016-01-05|publisher=Roads & Kingdoms|language=en-US|access-date=2016-07-19}}</ref> After the ], the Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka. Ashoka's embrace of ] and sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith into ], northwest India, and Central Asia.{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|2004|p=67}}
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</ref> </ref>


==Classical period – Middle Kingdoms== ==Classical history – Middle Kingdoms==


===Indo-Greek Kingdom=== ===Indo-Greek Kingdom===
{{Main|Indo-Greek Kingdom|Greco-Buddhist art|Indo-Greek art}}] {{Main|Indo-Greek Kingdom|Greco-Buddhist art|Indo-Greek art}}
]
]
] in the guise of the Hellenic god ].<ref>"The Buddha accompanied by Vajrapani, who has the characteristics of the Greek Heracles" Description of the same image on the cover page in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=8 June 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21747-5 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4 |language=en}} Also "Herakles found an independent life in India in the guise of Vajrapani, the bearded, club-wielding companion of the Buddha" in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=8 June 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21747-5 |pages=88–89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |language=en}}</ref>]] ] in the guise of the Hellenic god ]<ref>"The Buddha accompanied by Vajrapani, who has the characteristics of the Greek Heracles" Description of the same image on the cover page in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4 |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=8 June 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21747-5 |page=4 |language=en}} Also "Herakles found an independent life in India in the guise of Vajrapani, the bearded, club-wielding companion of the Buddha" in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=8 June 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21747-5 |pages=88–89 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The Indo-Greek ] (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of ] and beyond the ], becoming king shortly after his victory. His territories covered ] and ] in modern Afghanistan and extended to the ], with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as ]. The capital ] (modern ]) prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors.<ref name="strabo">{{cite book|author=Strabo|author-link=Strabo |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=H. L. |title=Geographica|publisher=William Heinemann|year=1924|location=London|pages=Ch. XI|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1|isbn=978-0-674-99055-5|access-date=22 November 2007}}</ref> The Indo-Greek ] (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of ] and beyond the ], becoming king shortly after his victory. His territories covered ] and ] in modern Afghanistan and extended to the ], with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as ]. The capital ] (modern ]) prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors.<ref name="strabo">{{cite book|author=Strabo|author-link=Strabo |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=H. L. |title=Geographica|publisher=William Heinemann|year=1924|location=London|pages=Ch. XI|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1|isbn=978-0-674-99055-5|access-date=22 November 2007}}</ref>


The classical ] ] praises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India".<ref name="davids">{{cite book|last=Davids|first=T. W. Rhys (trans.)|title=The Milinda-questions|publisher=Routledge|edition=2000|date= 1930|location=London|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe35/sbe3503.htm|isbn=978-0-415-24475-6|access-date=22 November 2007}}</ref> His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, ], disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king ], son of Eucratides, fled from the ] invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the ]. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was ], from the ] area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription ''"Su Theodamasa"'' (''"Su"'' was the Greek transliteration of the ] royal title ''"Shau"'' ("]" or "King")). Various petty kings ruled into the early 1st century CE, until the conquests by the ], ] and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty. The classical ] ] praises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India".<ref name="davids">{{cite book|last=Davids|first=T. W. Rhys (trans.)|title=The Milinda-questions|publisher=Routledge|edition=2000|date= 1930|location=London|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe35/sbe3503.htm|isbn=978-0-415-24475-6|access-date=22 November 2007}}</ref> His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, ], disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king ], son of Eucratides, fled from the ] invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the ]. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was ], from the ] area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription ''"Su Theodamasa"'' (''"Su"'' was the Greek transliteration of the ] royal title ''"Shau"'' ("]" or "King")). Various petty kings ruled into the early 1st century CE, until the conquests by the ], ] and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty.


It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and Asiatic mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara, straddling western Pakistan and southern Afghanistan. Detailed, humanistic representations of the Buddha begin to emerge, depicting the figure with a close resemblance to the Hellenic god Apollo; Greek mythological motifs such as centaurs, Bacchanalian scenes, Nereids and deities such as Tyche and Heracles are prominent in the Buddhistic art of ancient Pakistan and Afghanistan.<ref>{{Diff|en:Greco-Buddhist_art|diff=|oldid=878583324|label=en:Greco-Buddhist_art, oldid 878583324}}{{Circular reference|date=September 2021}}</ref> It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and Asiatic mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara, straddling western Pakistan and southern Afghanistan. Detailed, humanistic representations of the Buddha begin to emerge, depicting the figure with a close resemblance to the Hellenic god Apollo; Greek mythological motifs such as centaurs, Bacchanalian scenes, Nereids and deities such as Tyche and Heracles are prominent in the Buddhistic art of ancient Pakistan and Afghanistan.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}


===Indo-Scythian Kingdom=== ===Indo-Scythian Kingdom===
] of the type found in the Early Saka layer at ], ]]]
], representing the ] surrounded by ] (left) and ] (right) was found inside a ] with coins of ] inside. ].]]
] and ].]]
The ] were descended from the ] (Scythians) who migrated from southern Central Asia into ] and ] from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to ]. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor ] of the ].<ref>World history from early times to A D 2000 by B .V. Rao: p.97</ref><ref>A Brief History of India by Alain Daniélou p.136</ref> Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by ] of the ] from eastern India in the 4th century.<ref>Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 234</ref>
The ] were descended from the ] (Scythians) who migrated from southern Central Asia into ] and ] from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor ] of the ].<ref>World history from early times to A D 2000 by B .V. Rao: p.97</ref><ref>A Brief History of India by Alain Daniélou p.136</ref> Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by ] of the ] from eastern India in the 4th century.<ref>Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 234</ref>


=== Indo-Parthian Kingdom === === Indo-Parthian Kingdom ===
{{main|Apracharajas|Paratarajas}} {{main|Apracharajas|Paratarajas}}
] ] ] (a ]) constructed by the Indo-Parthians]]
] Buddhist reliquary with content, including ] coins. 1st century CE.]]
]
The ] was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler ]. They ruled parts of present-day ], ],<ref name="earrings">{{cite web|url=http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05vm/earrings/html/emanalysis.html|title=Parthian Pair of Earrings|publisher=Marymount School, New York|access-date=22 November 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024151850/http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05vm/earrings/html/emanalysis.html|archive-date=24 October 2007}}</ref> and northwestern ], during or slightly before the 1st century AD. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held ] (in the present ] province of ]) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between ] and ]. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the ] dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of ] tribes who lived east of ] proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title ''Gondophares'', which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. Christian writings claim<!-- Ref. WP Article on St. Thomas --> that the Apostle ] – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a long sojourn in the court of king ], had built a palace for the king at ] and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for ] in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach ].
The ] was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler ]. They ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan,<ref name="earrings">{{cite web|url=http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05vm/earrings/html/emanalysis.html|title=Parthian Pair of Earrings|publisher=Marymount School, New York|access-date=22 November 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024151850/http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05vm/earrings/html/emanalysis.html|archive-date=24 October 2007}}</ref> and northwestern ], during or slightly before the 1st century AD. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held ] (in the present ] province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between ] and ]. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the ] dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of ] tribes who lived east of ] proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title ''Gondophares'', which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. Christian writings claim<!-- Ref. WP Article on St. Thomas --> that the Apostle ] – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a long sojourn in the court of king ], had built a palace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for ] in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach ].


=== Kushan Empire === === Kushan Empire ===
{{Main|Kushan Empire|Kushan coinage|Kanishka}} {{Main|Kushan Empire|Kushan coinage|Kanishka}}
]'s ] once kept sacred ] relics in the ].]]
]
]. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain,<ref>{{cite book|author=Romila Thapar|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|year=2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA221|page=221}}</ref> to Varanasi on the confluence of the ] and the ],<ref>{{cite book|author=Burton Stein|title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA86|date= 2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Robb|title=A History of India|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|year=2011|isbn=978-0-230-34549-2|page=55}}</ref> or probably even ].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India|publisher=Taylor & Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYelDQAAQBAJ|year=2016|isbn=978-1-317-24212-3}}</ref><ref name="AADC">{{cite book |last1=Di Castro |first1=Angelo Andrea |last2=Hope |first2=Colin A. |chapter=The Barbarisation of Bactria |title=Cultural Interaction in Afghanistan c 300 BCE to 300 CE |date=2005 |publisher=Monash University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-1876924393 |pages=1-18, map visible online page 2 of }}</ref>]]
] triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, ], the ], ], and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara.]]
The ] expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, ], about the middle of the 1st century CE. They were descended from an Indo-European, Central Asian people called the ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/105520/Zhang-Qian |title=Zhang Qian |date=2015 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/654618/Yuezhi |title=Yuezhi |date=2015 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, ], the empire spread to encompass much of ]<ref>Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and the northern parts of the ] at least as far as ] and ] near ] (Benares).<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref> The ] expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, ], about the middle of the 1st century CE. They were descended from an Indo-European, Central Asian people called the ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/105520/Zhang-Qian |title=Zhang Qian |date=2015 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/654618/Yuezhi |title=Yuezhi |date=2015 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, ], the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan<ref>Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and the northern parts of the ] at least as far as ] and ] near ] (Benares).<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref>


Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of ]; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities<ref name="Samad2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|publisher=Algora Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-0-87586-859-2|pages=93–|author=Rafi U. Samad}}</ref> of their later coinage came to reflect its new ] majority.<ref name="Frumkin1970">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|publisher=Brill Archive|year=1970|pages=–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB|author=Grégoire Frumkin}}</ref> The monumental Kanishka stupa is believed to have been established by the king near the outskirts of modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of ]; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities<ref name="Samad2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|publisher=Algora Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-0-87586-859-2|pages=93–|author=Rafi U. Samad}}</ref> of their later coinage came to reflect its new ] majority.<ref name="Frumkin1970">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|publisher=Brill Archive|year=1970|pages=–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB|author=Grégoire Frumkin}}</ref> The monumental Kanishka stupa is believed to have been established by the king near the outskirts of modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan.
Line 161: Line 147:
{{Blockquote|The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.<ref>Ancient and Medieval History of India – H.G. Rowlinson</ref>}} {{Blockquote|The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.<ref>Ancient and Medieval History of India – H.G. Rowlinson</ref>}}


By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|title=The History of Pakistan: The Kushans|website=www.kushan.org|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><ref>Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</ref> By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|title=The History of Pakistan: The Kushans|website=www.kushan.org|access-date=30 April 2017|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707162312/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</ref>


=== Gupta Empire === ===Alchon Huns===
The Alchon Empire was the third of four major ] states established in Central and South Asia. The Alchon were preceded by the ] and succeeded by the ] in ] and the ] in the ]. The names of the Alchon kings are known from their extensive coinage, Buddhist accounts, and a number of commemorative inscriptions throughout the Indian subcontinent. ]'s son ], a ] Hindu, moved up to near ] to the east and ] to central India. ] narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned.<ref>Hiuen Tsiang, Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906, pp. 167–168.</ref> The Alchons have long been considered as a part or a sub-division of the ], or as their eastern branch, but now tend to be considered as a separate entity.<ref name="ROTS">{{cite book |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjRWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |title=ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity |date=2017 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474400305 |pages=105–124 |language=en}}</ref><ref>"Note 8: It is now clear that the Hephtalites were not part of those Huns who conquered the land south of the Hindu-Kush and Sind as well in the early 6th century. In fact, this latter Hunnic group was the one commonly known as Alkhon because of the inscriptions on their coins (Vondrovec, 2008)."</ref><ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |title=From the Kushans to the Western Turks |url=https://www.academia.edu/32671225 |journal=King of the Seven Climes |date=4 October 2023 |language=en |page=207}}</ref> The Huns were defeated by the alliance of Indian rulers, ] (Great King) ] of Malwa and Gupta Emperor ] in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.<ref>History of India by N. Jayapalan p.134</ref>
] at its maximum extent, under ], c. 414 AD, including tributaries]]
{{Main|Gupta Empire}}


== Medieval period ==
The Gupta Empire existed approximately from 320 to 600 CE, and controlled most of the Indus and Swat valleys till c. 465, in a empire that at its maximum extent, around 414 AD, covered much of northern South Asia, including modern Pakistan but excluding the southern peninsular region.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013809/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/Gupta_Dynasty.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Founded by ], the dynasty was the model of a ''classical civilization''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch28gup.htm |title=The Gupta Dynasty and Empire |publisher=Fsmitha.com |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204082030/http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |archive-date=4 December 2008 }}</ref>

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |title=Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref><ref>Mahajan, V.D. (1960) ''Ancient India'', New Delhi: S. Chand, {{ISBN|81-219-0887-6}}, p. 540</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century – Britannica}}</ref> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thorfire Enterprises |url=http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |title=The Gupta Empire of India &#124; Chandragupta I &#124; Samudragupta History |publisher=Historybits.com |date=11 September 2001 |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=11 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711171258/http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |title=Trade &#124; The Story of India – Photo Gallery |publisher=PBS |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref>


=== Arab Caliphate ===
The empire gradually declined due in part to loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, and from the invasion by the ]s from Central Asia, in the early 460s AD.<ref name="aa">Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). ''Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas'', Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0592-5}}, pp. 264–269</ref> After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, South Asia was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king ], who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

===Arab Caliphate and Arab countries===
] ]. {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under ], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]
{{Main|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate}} {{Main|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate}}
{{Further|Caliphate campaigns in India}} {{Further|Caliphate campaigns in India}}
] ]. {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under ], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]
Although soon after conquering the Middle East from the ] and the ], Arab forces had reached the present western regions of Pakistan, during the period of ], it was in 712 CE that a young Arab general called ] conquered most of the Indus region for the ] empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, {{convert|72|km|0|abbr=on}} north of modern ] in ]. But the instability of the empire and the defeat in various wars with north Indian and south Indian rulers including the ], where the ] rulers like the south Indian Emperor ] of the ] and Nagabhata of the ] Dynasty defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they were contained until only Sindh and southern ]. There was gradual conversion to ] in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of ], Hindus and Buddhists remained numerous.<ref>Sindh. (2007). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 15 March 2007, from: </ref> By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several ] kings who would be subdued by the ].
After conquering the ] from the ] and the ], the ] reached the coastal region of ] in present-day Balochistan. In 643, the second caliph ] ({{Reign|634|644}}) ordered an invasion of Makran against the ]. Following the ], Umar restricted the army to not pass beyond and consolidated his position in Makran.{{Sfn|Smith|1994|p=77–78}} During the reign of the fourth caliph ] ({{Reign|656|661}}), the Rashidun army conquered the town of ] in the heart of Balochistan.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hareir |first1=Idris El |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&dq=caliph+Uthman+baluchistan&pg=PA603 |title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |last2=Mbaye |first2=Ravane |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-104153-2 |language=en}}</ref>
During the reign of the sixth Umayyad caliph ] ({{Reign|705|715}}), the Arab military general ] commanded the Umayyad incursion into ]. In 712, he defeated the army of the Hindu ''maharaja'' ] ({{Reign|695|712}}) and established the caliphal province of ]. The historic town of ] was administered as the capital of the province. Afterward, Ibn al-Qasim proceeded to conquer ], which subsequently became a prominent centre of Islamic culture and trading. In 747, the anti-Umayyad rebel ] seized Sind and was defeated by ] of the succeeding ]. In the 9th-century, Abbasid authority gradually declined in Sind and Multan. The tenth Abbasid caliph ] ({{Reign|847|861}}) assigned the governorship of Sind to Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Habbari, who founded the hereditary ] and became the autonomous ruler of Sind in 854. Around the same time, the Banu Munnabih established the ] while Ma'danids reigned over ]. There was gradual conversion to ] in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hindus and Buddhists remained numerous.<ref>Sindh. (2007). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 15 March 2007, from: </ref> By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several ] kings.


=== Zutt Rebellion ===
A small region of Pakistan, ] was under the ]. In the 1950s, Pakistan bought back the region.
{{Main|Zutt Rebellion}}
{{Further|Zuṭṭ}}
]


The ] was an uprising by the Zutt tribe, who were originally from the ] region in modern-day ] <ref>{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Shahbaz |title=The Arains: A Historical Perspective |year=2016 |isbn=9781532781179 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |page=142 |url=https://www.google.gr/books/edition/The_Arains_A_Historical_Perspective/iHFHDAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=zutts+from+indus+valley&pg=PA142&printsec=frontcover |quote=Zutts who inhabited the mountains of Baluchistan and deserts of Sindh. These two groups had divided the region among themselves and frequently fought with each other. The legendary migration of the Sakas to southern Indus Valley.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Westphal-Hellbusch |first1=Sigrid |last2=Westphal |first2=Heinz |title=The Jat of Pakistan |publisher=Dunker & Humblot |year=1986 |page=67 |isbn=9783428067713 |url=https://www.google.gr/books/edition/The_Jat_of_Pakistan/XKQfAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |quote=...the Zutt from Pakistan to Iraq, it came from the Indian subcontinent...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Westphal-Hellbusch |first1=Sigrid |last2=Westphal |first2=Heinz |title=Zur Geschichte und Kultur der Jat |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1964 |page=12 |isbn=9789004067592 |url=https://www.google.gr/books/edition/Zur_Geschichte_und_Kultur_der_Jat/MTwaQU77xyoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=zutts+from+indus+valley&pg=PA12&printsec=frontcover |quote=Arabic Geographers and Historians speak of the Zutt living in the Lower Indus Valley, "between Makran and Mansura" and sharing Sindh with the Meds.}}</ref>. The tribe, part of the ] group, had migrated to the region of ] (modern-day ]) centuries before the rebellion. Over time, the Zutt became mercenaries for the Ummayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, settling in southern Iraq and forming the Banu Zutt or Az-Zutt tribe.
===Kabul Shahi===
{{Main|Turk Shahis|Hindu Shahi}}
], built by the ] between the 7th and 9th centuries CE.]]
The so-called Shahi dynasties ruled the ] and ] (modern-day Pakistan and ]) from the decline of the ] in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<ref name="EB">Shahi Family. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 16 October 2006 .</ref> The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the ] ] and the ]s, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 to 670, when the capitals were located in ] and Kabul, and later ], also known as Hund<ref>Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: ''The Forgotten City of Gandhara'', p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</ref> for its new capital.<ref>The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, pp 1, 45–46, 48, 80, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1954, pp 112 ff; The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, p 46, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians.</ref><ref>India, A History, 2001, p 203, John Keay.</ref>


The rebellion began around 810, when Yusuf ibn Zutt, a leader of the tribe, challenged the ] and established semi-independent control over the marshlands of southern Iraq, including important areas like ] and ]. The rebellion disrupted resource supplies to ], putting the ] in jeopardy. For years, the Zutt were successful in their raids, causing heavy damage to Abbasid forces and leaders. Their actions contributed heavily to the weakening of the Abbasid Empire, with their guerrilla tactics and raids advancing deep into Abbasid territory, further destabilizing the region.<ref>{{cite book |author=Houtsma, M. Th. |year=1993 |title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 4 |publisher=Brill |pages=901, 1030 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/E_J_Brill_s_First_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam.html?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&redir_esc=y}}</ref>
The Hindu Shahis under ], is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the ] in the modern-day eastern ] and ] region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of ] both in the reign of ] and in that of his son ], which initiated the ] Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.<ref name="Lewis">{{Citation | title=The Cambridge history of Islam | editor=P. M. Holt |editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton |editor3=] | year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ccI0u5XDR0C | page=3 | quote=... Jaypala of Waihind saw danger in the consolidation of the kingdom of Ghazna and decided to destroy it. He therefore invaded Ghazna, but was defeated ...}}</ref> Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.<ref name="Lewis"/> Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.<ref name="Lewis"/> Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region between the ] and ].<ref name="Ferishta">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ferishtashistory01firi|title=Ferishta's History of Dekkan from the first Mahummedan conquests(etc)|work=Internet Archive|publisher=Shrewsbury : Printed for the editor by J. and W. Eddowes|year=1794}}</ref>


The rebellion continued to cause turmoil until 835, when the Abbasid Caliphate, under Caliph al-Mu'tasim, managed to suppress the uprising. However, this was no easy feat, as the Zutt's continued resistance disrupted the central authority for years.<ref>{{cite book |author=Al-Tabari |title=History of the Prophets and Kings |url=https://archive.org/details/history-of-al-tabarri}}</ref>
Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to the ], his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers. According to ]: {{blockquote|"The two armies having met on the confines of ], ] ascended a hill to view the forces of Jeipal, which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued to each his commands. His soldiers, though few in number, were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each, which were directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo line, so that it might continually have to encounter fresh troops."<ref name="Ferishta"/>}}


The rebellion was led by ] after Yusuf ibn Zutt, and the Zutt continued to control parts of southern Iraq, employing guerrilla tactics in the marshes. However, the Abbasids eventually managed to quash the resistance by deploying specialized forces that neutralized the Zutt's ability to conduct raids, leading to the collapse of their semi-independent state.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kabir, Mafizullah |title=Outlines of Islamic History From the Rise of Islam to the Fall of Baghdād |pages=14, 218 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Outlines_of_Islamic_History.html?id=JelRAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Al-Tabari |title=History of the Prophets and Kings |url=https://archive.org/details/history-of-al-tabarri}}</ref>
However, the army was defeated in battle against the western forces, particularly against the Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name="Ferishta"/> In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the ]s north of the ], Jaipal ] once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day ]. After the ], he died because of regretting as his subjects brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.<ref name="Lewis"/><ref name="Ferishta"/>


