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Macedonian Struggle
Part of the decline of the Ottoman Empire
The geographical region of Macedonia as defined in the 1800s
Date 1893–1912 (19 years) Location Ottoman Macedonia Salonika Vilayet Monastir Vilayet Kosovo Vilayet Result Bulgarian and Greek dominance Rise of the Serbian Chetniks
Belligerents
HMC Greek Patriarchate Supported by: Greece Serbian Chetniks Supported by:  Serbia SCMR Supported by:  Romania	IMRO SMAC BSRB Bulgarian Exarchate Supported by:  Bulgaria Albanian Cheta  Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
Ion Dragoumis Germanos Karavangelis Lambros Koromilas Pavlos Melas † Kottas Christou  Gonos Yiotas † Milorad Gođevac Gligor Sokolović † Jovan Babunski Aksentije Bacetić † Ștefan Mihăileanu †	Gotse Delchev † Dame Gruev † Hristo Tatarchev Yane Sandanski Vasil Chakalarov Apostol Petkov † Marko Lerinski † Idriz Seferi Abdul Hamid II Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha Mahmud Shevket Pasha
Casualties and losses
8,000 militants and civilians killed (1903–1908)

The Macedonian Struggle was a series of social, political, cultural and military conflicts that were mainly fought between Greek and Bulgarian subjects who lived in Ottoman Macedonia between 1893 and 1912. The conflict was part of a wider guerrilla war in which revolutionary organizations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs all fought over Macedonia. Gradually the Greek and Bulgarian bands gained the upper hand. Though the conflict largely ceased by the Young Turk Revolution, it continued as a low intensity insurgency until the Balkan Wars.

Background

Initially the conflict was waged through educational and religious means, with a fierce rivalry developing between supporters of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Greek-speaking or Slavic/Romance-speaking people who generally identified as Greek), and supporters of the Bulgarian Exarchate, which had been recognized by the Ottomans in 1870.

As Ottoman rule in the Balkans crumbled in the late 19th century, competition arose between Greeks and Bulgarians (and to a lesser extent also other ethnic groups such as Serbs, Aromanians and Albanians) over the multi-ethnic region of Macedonia. The Bulgarians founded in 1893 the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (initially known as Bulgarian Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Revolutionary Committees) which coordinated the majority of Bulgarian actions in the region. The defeat of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 was a loss that appalled Greeks which led to the dissolution of the Ethniki Eteria, by Prime Minister Georgios Theotokis. With little prospect of liberation by Greece, the Macedonian Greeks took their fate into their own hands and began to form various armed bands that would ultimately fall under the control of the Hellenic Macedonian Committee. The region quickly became a constant battleground among various armed groups, with hostilities peaking in 1904-1908. The Ottoman Army was also involved in the conflict and perpetuated atrocities against the Christian population in attempt to quell the unrest. Due to the Christian population of Macedonia, whether Greek, Serb, Bulgarian or Aromanian, engaging in more or less constant rebellion against the Ottoman Empire, in conjunction with the revolutionary activities of Armenian nationalists in Anatolia, many Ottoman officers believed that all Christians of the empire were disloyal and treasonous.

Bulgarian activity

Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation

In 1893, the Bulgarian Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) had been founded in Thessaloniki. Initially its membership was allowed only for Bulgarians, but later it opened itself to all ethnic groups in Macedonia and Adrianople regions. Earlier on, IMRO claimed that it was fighting for the autonomy of Macedonia and not for annexation to Bulgaria. However, later it became an agent serving Bulgarian interests in Balkan politics with the aim of eventually uniting the entirety of Macedonia with Bulgaria, first in struggles against the Ottoman Empire and later against the Serbian-led Yugoslav successor state controlling the territory of Vardar Macedonia and the Greek state which controlled the southern portion of the region. One major event representing the culmination of these actions is the assassination of the Serbian King of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes during the inter-war period by an IMRO sniper. In practice, most of the followers of the IMRO were native Macedonian Bulgarians, though they also had some Aromanian allies, like Pitu Guli, Mitre The Vlach, Ioryi Mucitano and Alexandru Coshca. The IMRO ultimately weakened due to a split into a left-wing faction (federalist) and a right-wing faction (centralists) following the failed Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising. Many of the members of the organization saw Macedonian autonomy as an intermediate step to unification with Bulgaria, but others saw as their aim the creation of a Balkan federal state, with Macedonia as an equal member.