Following the defeat of the Zutt, the Abbasid Caliphate dispersed the tribe to prevent future uprisings, and their influence in the region diminished. Despite their loss, ] retained his position as a leader but with reduced power.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zuṭṭ {{!}} people|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zutt|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Bhagata |last=Singha|title=Canadian Sikhs Through a Century, 1897–1997|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovx5AAAAMAAJ&q=Canadian+Sikhs+Through+a+Century,+1897-1997| page=418|publisher=Gyan Sagar Publications|isbn=9788176850759}} Quote: "Most of the Muslim Jats are in Pakistan and some of them are in India as well."</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kennedy, H. |year=2004 |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Prophet_and_the_Age_of_the_Caliphate}}</ref>
Jayapala was succeeded by his son ],<ref name="Lewis"/> who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dynasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the ] ] Hills.<ref name="Ferishta"/>

===Odi Shahis===
{{Main|Turk Shahis|Hindu Shahi}}
], built by the ] between the 7th and 9th centuries CE]]
The ] ruled Gandhara from the decline of the ] in the 3rd century until 870, when they were overthrown by the ]. The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of ] in Gandhara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rahman |first=Abdul |date=2002 |title=New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XV |pages=37–42 |quote=The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=2005 |title=The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v16_41to48.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XVI |pages=41–48 |quote=Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".}}</ref>

The first king Kallar had moved the capital into Udabandhapura from Kabul, in the modern village of ] for its new capital.<ref>The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, pp 1, 45–46, 48, 80, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1954, pp 112 ff; The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, p 46, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians.</ref><ref>India, A History, 2001, p 203, John Keay.</ref><ref>Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: ''The Forgotten City of Gandhara'', p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</ref> At its zenith, the kingdom stretched over the ], ] and western ] under ].<ref name="Wynbrandt2009">{{Harv|Wynbrandt|2009|pp=52–54}}</ref> Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of ] both in the reign of ] and in that of his son ], which initiated the ] Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.<ref name="Lewis2">{{Citation |title=The Cambridge history of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ccI0u5XDR0C |page=3 |year=1977 |editor=P. M. Holt |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |quote=... Jaypala of Waihind saw danger in the consolidation of the kingdom of Ghazna and decided to destroy it. He therefore invaded Ghazna, but was defeated ... |editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton |editor3=]}}</ref> Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.<ref name="Lewis2" /> Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.<ref name="Lewis2" /> Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region between the ] and ].<ref name="Ferishta">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ferishtashistory01firi |title=Ferishta's History of Dekkan from the first Mahummedan conquests(etc) |via=Internet Archive |publisher=Shrewsbury : Printed for the editor by J. and W. Eddowes |year=1794}}</ref>

However, the army was defeated in battle against the western forces, particularly against the Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name="Ferishta" /> In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the ]s north of the ], Jaipal ] once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day ]. After the ], he died because of regretting as his subjects brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.<ref name="Lewis2" /><ref name="Ferishta" />

Jayapala was succeeded by his son ],<ref name="Lewis2" /> who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dynasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the ] ] Hills.<ref name="Ferishta" />


== Medieval period ==
=== Ghaznavid dynasty === === Ghaznavid dynasty ===
{{Main|Ghaznavids}} {{Main|Ghaznavids}}
] ]
In 997 CE, the Turkic ruler ], took over the ] empire established by his father, Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler. Starting from the city of ] (now in ]), Mehmood conquered the bulk of ], marched on ] against the Hindu Shahis in ] in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of ] (1007), deposed the ] ] rulers of ], (1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). By the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmud's empire briefly extended from ] in the west to the ] river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary historians such as ] and ] described extensive building work in ], as well as Mahmud's support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts. In 997 CE, the Turkic ruler ], took over the ] empire established by his father, Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler. Starting from the city of ] (now in ]), Mehmood conquered the bulk of ], marched on ] against the Hindu Shahis in ] in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of ] (1007), deposed the ] ] rulers of ], (1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). By the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmud's empire briefly extended from ] in the west to the ] river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary historians such as ] and ] described extensive building work in ], as well as Mahmud's support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts.


Mahmud's successors, known as the ], ruled for 157 years. Their kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was racked by bitter succession struggles. The Hindu ] kingdoms of western India reconquered the ], and by the 1160s, the line of demarcation between the Ghaznavid state and the Hindu kingdoms approximated to the present-day boundary between India and Pakistan. The ] of central Afghanistan occupied ] around 1160, and the Ghaznavid capital was shifted to ]. Later Muhammad Ghori conquered the Ghaznavid kingdom, occupying Lahore in 1187.<ref>]</ref> Mahmud's successors, known as the ], ruled for 157 years. Their kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was racked by bitter succession struggles. The Hindu ] kingdoms of western India reconquered the ], and by the 1160s, the line of demarcation between the Ghaznavid state and the ]doms approximated to the present-day boundary between India and Pakistan. The ] of central Afghanistan occupied ] around 1160, and the Ghaznavid capital was shifted to ]. Later Muhammad Ghori conquered the Ghaznavid kingdom, occupying Lahore in 1187.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

=== Ghurid dynasty ===
{{Main|Ghurid dynasty}}
].<ref name="JS">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical Atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=Oxford University Press, Digital South Asia Library|author-link=Joseph E. Schwartzberg |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185|page=147, Map "g"}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2019|p=38}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C.E. |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |date=1 January 1998 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |pages=432–433 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA432 |language=en}}</ref> In the west, Ghurid territory extended to ] and ],{{sfn|Thomas|2018|loc=p. 26, Figure I:2}}<ref name="KS">{{cite book |last1=Schmidt |first1=Karl J. |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |date=20 May 2015 |publisher=Routledge |page=37, Map 16.2|isbn=978-1-317-47681-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |language=en}}</ref> while Ghurid troops reached as far as ] on the shores of the ].<ref name="a">{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |date=1 January 1998 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA185 |language=en|quote="In 1201 Ghurid troops entered Khurasan and captured Nishapur, Merv, Sarakhs and Tus, reaching as far as Gurgan and Bistam. Kuhistan, a stronghold of the Ismailis, was plundered and all Khurasan was brought temporarily under Ghurid control"}}</ref>{{sfn|Bosworth|2001b}} Eastward, the Ghurids invaded as far as ].<ref name="THC">{{cite book |title=Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections |date=17 August 2020 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-43736-4 |page=237 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ml75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |language=en|quote="In 1205, Bakhtīyar Khilji sacked Nudiya, the pre-eminent city of western Bengal and established an Islamic government at Laukhnauti, the capital of the predecessor Sena dynasty. On this occasion, commemorative coins were struck in gold and silver in the name of Muhammad b. Sām"}}</ref>]]
The Ghaznavids under either ] or his son ] lost their control over ] to the ] along with some other territories. In the 1170s, ] prince ] raided their territory and captured Ghazni from them and was crowned there by his brother ] in 1173. Muhammad of Ghor marched from ] into Pakistan and captured Multan and Uch before being rebuffed by Gujarat's ] ] (Solanki) rulers, which forced him to press upon the trumbling Ghaznavids. By 1186–87, he ], bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. The Ghurids were overthrown in 1215, although their conquests in the Indian Subcontinent survived for several centuries under the ] established by the Ghurid Mamluk ].


=== Delhi Sultanate === === Delhi Sultanate ===
{{Main|Muhammad Ghori|Delhi Sultanate|Timurid Empire}} {{Main|Delhi Sultanate}}
], 1330–1335.<ref name="A Historical atlas of South Asia">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (j)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref><ref name="malik" />]]
]
] built by ] in 1324 CE.]] ], built by ] in 1324 CE]]
In 1160, ], a Muslim ruler, conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in 1173. He for the first time named ] '''Tambade Gatar''' roughly translated as the red passage. He marched eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gujarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat's ] ] (Solanki) rulers. In 1186–87, he conquered Lahore, bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori's successors established the ]. The Turkic origin ], (''mamluk means "owned" and referred to the Turkic youths bought and trained as soldiers who became rulers throughout the Islamic world''), seized the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several Central Asian Turkic and a Lodhi Pashtun dynasty ruled their empires from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–90), the ] (1290–1320), the ] (1320–1413), the ] (1414–1451) and the ] (1451–1526).<ref name=Gat>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HK8TulTJpGAC&pg=PA126|first=Azar|last=Gat| author-link=Azar Gat|title=Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism|publisher= Cambridge University Press| year=2013|isbn=9781107007857|page=126}}</ref> Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi – in ], ] (central India), ] and ] – almost all of the Indus plain came under the rule of these large sultanates. The Turkic origin ], seized the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several dynasties ruled their empires from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–90), the ] (1290–1320), the ] (1320–1413), the ] (1414–1451) and the ] (1451–1526).<ref name="Gat">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HK8TulTJpGAC&pg=PA126|first=Azar|last=Gat| author-link=Azar Gat|title=Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism|publisher= Cambridge University Press| year=2013|isbn=9781107007857|page=126}}</ref> Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi, almost all of the Indus plain came under the rule of these large sultanates.


The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations with rulers in the ] but owed them no allegiance. While the sultans ruled from urban centres, their military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting "Indo-Islamic" fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and religious customs. In addition, the language of ] (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects, but more likely "city" in the South Asian context) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of the mingling of speakers of native ]s, ], ] and ] languages. The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations with rulers in the ] but owed them no allegiance. While the sultans ruled from urban centres, their military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting "Indo-Islamic" fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and religious customs. In addition, the language of ] (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects, but more likely "city" in the South Asian context) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of the mingling of speakers of native ]s, ], ] and ] languages.
Line 212: Line 209:
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the ] in the 13th century; nonetheless the sultans eventually lost western Pakistan to the ] (see the ] dynasty). The Sultanate declined after the invasion of Emperor ], who founded the ], and was eventually conquered in 1526 by the ] Emperor ]. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the ] in the 13th century; nonetheless the sultans eventually lost western Pakistan to the ] (see the ] dynasty). The Sultanate declined after the invasion of Emperor ], who founded the ], and was eventually conquered in 1526 by the ] Emperor ].


The ] and later ] attracted ]s, nobles, technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, artisans, teachers, poets, artists, theologians and ]s from the rest of the ] and they migrated and settled in the South Asia. During the reign of ] (1266–1286) thousands of Central Asian Muslims sought asylum including more than 15 sovereigns and their nobles due to the ]. At the court of ] in Delhi the first wave of these Muslim refugees escaping from the Central Asian ] by the ] armies of ], brought administrators from ], painters from China, theologians from ], ] and ], divines and saints from the rest of Muslim world, craftsmen and men and maidens from every region, notably doctors adept in Greek medicine and philosophers from everywhere. The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire attracted ]s, nobles, technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, artisans, teachers, poets, artists, theologians and ]s from the rest of the ] and they migrated and settled in the South Asia. During the reign of ] (1266–1286) thousands of Central Asian Muslims sought asylum including more than 15 sovereigns and their nobles due to the ]. At the court of ] in Delhi the first wave of these Muslim refugees escaping from the Central Asian ] by the ] armies of ], brought administrators from ], painters from China, theologians from ], ] and ], divines and saints from the rest of Muslim world, craftsmen and men and maidens from every region, notably doctors adept in Greek medicine and philosophers from everywhere.


=== Mongol invasions === ===Kingdom of Sindh===
==== Soomra dynasty ====
{{main|Chagatai Khanate|Ilkhanate}}
{{Main|Soomra dynasty}}
The ] was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between the early 11th century and the 14th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Siddiqui |first=Habibullah |title=The Soomras of Sindh: their origin, main characteristics and rule – an overview (general survey) (1025 – 1351 AD) |url=http://www.uok.edu.pk/faculties/sindhi/docs/soomroEng.pdf |journal=Literary Conference on Soomra Period in Sindh}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=2007 |title=The Arab Conquest |journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=1 |page=91 |quote=The Soomras are believed to be Parmar Rajputs found even today in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kutch and Sindh. The Cambridge History of India refers to the Soomras as "a Rajput dynasty the later members of which accepted Islam" (p. 54 ).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_xtAAAAMAAJ&q=soomra+dynasty |title=History of Pakistan: Pakistan through ages |date=2007 |publisher=Sang-e Meel Publications |isbn=978-969-35-2020-0 |pages=218 |language=en |quote=But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.}}</ref>


Later chroniclers like ] (c. late 12th c.) and ] (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid.<ref name="Collinet-2008">{{Cite book |last=Collinet |first=Annabelle |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=9, 11, 113 (note 43) |language=en |chapter=Chronology of Sehwan Sharif through Ceramics (The Islamic Period)}}</ref> The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.<ref name="Collinet-2008"/><ref name="Boivin-2008">{{Cite book |last=Boivin |first=Michel |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=30 |language=en |chapter=Shivaite Cults And Sufi Centres: A Reappraisal Of The Medieval Legacy In Sindh}}</ref>
The ] was a ] and later ] ] that comprised the lands ruled by ] second son of ], and his descendants and successors. Initially it was a part of the ], but it became a functionally separate khanate with the ] after 1259.


The ] and ] continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus.<ref name="Collinet-2008"/> The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centred in lower Sindh.<ref name="Collinet-2008"/>
The ] was established as a khanate that formed the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire, ruled by the Mongol House of Hulagu Ilk Khanate, that reached from Afghanistan and western Pakistan to Turkey.<ref>The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements, p. 356, Gottlieb Guntern, University Press of America</ref>


Some of them were adherents of ].<ref name="Boivin-2008"/> One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to ], the ], and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.<ref name="Ray201932">{{cite book |author=Aniruddha Ray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNSNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |title=The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-00-000729-9 |pages=43–}}</ref>
=== Regional Kingdoms ===


====Samma dynasty==== ==== Samma dynasty ====
{{Main|Samma dynasty}} {{Main|Samma dynasty}}
{{multiple image {{multiple image
| align = | align =
| direction = | direction =
| width = | width =
| header = ] | header = ]
| total_width = 300 | total_width = 300
| perrow = 2 | perrow = 2
| image1 = Artwork on Jam nizamuddin tomb.jpg | image1 = Artwork on Jam nizamuddin tomb.jpg
| image2 = Makli 12 cropped - Diwan Shurfa Khan's tomb.jpg | image2 = Makli 12 cropped - Diwan Shurfa Khan's tomb.jpg
| image3 = Jam Mubarak Khan .jpg
| footer = The ] at ] is one of the largest funerary sites in the world.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/143 | title=Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta}}</ref>
| image4 = Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta-108247.jpg
| footer_align = center
| footer = The ] at ] is one of the largest funerary sites in the world.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/143 | title=Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta}}</ref>
| footer_align = center
}} }}
The Rajput ] replaced the Rajput Soomra dynasty. They gained control of ] from the Soomra around 1335 A.D. The dynasty is believed to have originated in ], and later migrated to ].{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} During the Sammas saw the rise of Thatta as an important commercial and cultural center. At the time the ] of the trading centre of ] in 1514 CE,{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} trade from the Sindh accounted for nearly 10% of their customs revenue, and they described Thatta as one of the richest cities in the world. Thatta's prosperity was based partly on its own high-quality cotton and silk textile industry, partly on export of goods from further inland in the Punjab and northern India.<ref>[The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750–1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama by Claude Markovits, 2000 {{ISBN|978-0-521-62285-1}}</ref>


The ] was a Sindhi dynasty that ruled in ], and parts of ], ] and ] from {{circa}} 1351 to {{circa|lk=no}} 1524&nbsp;CE, with their capital at ].<ref name="(Pakistan)Latif1976">{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=Edward James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBNZAAAAYAAJ&q=Samma+ |title=The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig |last2=Haig |first2=Sir Wolseley |last3=Burn |first3=Sir Richard |last4=Dodwell |first4=Henry |date=1965 |publisher=Chand |pages=518 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="guj">{{cite book |author1=U. M. Chokshi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qHiAAAAMAAJ |title=Gujarat State Gazetteer |author2=M. R. Trivedi |publisher=Director, Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State |year=1989 |page=274 |quote=It was the conquest of Kutch by the Sindhi tribe of Sama Rajputs that marked the emergence of Kutch as a separate kingdom in the 14th century.}}</ref>
The Samma period contributed significantly to the evolution of the ] style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1 |title=Archnet |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606120407/https://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1 |archive-date=6 June 2012 }}</ref>


The ] overthrew the Soomra dynasty soon after 1335 and the last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of ], under the protection of ], the ]. Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, ] attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from ] he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent.<ref name="panhwar.com2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.panhwar.net/|title=Home|website=www.panhwar.net}}</ref> Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by ].<ref name="panhwar.com2"/>
== Mughal Empire ==

The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the ] style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606120407/https://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1|title=Archnet.org: Thattah|access-date=8 December 2015|archive-date=6 June 2012}}</ref> It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the ] of its royals in Thatta.<ref name="(Pakistan)Latif1976"/><ref>Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Jacobabad</ref>

==Early Modern Period==
=== Mughal Empire ===
{{Main|Mughal Empire}} {{Main|Mughal Empire}}
{{Further|Mughal Architecture|Mughal clothing|Mughlai cuisine}} {{Further|Mughal Architecture|Mughal clothing|Mughlai cuisine}}
] ({{reign|1658|1707}})]]
]
{{multiple image {{multiple image
| align = | align =
| direction = | direction =
| width = | width =
| header = ] in Pakistan | header = ] in Pakistan
| total_width = 400 | total_width = 400
| perrow = 2 | perrow = 2
| image1 = Beautiful pavilion of Faiz Baksh terrace.jpg | image1 = Beautiful pavilion of Faiz Baksh terrace.jpg
| caption1 = ] at ].<ref name="LahoreFort">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171/|title=Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=13 December 2018}}</ref> | caption1 = ] at ]<ref name="LahoreFort">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171/|title=Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=13 December 2018}}</ref>
| image2 = Lahore Fort view from Baradari.jpg | image2 = Lahore Fort view from Baradari.jpg
| caption2 = The ] of the ] was built during the reign of ].<ref name="LahoreFort"/> | caption2 = The ] of the ] was built during the reign of ].<ref name="LahoreFort"/>
| image3 = Dewan-e-Khas (Hall of Special Audience).JPG | image3 = Dewan-e-Khas (Hall of Special Audience).JPG
| caption3 = ] at ] was built during the reign of ]. | caption3 = ] at ] was built during the reign of ].
| image4 = Badshahi Mosque, Lahore I.jpg | image4 = Badshahi Mosque, Lahore I.jpg
| caption4 = The ] built by Aurangzeb is one of the ]. | caption4 = The ], built by Aurangzeb, is one of the ].
| image5 = Wazir khan iwan.jpg | image5 = Wazir khan iwan.jpg
| caption5 = ] at ], richly decorated with Mughal frescoes. | caption5 = ] at ], richly decorated with Mughal frescoes
| image6 = Main Entrance of Akbari Sarai.jpg | image6 = Main Entrance of Akbari Sarai.jpg
| caption6 = The ] features a monumental gateway that leads to the ]. | caption6 = The ] features a monumental gateway that leads to the ].
}} }}


In 1526, ], a ] descendant of ] and ] from ] (modern-day ]), swept across the ] and founded the ], covering parts of modern-day eastern- Afghanistan, much of what is now Pakistan, parts of India and Bangladesh.<ref> In 1526, ], a ] descendant of ] and ] from ] (modern-day ]), swept across the ] and founded the Mughal Empire, covering parts of modern-day eastern- Afghanistan, much of what is now Pakistan, parts of India and Bangladesh.<ref>
{{Cite web |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927121217/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status=dead }} {{Cite web |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927121217/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}
</ref> The Mughals were descended from Central Asian ] (with significant ] admixture). </ref> The Mughals were descended from Central Asian ] (with significant ] admixture).


However, his son and successor ] was defeated by ] who was from Bihar state of India, in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to ]. After Sher Shah died, his son ] became the ruler, on whose death his prime minister, ] ascended the throne and ruled North India from Delhi for one month. He was defeated by Emperor ]'s forces in the ] on 6 November 1556. However, his son and successor ] was defeated by ] who was from Bihar state of India, in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to ]. After Sher Shah died, his son ] became the ruler, on whose death his prime minister, ] ascended the throne and ruled North India from Delhi for one month. He was defeated by Emperor ]'s forces in the ] on 6 November 1556.


], was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favoured an early form of ]. For example, he declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism and rolled back the '']'' tax imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the South Asia by 1600. The Mughal emperors married local royalty and allied themselves with local '']''. Akbar was succeeded by ] who was succeeded by ]. Shah Jahan was replaced by Aurangzeb following the Mughal war of succession (1658–1659). Akbar, was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favoured an early form of ]. For example, he declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism and rolled back the '']'' tax imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the South Asia by 1600. The Mughal emperors married local royalty and allied themselves with local '']''. Akbar was succeeded by ] who was succeeded by ]. Shah Jahan was replaced by Aurangzeb following the Mughal war of succession (1658–1659).


After the death of ], different regions of modern Pakistan began asserting independence. The empire went into a slow decline after 1707 and its last sovereign, ruling around Delhi region. After the death of ] in 1707, different regions of modern Pakistan and India began asserting independence. The empire went into a rapid decline and by about 1720 only really controlled a small region around Delhi. The emperors continued have lip service paid to them as "Emperor of India" by the other powers in South Asia until the British finally abolished the empire in 1858.


For a short time in the late 16th century, ] was the capital of the empire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals includes the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ].<ref name="LahoreFort"/> The Mughal Empire had a great impact on the culture, cuisine, and architecture of Pakistan. For a short time in the late 16th century, ] was the capital of the empire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals includes the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ].<ref name="LahoreFort"/> The Mughal Empire had a great impact on the culture, cuisine, and architecture of Pakistan.


==Post-Mughal period== ===Maratha Empire===
===Durrani and Maratha Empire=== {{Main|Maratha Confederacy|}}

{{Main|Durrani Empire}}
In 1749, the Mughal ruler was induced to cede ], the ] and the important trans ] to ], also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, in order to save his capital from Afghan attack.<ref>Meredith L. Runion pp 69 Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 {{ISBN|0313337985}}</ref> Ahmad Shah next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the ] mountains. In short order, the Ahmad Shah's powerful army brought under its control the ], ], ], ], and other tribes of northern Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah invaded the remnants of the Mughal Empire a third time, and then a fourth, consolidating control over the Kashmir and Punjab regions, with ] being governed by Afghans. He sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son ] to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan. By early 18th century, the Mughal empire declined. In 1749, the Mughals were induced to cede ], the ] and the important trans ] to ] in order to save his capital from Afghan attack.<ref>Meredith L. Runion pp 69 Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 {{ISBN|0313337985}}</ref> Ahmad Shah sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son ] to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan.


In 1751–52, ''Ahamdiya'' treaty was signed between the ] and ], when ] was the ].<ref name="Panipat">Patil, Vishwas. ''Panipat''.</ref> Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled whole of India from their capital at ] and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent ]. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule.<ref name=K.RoyIHB>{{cite book | last=Roy |first=Kaushik |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |publisher=Permanent Black, India |pages=80–1 |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8|year=2004 }}</ref> Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the Maratha Confederacy. In 1751–52, ''Ahamdiya'' treaty was signed between the ] and ], when ] was the ].<ref name="Panipat">Patil, Vishwas. ''Panipat''.</ref> Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled whole of India from their capital at ] and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent ]. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule.<ref name=K.RoyIHB>{{cite book | last=Roy |first=Kaushik |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |publisher=Permanent Black, India |pages=80–1 |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8|year=2004 }}</ref> Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the Maratha Confederacy.
] fort in ] was one of the royal residences of the Durrani kings.]] ] fort in ] was one of the royal residences of the Durrani kings.]]
In 1758, the ]'s general ] attacked and conquered ], frontier regions and ] and drove out ], the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali. In 1759, the Marathas and its allies won the Battle of Lahore, defeating the Durranis,<ref>Jacques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Greenwood Press. p. 562. {{ISBN|978-0-313-33536-5}}.</ref><ref>"Marathas and the English Company 1707–1818 by Sanderson Beck". san.beck.org. Retrieved 10 April 2015.</ref> hence, ], ], ], ], Kashmir, and other subahs on the south eastern side of Afghanistan's border fell under the Maratha rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jaswant Lal Mehta|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA224|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|page=224}}</ref>


Ahmad Shah declared a ] (or Islamic holy war) against the ], and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army. Early skirmishes were followed by decisive victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of ]. Once again, ] was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. Although the Durrani's army decisively defeated the Marathas, they suffered heavily in the battle.
In 1758, the ]'s general ] attacked and conquered ], frontier regions and ] and drove out ], the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali. In 1759, the Marathas and its allies won the ], defeating the Durranis,<ref>Jacques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Greenwood Press. p. 562. {{ISBN|978-0-313-33536-5}}.</ref><ref>"Marathas and the English Company 1707–1818 by Sanderson Beck". san.beck.org. Retrieved 10 April 2015.</ref> hence, ], ], ], ], Kashmir, and other subahs on the south eastern side of Afghanistan's border fell under the Maratha rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jaswant Lal Mehta|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA224|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|page=224}}</ref>


The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's—and Afghan—power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to face challenges in the form of a rising Sikhs in Punjab. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the ]. From this time and on, the domination and control of the Empire began to loosen, and by the time of Durrani's death he had completely lost Punjab to the Sikhs, as well as earlier losses of northern territories to the Uzbeks, necessitating a compromise with them.<ref>Meredith L. Runion pp 71 Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 {{ISBN|0313337985}}</ref>
{{Main|Third Battle of Panipat}}
Ahmad Shah declared a ] (or Islamic holy war) against the ], and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army. Early skirmishes were followed by decisive victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. Ahmad Shah Durrani was famous for winning wars much larger than his army. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of ]. Once again, ] was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. Although the Durrani's army decisively defeated the Marathas, they suffered heavily in the battle.

The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's—and Afghan—power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to face challenges in the form of a rising Sikhs in Punjab. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the ]. From this time and on, the domination and control of the Empire began to loosen, and by the time of Durrani's death he had completely lost Punjab to the Sikhs, as well as earlier losses of northern territories to the Uzbeks, necessitating a compromise with them.<ref>Meredith L. Runion pp 71 Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 {{ISBN|0313337985}}</ref>


=== Sikh Empire === === Sikh Empire ===
{{Main|Sikh Empire|History of Sikhism}} {{Main|Sikh Empire|History of Sikhism}}
], with the minaret of ] in the background.]] ], with the minaret of ] in the background]]


] (29 November 1469 – 22 September 1539), ]'s founder, was born into a ] ] family in the village of ''Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī (''present day ], near ] in modern-day Pakistan). He was an influential religious and social reformer in ] and the saintly founder of a modern ] order and first of the ten divine ] of ]. At the age of 70, he died at ], ] of modern-day Pakistan. ] (29 November 1469 – 22 September 1539), ]'s founder, was born into a ] ] family in the village of ''Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī (''present day ], near ] in modern-day Pakistan). He was an influential religious and social reformer in ] and the saintly founder of a modern ] order and first of the ten divine ] of ]. At the age of 70, he died at ], ] of modern-day Pakistan.


The ] (1799–1849) was formed on the foundations of the ] by ] who was proclaimed "''Sarkar-i-Khalsa''", and was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".<ref name="heath">{{cite book|last=Heath|first=Ian|author2=Michael Perry|title=The Sikh army 1799–1849|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2005|location=Oxford|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIh9eQlojGsC&pg=PP1|isbn=978-1-84176-777-2}}</ref> It consisted of a collection of autonomous ] ], which were governed by Misldars,<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 1911, p. 892">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Ranjit Singh |volume=22 |page=892}}</ref> mainly in the ]. The empire extended from the ] in the west, to ] in the north, to ] in the south and ] in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region. The formation of the empire was a watershed and represented formidable consolidation of Sikh military power and resurgence of local culture, which had been dominated for hundreds of years by Indo-Afghan and Indo-Mughal hybrid cultures. The ] (1799–1849) was formed on the foundations of the ] by ] who was proclaimed "''Sarkar-i-Khalsa''", and was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".<ref name="heath">{{cite book|last=Heath|first=Ian|author2=Michael Perry|title=The Sikh army 1799–1849|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2005|location=Oxford|page=3|isbn=978-1-84176-777-2}}</ref> It consisted of a collection of autonomous ] ], which were governed by Misldars,<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 1911, p. 892">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Ranjit Singh |volume=22 |page=892}}</ref> mainly in the ]. The empire extended from the ] in the west, to ] in the north, to ] in the south and ] in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region. The formation of the empire was a watershed and represented formidable consolidation of Sikh military power and resurgence of local culture, which had been dominated for hundreds of years by Indo-Afghan and Indo-Mughal hybrid cultures.


The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the Sikh Khalsa Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of ]. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the Sikh army to lead expeditions against the ] and ]. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different Sikh armies and then semi-independent "misls". Each of these component armies were known as a ], each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, ] rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the ] by the time of coronation of ] in 1801, creating a unified political state. All the misl leaders who were affiliated with the Army were from Punjab's nobility.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 1911, p. 892"/> The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the Sikh Khalsa Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of ]. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the Sikh army to lead expeditions against the ] and ]. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different Sikh armies and then semi-independent "misls". Each of these component armies were known as a ], each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, ] rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the ] by the time of coronation of ] in 1801, creating a unified political state. All the misl leaders who were affiliated with the Army were from Punjab's nobility.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 1911, p. 892"/>


==British rule== ==Colonial period==
{{Main|British raj|Indian independence movement|Partition of India|British heritage of Pakistan}} {{Main|British raj|Indian independence movement|Partition of India|British heritage of Pakistan}}
{{multiple image {{multiple image
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}} }}


None of the territory of modern Pakistan was ruled by the British, or other European powers, until 1839, when ], then a small fishing village with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was ], and held as an enclave with a port and ] for the ] that soon followed. The rest of ] was taken in 1843, and in the following decades, first the ], and then after the post-] (1857–1858) direct rule of ] of the ], took over most of the country partly through wars, and also treaties. The main wars were that against the ] ], ended by the ] (1843) in Sindh, the ] (1845–1849) and the ]s (1839–1919). By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the ], and remained so until independence in 1947. None of the territory of modern Pakistan was ruled by the British, or other European powers, until 1839, when ], then a small fishing village with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was ], and held as an enclave with a port and ] for the ] that soon followed. The rest of ] was taken in 1843, and in the following decades, first the ], and then after the post-] (1857–1858) direct rule of ] of the ], took over most of the country partly through wars, and also treaties. The main wars were that against the ] ], ended by the ] (1843) in Sindh, the ] (1845–1849) and the ]s (1839–1919). By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the ], and remained so until independence in 1947.<ref name="British India geography">{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=George |url=https://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog |title=The Geography of British India, Political & Physical |publisher=John Murray |year=1882 |location=London |access-date=2 August 2014}}</ref>


Under the British, modern Pakistan was mostly divided into the ], ], and the ]. There were various ]s, of which the largest was ]. Sindh was part of the ], and there were many complaints over the years that it was neglected by its distant rulers in modern ], although there was usually a ]. Under the British, modern Pakistan was mostly divided into the ], ], and the ]. There were various ]s, of which the largest was ]. Sindh was part of the ], and there were many complaints over the years that it was neglected by its distant rulers in modern ], although there was usually a ].{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}


The Punjab (which included the modern ]) was instead technically ruled from even more distant ], as part of the ], but in practice most matters were devolved to local British officials, who were often among the most energetic and effective in India. At first there was a "Board of Administration" led by ], who had previously worked as British Resident at the ] ] and also consisted of his younger brother ] and ].<ref>J. S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab, Volumes 2-3, Cambridge University Press, 8 Oct 1998, p.258</ref> Below the Board worked a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as ]. After the Mutiny, Sir John Lawrence became the first ]. The ] were an ambitious and largely successful project, begun in the 1880s, to create new farmland through irrigation, to relieve population pressure elsewhere (most of the areas involved are now in Pakistan). The Punjab (which included the modern ]) was instead technically ruled from even more distant ], as part of the ], but in practice most matters were devolved to local British officials, who were often among the most energetic and effective in India. At first there was a "Board of Administration" led by ], who had previously worked as British Resident at the ] ] and also consisted of his younger brother ] and ].<ref>J. S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab, Volumes 2-3, Cambridge University Press, 8 Oct 1998, p.258</ref> Below the Board worked a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as ]. After the Mutiny, Sir John Lawrence became the first ]. The ] were an ambitious and largely successful project, begun in the 1880s, to create new farmland through irrigation, to relieve population pressure elsewhere (most of the areas involved are now in Pakistan).


The Baluchistan Agency largely consisted of princely states and tribal territories, and was governed with a light touch, although near the Afghan border ] was built up as a military base, in case of invasion by either the Afghans or the Russians. The ] was a major disaster. From 1876 the sensitive far north was made a ]. The border with Afghanistan, which remains the modern border of Pakistan, was finally fixed on the ] in 1893. The Baluchistan Agency largely consisted of princely states and tribal territories, and was governed with a light touch, although near the Afghan border ] was built up as a military base, in case of invasion by either the Afghans or the Russians. The ] was a major disaster. From 1876 the sensitive far north was made a ]. The border with Afghanistan, which remains the modern border of Pakistan, was finally fixed on the ] in 1893.


], and most of the network (some now discontinued) was completed by 1900. ] under British rule, followed to a ] and the other larger cities. ], and most of the network (some now discontinued) was completed by 1900. ] under British rule, followed to a ] and the other larger cities.


Different Regions of Pakistan were conquered by ] as below:<br /> Different Regions of Pakistan were conquered by ] as below:<br />
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Regions conquered by ] are as below:<br /> Regions conquered by ] are as below:<br />
•Southern ] came under control by ] in 1876.<br /> •Southern ] came under control by ] in 1876.<br />
•Western ] was conquered by British empire in ] through ], in 1879. •Western ] was conquered by British empire in ] through ], in 1879.


=== Early period of Pakistan Movement === === Early period of Pakistan Movement ===
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The ] was founded by Shaiiq-e-Mustafa on 30 December 1906, in the aftermath of ], on the sidelines of the annual ] in ], ] ].<ref name="jalal">{{cite book|last=Jalal|first=Ayesha|author-link=Ayesha Jalal|title=The sole spokesman : Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the demand for Pakistan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|location=Cambridge (UK); New York|isbn=978-0-521-24462-6}}</ref> The meeting was attended by three thousand delegates and presided over by ]. It addressed the issue of safeguarding interests of Muslims and finalised a programme. A resolution, moved by ] and seconded by ]. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk (conservative), declared: The ] was founded by Shaiiq-e-Mustafa on 30 December 1906, in the aftermath of ], on the sidelines of the annual ] in ], ] ].<ref name="jalal">{{cite book|last=Jalal|first=Ayesha|author-link=Ayesha Jalal|title=The sole spokesman : Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the demand for Pakistan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|location=Cambridge (UK); New York|isbn=978-0-521-24462-6}}</ref> The meeting was attended by three thousand delegates and presided over by ]. It addressed the issue of safeguarding interests of Muslims and finalised a programme. A resolution, moved by ] and seconded by ]. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk (conservative), declared:


{{quotation|The Musalmans are only a fifth in number as compared with the total population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period the British government ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India would pass into the hands of that community which is nearly four times as large as ourselves&nbsp;... our life, our property, our honour, and our faith will all be in great danger, when even now that a powerful British administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from the grasping hands of our neighbors.<ref name="quaid">{{cite web|url=http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician2.htm|title=The Statesman: The All India Muslim League|publisher=Government of Pakistan|access-date=4 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225094623/http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician2.htm|archive-date=25 December 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref>}} {{blockquote|The Musalmans are only a fifth in number as compared with the total population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period the British government ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India would pass into the hands of that community which is nearly four times as large as ourselves&nbsp;... our life, our property, our honour, and our faith will all be in great danger, when even now that a powerful British administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from the grasping hands of our neighbors.<ref name="quaid">{{cite web|url=http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician2.htm|title=The Statesman: The All India Muslim League|publisher=Government of Pakistan|access-date=4 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225094623/http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician2.htm|archive-date=25 December 2007}}</ref>}}


The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the ''Green Book'', written by ]. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims.<ref name="talbot">{{cite book|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=Pakistan: a modern history|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New Delhi; New York|isbn=978-0-19-565073-0}}</ref><ref name="blood">{{cite book|last=Blood|first=Peter R.|title=Pakistan: a country study|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|year=1995|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=–29|url=https://archive.org/details/pakistancountrys00bloo|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-8444-0834-7}}</ref> Among those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was Jinnah, a prominent statesman and barrister in Bombay. This was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government". The League remained loyal to the British administration for five years until the British decided to reverse the partition of Bengal. The Muslim League saw this British decision as partial to Hindus.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanley A. Wolpert|editor=Richard Sisson|title=Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-independence Phase|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfOSxFVQa8IC&pg=PA25|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06041-8|pages=25–|chapter=The Indian National Congress in Nationalist Perspective|quote=For five years the League remained thoroughly loyalist to and fully supportive of British rule until King George V announced the revocation of Bengal's partition at his coronation Durbar in Delhi in December 1911. The Muslim League viewed that reversal of British policy in Bengal as a victory for "Hindu terrorist tactics".}}</ref> The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the ''Green Book'', written by ]. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims.<ref name="talbot">{{cite book|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=Pakistan: a modern history|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New Delhi; New York|isbn=978-0-19-565073-0}}</ref><ref name="blood">{{cite book|last=Blood|first=Peter R.|title=Pakistan: a country study|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|year=1995|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=–29|url=https://archive.org/details/pakistancountrys00bloo|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-8444-0834-7}}</ref> Among those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was Jinnah, a prominent statesman and barrister in Bombay. This was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government". The League remained loyal to the British administration for five years until the British decided to reverse the partition of Bengal. The Muslim League saw this British decision as partial to Hindus.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanley A. Wolpert|editor=Richard Sisson|title=Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-independence Phase|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfOSxFVQa8IC&pg=PA25|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06041-8|pages=25–|chapter=The Indian National Congress in Nationalist Perspective|quote=For five years the League remained thoroughly loyalist to and fully supportive of British rule until King George V announced the revocation of Bengal's partition at his coronation Durbar in Delhi in December 1911. The Muslim League viewed that reversal of British policy in Bengal as a victory for "Hindu terrorist tactics".}}</ref>
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] presiding the session]] ] presiding the session]]


The ] held in the United Kingdom had already weakened the leftist ] led by Prime Minister ].<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> Furthermore, the ]'s government was already weakened by the ] of ], which fueled new hopes for progress towards self-government in ].<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> In fact, ] traveled to London to press the idea of "]" in British India, and claimed to represent all Indians whilst duly criticized the ] as being sectarian and divisive.<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> After reviewing the report of the ], the ] initiated a massive ] under ]; the ] reserved their opinion on the ] declaring that the report was not final and the matters should decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India.<ref name="Round Table Conferences">{{cite web|title=Round Table Conferences|url=http://storyofpakistan.com/round-table-conferences/|work=Story of Pakistan|publisher=Round Table Conferences|access-date=27 September 2013|date=June 2003}}</ref> The ] held in the United Kingdom had already weakened the leftist ] led by Prime Minister ].<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> Furthermore, the Labour Party's government was already weakened by the ] of ], which fueled new hopes for progress towards self-government in ].<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> In fact, ] traveled to London to press the idea of "]" in British India, and claimed to represent all Indians whilst duly criticizing the Muslim League as being sectarian and divisive.<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> After reviewing the report of the Simon Commission, the ] initiated a massive ] under ]; the Muslim League reserved their opinion on the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should be decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India.<ref name="Round Table Conferences">{{cite web|title=Round Table Conferences|url=http://storyofpakistan.com/round-table-conferences/|work=Story of Pakistan|publisher=Round Table Conferences|access-date=27 September 2013|date=June 2003}}</ref>


The ] was held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unable to reach a compromise.<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> Witnessing the events of the ], ] had despaired of politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. During this time in 1930, notable writer and poet, ] called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.<ref name="aips">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_iqbal_1930.html|title=Sir Muhammad Iqbal's 1930 Presidential Address|work=Speeches, Writings, and Statements of Iqbal|access-date=4 December 2007}}</ref><ref name="critique">{{cite book|last=Mir|first=Mustansir|title=Iqbal|publisher=I. B. Tauris|year=2006|location=London; New York|page=138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svYphqj8h7UC&pg=PA138|isbn=978-1-84511-094-9}}</ref> The ] were held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unable to reach a compromise.<ref name="Round Table Conferences"/> Witnessing the events of the ], ] had despaired of politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. During this time in 1930, notable writer and poet, ] called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.<ref name="aips">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_iqbal_1930.html|title=Sir Muhammad Iqbal's 1930 Presidential Address|work=Speeches, Writings, and Statements of Iqbal|access-date=4 December 2007}}</ref><ref name="critique">{{cite book|last=Mir|first=Mustansir|title=Iqbal|publisher=I. B. Tauris|year=2006|location=London; New York|page=138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svYphqj8h7UC&pg=PA138|isbn=978-1-84511-094-9}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages, and professing different religions Personally, I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.|sign=]|source=]}}] and ]'s ] idealized the merger of the ] into a ], called ].]] {{Blockquote|text=India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages, and professing different religions Personally, I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.|sign=]|source=]}}] and ]'s ] idealized the merger of the ] into a ], called ].]]