Bulgarian efforts

Already from 1895 the Supreme Macedonian-Adrianople Committees were formed in Sofia in order to reinforce the Bulgarian actions in Ottoman Empire. One of Komitadjis' first activities was the capture of the predominantly Greek town of Meleniko (today Melnik, Bulgaria), but they couldn't hold it for more than a few hours. Bulgarian bands destroyed the Pomak village of Dospat where they massacred local inhabitants. This kind of activity alerted Greeks and Serbians, who made a farce of the slogan "Macedonia to Macedonians", being against the constitution of Macedonia as separate state.

As Bulgarian efforts intensified, they started to affect European public opinion. In April 1903, a group known as the Boatmen of Thessaloniki, with assistance from the IMRO, blew up the French ship Guadalquivir and the Ottoman Bank in Thessaloniki. In August 1903, the IMRO organised the Ilinden Uprising in Macedonia and the Adrianople Vilayet which led to the formation of the short-lived Kruševo Republic. The uprising was ultimately suppressed by the Ottoman Army with the subsequent destruction of many villages and the devastation of large areas in Western Macedonia and around Kırk Kilise near Adrianople.

Greek activity

Hellenic Macedonian Committee

In order to strengthen Greek efforts for Macedonia, the Hellenic Macedonian Committee was founded in 1903 by Stefanos Dragoumis and functioned under the leadership of wealthy publisher Dimitrios Kalapothakis. Its members included many Greek notables in addition to the fighters. Among its members were Ion Dragoumis and Pavlos Melas. Its fighters were known as Makedonomachoi ("Macedonian fighters").

Under these conditions, in 1904 a vicious guerrilla war broke as response of IMRO activities between Bulgarian and Greek bands within Ottoman Macedonia. The Bishop of Kastoria, Germanos Karavangelis, who was sent to Macedonia by Nikolaos Mavrokordatos, the ambassador of Greece, and Ion Dragoumis, the consul of Greece in Monastir, realised that it was time to act in a more efficient way and began to organise the intensification of the Greek opposition.

While Dragoumis concerned himself with the financial organisation of the efforts, the central figure in the military struggle was the very capable Cretan officer Georgios Katechakis. Bishop Germanos Karavangelis travelled to raise morale and encourage the Greek population to take action against the IMRO. Many committees were also formed to promote the Greek national interests.

Katechakis and Karavangelis succeeded in the recruitment and organization of guerrilla groups that were later reinforced with volunteers from Greece. Volunteers often came from Crete and the Mani area of the Peloponnese. They even recruited former IMRO members, taking advantage of their political and/or personal disputes within the organisation. Additionally, officers of the Hellenic Army were encouraged to join the struggle to provide experienced leadership, as many had served in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. The officers who elected to join provided a logistical advantage to the Makedonomachoi. The Macedonian Greeks, however, would form the core of the fighting force and proved to be the most important fighters due to their knowledge of the region's geography and some possessing knowledge of the Bulgarian language. Many local Greeks, such as Periklis Drakos, were also involved in the smuggling and stashing of weapons and ammunition around the region.

Greek efforts

The Greek state became concerned, not only because of Bulgarian penetration in Macedonia but also due to Serbian interests, which were concentrated mainly in Üsküp and Monastir area. The rioting in Macedonia, especially the death of Pavlos Melas in 1904, caused intense nationalistic feelings in Greece. This led to the decision to send more volunteers to reinforce and better organise the armed bands and thwart the Bulgarian efforts to bring all of the Slavic-speakers of Macedonia on under their influence.

The Greek General Consulate in Thessaloniki, under Lambros Koromilas, became the centre of the struggle, coordinating the Greek bands, distributing, and nursing the wounded. Fierce conflicts between the Greeks and Bulgarians started in the area of Kastoria, in the Giannitsa Lake area, and elsewhere. During 1905, guerrilla activity increased and the Makedonomachoi gained significant advantage within 10 months, extending their control towards the areas of Mariovo and East Macedonia, Kastanohoria (near Kastoria), the plains north and south of Florina and the routes around Monastir. However, from early 1906 the situation became critical and the forces of the Makedonomachoi were forced to withdraw from various areas. Nevertheless, the groups of Tellos Agras and Ioannis Demestichas had some success in the marsh of Giannitsa. There were great advances of the Serb forces, joined by Muslim Slavs, in summer of 1906 in the northern areas of the Sanjak of Üsküp.