The name of the ] was coined by the ]'s ] student and Muslim nationalist ],<ref name="dailytimes1">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6 |title=The History Man: Cambridge remembers Rahmat Ali |author=Ihsan Aslam |publisher=Daily Times, Pakistan |date=11 February 2004 |access-date=4 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616183117/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6 |archive-date=16 June 2008 }}</ref> and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet ].<ref name="nowornever">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_rahmatali_1933.html|title=Now or never: Are we to live or perish for ever?|work=Pakistan Movement Historical Documents|author=Choudhary Rahmat Ali|date=28 January 1933|access-date=4 December 2007}}</ref> After coining the name of the nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India: The name of the ] was coined by the ]'s ] student and Muslim nationalist ],<ref name="dailytimes1">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6 |title=The History Man: Cambridge remembers Rahmat Ali |author=Ihsan Aslam |publisher=Daily Times, Pakistan |date=11 February 2004 |access-date=4 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616183117/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6 |archive-date=16 June 2008}}</ref> and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet ].<ref name="nowornever">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_rahmatali_1933.html|title=Now or never: Are we to live or perish for ever?|work=Pakistan Movement Historical Documents|author=Choudhary Rahmat Ali|date=28 January 1933|access-date=4 December 2007}}</ref> After coining the name of the nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India:
* "'''P'''" for ] * "'''P'''" for ]
* "'''A'''" for ] (now known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) * "'''A'''" for ] (now known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)
* "'''K'''" for ] * "'''K'''" for ]
* "'''I'''" for ]
* "'''S'''" for ] * "'''S'''" for ]
* "'''Tan'''" for ]; thus forming "Pakistan".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chaudhryrahmatali.com/now%20or%20never/index.htm |title=Ch. Rahmat Ali |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110419012150/http://www.chaudhryrahmatali.com/now%20or%20never/index.htm |archive-date=19 April 2011 }}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616183117/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6 |date=16 June 2008 }}</ref> * "'''Tan'''" for ]; thus forming "Pakistan".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chaudhryrahmatali.com/now%20or%20never/index.htm |title=Ch. Rahmat Ali |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110419012150/http://www.chaudhryrahmatali.com/now%20or%20never/index.htm |archive-date=19 April 2011 |access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616183117/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6|title=THE HISTORY MAN: Cambridge Remembers Rahmat Ali&nbsp;– Ihsan Aslam&nbsp;– ''Daily Times''|archive-date=16 June 2008}}</ref>
After the publication of the pamphlet, the Hindu Press vehemently criticized it, and the word 'Pakstan' used in it.<ref>Khursheed Kamal Aziz. Rahmat Ali: a biography.1987, p.92</ref> Thus this word became a heated topic of debate. With the addition of an "i" to ], the name of Pakistan grew in popularity and led to the commencement of the ], and consequently the creation of ].<ref>Khursheed Kamal Aziz. Rahmat Ali: a biography.1987, p472-487</ref> After the publication of the pamphlet, the Hindu Press vehemently criticized it, and the word 'Pakstan' used in it.<ref>Khursheed Kamal Aziz. Rahmat Ali: a biography.1987, p.92</ref> Thus this word became a heated topic of debate. With the addition of an "i" to ], the name of Pakistan grew in popularity and led to the commencement of the ], and consequently the creation of ].<ref>Khursheed Kamal Aziz. Rahmat Ali: a biography.1987, p472-487</ref>
In ] and ] languages, the name encapsulates the concept of ''Pak'' ("pure") and ''stan'' ("land") and hence a "Pure Land".<ref name="amphilosoc">{{cite journal|last=Brown|first=W. Norman|title=India's Pakistan Issue|journal=Proceedings|volume=91|issue=2|page=161|date=19 October 1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpWH6doabbYC&pg=PA161-IA2|isbn=978-1-4223-8093-2}}</ref> In 1935, the ] proposed to hand over ] to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937.<ref name="The Communal Award">{{cite web|title=The Communal Award|url=http://storyofpakistan.com/the-communal-award/|publisher=The Communal Award|date=June 2003}}</ref> After the ] the League took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of the other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the League in provinces with large Muslim minorities citing technical difficulties. The subsequent Congress Rule was unpopular among Muslims and seen as a reign of Hindu tyranny by Muslim leaders. Mohammad Ali Jinnah declared 22 December 1939, a ] for Indian Muslims. It was meant to celebrate the resignation of all members of the Congress party from provincial and central offices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://storyofpakistan.com/rule-of-congress-ministries|title=Rule of Congress Ministries {{!}} The Government of India Act of 1935 was practically implemented in 1937.|date=1 June 2003|website=Story of Pakistan|language=en-US|access-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193146/https://storyofpakistan.com/rule-of-congress-ministries|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In ] and ] languages, the name encapsulates the concept of ''Pak'' ("pure") and ''stan'' ("land") and hence a "Pure Land".<ref name="amphilosoc">{{cite journal|last=Brown|first=W. Norman|title=India's Pakistan Issue|journal=Proceedings|volume=91|issue=2|page=161|date=19 October 1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpWH6doabbYC&pg=PA161-IA2|isbn=978-1-4223-8093-2}}</ref> In 1935, the ] proposed to hand over ] to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937.<ref name="The Communal Award">{{cite web|title=The Communal Award|url=http://storyofpakistan.com/the-communal-award/|publisher=The Communal Award|date=June 2003}}</ref> After the ] the League took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of the other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the League in provinces with large Muslim minorities citing technical difficulties. The subsequent Congress Rule was unpopular among Muslims and seen as a reign of Hindu tyranny by Muslim leaders. Mohammad Ali Jinnah declared 22 December 1939, a ] for Indian Muslims. It was meant to celebrate the resignation of all members of the Congress party from provincial and central offices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://storyofpakistan.com/rule-of-congress-ministries|title=Rule of Congress Ministries {{!}} The Government of India Act of 1935 was practically implemented in 1937.|date=1 June 2003|website=Story of Pakistan|language=en-US|access-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193146/https://storyofpakistan.com/rule-of-congress-ministries|archive-date=2 April 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Line 384: Line 388:


=== 1940 Resolution === === 1940 Resolution ===
In 1940, ] called a general session of the ] in ] to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of ] and the ] joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the ] and the nationalists, and espoused the ] and the reasons for the demand for separate homelands.<ref name="wolpert">{{cite book|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley A.|author-link=Stanley Wolpert|title=Jinnah of Pakistan|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1984|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-503412-7}}</ref> ], the Chief Minister of ], drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version,<ref name="tinker">{{cite book|last=Tinker|first=Hugh|title=Men who overturned empires : fighters, dreamers, and schemers|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1987|location=Madison|page=50|isbn=978-0-299-11460-2}}</ref> that had emerged after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-religious violence<ref name="malik">{{cite book|last=Malik|first=Muhammad Aslam|title=The making of the Pakistan resolution|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|location=Karachi|isbn=978-0-19-579538-7}}</ref> and recommended the creation of independent states.<ref name="ahmed">{{cite book|last=Ahmed|first=Syed Iftikhar|title=Essays on Pakistan|publisher=Alpha Bravo Publishers|year=1983|location=Lahore}}</ref> The resolution was moved in the general session by ''Shere-Bangla'' ] nationalist, ], the Chief Minister of ], supported by ] and other leaders and was adopted on 23 March 1940.<ref name="resolution">{{cite web|url=http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/23march2007/index.html#b|title=Muslim's struggle for independent statehood|author=Qutubuddin Aziz|publisher=Jang Group of Newspapers|access-date=4 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219222201/http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/23march2007/index.html#b|archive-date=19 February 2008}}</ref> The Resolution read as follows:

{{quotation|No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign&nbsp;... That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority.<ref name="ashop">{{cite book|last=Qureshi|first=Ishtiaq Husain|title=A Short history of Pakistan|publisher=University of Karachi|year=1967|location=Karachi|author-link=Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi}}</ref>}}
] ]
In 1940, ] called a general session of the Muslim League in ] to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of ] and the ] joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the ] and the nationalists, and espoused the ] and the reasons for the demand for separate homelands.<ref name="wolpert">{{cite book|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley A.|author-link=Stanley Wolpert|title=Jinnah of Pakistan|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1984|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-503412-7}}</ref> ], the Chief Minister of ], drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version,<ref name="tinker">{{cite book|last=Tinker|first=Hugh|title=Men who overturned empires : fighters, dreamers, and schemers|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1987|location=Madison|page=50|isbn=978-0-299-11460-2}}</ref> that had emerged after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-religious violence<ref name="malik">{{cite book|last=Malik|first=Muhammad Aslam|title=The making of the Pakistan resolution|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|location=Karachi|isbn=978-0-19-579538-7}}</ref> and recommended the creation of independent states.<ref name="ahmed">{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Syed Iftikhar |title=Essays on Pakistan |year=1983 |location=Lahore |publisher=Alpha Bravo Publishers |oclc=12811079 |pages=29–30}}</ref> The resolution was moved in the general session by ''Shere-Bangla'' ] nationalist, ], the Chief Minister of ], supported by ] and other leaders and was adopted on 23 March 1940.<ref name="resolution">{{cite web|url=http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/23march2007/index.html#b|title=Muslim's struggle for independent statehood|author=Qutubuddin Aziz|publisher=Jang Group of Newspapers|access-date=4 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219222201/http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/23march2007/index.html#b|archive-date=19 February 2008}}</ref> The Resolution read as follows:

{{blockquote|No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign&nbsp;... That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority.<ref name="ashop">{{cite book|last=Qureshi|first=Ishtiaq Husain|title=A Short history of Pakistan|publisher=University of Karachi|year=1967|location=Karachi|author-link=Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi}}</ref>}}


=== Final phase of the Pakistan Movement === === Final phase of the Pakistan Movement ===
]. About 87,000 soldiers from ] (which includes modern ], ] and ]) died in ]. Millions of civilians also died due to ].]] ]. About 87,000 soldiers from ] (which includes modern ], ] and ]) died in ]. Millions of civilians also died due to ].]]
Important leaders in the Muslim League highlighted that Pakistan would be a 'New Medina', in other words the second Islamic state established after Muhammad's creation of an Islamic state in Medina. Pakistan was popularly envisaged as an Islamic utopia, a successor to the defunct Turkish Caliphate and a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over whether it was possible for the proposed Pakistan to truly become an Islamic state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/943379/was-pakistan-sufficiently-imagined-before-independence/|title=Was Pakistan sufficiently imagined before independence? – The Express Tribune|date=23 August 2015|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=8 March 2017|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/810132/the-venkat-dhulipala-interview-on-the-partition-issue-jinnah-and-ambedkar-were-on-the-same-page|title=The Venkat Dhulipala interview: 'On the Partition issue, Jinnah and Ambedkar were on the same page'|last=Ashraf|first=Ajaz|work=Scroll.in|access-date=8 March 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> Important leaders in the Muslim League highlighted that Pakistan would be a 'New Medina', in other words the second Islamic state established after Muhammad's creation of an Islamic state in Medina. Pakistan was popularly envisaged as an Islamic utopia, a successor to the defunct Turkish Caliphate and a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over whether it was possible for the proposed Pakistan to truly become an Islamic state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/943379/was-pakistan-sufficiently-imagined-before-independence/|title=Was Pakistan sufficiently imagined before independence? – The Express Tribune|date=23 August 2015|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=8 March 2017|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Ashraf">{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/810132/the-venkat-dhulipala-interview-on-the-partition-issue-jinnah-and-ambedkar-were-on-the-same-page|title=The Venkat Dhulipala interview: 'On the Partition issue, Jinnah and Ambedkar were on the same page'|last=Ashraf|first=Ajaz|work=Scroll.in|access-date=8 March 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>


While the Congress' top leadership had been in prison following the 1942 Quit India Movement, there was intense debate among Indian Muslims over the creation of a separate homeland.<ref name=":1" /> The majority of Barelvis<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA167|title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security|last1=Long|first1=Roger D.|last2=Singh|first2=Gurharpal|last3=Samad|first3=Yunas|last4=Talbot|first4=Ian|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-44820-4|page=167|quote=In the 1940s a solid majority of the Barelvis were supporters of the Pakistan Movement and played a supporting role in its final phase (1940-7), mostly under the banner of the All-India Sunni Conference which had been founded in 1925.}}</ref> and Barelvi ulema supported the creation of Pakistan<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&pg=PA87|title=Pakistan: The Struggle Within|last=John|first=Wilson|publisher=Pearson Education India|year=2009|isbn=9788131725047|page=87|quote=During the 1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League.}}</ref> and ''pirs'' and Sunni ulema were mobilized by the Muslim League to demonstrate that India's Muslim masses wanted a separate country.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1042583|title='What's wrong with Pakistan?'|date=13 September 2013|work=Dawn|access-date=10 January 2017|quote=However, the fundamentalist dimension in Pakistan movement developed more strongly when the Sunni Ulema and pirs were mobilised to prove that the Muslim masses wanted a Muslim/Islamic state...Even the Grand Mufti of Deoband, Mufti Muhammad Shafi, issued a fatwa in support of the Muslim League's demand.}}</ref> The Barelvis believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counter productive.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgFeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|title=The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State|last=Cesari|first=Jocelyne|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-107-51329-7|page=135|quote=For example, the Barelvi ulama supported the formation of the state of Pakistan and thought that any alliance with Hindus (such as that between the Indian National Congress and the Jamiat ulama-I-Hind ) was counterproductive.}}</ref> On the other hand, most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, were opposed to the creation of Pakistan and the two-nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be one nation and Muslims were only a nation of themselves in the religious sense and not in the territorial sense.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA224|title=A History of Pakistan and Its Origins|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1-84331-149-2|page=224|quote=Believing that Islam was a universal religion, the Deobandi advocated a notion of a composite nationalism according to which Hindus and Muslims constituted one nation.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPKoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|title=Indian Muslims and Citizenship: Spaces for Jihād in Everyday Life|last=Abdelhalim|first=Julten|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-50875-5|page=26|quote=Madani...stressed the difference between ''qaum'', meaning a nation, hence a territorial concept, and ''millat'', meaning an Ummah and thus a religious concept.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-tWCgAAQBAJ&q=deoband%20composite%20nationalism&pg=PA52|title=Living with Religious Diversity|last=Sikka|first=Sonia|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9781317370994|page=52|quote=Madani makes a crucial distinction between ''qaum'' and ''millat''. According to him, qaum connotes a territorial multi-religious entity, while millat refers to the cultural, social and religious unity of Muslims exclusively.}}</ref> At the same time some Deobandi ulema such as Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Mufti Muhammad Shafi and Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani were supportive of the Muslim League's demand to create a separate Pakistan.<ref name=":02"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=910eAAAAMAAJ|title=The Lahore resolution: arguments for and against : history and criticism|last=Khan|first=Shafique Ali|publisher=Royal Book Co.|year=1988|page=48|isbn=9789694070810|quote=Besides, Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, along with his pupils and disciples, lent his entire support to the demand of Pakistan.|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> While the Congress' top leadership had been in prison following the 1942 Quit India Movement, there was intense debate among Indian Muslims over the creation of a separate homeland.<ref name="Ashraf" /> The majority of Barelvis<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA167|title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security|last1=Long|first1=Roger D.|last2=Singh|first2=Gurharpal|last3=Samad|first3=Yunas|last4=Talbot|first4=Ian|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-44820-4|page=167|quote=In the 1940s a solid majority of the Barelvis were supporters of the Pakistan Movement and played a supporting role in its final phase (1940-7), mostly under the banner of the All-India Sunni Conference which had been founded in 1925.}}</ref> and Barelvi ulema supported the creation of Pakistan<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&pg=PA87|title=Pakistan: The Struggle Within|last=John|first=Wilson|publisher=Pearson Education India|year=2009|isbn=9788131725047|page=87|quote=During the 1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League.}}</ref> and ''pirs'' and Sunni ulema were mobilized by the Muslim League to demonstrate that India's Muslim masses wanted a separate country.<ref name="Dawn-2013">{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1042583|title='What's wrong with Pakistan?'|date=13 September 2013|work=Dawn|access-date=10 January 2017|quote=However, the fundamentalist dimension in Pakistan movement developed more strongly when the Sunni Ulema and pirs were mobilised to prove that the Muslim masses wanted a Muslim/Islamic state...Even the Grand Mufti of Deoband, Mufti Muhammad Shafi, issued a fatwa in support of the Muslim League's demand.}}</ref> The Barelvis believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counter productive.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgFeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|title=The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State|last=Cesari|first=Jocelyne|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-107-51329-7|page=135|quote=For example, the Barelvi ulama supported the formation of the state of Pakistan and thought that any alliance with Hindus (such as that between the Indian National Congress and the Jamiat ulama-I-Hind ) was counterproductive.}}</ref> On the other hand, most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, were opposed to the creation of Pakistan and the two-nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be one nation and Muslims were only a nation of themselves in the religious sense and not in the territorial sense.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA224|title=A History of Pakistan and Its Origins|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1-84331-149-2|page=224|quote=Believing that Islam was a universal religion, the Deobandi advocated a notion of a composite nationalism according to which Hindus and Muslims constituted one nation.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPKoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|title=Indian Muslims and Citizenship: Spaces for Jihād in Everyday Life|last=Abdelhalim|first=Julten|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-50875-5|page=26|quote=Madani...stressed the difference between ''qaum'', meaning a nation, hence a territorial concept, and ''millat'', meaning an Ummah and thus a religious concept.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-tWCgAAQBAJ&q=deoband%20composite%20nationalism&pg=PA52|title=Living with Religious Diversity|last=Sikka|first=Sonia|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9781317370994|page=52|quote=Madani makes a crucial distinction between ''qaum'' and ''millat''. According to him, qaum connotes a territorial multi-religious entity, while millat refers to the cultural, social and religious unity of Muslims exclusively.}}</ref> At the same time some Deobandi ulema such as Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Mufti Muhammad Shafi and Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani were supportive of the Muslim League's demand to create a separate Pakistan.<ref name="Dawn-2013"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=910eAAAAMAAJ|title=The Lahore resolution: arguments for and against : history and criticism|last=Khan|first=Shafique Ali|publisher=Royal Book Co.|year=1988|page=48|isbn=9789694070810|quote=Besides, Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, along with his pupils and disciples, lent his entire support to the demand of Pakistan.|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>


Muslims who were living in provinces where they were demographically a minority, such as the United Provinces where the Muslim League enjoyed popular support, were assured by Jinnah that they could remain in India, migrate to Pakistan or continue living in India but as Pakistani citizens. Muslims who were living in provinces where they were demographically a minority, such as the United Provinces where the Muslim League enjoyed popular support, were assured by Jinnah that they could remain in India, migrate to Pakistan or continue living in India but as Pakistani citizens.


In the ] elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes).<ref name="hkdr1" /> The Congress had hitherto refused to acknowledge the Muslim League's claim of being the representative of Indian Muslims but finally acquiesced to the League's claim after the results of this election. The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan had received overwhelming popular support from India's Muslims, especially those Muslims who were living in provinces such as UP where they were a minority.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC&pg=PA68|title=Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook|last=Mohiuddin|first=Yasmin Niaz|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007|isbn=978-1-85109-801-9|page=70|quote=In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates, and the powerful campaign among the poor peasants of Bengal on economic issues of rural indebtedness and zamindari abolition, that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.}}</ref> In the ] elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes).<ref name="hkdr1" /> The Congress had hitherto refused to acknowledge the Muslim League's claim of being the representative of Indian Muslims but finally acquiesced to the League's claim after the results of this election. The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan had received overwhelming popular support from India's Muslims, especially those Muslims who were living in provinces such as UP where they were a minority.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC&pg=PA68|title=Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook|last=Mohiuddin|first=Yasmin Niaz|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007|isbn=978-1-85109-801-9|page=70|quote=In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates, and the powerful campaign among the poor peasants of Bengal on economic issues of rural indebtedness and zamindari abolition, that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.}}</ref>


The British had neither the will, nor the financial resources or military power, to hold India any longer but they were also determined to avoid partition and for this purpose they arranged the Cabinet Mission Plan.<ref>Barbara D. Metcalf; Thomas R. Metcalf (2002).&nbsp;. Cambridge University Press. pp.&nbsp;212–.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-521-63974-3}}</ref> According to this plan India would be kept united but would be heavily decentralized with separate groupings of Hindu and Muslim majority provinces. The Muslim League accepted this plan as it contained the 'essence' of Pakistan but the Congress rejected it. After the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan, Jinnah called for Muslims to observe Direct Action Day to demand the creation of a separate Pakistan. The Direct Action Day morphed into violent riots between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. The riots in Calcutta were followed by intense communal rioting between Hindus and Muslims in ], ], ] and Rawalpindi. The British had neither the will, nor the financial resources or military power, to hold India any longer but they were also determined to avoid partition and for this purpose they arranged the Cabinet Mission Plan.<ref>Barbara D. Metcalf; Thomas R. Metcalf (2002).&nbsp;. Cambridge University Press. pp.&nbsp;212–.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-521-63974-3}}</ref> According to this plan India would be kept united but would be heavily decentralized with separate groupings of Hindu and Muslim majority provinces. The Muslim League accepted this plan as it contained the 'essence' of Pakistan but the Congress rejected it. After the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan, Jinnah called for Muslims to observe ] to demand the creation of a separate Pakistan. The Direct Action Day morphed into violent riots between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta, with the violence displaying elements of ]. The riots in Calcutta were followed by intense communal rioting elsewhere, including in ] (where Hindus were attacked by Muslims) and ] (where Hindus attacked Muslims) in October, resulting in large-scale displacement. In March 1947, such violence reached Punjab, where Sikhs and Hindus were ] by Muslims in the Rawalpindi Division.<ref>{{citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67256-6 |year=2009 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-regional-history/partition-india?format=PB&isbn=9780521672566 |page=67 |quote=The signs of ‘ethnic cleansing’ are first evident evident in the Great Calcutta Killing of 16–19 August 1946. Over 100,000 people were made homeless. They were also present in the wave of violence that rippled out from Calcutta to Bihar, where there were high Muslim casualty figures, and to Noakhali deep in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bengal. Concerning the Noakhali riots, one British officer spoke of a 'determined and organized' Muslim effort to drive out all the Hindus, who accounted for around a fifth of the total population. Similarly, the Punjab counterparts to this transition of violence were the Rawalpindi massacres of March 1947. The level of death and destruction in such West Punjab villages as Thoa Khalsa was such that communities couldn't live together in its wake.}}</ref>


The British Prime Minister Attlee appointed ] as India's last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan and India and immediate British withdrawal. British leaders including Mountbatten did not support the creation of Pakistan but failed to convince Jinnah otherwise.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0FuAAAAMAAJ|title=The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy|last=McGrath|first=Allen|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-19-577583-9|page=38|quote=Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGdiqF6V8wYC&pg=PA136|title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin|last=Ahmed|first=Akbar S.|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-415-14966-2|page=136|quote=Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea.}}</ref> Mountbatten later confessed that he would most probably have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqyniTHXFxUC&pg=PT209|title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin|last=Ahmed|first=Akbar|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=978-1-134-75022-1|quote=When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan if he had known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, his answer was instructive. There was no doubt in his mind about the legality or morality of his position on Pakistan. 'Most probably,' he said (1982:39).}}</ref> The British Prime Minister Attlee appointed ] as India's last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan and India and immediate British withdrawal. British leaders including Mountbatten did not support the creation of Pakistan but failed to convince Jinnah otherwise.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0FuAAAAMAAJ|title=The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy|last=McGrath|first=Allen|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-19-577583-9|page=38|quote=Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGdiqF6V8wYC&pg=PA136|title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin|last=Ahmed|first=Akbar S.|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-415-14966-2|page=136|quote=Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea.}}</ref> Mountbatten later confessed that he would most probably have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqyniTHXFxUC&pg=PT209|title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin|last=Ahmed|first=Akbar|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=978-1-134-75022-1|quote=When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan if he had known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, his answer was instructive. There was no doubt in his mind about the legality or morality of his position on Pakistan. 'Most probably,' he said (1982:39).}}</ref>


In early 1947 the British had announced their desire to grant India its independence by June 1948. However, Lord Mountbatten decided to advance the date. In a meeting in June, Nehru and ] representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, ] representing the ] community, and ] representing the ], agreed to partition India along religious lines. In early 1947, the British had announced their desire to grant India its independence by June 1948. However, Lord Mountbatten decided to advance the date. In a meeting in June, Nehru and ] representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, ] representing the ] community, and ] representing the ], agreed to partition India along religious lines.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}


=== Independence from the British Empire === === Independence from the British Empire ===
{{main|Indian Independence Act 1947|Independence Day (Pakistan)|Partition of India|Pakistan Movement}} {{main|Indian Independence Act 1947|Independence Day (Pakistan)|Partition of India|Pakistan Movement}}
On 14 August 1947 Pakistan gained independence. India gained independence the following day. The two provinces of British India: Punjab and Bengal were divided along religious lines by the Radcliffe Commission. Mountbatten is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe Commission to draw the line in India's favour.<ref> On 14 August 1947, Pakistan gained independence. India gained independence the following day. The two provinces of British India, Punjab and Bengal, were divided along religious lines by the Radcliffe Commission. Mountbatten is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe Commission to draw the line in India's favour.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |title=K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, ''Inretrospect'' |access-date=15 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060117062957/http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |archive-date=17 January 2006}}</ref><ref>. BBC News (10 August 2007).</ref> Punjab's mostly Muslim western part went to Pakistan and its mostly Hindu/Sikh eastern part went to India but there were significant Muslim minorities in Punjab's eastern section and likewise there were many Hindus and Sikhs living in Punjab's western areas.
{{Cite web |url=http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |title=K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, ''Inretrospect'' |access-date=15 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060117062957/http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |archive-date=17 January 2006 |url-status=dead }}
</ref><ref>. BBC News (10 August 2007).</ref> Punjab's mostly Muslim western part went to Pakistan and its mostly Hindu/Sikh eastern part went to India but there were significant Muslim minorities in Punjab's eastern section and likewise there were many Hindus and Sikhs living in Punjab's western areas.


Intense communal rioting in the Punjab forced the governments of India and Pakistan to agree to a forced population exchange of Muslim and Hindu/Sikh minorities living in Punjab. After this population exchange only a few thousand low-caste Hindus remained in Pakistan's side of Punjab and only a tiny Muslim population remained in the town of ] in India's part of Punjab.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=KHALIDI|first=OMAR|date=1 January 1998|title=From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan 1947–97|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=37|issue=3|pages=339–352|jstor=20837002}}</ref> Political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed says that although Muslims started the violence in Punjab, by the end of 1947 more Muslims had been killed by Hindus and Sikhs in East Punjab than the number of Hindus and Sikhs who had been killed by Muslims in West Punjab.<ref name="fairobserver.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed/|title=The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed|last=Ahmed|first=Ishtiaq}}</ref><ref name="dawnshafiqbutt">{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1254069|title=A page from history: Dr Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges|last=Butt|first=Shafiq|date=24 April 2016}}</ref> Intense communal rioting in the Punjab forced the governments of India and Pakistan to agree to a forced population exchange of Muslim and Hindu/Sikh minorities living in Punjab. After this population exchange only a few thousand low-caste Hindus remained in Pakistan's side of Punjab and only a tiny Muslim population remained in the town of ] in India's part of Punjab.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=KHALIDI|first=OMAR|date=1 January 1998|title=From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan 1947–97|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=37|issue=3|pages=339–352|jstor=20837002}}</ref> Political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed says that although Muslims started the violence in Punjab, by the end of 1947 more Muslims had been killed by Hindus and Sikhs in East Punjab than the number of Hindus and Sikhs who had been killed by Muslims in West Punjab.<ref name="fairobserver.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed/|title=The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed|last=Ahmed|first=Ishtiaq}}</ref><ref name="dawnshafiqbutt">{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1254069|title=A page from history: Dr Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges|last=Butt|first=Shafiq|date=24 April 2016}}</ref>


More than ten million people migrated across the new borders and between 200,000 and 2,000,000<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1169309|title=Murder, rape and shattered families: 1947 Partition Archive effort underway|date=13 March 2015|work=Dawn|access-date=14 January 2017|quote=There are no exact numbers of people killed and displaced, but estimates range from a few hundred thousand to two million killed and more than 10 million displaced.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yqAGKpOe9xMC&pg=PA36|title=South Asia's Cold War: Nuclear Weapons and Conflict in Comparative Perspective|last=Basrur|first=Rajesh M.|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-1-134-16531-5|quote=An estimated 12–15&nbsp;million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Kne87aU7D0C&pg=PA3|title=Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change|last=Isaacs|first=Harold Robert|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1975|isbn=978-0-674-44315-0|quote=2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan}}</ref> people died in the spate of communal violence in the Punjab in what some scholars have described as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul Brass|date=2003|publisher=Carfax Publishing: Taylor and Francis Group|pages=81–82 (5(1), 71–101)|quote=In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder.|last=Brass|work=]|access-date=16 August 2014}}</ref> The Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and similarly the Indian government claimed that Muslims abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7a-FuiMcTYC&pg=PA75|title=Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India|last=Daiya|first=Kavita|publisher=Temple University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-59213-744-2|page=75|quote=The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmA0DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|title=Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics|last1=Singh|first1=Amritjit|last2=Iyer|first2=Nalini|last3=Gairola|first3=Rahul K.|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4985-3105-4|page=14|quote=The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cm4PBNdaFjYC&pg=PA131|title=Women and the Politics of Violence|last=Abraham|first=Taisha|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2002|isbn=978-81-241-0847-5|page=131|quote=In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes,' torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.}}</ref> The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s. The dispute over Kashmir escalated into the ] between India and Pakistan. ]. More than ten million people migrated across the new borders and between 200,000 and 2,000,000<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1169309|title=Murder, rape and shattered families: 1947 Partition Archive effort underway|date=13 March 2015|work=Dawn|access-date=14 January 2017|quote=There are no exact numbers of people killed and displaced, but estimates range from a few hundred thousand to two million killed and more than 10 million displaced.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yqAGKpOe9xMC&pg=PA36|title=South Asia's Cold War: Nuclear Weapons and Conflict in Comparative Perspective|last=Basrur|first=Rajesh M.|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-1-134-16531-5|quote=An estimated 12–15&nbsp;million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Kne87aU7D0C&pg=PA3|title=Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change|last=Isaacs|first=Harold Robert|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1975|isbn=978-0-674-44315-0|quote=2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan}}</ref> people died in the spate of communal violence in the Punjab in what some scholars have described as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul Brass|date=2003|publisher=Carfax Publishing: Taylor and Francis Group|pages=81–82 (5(1), 71–101)|quote=In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder.|last=Brass|work=]|access-date=16 August 2014|archive-date=14 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414153300/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf}}</ref> The Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and similarly the Indian government claimed that Muslims abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7a-FuiMcTYC&pg=PA75|title=Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India|last=Daiya|first=Kavita|publisher=Temple University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-59213-744-2|page=75|quote=The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmA0DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|title=Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics|last1=Singh|first1=Amritjit|last2=Iyer|first2=Nalini|last3=Gairola|first3=Rahul K.|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4985-3105-4|page=14|quote=The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cm4PBNdaFjYC&pg=PA131|title=Women and the Politics of Violence|last=Abraham|first=Taisha|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2002|isbn=978-81-241-0847-5|page=131|quote=In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes,' torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.}}</ref> The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s. The dispute over Kashmir escalated into the ] between India and Pakistan. The ] remains unresolved.


For the history after independence, see ].
== Post-Independence ==
{{main|History of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan}}
], the tomb of ]]]
Pakistan was based on religious nationalism, only inherited parts of the institutions of British India, and its territories were disconnected from each other physically. While the western wing was larger, 55 percent of Pakistanis lived in Bengal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=107}}</ref> A rift developed over the question of the national language.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=109}}</ref>


== History by region ==
===Bengali Language Movement===
{{main|Bengali Language Movement}} {{main|Timeline of Pakistani history}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
]]]
* ]
The '''Bengali Language Movement''', or ''Bhasha Andolon'' ('''Language Movement'''), was a political effort in Bangladesh (then known as ]), advocating the recognition of the ] as an ] of ]. Such recognition would allow Bengali to be used in government affairs. It was led by Mufti Nadimul Quamar Ahmed.<ref>{{cite book | last=Van Schendel | first=Willem | date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | url=https://www.bookdepository.com/History-Bangladesh-Willem-Van-Schendel/9780521861748 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=288 | isbn=9780521861748 | access-date=24 November 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040219/https://www.bookdepository.com/History-Bangladesh-Willem-Van-Schendel/9780521861748 | archive-date=1 December 2017 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* ]

* ]
When the state of Pakistan was ] in 1947, its two regions, East Pakistan (also called East Bengal) and ], were split along cultural, geographical, and linguistic lines. On 23 February 1948, the ] ordained ] as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Pakistan. Facing rising sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the government outlawed public meetings and rallies. The students of the ] and other political activists defied the law and organised a protest on 21 February 1952.<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=289 | isbn=9780521861748}}</ref> The movement reached its climax when police killed student demonstrators on that day. The deaths provoked widespread civil unrest led by the ], later renamed the ]. After years of conflict, the central government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956. On 17 November 1999, ] declared 21 February ] for the whole world to celebrate,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassie |first1=Henry |last2=Mahmud |first2=Feroz |year=2008 |title=Living Traditions |series=Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series |volume=11 |location=Dhaka |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |page=578 |oclc=299379800}}</ref> in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world.
* ]

* ]
===Politics: 1954–1971===
* ]
] integrated the four provinces of the western wing of Pakistan into a single province, ].]]
* ]
The 1952 events caused the people of East Pakistan to abandon the Muslim League.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=115}}</ref> In East Pakistan's 1954 provincial elections, the League captured only 7 out of the 390 seats.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|pages=115–116}}</ref> The United Front won the elections. Until 1956, when the state declared that both Bengali and Urdu would be state languages, the language movement continued.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=116}}</ref>
* ]

}}
Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan. While the west had a minority share of Pakistan's total population, it had the largest share of revenue allocation, industrial development, agricultural reforms and civil development projects. Pakistan's military and civil services were dominated by the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=292 | isbn=9780521861748}}</ref> Bengalis had been designated as a "non-martial" race by the British. Bengali participation in the military was very low. The British preferred to recruit Punjabi Muslims. The Punjabis dominated the army Pakistan inherited from British India's military. Because Bengalis did not have a tradition of military service in their families, it was hard to recruit Bengali officers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=Craig|author-link = Craig Baxter|year=1997|title=Bangladesh: From A Nation to a State |publisher=Westview Press|page=65|isbn=978-0-813-33632-9}}</ref>

By the middle of the 1960s the East Pakistani elite concluded that the protection of their interests lay in autonomy. Abdul Momen Khan, who was governor in the 1962-1968 period, persecuted opposition and censored media. The regime became more unpopular during 1965, in the year of a war between India and Pakistan. Patriotism was high in East Pakistan during the war against India, but this was one of the last cases of national solidarity. East Pakistanis felt they had not been protected by the army from a possible Indian invasion.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 121">{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=121}}</ref>

In 1966, ], the leader of the Awami League, proclaimed a 6-point plan titled ''Our Charter of Survival'' at a national conference of opposition political parties at Lahore, in which he demanded self-government and considerable political, economic and defence autonomy for East Pakistan in a Pakistani federation with a weak central government. This led to the historic ]. The six points for a confederation were more extreme than previous calls for autonomy.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 121"/>

In early 1968, the ] was filed against Mujib with the allegation that the accused was conspiring for the secession of East Pakistan with Indian aid. The government expected this to harm Mujib's popularity. But popular demonstrations made the government drop the case.<ref name="Van Schendel 2009 293">{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=293 | isbn=9780521861748}}</ref>

A West Pakistani movement aimed at removing Ayub Khan spread to East Pakistan where it adopted Bengali nationalist connotations. Ayub Khan resigned in March 1969 and his position was taken by General Yahya Khan. Yahya tried to reconcile the politicians. He announced that elections would be held in 1970 and political organisation would be permitted.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=123}}</ref> He declared that his own position was temporary and that his job was to run elections for an assembly who would be tasked with creating a new constitution. He ended the one unit scheme
and permitted popular representation, thereby allowing East Pakistan 162 of the 300 seats. Yahya created a legal framework order (LFO) as a guideline for the assembly. It stipulated principles such as the federalism of the state, paramountcy of Islam, provincial autonomy with sufficient provisions for the federal government to carry out its duties and defend the country's integrity. The latter point clashed with Mujib's points. Yahya highlighted that a constitution would not be accepted if it did not adhere to the LFO. Mujib's party had drafted its own constitution based on six points.<ref name="Baxter 1997 78">{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=Craig|year=1997|title=Bangladesh: From A Nation to a State |publisher=Westview Press|page=78|isbn=978-0-813-33632-9}}</ref>

===Bangladesh movement===
{{main|Bangladesh Liberation War}}
160 of East Pakistan's 162 seats were captured by the Awami League.<ref name="Baxter 1997 78"/> Nurul Amin won one of the remaining seats.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=Craig|year=1997|title=Bangladesh: From A Nation to a State |publisher=Westview Press|pages=78–79|isbn=978-0-813-33632-9}}</ref> Bhutto won most West Pakistani seats. Yahya organised talks between Bhutto and Mujib to arrive at a consensus on the form of the future constitution. Mujib asserted his majority and intent to base the constitution on his six points. Bhutto's argument was that there were two majorities. The talks failed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=Craig|year=1997|title=Bangladesh: From A Nation to a State |publisher=Westview Press|page=79|isbn=978-0-813-33632-9}}</ref> Mujib rejected Bhutto's demands for a share in power. Bhutto boycotted the National Assembly session of 3 March and intimidated other West Pakistani politicians from participating. Bhutto requested that Yahya delay the National Assembly session. On 1 March protests and confrontations broke out when Yahya did this.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 125">{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=125}}</ref>

Leftists in East Pakistan pressured Mujib to immediately declare independence. The West Pakistani government deployed soldiers to deter such a possibility.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 125"/> Mujib chose a middle-ground option by starting a ]. The movement was successful, freezing the machinery of government and effectively giving Mujib command over East Pakistan. Mujib announced that East Pakistanis would fight for independence but he simultaneously attempted to achieve a solution within a united Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=126}}</ref>

Yahya Khan went to Dhaka in the middle of March as a last attempt to obtain a resolution. Bhutto joined him. However, the three parties could not arrive at a consensus on the transfer of power. Yahya was willing to accept the Six Points and its demand for autonomy and also agreed to Mujib becoming prime minister. However, for Bhutto this was treachery to East Pakistan. On 23 March the Awami League told Yahya that he was to issue regional autonomy within 2 days or East Pakistan would turn lawless. While the talks were still underway, Yahya opted for a military solution for the problem.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 129">{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=129}}</ref> On the night of 25 March, Yahya secretly went back to West Pakistan and commanded the military to attack the core members of the autonomy campaign.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|pages=129–130}}</ref>

On 3 March, student leader Shahjahan Siraj read the 'Sadhinotar Ishtehar' (Declaration of Independence) at ] in front of Mujib at a public gathering under the direction of the ].<ref name="Van Schendel 2009 302">{{cite book |last=Van Schendel |first=Willem |date=2009 | title=A History of Bangladesh | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=302 | isbn=9780521861748}}</ref>

On 7 March, there was a public gathering in ] to hear updates on the ongoing movement from Sheikh Mujib, the leader of the movement. Although he avoided directly referring to independence, as the talks were still underway, he warned his listeners to prepare for any imminent war.<ref name="Van Schendel 2009 302"/> The ] is considered a key moment in the War of Liberation, and is remembered for the phrase,

:::''"Our struggle this time is a struggle for our freedom, our struggle this time is a struggle for our independence...."''

===Formal Declaration of Separation===
]
In the early hours of 26 March 1971, a military crackdown by the Pakistani Army began. The Bangabandhu ] was arrested and the political leaders dispersed, mostly fleeing to neighbouring India where they organised a provisional government. Before being arrested by the Pakistani Army, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman passed a hand written note which contained the ]. This note was widely circulated and transmitted by the then ]' wireless transmitter. The world press reports from late March 1971 also make sure that Bangladesh's declaration of independence by Bangabandhu was widely reported throughout the world. Bengali Army officer Major ] captured the Kalurghat Radio Station<ref name="Posted by Admin">
{{cite web |url=http://newsbd71.blogspot.com/2011/03/flames-of-freedom-beginning-of.html |title=Major Ziaur Rahman's revolt with 8 East Bengal Regiment at Chittagong |publisher=Newsbd71.blogspot.com |date=20 March 2011 |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003062645/http://newsbd71.blogspot.com/2011/03/flames-of-freedom-beginning-of.html |archive-date=3 October 2013 |url-status=live }}
</ref><ref name="youtube">
{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XtAUbEfi58E |title=Zia clarifies his timing of declaration of independence |website=YouTube |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603013031/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XtAUbEfi58E |archive-date=3 June 2015 |url-status=live }}
</ref> in Chittagong and read the declaration of independence of Bangladesh during the evening hours on 27 March.<ref name="bdnews24">{{cite news |url=http://arts.bdnews24.com/?p=2769 |newspaper=bdnews24.com |script-title=bn:সংযোজনস্বাধীনতার ঘোষণা: বেলাল মোহাম্মদের সাক্ষাৎকার |language=bn |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329134219/http://arts.bdnews24.com/?p=2769 |archive-date=29 March 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<blockquote>''This is ]. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that the Independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalis to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.''<ref>
{{cite book |last=Gupta |first=Jyota Sen |date=1974 |title=History of Freedom Movement in Bangladesh, 1943–1973: Some Involvement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DedtAAAAMAAJ&q=temporary |edition=First |location=Calcutta |publisher=Naya Prokash |pages=325–326 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211014/https://books.google.com/books?id=DedtAAAAMAAJ&q=temporary |archive-date=3 June 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}
</ref></blockquote>

The ] was formed on 10 April in Meherpur (later renamed as ], a town adjacent to the Indian border). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was announced to be the Head of the State. ] became the Prime Minister, ] became the acting president and ] the Foreign Minister. There the war plan was sketched out with Bangladesh armed forces established and named "Muktifoujo". Later these forces were named "Muktibahini" (freedom fighters). ] was appointed as the Chief of the Armed Forces.

For military purposes, Bangladesh was divided into 11 sectors under 11 sector commanders. In addition to these sectors, later in the war, three special forces were formed: Z Force, S Force and K Force. These three forces' names were derived from the initial letters of the commander's name. The training and most of the arms and ammunitions were arranged by the Meherpur government which was supported by India. As fighting grew between the Pakistan Army and the Bengali ], an estimated ten million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of ], Tripura and ].

The insurgents were not able to beat the military.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 129"/> The Pakistani military created civilian and paramilitary groups to neutralise the freedom fighters.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=167}}</ref> They recruited Biharis and Bengalis who did not support the separation of East Pakistan.<ref name="Baxter 1997 88">{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=Craig|year=1997|title=Bangladesh: From A Nation to a State |publisher=Westview Press|page=88|isbn=978-0-813-33632-9}}</ref>

India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched ] on North India. The subsequent ] witnessed engagements on two war fronts.

Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India's decision to intervene in Pakistan's civil war. As a result, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the ]. ] helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, thus creating conditions conducive for a full-scale Indian military intervention in early December. The Indian military and Mukti Bahini had the edge with better weaponry, complete air and naval supremacy and support from most locals. With ] achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the ] of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan ] in Dacca on 16 December 1971. 93,000 Pakistani's soldier surrender to Indian army, it was the largest military surrender post World War II.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem van Schendel|title=A History of Bangladesh|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511997419|page=170}}</ref>

==Post 1971 history==
===Zulfikar Ali Bhutto===
In 1972 the leftist ] (PPP) led by ] came to power and in 1973 Pakistan's elected parliament promulgated the 1973 Constitution which proclaimed that no Pakistani law could contradict Islamic laws from the Quran and Sunnah.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Wh8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|title=The Right to Development in International Law: The Case of Pakistan|last=Iqbal|first=Khurshid|publisher=Routledge|year=2009|isbn=978-1-134-01999-1|page=189|quote=The constitution proclaims&nbsp;... that all existing laws shall be brought in accordance with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah, and no law shall be enacted which is repugnant to such injunctions.}}</ref> Bhutto faced vigorous opposition which united under the banner of Nizam e Mustafa (Rule of the Prophet) and demanded the establishment of an Islamic state.<ref name="nasr-45">{{cite book|title=Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism|url=https://archive.org/details/mawdudimakingisl00nasr|url-access=limited|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509695-8|location=New York, Oxford|pages=–6|last1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr}}</ref>

===Zia-ul-Haq era===
] in the early 1980s]]
In 1977 Bhutto was deposed in a bloodless coup by General ], who became the country's third military president. Zia-ul-Haq committed himself to the establishment of ] in Pakistan.<ref name="Kepel-10022">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA100|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|date=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|edition=2006|pages=100–101|last1=Kepel|first1=Gilles|isbn=9781845112578}}</ref>

===Restoration of democracy===
With the ] of President Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, new ] saw the victory of PPP led by ] who was elevated as the country's first female ]. In 1990 she was dismissed by President Ishaq Khan on charges of corruption.

New general elections saw the coming of ] for the first time with ] as the ]. Sharif focused on ] and economic liberalisation of Pakistan. However, he was dismissed in 1993 with new general elections taking place the same year. These election saw the return of ] for the second time but she too was dismissed. The 1997 new general elections saw the return of ].

Tensions between Pakistan and India flared up as India conducted its nuclear tests. This forced Sharif to announce that Pakistan would give a befitting reply. On 23 March 1988, Pakistan conducted its first nuclear tests and became the seventh in the world, second in ] and the first among the Muslim majority countries to have developed nuclear bombs. Tensions were to flare up again in the 1999 ]. Tension between the military and government led to the ].

===Musharaf era===
Appointing himself President after the resignation of President ], Musharraf held nationwide ] in 2002 to transfer the executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister ], who was succeeded in the 2004 by ]. During this time Pakistan again sided with the US in the ]. However, many terrorists sought refuge in Pakistan which resulted in modern wave of ].

Musharraf era saw high ] and scientific growth of Pakistan. Many infrastructure projects were started. But he resigned from office in 2008.

===Democracy restored===
During the election campaign of 2007, Benazir Bhutto was ] which led to a series of important political developments including the ] led by the PPP which saw its return for the third time. But this period saw heavy corruption in the government of Pakistan by PPP. This corruption of the PPP led to a period of ]. In 2012 Prime Minister of Pakistan Yosuf Raza Gillani was dismissed by the Supreme Court on charges of corruption. General elections held in 2013 marked the return of PML(N) with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif assuming the leadership of the country for the third time in its history. Sharif signed an agreement with China for infrastructural development which is called ]. In 2017, Sharif was disqualified from holding the office of Prime Minister and was sentenced to ten years of imprisonment by the ] after the leak of Panama Papers Case. Shahid Khaqqan Abbasi became the Prime Minister.

In the ], ] was elected as the 22nd{{refn|name=PMcounts01|group=n|Ignoring the 7 caretaker Prime Ministers, ] is the 19th person to be Prime Minister of Pakistan. However ]'s two non-consecutive terms (1988 – 1990 and 1993 – 1996) and ]'s three non-consecutive terms (1990 – 1993, 1997 – 1999 and 2013 – 2017) are usually counted separately. As a result some sources count Khan as 19th Prime Minister,<ref name=FirstPost2018-07-27a>{{cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/imran-khan-as-pakistan-pm-india-need-not-take-pti-chiefs-duplicitous-and-insincere-peace-overtures-seriously-4837081.html|title=Imran Khan as Pakistan PM: India need not take PTI chief's insincere 'peace overtures' seriously|work=]|author=Sreemoy Talukdar | date=27 July 2018|access-date=18 August 2018|quote=The Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) chief, who is poised to take over as Pakistan's 19th prime minister,}}</ref><ref name=WashingtonTimes2018-08-15a>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/aug/15/imran-khan-faces-corruption-pakistan-prime-ministe/|title=Famed cricketer turned prime minister faces widespread corruption in his effort to fix Pakistan|newspaper=]|author=Naila Inayat| date=15 August 2018|access-date=18 August 2018|quote= ... Imran Khan, the legendary cricketer turned politician who is now slated to become Pakistan's 19th prime minister,}}</ref> but most count him as 22nd.<ref name=TheNews2018-08-18a>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/356496-live-updates-election-for-next-prime-minister-of-pakistan-underway-in-national-assembly |title=Imran Khan elected 22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan |publisher=]| date=18 August 2018|access-date=18 August 2018}}</ref><ref name=DunyaNews2018-08-18a>{{cite web|url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/453141-Imran-Khan-Prime-Minister-President-House-oath-taking-ceremony|title=Imran Khan sworn-in as 22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan |publisher=]| date=18 August 2018|access-date=18 August 2018}}</ref><ref name=TimesOfIndia2018-08-18a>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/imran-khan-takes-oath-as-22nd-prime-minister-of-pakistan/articleshow/65448415.cms|title=Imran Khan takes oath as 22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan |newspaper=]| date=18 August 2018|access-date=18 August 2018}}</ref> This counting system does not treat Nawaz Sharif's two periods in office in 1993 (separated by ]'s brief stint as caretaker) as separate terms.}} Prime Minister of the country.


== See also == == See also ==
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* ] * ]
* ] * ]
** ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
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* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
{{div col end}} {{div col end}}


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}} {{reflist|group=note}}
<references group="n"/>


== References == == References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last1=Wynbrant |first1=James |year=2012 |title=A Brief History of Pakistan |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8160-6184-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa0000wynb}}
* ''The Imperial Gazetteer of India'' (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of Pakistan & India in 1901. * ''The Imperial Gazetteer of India'' (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of Pakistan & India in 1901.
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ghurids |last=Bosworth |first=C. Edmund |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. X, Fasc. 6 |pages=586–590 |year=2001b}}
* {{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |author-link=Richard M. Eaton |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=2019 |publisher=Allen Lane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0713995824}}
* {{cite book |author=John D Grainger |title=Seleukos Nikator (Routledge Revivals): Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TXKAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-80098-9 }}
* Jalal, Ayesha ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Pakistani History'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) 558 pp. Topical essays by leading scholars * Jalal, Ayesha ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Pakistani History'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) 558 pp. Topical essays by leading scholars
* {{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |edition=4th |year=2004 |publisher=] |location=] |isbn=0-415-15481-2 |ref={{harvid|Hermann Kulke|2004}}}}
* {{cite book |author=R. K. Mookerji |author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA3 |year=1966 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0405-0 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6h2_DwAAQBAJ |title=The Ebb and Flow of the Ghūrid Empire |date=2018 |publisher=Sydney University Press |isbn=978-1-74332-542-1 |language=en}}
* {{citation |first=Michael |last=Witzel |author-link=Michael Witzel |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/dialects.pdf |title=Tracing the Vedic dialects, in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes |editor=Colette Caillat |editor-link=Colette Caillat |location=Paris |publisher=de Boccard |year=1989 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wynbrandt |first1=James |title=A Brief History of Pakistan |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |location=New York}}


=== Surveys === === Surveys ===
* Bose, Sugata, and Ayesha Jalal. "Modern South Asia : History, Culture, Political Economy". Fourth edition. London ;: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2018 {{ISBN|978-1-138-24368-2}}
* Burki, Shahid Javed. ''Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationhood'' (3rd ed. 1999) * Burki, Shahid Javed. ''Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationhood'' (3rd ed. 1999)
* Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). ''A history of Pakistan and its origins''. London: Anthem Press. {{ISBN|978-1-84331-149-2}}. * Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). ''A history of Pakistan and its origins''. London: Anthem Press. {{ISBN|978-1-84331-149-2}}.
* Jalal, Ayesha, Democracy and authoritarianism in South Asia: A comparative and historical perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
* Ludden, David, India and South Asia: A short history, 2nd edn (Oxford: One World, 2013)
* Metcalf, Barbara and T.R. and Metcalf, A concise history of modern India, 3rd edn (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012)
* Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). '']''. Karachi: University of Karachi. * Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). '']''. Karachi: University of Karachi.
* Talbot, Ian. ''Pakistan: A Modern History'' (2010) {{ISBN|0230623042}}. * Talbot, Ian. ''Pakistan: A Modern History'' (2010) {{ISBN|0230623042}}.
* Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh. "The partition of India", Cambridge 2009
* Wilson, Jon, India conquered: Britain's Raj and the passions of Empire (London: Simon & Schuster, 2016)
* Ziring, Lawrence (1997). ''Pakistan in the twentieth century : a political history''. Karachi; New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-577816-8}}. * Ziring, Lawrence (1997). ''Pakistan in the twentieth century : a political history''. Karachi; New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-577816-8}}.


=== Further reading === === Further reading ===
* Ahmed, Akbar . "Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity : the Search for Saladin", London ;: Routledge, 1997.
* Ahmed, Akbar S. (1976). ''''. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. {{ISBN|978-0-7100-8348-7}}. * Ahmed, Akbar S. (1976). ''''. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. {{ISBN|978-0-7100-8348-7}}.
* ]; ] (1982). ''The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24244-8}}. * ]; ] (1982). ''The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24244-8}}.
* Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan (1977). ''History of the Baluch race and Baluchistan''. Quetta: Gosha-e-Adab. * Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan (1977). ''History of the Baluch race and Baluchistan''. Quetta: Gosha-e-Adab.
* Bolitho, Hector. "Jinnah, Creator of Pakistan", London: J. Murray, 1954.
* {{The History of al-Tabari|volume=14}}
* Weiner, Myron; Ali Banuazizi (1994). ''The Politics of social transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan''. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2608-4}}. * Weiner, Myron; Ali Banuazizi (1994). ''The Politics of social transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan''. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2608-4}}.
* ] (1988). ''Daughter of the East''. London: Hamilton. {{ISBN|978-0-241-12398-0}}. * ] (1988). ''Daughter of the East''. London: Hamilton. {{ISBN|978-0-241-12398-0}}.
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* Hardy, Peter (1972). ''The Muslims of British India''. London: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-08488-8}}. * Hardy, Peter (1972). ''The Muslims of British India''. London: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-08488-8}}.
* ] (1992). '']''. New York: Kodansha International. {{ISBN|978-4-7700-1703-1}}. * ] (1992). '']''. New York: Kodansha International. {{ISBN|978-4-7700-1703-1}}.
* Ikram, S. M. "Makers of Pakistan and Modern Muslim India", Lahore, 1970
* ] (1934). ''The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam''. London: Oxford University Press. * ] (1934). ''The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam''. London: Oxford University Press.
* Kahn, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2008) * Jalal, Ayesha. "The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the demand for Pakistan", Cambridge 1985, {{ISBN|0-521-45850-1}}
* Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.
* Jalal, Ayesha. “Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining.” International journal of Middle East studies 27, no. 1 (1995), 73–89.
* Jalal, Ayesha. “Inheriting the Raj: Jinnah and the Governor-Generalship Issue.” Modern Asian studies 19, no. 1 (1985), 29–53.
* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2008)
* ] (1998). ''Ancient cities of the Indus valley civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-577940-0}}. * ] (1998). ''Ancient cities of the Indus valley civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-577940-0}}.
* ] (1992). ''To the frontier: a journey to the Khyber Pass''. New York: H. Holt. {{ISBN|978-0-8050-2109-7}}. * ] (1992). ''To the frontier: a journey to the Khyber Pass''. New York: H. Holt. {{ISBN|978-0-8050-2109-7}}.
* ]. ''Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity'', 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-19-547811-2}} * ]. ''Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity'', 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-19-547811-2}}
* Sayeed, Khalid B. Pakistan : the Formative Phase, 1857–1948. 2nd ed. London Oxford University Press, 1968.
* Sidky, H. (2000). ''The Greek kingdom of Bactria : from Alexander to Eucratides the Great''. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-1695-9}}. * Sidky, H. (2000). ''The Greek kingdom of Bactria : from Alexander to Eucratides the Great''. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-1695-9}}.
* Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose, eds. ''War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh'' (1991) * Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose, eds. ''War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh'' (1991)
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{{Sister project links}} {{Sister project links}}
* , a peer-reviewed semiannual scholarly journal sponsored by the Khaldunia Centre for Historical Research in Lahore, Pakistan. * , a peer-reviewed semiannual scholarly journal sponsored by the Khaldunia Centre for Historical Research in Lahore, Pakistan.
* * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126031510/http://www.heritage.gov.pk/ |date=26 January 2021 }}
* *
* *
* *
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/Pakistan/Society_and_Culture/History}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Pakistan#History maps|the History of Pakistan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Pakistan#History maps|the History of Pakistan}}


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{{Pakistan Movement}} {{Pakistan Movement}}
{{Pakistan topics}} {{Pakistan topics}}
]


{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Pakistan}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History of Pakistan}}

Latest revision as of 13:04, 23 December 2024

This article is about the pre-1947 history of Pakistan. For post-1946 history, see History of Pakistan (1947–present).

Part of a series on the
History of Pakistan
Statue of an Indus priest or king found in Mohenjodaro, 1927
Timeline
Ancient
Classical
Medieval
Early modern
Modern
History of provinces
Part of a series on the
Culture of Pakistan
History
People
Languages
Traditions
folklore
Cuisine
Eastern
Western
Northern
Overseas and fusion
Festivals
Religion
Art
Literature
Music and performing arts
Media
Sport
Monuments
Symbols
History of South Asia
South Asia (orthographic projection)
Outline
Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)
Madrasian culture
Soanian culture
Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)
Bhirrana culture (7570–6200 BC)
Mehrgarh culture (7000–3300 BC)
Edakkal culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC)
Ahar-Banas culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu culture (1600–750 BC)
Malwa culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Indus Valley Civilisation(3300–1300 BC)
 – Early Harappan culture(3300–2600 BC)
 – Mature Harappan culture(2600–1900 BC)
 – Late Harappan culture(1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(2000–500 BC)
 – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture(2000–1600 BC)
 – Swat culture(1600–500 BC)
Iron Age (1500–200 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(1500–500 BC)
 – Janapadas (1500–600 BC)
 – Black and Red ware culture(1300–1000 BC)
 – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
 – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)
Pradyota dynasty (799–684 BC)
Haryanka dynasty (684–424 BC)
Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC – AD 1600)
Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC)
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Ror Dynasty (450 BC – AD 489)
Shaishunaga dynasty (424–345 BC)
Nanda Empire (380–321 BC)
Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Sangam period (c. 300 BC – c. 300 AD)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206)
Satavahana Empire (230 BC – AD 220)
Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC – AD 300)
Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 – c. 50 BC)
Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – AD 10)
Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)
Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC – AD 400)
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21 – c. 130)
Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 )
Kushan Empire (AD 60–240)
Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350)
Nagas of Padmavati (210–340)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360)
Vakataka Empire (c. 250 – c. 500)
Kalabhras Empire (c. 250 – c. 600)
Gupta Empire (280–550)
Kadamba Empire (345–525)
Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000)
Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100)
Vishnukundina Empire (420–624)
Maitraka Empire (475–767)
Huna Kingdom (475–576)
Rai Kingdom (489–632)
Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500 – 1026)
Chalukya Empire (543–753)
Maukhari Empire (c. 550 – c. 700)
Harsha Empire (606–647)
Tibetan Empire (618–841)
Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Mallabhum kingdom (694–1947)
Bhauma-Kara Kingdom (736–916)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982)
Paramara Kingdom (800–1327)
Yadava Empire (850–1334)
Somavamshi Kingdom (882–1110)
Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244)
Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189)
Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320)
Hoysala Empire (1040–1347)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675–1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300)
Late medieval period (1206–1526)
Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186)
Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206)
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
 – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
 – Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
 – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
 – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
 – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Empire (1434–1541)
Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842)
Deccan sultanates (1490–1596)
 – Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)
 – Berar sultanate (1490–1574)
 – Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)
 – Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)
 – Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom (1515–1947)
Early modern period (1526–1858)
Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
Sur Empire (1540–1556)
Madurai Kingdom (1529–1736)
Thanjavur Kingdom (1532–1673)
Bhoi dynasty (1541–1804)
Bengal Subah (1576–1757)
Marava Kingdom (1600–1750)
Sikkim Kingdom (1642–1975)
Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799)
Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947)
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Colonial states (1510–1961)
Portuguese India (1510–1961)
Dutch India (1605–1825)
Danish India (1620–1869)
French India (1759–1954)
Company Raj (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)
National histories
Regional histories
Specialised histories
A map outlining historical sites in Pakistan

The History of Pakistan prior to its independence in 1947 spans several millennia and covers a vast geographical area known as the Greater Indus region. Anatomically modern humans arrived in what is now Pakistan between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Stone tools, dating as far back as 2.1 million years, have been discovered in the Soan Valley of northern Pakistan, indicating early hominid activity in the region. The earliest known human remains in Pakistan are dated between 5000 BCE and 3000 BCE. By around 7000 BCE, early human settlements began to emerge in Pakistan, leading to the development of urban centres such as Mehrgarh, one of the oldest in human history. By 4500 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization evolved, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE along the Indus River. The region that now constitutes Pakistan served both as the cradle of a major ancient civilization and as a strategic gateway connecting South Asia with Central Asia and the Near East.

Situated on the first coastal migration route of Homo sapiens out of Africa, the region was inhabited early by modern humans. The 9,000-year history of village life in South Asia traces back to the Neolithic (7000–4300 BCE) site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan, and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, including Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.

Following the decline of the Indus valley civilization, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia originally from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe in several waves of migration in the Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE), bringing with them came their distinctive religious traditions and Practices which fused with local culture. The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the Bactria–Margiana culture and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley Civilisation eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes. Most notable among them was Gandhara civilization, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations. The initial early Vedic culture was a tribal, pastoral society centred in the Indus Valley, of what is today Pakistan. During this period the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.

The ensuing millennia saw the region of present-day Pakistan absorb many influences represented among others in the ancient, mainly Hindu-Buddhist, sites of Taxila, and Takht-i-Bahi, the 14th-century Islamic-Sindhi monuments of Thatta, and the 17th-century Mughal monuments of Lahore. In the first half of the 19th century, the region was appropriated by the East India Company, followed, after 1857, by 90 years of direct British rule, and ending with the creation of Pakistan in 1947, through the efforts, among others, of its future national poet Allama Iqbal and its founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Since then, the country has experienced both civilian democratic and military rule, resulting in periods of significant economic and military growth as well as those of instability; significant during the latter, was the 1971 secession of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh.

Prehistory

Paleolithic period

The Soanian is archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic, Acheulean. It is named after the Soan Valley in the Sivalik Hills, near modern-day Islamabad and is dated between c.774,000 and c.11,700 BCE.

Neolithic period

Main article: Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh is an important neolithic site discovered in 1974, which shows early evidence of farming and herding, and dentistry. The site dates back to 7000–5500 BCE and is located on the Kachi Plain of Balochistan. The residents of Mehrgarh lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools from copper, cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed (5500–2600 BCE) residents began to engage in crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metalworking. The site was occupied continuously until 2600 BCE, when climatic changes began to occur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favor of the Indus Valley, where a new civilization was in the early stages of development.

Bronze age

Indus Valley Civilisation

Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation Indus Valley CivilizationThe "Priest King" sculpture is carved from steatite.The Pashupati sealThe Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daroExcavated ruins of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh
Indus Valley Civilisation

The Bronze Age in the Indus Valley began around 3300 BCE with the Indus Valley Civilization. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three the most widespread, covering an area of 1.25 million km. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, in what is today the Pakistani provinces of Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan, and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River in parts of north-west India. At its peak, the civilization hosted a population of approximately 5 million spread across hundreds of settlements extending as far as the Arabian Sea to present-day southern and eastern Afghanistan, and the Himalayas. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation in the Indus Valley. The civilisation included urban centres such as Harappa, Ganeriwala and Mohenjo-daro as well as an offshoot called the Kulli culture (2500–2000 BCE) in southern Balochistan and was noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses. It is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation as well.

During the late period of this civilisation, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived. Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. The civilization collapsed around 1700 BCE, though the reasons behind its fall are still unknown. Through the excavation of the Indus cities and analysis of town planning and seals, it has been inferred that the Civilization had high level of sophistication in its town planning, arts, crafts, and trade.

Early history – Iron Age

Vedic period

Main articles: Vedic period, Indo-Aryan Migration, Indo-Aryans, and Vedas Further information: Sintashta culture
Archaeological cultures. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryans.

The Vedic Period (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) is postulated to have formed during the 1500 BCE to 800 BCE. As Indo-Aryans migrated and settled into the Indus Valley, along with them came their distinctive religious traditions and practices which fused with local culture. The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the Bactria–Margiana Culture and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley Civilisation eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes. Early Indo-Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life. During this period the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.

Ancient history

Achaemenid Empire

Main article: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley
Much of the area corresponding to modern-day Pakistan was subordinated to the Achaemenid Empire and forced to pay tributes to Persia.
Ruins at Bhir Mound representing the city of Taxila during the Achaemenid period

The main Vedic tribes remaining in the Indus Valley by 550 BC were the Kamboja, Sindhu, Taksas of Gandhara, the Madras and Kathas of the River Chenab, Mallas of the River Ravi and Tugras of the River Sutlej. These several tribes and principalities fought against one another to such an extent that the Indus Valley no longer had one powerful Vedic tribal kingdom to defend against outsiders and to wield the warring tribes into one organized kingdom. King Pushkarasarin of Gandhara was engaged in power struggles against his local rivals and as such the Khyber Pass remained poorly defended. King Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire took advantage of the opportunity and planned for an invasion. The Indus Valley was fabled in Persia for its gold and fertile soil and conquering it had been a major objective of his predecessor Cyrus the Great. In 542 BC, Cyrus had led his army and conquered the Makran coast in southern Balochistan. However, he is known to have campaigned beyond Makran (in the regions of Kalat, Khuzdar and Panjgur) and lost most of his army in the Gedrosian Desert (speculated today as the Kharan Desert).

In 518 BC, Darius led his army through the Khyber Pass and southwards in stages, eventually reaching the Arabian Sea coast in Sindh by 516 BC. Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time, establishing several satrapies: Gandāra around the general region of Gandhara, Hindush around Punjab and Sindh, Arachosia, encompassing parts of present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan, Sattagydia around the Bannu basin, and Gedrosia covering much of the Makran region of southern Balochistan.

What is known about the easternmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Empire is alluded to in the Darius inscriptions and from Greek sources such as the Histories of Herodotus and the later Alexander Chronicles (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources list three Indus Valley tributaries or conquered territories that were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings.

Macedonian Empire

Main articles: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great and Macedonian Empire
Alexander's campaigns in modern-day Pakistan
Porus, with Alexander the Great

By spring of 326 BC, Alexander began on his Indus expedition from Bactria, leaving behind 3500 horses and 10,000 soldiers. He divided his army into two groups. The larger force would enter the Indus Valley through the Khyber Pass, just as Darius had done 200 years earlier, while a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander entered through a northern route, possibly through Broghol or Dorah Pass near Chitral. Alexander was commanding a group of shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians, and horse-javelin-men and led them against the tribes of the former Gandhara satrapy.

The first tribe they encountered were the Aspasioi tribe of the Kunar Valley, who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved. Alexander then continued in a southwestern direction where he encountered the Assakenoi tribe of the Swat & Buner valleys in April 326 BC. The Assakenoi fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander and his army in the cities of Ora, Bazira (Barikot) and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander about the resistance put up by the Assakenoi that he killed the entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubble – similar slaughters followed in Ora. A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters reached numerous Assakenians, who began fleeing to Aornos, a hill-fort located between Shangla and Kohistan. Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort, eventually capturing and destroying the fort and killing everyone inside. The remaining smaller tribes either surrendered or like the Astanenoi tribe of Pushkalavati (Charsadda) were quickly neutralized where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen were captured by Alexander. Eventually Alexander's smaller force would meet with the larger force which had come through the Khyber Pass met at Attock. With the conquest of Gandhara complete, Alexander switched to strengthening his military supply line, which by now stretched dangerously vulnerable over the Hindu Kush back to Balkh in Bactria.

After conquering Gandhara and solidifying his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander combined his forces with the King Ambhi of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in July 326 BC to begin the Archosia (Punjab) campaign. His first resistance would come at the River Jhelum near Bhera against King Porus of the Paurava tribe. The famous Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) between Alexander (with Ambhi) and Porus would be the last major battle fought by him. After defeating Porus, his battle weary troops refused to advance into India to engage the army of Nanda Dynasty and its vanguard of trampling elephants. Alexander, therefore proceeded south-west along the Indus Valley. Along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms in Multan and Sindh, before marching his army westward across the Makran desert towards what is now Iran. In crossing the desert, Alexander's army took enormous casualties from hunger and thirst, but fought no human enemy. They encountered the "Fish Eaters", or Ichthyophagi, primitive people who lived on the Makran coast, who had matted hair, no fire, no metal, no clothes, lived in huts made of whale bones, and ate raw seafood.

Mauryan Empire

Main articles: Maurya Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Greco-Buddhism
Maurya Empire under king Ashoka, c.250 BCE.

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The Maurya Empire was centralized by the conquest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and its capital city was located at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Outside this imperial centre, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities sprinkling it. During Ashoka's rule (ca. 268–232 BCE) the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the Indian subcontinent excepting the deep south. It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185 BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga and foundation of the Shunga Empire in Magadha.

Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of Chanakya, author of Arthasastra, and overthrew the Nanda Empire in c. 322 BCE. Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the satraps left by Alexander the Great, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India. The Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus acquiring territory west of the Indus River.

Under the Mauryas, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built a precursor of the Grand Trunk Road from Patliputra to Taxila. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka. Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism and sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith into Sri Lanka, northwest India, and Central Asia.

The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million. The empire's period of dominion was marked by exceptional creativity in art, architecture, inscriptions and produced texts.

Classical history – Middle Kingdoms

Indo-Greek Kingdom

Main articles: Indo-Greek Kingdom, Greco-Buddhist art, and Indo-Greek art
Territory of the Indo-Greeks, circa 150 BC
Greco-Buddhist representation of the Buddha, seated to the left of a depiction of Vajrapani in the guise of the Hellenic god Heracles

The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming king shortly after his victory. His territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan and extended to the Punjab region, with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as Mathura. The capital Sagala (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors.

The classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha praises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India". His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ("Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or "King")). Various petty kings ruled into the early 1st century CE, until the conquests by the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty.

It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and Asiatic mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara, straddling western Pakistan and southern Afghanistan. Detailed, humanistic representations of the Buddha begin to emerge, depicting the figure with a close resemblance to the Hellenic god Apollo; Greek mythological motifs such as centaurs, Bacchanalian scenes, Nereids and deities such as Tyche and Heracles are prominent in the Buddhistic art of ancient Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Indo-Scythian Kingdom

A stone palette of the type found in the Early Saka layer at Sirkap, Punjab
Territories and expansion of the Indo-Scythians at their greatest extent, including territories of the Northern Satraps and Western Satraps.

The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Central Asia into Pakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty. Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire from eastern India in the 4th century.

Indo-Parthian Kingdom

Main articles: Apracharajas and Paratarajas
Ancient Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) constructed by the Indo-Parthians
Indo-Parthian Kingdom at its maximum extent, circa 40 CE, and neighbouring South Asian polities.

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler Gondophares. They ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India, during or slightly before the 1st century AD. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares, which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. Christian writings claim that the Apostle Saint Thomas – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a long sojourn in the court of king Gondophares, had built a palace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for Indus Valley in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach Malabar Coast.

Kushan Empire

Main articles: Kushan Empire, Kushan coinage, and Kanishka
Peshawar's Kanishka stupa once kept sacred Buddhist relics in the Kanishka casket.
A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in green) during the reign of Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain, to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra.

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. They were descended from an Indo-European, Central Asian people called the Yuezhi, a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares).

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority. The monumental Kanishka stupa is believed to have been established by the king near the outskirts of modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan.

The Kushan dynasty played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China. Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka in particular:

He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandharan Art, which reached its peak during Kushan Rule.

H.G. Rowlinson commented:

The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.

By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.

Alchon Huns

The Alchon Empire was the third of four major Huna states established in Central and South Asia. The Alchon were preceded by the Kidarites and succeeded by the Hephthalites in Bactria and the Nezak Huns in the Hindu Kush. The names of the Alchon kings are known from their extensive coinage, Buddhist accounts, and a number of commemorative inscriptions throughout the Indian subcontinent. Toramana's son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved up to near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to central India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned. The Alchons have long been considered as a part or a sub-division of the Hephthalites, or as their eastern branch, but now tend to be considered as a separate entity. The Huns were defeated by the alliance of Indian rulers, Maharaja (Great King) Yasodharman of Malwa and Gupta Emperor Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.

Medieval period

Arab Caliphate

Main articles: Rashidun Caliphate and Umayyad Caliphate Further information: Caliphate campaigns in India
The expansion of the Arab Caliphate.   Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632   Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661   Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

After conquering the Middle East from the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire, the Rashidun Caliphate reached the coastal region of Makran in present-day Balochistan. In 643, the second caliph Umar (r. 634–644) ordered an invasion of Makran against the Rai dynasty. Following the Rashidun capture of Makran, Umar restricted the army to not pass beyond and consolidated his position in Makran. During the reign of the fourth caliph Ali (r. 656–661), the Rashidun army conquered the town of Kalat in the heart of Balochistan. During the reign of the sixth Umayyad caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715), the Arab military general Muhammad ibn al-Qasim commanded the Umayyad incursion into Sindh. In 712, he defeated the army of the Hindu maharaja Dahir of Aror (r. 695–712) and established the caliphal province of Sind. The historic town of al-Mansura was administered as the capital of the province. Afterward, Ibn al-Qasim proceeded to conquer Multan, which subsequently became a prominent centre of Islamic culture and trading. In 747, the anti-Umayyad rebel Mansur ibn Jumhur al-Kalbi seized Sind and was defeated by Musa ibn Ka'b al-Tamimi of the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate. In the 9th-century, Abbasid authority gradually declined in Sind and Multan. The tenth Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) assigned the governorship of Sind to Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Habbari, who founded the hereditary Habbarid dynasty and became the autonomous ruler of Sind in 854. Around the same time, the Banu Munnabih established the Emirate of Multan while Ma'danids reigned over Sultanate of Makran. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hindus and Buddhists remained numerous. By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu kings.

Zutt Rebellion

Main article: Zutt Rebellion Further information: Zuṭṭ
Map of Iraq in the later 9th century, showing the area of the Zutt Rebellion.

The Zutt Rebellion was an uprising by the Zutt tribe, who were originally from the Indus Valley region in modern-day Pakistan . The tribe, part of the Jat group, had migrated to the region of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) centuries before the rebellion. Over time, the Zutt became mercenaries for the Ummayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, settling in southern Iraq and forming the Banu Zutt or Az-Zutt tribe.

The rebellion began around 810, when Yusuf ibn Zutt, a leader of the tribe, challenged the Abbasid Caliphate and established semi-independent control over the marshlands of southern Iraq, including important areas like Kufa and Basra. The rebellion disrupted resource supplies to Baghdad, putting the Abbasid Caliphate in jeopardy. For years, the Zutt were successful in their raids, causing heavy damage to Abbasid forces and leaders. Their actions contributed heavily to the weakening of the Abbasid Empire, with their guerrilla tactics and raids advancing deep into Abbasid territory, further destabilizing the region.

The rebellion continued to cause turmoil until 835, when the Abbasid Caliphate, under Caliph al-Mu'tasim, managed to suppress the uprising. However, this was no easy feat, as the Zutt's continued resistance disrupted the central authority for years.

The rebellion was led by Muhammad ibn Uthman after Yusuf ibn Zutt, and the Zutt continued to control parts of southern Iraq, employing guerrilla tactics in the marshes. However, the Abbasids eventually managed to quash the resistance by deploying specialized forces that neutralized the Zutt's ability to conduct raids, leading to the collapse of their semi-independent state.

Following the defeat of the Zutt, the Abbasid Caliphate dispersed the tribe to prevent future uprisings, and their influence in the region diminished. Despite their loss, Muhammad ibn Uthman retained his position as a leader but with reduced power.

Odi Shahis

Main articles: Turk Shahis and Hindu Shahi
Amb Temples, built by the Hindu Shahi dynasty between the 7th and 9th centuries CE

The Turk Shahis ruled Gandhara from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century until 870, when they were overthrown by the Hindu Shahis. The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana in Gandhara.

The first king Kallar had moved the capital into Udabandhapura from Kabul, in the modern village of Hund for its new capital. At its zenith, the kingdom stretched over the Kabul Valley, Gandhara and western Punjab under Jayapala. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles. Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity. Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more. Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region between the Kabul Valley and Indus River.

However, the army was defeated in battle against the western forces, particularly against the Mahmud of Ghazni. In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle of Peshawar, he died because of regretting as his subjects brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.

Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala, who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dynasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik Hills.

Ghaznavid dynasty

Main article: Ghaznavids
Ghaznavid Empire at its greatest extent in 1030 CE

In 997 CE, the Turkic ruler Mahmud of Ghazni, took over the Ghaznavid dynasty empire established by his father, Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler. Starting from the city of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan), Mehmood conquered the bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar against the Hindu Shahis in Kabul in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of Punjab (1007), deposed the Shia Ismaili rulers of Multan, (1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). By the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmud's empire briefly extended from Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and Ferdowsi described extensive building work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud's support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts.

Mahmud's successors, known as the Ghaznavids, ruled for 157 years. Their kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was racked by bitter succession struggles. The Hindu Rajput kingdoms of western India reconquered the eastern Punjab, and by the 1160s, the line of demarcation between the Ghaznavid state and the Hindu kingdoms approximated to the present-day boundary between India and Pakistan. The Ghurid Empire of central Afghanistan occupied Ghazni around 1160, and the Ghaznavid capital was shifted to Lahore. Later Muhammad Ghori conquered the Ghaznavid kingdom, occupying Lahore in 1187.

Ghurid dynasty

Main article: Ghurid dynasty
Map of Ghurid territory, before the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor. In the west, Ghurid territory extended to Nishapur and Merv, while Ghurid troops reached as far as Gorgan on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Eastward, the Ghurids invaded as far as Bengal.

The Ghaznavids under either Khusrau Shah or his son Khusrau Malik lost their control over Ghazni to the Ghuzz Turks along with some other territories. In the 1170s, Ghurid prince Muhammad of Ghor raided their territory and captured Ghazni from them and was crowned there by his brother Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad in 1173. Muhammad of Ghor marched from Gomal Pass into Pakistan and captured Multan and Uch before being rebuffed by Gujarat's Hindu Chaulukya (Solanki) rulers, which forced him to press upon the trumbling Ghaznavids. By 1186–87, he deposed the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik, bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. The Ghurids were overthrown in 1215, although their conquests in the Indian Subcontinent survived for several centuries under the Delhi Sultanate established by the Ghurid Mamluk Qutb ud-Din Aibak.

Delhi Sultanate

Main article: Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate at its greatest extent, under the Tughlaq dynasty, 1330–1335.
Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam, built by Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq in 1324 CE

The Turkic origin Mamluk Dynasty, seized the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several dynasties ruled their empires from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–90), the Khalji (1290–1320), the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Sayyid (1414–1451) and the Lodhi (1451–1526). Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi, almost all of the Indus plain came under the rule of these large sultanates.

The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations with rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. While the sultans ruled from urban centres, their military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting "Indo-Islamic" fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and religious customs. In addition, the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects, but more likely "city" in the South Asian context) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of the mingling of speakers of native Prakrits, Persian, Turkish and Arabic languages.

Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the 13th century; nonetheless the sultans eventually lost western Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate dynasty). The Sultanate declined after the invasion of Emperor Timur, who founded the Timurid Empire, and was eventually conquered in 1526 by the Mughal Emperor Babar.

The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire attracted Muslim refugees, nobles, technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, artisans, teachers, poets, artists, theologians and Sufis from the rest of the Muslim world and they migrated and settled in the South Asia. During the reign of Sultan Ghyasuddin Balban (1266–1286) thousands of Central Asian Muslims sought asylum including more than 15 sovereigns and their nobles due to the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran. At the court of Sultan Iltemish in Delhi the first wave of these Muslim refugees escaping from the Central Asian genocide by the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan, brought administrators from Iran, painters from China, theologians from Samarkand, Nishapur and Bukhara, divines and saints from the rest of Muslim world, craftsmen and men and maidens from every region, notably doctors adept in Greek medicine and philosophers from everywhere.

Kingdom of Sindh

Soomra dynasty

Main article: Soomra dynasty

The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between the early 11th century and the 14th century.

Later chroniclers like Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid. The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.

The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus. The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centred in lower Sindh.

Some of them were adherents of Isma'ilism. One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to Iltutmish, the Sultan of Delhi, and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.

Samma dynasty

Main article: Samma dynasty Makli NecropolisThe Makli Necropolis at Thatta is one of the largest funerary sites in the world.

The Samma dynasty was a Sindhi dynasty that ruled in Sindh, and parts of Kutch, Punjab and Balochistan from c. 1351 to c. 1524 CE, with their capital at Thatta.

The Sammas overthrew the Soomra dynasty soon after 1335 and the last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of Gujarat, under the protection of Muhammad bin Tughluq, the sultan of Delhi. Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent. Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta.

The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the Makli Hill. It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta.

Early Modern Period

Mughal Empire

Main article: Mughal Empire Further information: Mughal Architecture, Mughal clothing, and Mughlai cuisine
The empire at its greatest extent in c. 1700 under Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707)
Mughal Architecture in PakistanShalimar Gardens at LahoreThe Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore Fort was built during the reign of Aurangzeb.Diwan-i-Khas at Lahore Fort was built during the reign of Shah Jahan.The Badshahi Mosque, built by Aurangzeb, is one of the largest mosques in Pakistan.Wazir Khan Mosque at Lahore, richly decorated with Mughal frescoesThe Akbari Sarai features a monumental gateway that leads to the Tomb of Jahangir.

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and founded the Mughal Empire, covering parts of modern-day eastern- Afghanistan, much of what is now Pakistan, parts of India and Bangladesh. The Mughals were descended from Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture).

However, his son and successor Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri who was from Bihar state of India, in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah died, his son Islam Shah Suri became the ruler, on whose death his prime minister, Hemu ascended the throne and ruled North India from Delhi for one month. He was defeated by Emperor Akbar's forces in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.

Akbar, was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favoured an early form of multiculturalism. For example, he declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism and rolled back the jizya tax imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the South Asia by 1600. The Mughal emperors married local royalty and allied themselves with local maharajas. Akbar was succeeded by Jahangir who was succeeded by Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan was replaced by Aurangzeb following the Mughal war of succession (1658–1659).

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, different regions of modern Pakistan and India began asserting independence. The empire went into a rapid decline and by about 1720 only really controlled a small region around Delhi. The emperors continued have lip service paid to them as "Emperor of India" by the other powers in South Asia until the British finally abolished the empire in 1858.

For a short time in the late 16th century, Lahore was the capital of the empire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals includes the Lahore Fort, Wazir Khan Mosque, Shalimar Gardens, Tomb of Jahangir, Tomb of Nur Jahan, Akbari Sarai, Hiran Minar, Shah Jahan Mosque and the Badshahi Mosque. The Mughal Empire had a great impact on the culture, cuisine, and architecture of Pakistan.

Maratha Empire

Main article: Maratha Confederacy

By early 18th century, the Mughal empire declined. In 1749, the Mughals were induced to cede Sindh, the Punjab region and the important trans Indus River to Ahmad Shah Durrani in order to save his capital from Afghan attack. Ahmad Shah sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son Timur Shah to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan.

In 1751–52, Ahamdiya treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled whole of India from their capital at Pune and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the Maratha Confederacy.

The Bala Hissar fort in Peshawar was one of the royal residences of the Durrani kings.

In 1758, the Maratha Empire's general Raghunath Rao attacked and conquered Punjab, frontier regions and Kashmir and drove out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali. In 1759, the Marathas and its allies won the Battle of Lahore, defeating the Durranis, hence, Lahore, Dera Ghazi Khan, Multan, Peshawar, Kashmir, and other subahs on the south eastern side of Afghanistan's border fell under the Maratha rule.

Ahmad Shah declared a jihad (or Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army. Early skirmishes were followed by decisive victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. Although the Durrani's army decisively defeated the Marathas, they suffered heavily in the battle.

The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's—and Afghan—power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to face challenges in the form of a rising Sikhs in Punjab. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. From this time and on, the domination and control of the Empire began to loosen, and by the time of Durrani's death he had completely lost Punjab to the Sikhs, as well as earlier losses of northern territories to the Uzbeks, necessitating a compromise with them.

Sikh Empire

Main articles: Sikh Empire and History of Sikhism
Samadhi of Ranjit Singh, with the minaret of Badshahi Mosque in the background

Guru Nanak (29 November 1469 – 22 September 1539), Sikhism's founder, was born into a Hindu Khatri family in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī (present day Nankana, near Sial in modern-day Pakistan). He was an influential religious and social reformer in north India and the saintly founder of a modern monotheistic order and first of the ten divine Gurus of Sikh religion. At the age of 70, he died at Kartarpur, Punjab of modern-day Pakistan.

The Sikh Empire (1799–1849) was formed on the foundations of the Sikh Khalsa Army by Maharaja Ranjit Singh who was proclaimed "Sarkar-i-Khalsa", and was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore". It consisted of a collection of autonomous Punjabi Misls, which were governed by Misldars, mainly in the Punjab region. The empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Multan in the south and Kapurthala in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region. The formation of the empire was a watershed and represented formidable consolidation of Sikh military power and resurgence of local culture, which had been dominated for hundreds of years by Indo-Afghan and Indo-Mughal hybrid cultures.

The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the Sikh Khalsa Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of Aurangzeb. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the Sikh army to lead expeditions against the Mughals and Pashtuns. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different Sikh armies and then semi-independent "misls". Each of these component armies were known as a misl, each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Sikh Khalsa Army by the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating a unified political state. All the misl leaders who were affiliated with the Army were from Punjab's nobility.

Colonial period

Main articles: British raj, Indian independence movement, Partition of India, and British heritage of Pakistan Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture in PakistanLahore MuseumIslamia College, PeshawarSadiq Dane High School, BahawalpurUniversity of the Punjab, Lahore

None of the territory of modern Pakistan was ruled by the British, or other European powers, until 1839, when Karachi, then a small fishing village with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was taken, and held as an enclave with a port and military base for the First Afghan War that soon followed. The rest of Sindh was taken in 1843, and in the following decades, first the East India Company, and then after the post-Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1858) direct rule of Queen Victoria of the British Empire, took over most of the country partly through wars, and also treaties. The main wars were that against the Baloch Talpur dynasty, ended by the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849) and the Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–1919). By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire, and remained so until independence in 1947.

Under the British, modern Pakistan was mostly divided into the Sind Division, Punjab Province, and the Baluchistan Agency. There were various princely states, of which the largest was Bahawalpur. Sindh was part of the Bombay Presidency, and there were many complaints over the years that it was neglected by its distant rulers in modern Mumbai, although there was usually a Commissioner based in Karachi.

The Punjab (which included the modern Indian state) was instead technically ruled from even more distant Calcutta, as part of the Bengal Presidency, but in practice most matters were devolved to local British officials, who were often among the most energetic and effective in India. At first there was a "Board of Administration" led by Sir Henry Lawrence, who had previously worked as British Resident at the Lahore Durbar and also consisted of his younger brother John Lawrence and Charles Grenville Mansel. Below the Board worked a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as Henry Lawrence's "Young Men". After the Mutiny, Sir John Lawrence became the first Governor of Punjab. The Punjab Canal Colonies were an ambitious and largely successful project, begun in the 1880s, to create new farmland through irrigation, to relieve population pressure elsewhere (most of the areas involved are now in Pakistan).

The Baluchistan Agency largely consisted of princely states and tribal territories, and was governed with a light touch, although near the Afghan border Quetta was built up as a military base, in case of invasion by either the Afghans or the Russians. The 1935 Quetta earthquake was a major disaster. From 1876 the sensitive far north was made a "Chief Commissioner's Province". The border with Afghanistan, which remains the modern border of Pakistan, was finally fixed on the Durand Line in 1893.

Railway construction began in the 1850s, and most of the network (some now discontinued) was completed by 1900. Karachi expanded enormously under British rule, followed to a lesser extent by Lahore and the other larger cities.

Different Regions of Pakistan were conquered by East India Company as below:
•Sindh was conquered by Battle of Hyderabad and Battle of Miani in 1843.
•Punjab and eastern Khyber pakhtunkhwa were conquered during Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849.

Regions conquered by British Raj are as below:
•Southern Balochistan came under control by Treaty of Kalat in 1876.
•Western Balochistan was conquered by British empire in Second Anglo-Afghan War through Treaty of Gandamak, in 1879.

Early period of Pakistan Movement

Main articles: All-India Muslim League, Pakistan Movement, and Lahore Resolution

In 1877, Syed Ameer Ali had formed the Central National Muhammadan Association to work towards the political advancement of the Indian Muslims, who had suffered grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the failed Sepoy Mutiny against the East India Company; the British were seen as foreign invaders. But the organization declined towards the end of the 19th century.

Lord Minto met with the Muslim delegation in June 1906. The Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 called for separate Muslim electorates.

In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist cause. Although the Congress attempted to include the Muslim community in the struggle for independence from the British rule – and some Muslims were very active in the Congress – the majority of Muslim leaders, including the influential Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, did not trust the party.

A turning point came in 1900, when the British administration in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh acceded to Hindu demands and made Hindi, the version of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script, the official language. The proselytisation conducted in the region by the activists of a new Hindu reformist movement also stirred Muslim's concerns about their faith. Eventually, the Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to suppress the rights of Muslims in the region following the departure of the British.

Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League was founded by Shaiiq-e-Mustafa on 30 December 1906, in the aftermath of division of Bengal, on the sidelines of the annual All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Shahbagh, Dhaka East Bengal. The meeting was attended by three thousand delegates and presided over by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk. It addressed the issue of safeguarding interests of Muslims and finalised a programme. A resolution, moved by Nawab Salimullah and seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk (conservative), declared:

The Musalmans are only a fifth in number as compared with the total population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period the British government ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India would pass into the hands of that community which is nearly four times as large as ourselves ... our life, our property, our honour, and our faith will all be in great danger, when even now that a powerful British administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from the grasping hands of our neighbors.

The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the Green Book, written by Maulana Mohammad Ali. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims. Among those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was Jinnah, a prominent statesman and barrister in Bombay. This was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government". The League remained loyal to the British administration for five years until the British decided to reverse the partition of Bengal. The Muslim League saw this British decision as partial to Hindus.

George VI, Emperor of India

In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the Indian National Congress movement separated from it and started to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly. This group was spearheaded by the famous triumvirate of Lal-Bal-Pal – Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal of Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces respectively. Their influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus – they called it Hindu nationalism – and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not join the League until 1913, when the party changed its platform to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against the British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims. After vociferous protests of the Hindu population and violence engineered by secret groups, such as Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot Jugantar of Aurobindo and his brother etc., the British had decided to reunite Bengal again. Till this stage, Jinnah believed in Mutual co-operation to achieve an independent, united 'India', although he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in any Indian Parliament.

Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal

The League gradually became the leading representative body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in 1916, and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted representation for the Muslim community. However, Jinnah broke with the Congress in 1920 when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a temperamentally law-abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. Jinnah also became convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims, which indeed it did in 1928. In 1927, the British proposed a constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Commission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The British then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress, and in 1928 an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi. The attempt failed, but two more conferences were held, and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed that a small committee should work on the constitution. The prominent Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the committee, which included two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal's son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its secretary. The League, however, rejected the committee's report, the so-called Nehru Report, arguing that its proposals gave too little representation (one quarter) to Muslims – the League had demanded at least one-third representation in the legislature. Jinnah announced a "parting of the ways" after reading the report, and relations between the Congress and the League began to sour.

Muslim homeland – "Now or Never"

Main articles: Pakistan Declaration; Now or Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?; and United Kingdom general election, 1929
Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution with Jinnah and Ali Khan presiding the session

The general elections held in the United Kingdom had already weakened the leftist Labour Party led by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. Furthermore, the Labour Party's government was already weakened by the outcomes of World War I, which fueled new hopes for progress towards self-government in British India. In fact, Mohandas K. Gandhi traveled to London to press the idea of "self-government" in British India, and claimed to represent all Indians whilst duly criticizing the Muslim League as being sectarian and divisive. After reviewing the report of the Simon Commission, the Indian Congress initiated a massive Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhi; the Muslim League reserved their opinion on the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should be decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India.

The Round-table Conferences were held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unable to reach a compromise. Witnessing the events of the Round Table Conferences, Jinnah had despaired of politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. During this time in 1930, notable writer and poet, Muhammad Iqbal called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.

India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages, and professing different religions Personally, I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.

— Muhammad Iqbal, Allahabad Address
Dream of Iqbal and Ali's Now or Never idealized the merger of the four provinces into a nation-state, called Pakistan.

The name of the nation-state was coined by the Cambridge University's political science student and Muslim nationalist Rahmat Ali, and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never. After coining the name of the nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India:

After the publication of the pamphlet, the Hindu Press vehemently criticized it, and the word 'Pakstan' used in it. Thus this word became a heated topic of debate. With the addition of an "i" to improve the pronunciation, the name of Pakistan grew in popularity and led to the commencement of the Pakistan Movement, and consequently the creation of Pakistan. In Urdu and Persian languages, the name encapsulates the concept of Pak ("pure") and stan ("land") and hence a "Pure Land". In 1935, the British government proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937. After the elections the League took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of the other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the League in provinces with large Muslim minorities citing technical difficulties. The subsequent Congress Rule was unpopular among Muslims and seen as a reign of Hindu tyranny by Muslim leaders. Mohammad Ali Jinnah declared 22 December 1939, a "Day of Deliverance" for Indian Muslims. It was meant to celebrate the resignation of all members of the Congress party from provincial and central offices.

Meanwhile, Muslim ideologues for independence also felt vindicated by the presidential address of V.D. Savarkar at the 19th session of the famous Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. In it, this legendary revolutionary – popularly called Veer Savarkar and known as the iconic father of the Hindu fundamentalist ideology – propounded the seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or ethnic exclusivism, which influenced Jinnah profoundly.

1940 Resolution

The Working Committee of the Muslim League in Lahore (1940)

In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of World War II and the Government of India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian Congress and the nationalists, and espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the demand for separate homelands. Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version, that had emerged after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-religious violence and recommended the creation of independent states. The resolution was moved in the general session by Shere-Bangla Bengali nationalist, AKF Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and was adopted on 23 March 1940. The Resolution read as follows:

No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign ... That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority.

Final phase of the Pakistan Movement

Karachi War Cemetery. About 87,000 soldiers from British India (which includes modern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) died in World War II. Millions of civilians also died due to famines.

Important leaders in the Muslim League highlighted that Pakistan would be a 'New Medina', in other words the second Islamic state established after Muhammad's creation of an Islamic state in Medina. Pakistan was popularly envisaged as an Islamic utopia, a successor to the defunct Turkish Caliphate and a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over whether it was possible for the proposed Pakistan to truly become an Islamic state.

While the Congress' top leadership had been in prison following the 1942 Quit India Movement, there was intense debate among Indian Muslims over the creation of a separate homeland. The majority of Barelvis and Barelvi ulema supported the creation of Pakistan and pirs and Sunni ulema were mobilized by the Muslim League to demonstrate that India's Muslim masses wanted a separate country. The Barelvis believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counter productive. On the other hand, most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, were opposed to the creation of Pakistan and the two-nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be one nation and Muslims were only a nation of themselves in the religious sense and not in the territorial sense. At the same time some Deobandi ulema such as Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Mufti Muhammad Shafi and Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani were supportive of the Muslim League's demand to create a separate Pakistan.

Muslims who were living in provinces where they were demographically a minority, such as the United Provinces where the Muslim League enjoyed popular support, were assured by Jinnah that they could remain in India, migrate to Pakistan or continue living in India but as Pakistani citizens.

In the Constituent Assembly elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes). The Congress had hitherto refused to acknowledge the Muslim League's claim of being the representative of Indian Muslims but finally acquiesced to the League's claim after the results of this election. The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan had received overwhelming popular support from India's Muslims, especially those Muslims who were living in provinces such as UP where they were a minority.

The British had neither the will, nor the financial resources or military power, to hold India any longer but they were also determined to avoid partition and for this purpose they arranged the Cabinet Mission Plan. According to this plan India would be kept united but would be heavily decentralized with separate groupings of Hindu and Muslim majority provinces. The Muslim League accepted this plan as it contained the 'essence' of Pakistan but the Congress rejected it. After the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan, Jinnah called for Muslims to observe Direct Action Day to demand the creation of a separate Pakistan. The Direct Action Day morphed into violent riots between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta, with the violence displaying elements of ethnic cleansing. The riots in Calcutta were followed by intense communal rioting elsewhere, including in Noakhali (where Hindus were attacked by Muslims) and Bihar (where Hindus attacked Muslims) in October, resulting in large-scale displacement. In March 1947, such violence reached Punjab, where Sikhs and Hindus were massacred and driven out by Muslims in the Rawalpindi Division.

The British Prime Minister Attlee appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten as India's last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan and India and immediate British withdrawal. British leaders including Mountbatten did not support the creation of Pakistan but failed to convince Jinnah otherwise. Mountbatten later confessed that he would most probably have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis.

In early 1947, the British had announced their desire to grant India its independence by June 1948. However, Lord Mountbatten decided to advance the date. In a meeting in June, Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to partition India along religious lines.

Independence from the British Empire

Main articles: Indian Independence Act 1947, Independence Day (Pakistan), Partition of India, and Pakistan Movement

On 14 August 1947, Pakistan gained independence. India gained independence the following day. The two provinces of British India, Punjab and Bengal, were divided along religious lines by the Radcliffe Commission. Mountbatten is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe Commission to draw the line in India's favour. Punjab's mostly Muslim western part went to Pakistan and its mostly Hindu/Sikh eastern part went to India but there were significant Muslim minorities in Punjab's eastern section and likewise there were many Hindus and Sikhs living in Punjab's western areas.

Intense communal rioting in the Punjab forced the governments of India and Pakistan to agree to a forced population exchange of Muslim and Hindu/Sikh minorities living in Punjab. After this population exchange only a few thousand low-caste Hindus remained in Pakistan's side of Punjab and only a tiny Muslim population remained in the town of Malerkotla in India's part of Punjab. Political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed says that although Muslims started the violence in Punjab, by the end of 1947 more Muslims had been killed by Hindus and Sikhs in East Punjab than the number of Hindus and Sikhs who had been killed by Muslims in West Punjab.

More than ten million people migrated across the new borders and between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people died in the spate of communal violence in the Punjab in what some scholars have described as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions. The Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and similarly the Indian government claimed that Muslims abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women. The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s. The dispute over Kashmir escalated into the first war between India and Pakistan. The conflict remains unresolved.

For the history after independence, see History of Pakistan (1947–present).

History by region

Main article: Timeline of Pakistani history

See also

Notes

  1. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.
  2. The precise time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.
  3. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.
  4. The precise time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.

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  44. Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 29–30, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6 |quote=The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. Outside the palace, in the capital cities, the highest ranks in the imperial elite were held by military commanders whose active loyalty and success in war determined imperial fortunes. Wherever these men failed or rebelled, dynastic power crumbled. ... Imperial society flourished where elites mingled; they were its backbone, its strength was theirs. Kautilya's Arthasastra indicates that imperial power was concentrated in its original heartland, in old Magadha, where key institutions seem to have survived for about seven hundred years, down to the age of the Guptas. Here, Mauryan officials ruled local society, but not elsewhere. In provincial towns and cities, officials formed a top layer of royalty; under them, old conquered royal families were not removed, but rather subordinated. In most janapadas, the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left.
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  54. Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 28–29, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6Quote: "A creative explosion in all the arts was a most remarkable feature of this ancient transformation, a permanent cultural legacy. Mauryan territory was created in its day by awesome armies and dreadful war, but future generations would cherish its beautiful pillars, inscriptions, coins, sculptures, buildings, ceremonies, and texts, particularly later Buddhist writers."
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  97. Rahman, Abdul (2002). "New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis" (PDF). Ancient Pakistan. XV: 37–42. The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.
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  113. Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections. BRILL. 17 August 2020. p. 237. ISBN 978-90-04-43736-4. In 1205, Bakhtīyar Khilji sacked Nudiya, the pre-eminent city of western Bengal and established an Islamic government at Laukhnauti, the capital of the predecessor Sena dynasty. On this occasion, commemorative coins were struck in gold and silver in the name of Muhammad b. Sām
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  119. Dani, Ahmad Hasan (2007). History of Pakistan: Pakistan through ages. Sang-e Meel Publications. p. 218. ISBN 978-969-35-2020-0. But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.
  120. ^ Collinet, Annabelle (2008). "Chronology of Sehwan Sharif through Ceramics (The Islamic Period)". In Boivin, Michel (ed.). Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 11, 113 (note 43). ISBN 978-0-19-547503-6.
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  164. Tinker, Hugh (1987). Men who overturned empires : fighters, dreamers, and schemers. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-299-11460-2.
  165. Ahmed, Syed Iftikhar (1983). Essays on Pakistan. Lahore: Alpha Bravo Publishers. pp. 29–30. OCLC 12811079.
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  169. ^ Ashraf, Ajaz. "The Venkat Dhulipala interview: 'On the Partition issue, Jinnah and Ambedkar were on the same page'". Scroll.in. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
  170. Long, Roger D.; Singh, Gurharpal; Samad, Yunas; Talbot, Ian (2015). State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security. Routledge. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-317-44820-4. In the 1940s a solid majority of the Barelvis were supporters of the Pakistan Movement and played a supporting role in its final phase (1940-7), mostly under the banner of the All-India Sunni Conference which had been founded in 1925.
  171. John, Wilson (2009). Pakistan: The Struggle Within. Pearson Education India. p. 87. ISBN 9788131725047. During the 1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League.
  172. ^ "'What's wrong with Pakistan?'". Dawn. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2017. However, the fundamentalist dimension in Pakistan movement developed more strongly when the Sunni Ulema and pirs were mobilised to prove that the Muslim masses wanted a Muslim/Islamic state...Even the Grand Mufti of Deoband, Mufti Muhammad Shafi, issued a fatwa in support of the Muslim League's demand.
  173. Cesari, Jocelyne (2014). The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State. Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-107-51329-7. For example, the Barelvi ulama supported the formation of the state of Pakistan and thought that any alliance with Hindus (such as that between the Indian National Congress and the Jamiat ulama-I-Hind ) was counterproductive.
  174. Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A History of Pakistan and Its Origins. Anthem Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-84331-149-2. Believing that Islam was a universal religion, the Deobandi advocated a notion of a composite nationalism according to which Hindus and Muslims constituted one nation.
  175. Abdelhalim, Julten (2015). Indian Muslims and Citizenship: Spaces for Jihād in Everyday Life. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-317-50875-5. Madani...stressed the difference between qaum, meaning a nation, hence a territorial concept, and millat, meaning an Ummah and thus a religious concept.
  176. Sikka, Sonia (2015). Living with Religious Diversity. Routledge. p. 52. ISBN 9781317370994. Madani makes a crucial distinction between qaum and millat. According to him, qaum connotes a territorial multi-religious entity, while millat refers to the cultural, social and religious unity of Muslims exclusively.
  177. Khan, Shafique Ali (1988). The Lahore resolution: arguments for and against : history and criticism. Royal Book Co. p. 48. ISBN 9789694070810. Retrieved 10 January 2017. Besides, Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, along with his pupils and disciples, lent his entire support to the demand of Pakistan.
  178. Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-801-9. In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates, and the powerful campaign among the poor peasants of Bengal on economic issues of rural indebtedness and zamindari abolition, that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.
  179. Barbara D. Metcalf; Thomas R. Metcalf (2002). A Concise History of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–. ISBN 978-0-521-63974-3
  180. Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, p. 67, ISBN 978-0-521-67256-6, The signs of 'ethnic cleansing' are first evident evident in the Great Calcutta Killing of 16–19 August 1946. Over 100,000 people were made homeless. They were also present in the wave of violence that rippled out from Calcutta to Bihar, where there were high Muslim casualty figures, and to Noakhali deep in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bengal. Concerning the Noakhali riots, one British officer spoke of a 'determined and organized' Muslim effort to drive out all the Hindus, who accounted for around a fifth of the total population. Similarly, the Punjab counterparts to this transition of violence were the Rawalpindi massacres of March 1947. The level of death and destruction in such West Punjab villages as Thoa Khalsa was such that communities couldn't live together in its wake.
  181. McGrath, Allen (1996). The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-577583-9. Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them.
  182. Ahmed, Akbar S. (1997). Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Psychology Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-415-14966-2. Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea.
  183. Ahmed, Akbar (2005). Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-75022-1. When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan if he had known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, his answer was instructive. There was no doubt in his mind about the legality or morality of his position on Pakistan. 'Most probably,' he said (1982:39).
  184. "K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, Inretrospect". Archived from the original on 17 January 2006. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
  185. Partitioning India over lunch, Memoirs of a British civil servant Christopher Beaumont. BBC News (10 August 2007).
  186. KHALIDI, OMAR (1 January 1998). "From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan 1947–97". Islamic Studies. 37 (3): 339–352. JSTOR 20837002.
  187. Ahmed, Ishtiaq. "The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed".
  188. Butt, Shafiq (24 April 2016). "A page from history: Dr Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges".
  189. "Murder, rape and shattered families: 1947 Partition Archive effort underway". Dawn. 13 March 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2017. There are no exact numbers of people killed and displaced, but estimates range from a few hundred thousand to two million killed and more than 10 million displaced.
  190. Basrur, Rajesh M. (2008). South Asia's Cold War: Nuclear Weapons and Conflict in Comparative Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-16531-5. An estimated 12–15 million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today ...
  191. Isaacs, Harold Robert (1975). Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-44315-0. 2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan
  192. Brass, Paul R. (2003). "The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. Carfax Publishing: Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 81–82 (5(1), 71–101). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2014. In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder.
  193. Daiya, Kavita (2011). Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India. Temple University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-59213-744-2. The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India.
  194. Singh, Amritjit; Iyer, Nalini; Gairola, Rahul K. (2016). Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics. Lexington Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4985-3105-4. The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.
  195. Abraham, Taisha (2002). Women and the Politics of Violence. Har-Anand Publications. p. 131. ISBN 978-81-241-0847-5. In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes,' torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.

Works cited

Surveys

  • Bose, Sugata, and Ayesha Jalal. "Modern South Asia : History, Culture, Political Economy". Fourth edition. London ;: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2018 ISBN 978-1-138-24368-2
  • Burki, Shahid Javed. Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationhood (3rd ed. 1999)
  • Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A history of Pakistan and its origins. London: Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-149-2.
  • Jalal, Ayesha, Democracy and authoritarianism in South Asia: A comparative and historical perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
  • Ludden, David, India and South Asia: A short history, 2nd edn (Oxford: One World, 2013)
  • Metcalf, Barbara and T.R. and Metcalf, A concise history of modern India, 3rd edn (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012)
  • Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). A Short history of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi.
  • Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History (2010) ISBN 0230623042.
  • Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh. "The partition of India", Cambridge 2009
  • Wilson, Jon, India conquered: Britain's Raj and the passions of Empire (London: Simon & Schuster, 2016)
  • Ziring, Lawrence (1997). Pakistan in the twentieth century : a political history. Karachi; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577816-8.

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