While the armed bands confronted the Ottoman Army, the Ottoman administration often ignored the activities of the Greek guerrillas, and according to Dakin assisted them against the Bulgarians outright. However, once the subversive potential of the Bulgarians had been neutralised, Ottoman policy ended the favourable neutrality to the Greek side and embarked upon relentless persecutions against the Greeks. During the course of the conflict Greek armed bands numbered 2,000 men. Of whom over 700 were killed in action along with 1,250 pro-Greek civilians.

Aromanian activity

The Greek–Romanian conflict concerning the Aromanians reached its climax during the Macedonian Struggle, with Aromanians being no longer divided into pro-Greek and pro-Romanian factions but into "Greeks" and "Romanians" proper. The pro-Greek faction was the largest and most powerful.

Pro-Greek Aromanians

Most Aromanians during the Macedonian Struggle were pro-Greek, supporting the Greek revolutionaries and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. These Aromanians escaped or resisted the influence of Romanian interventionism, in which a considerable amount of money was spent on by the Romanian state. They were indifferent or even hostile to their national movement. In the archives of the Greek Foreign Ministry there are numerous testimonies from Aromanian communities denouncing Romanian "propaganda" and proclaiming their Greekness. In Veria, there was a small local unit which was under the leadership of a pro-Greek Aromanian, Tasos Koukotegos. This unit, being small and somewhat isolated, had been operating without definite objectives, but it proved to be very important for the Greek cause as it helped in fights against local Turkish chiefs, pro-Romanian Aromanians, and Bulgarian komitadjis. Additionally, local support from pro-Greek Aromanians in Kastoria empowered Greek activity in the region. A notable Greek makedonomachos of Aromanian descent was Anastasios Pichion.

In Pelagonia, the pro-Greek sentiments of Aromanians during the Macedonian Struggle contributed to their displacement. When they migrated to Greece, they were already financially ruined.

Pro-Bulgarian Aromanians

Many Aromanians were also pro-Bulgarian, joining their efforts in the struggle. They were aligned with the Bulgarian Exarchate rather than the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and sympathized with the goals and aspiration of the Bulgarian cause. Some notable pro-Bulgarian Aromanians include Pitu Guli and Mitre Pangiaru.

Pro-Romanian Aromanians

As the Bulgarians had managed to introduce their language in church services and education in the Ottoman Empire, so did the pro-Romanian Aromanians start demanding the same rights. The Greek Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople reacted strongly to this however amid increased rivalry in the region and eight Aromanian churches were closed by his personal order in 1875. This produced protests from the pro-Romanian Aromanians to the Ottoman and Romanian government, and also increased tensions between the pro-Romanian Aromanians and the Greeks as well as with pro-Greek Aromanians, which led to physical violence that often ended in fatalities.

In 1903, following the failure of the Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising in which many pro-Romanian Aromanian and Bulgarian soldiers had fought with the aim of creating a Macedonian autonomy, the Ottoman Empire allowed the intervention of Greek militias, known as antartes and formed within Greece with commanders from the Greek state, to suppress potential renewed attempts of this objective. These commanders began to threaten the leaders of various Romanian schools in Aromanian villages, warning them that if they did not close down their activities, they would be attacked. Given this, some pro-Romanian Aromanian fighters referred to as armatoles (armatoli, armatol in singular) began to take up arms, the first ones being Mihail Handuri from Livadia (Giumala de Jos or Livãdz) and Hali Joga from Ano Grammatiko [bg; el; mk] (Grãmãticuva), who having been joined by various young pro-Romanian Aromanian fighters, began to attack Greek bands in the area of Edessa and Veria. These pro-Romanian Aromanian bands were allied with Bulgarian bands in Ottoman Macedonia. In 1906, under Ioryi Mucitano, they were organized into two committees, one in Bucharest led by Alexandru Coshca and Sterie Milioru and the other in Sofia led by Mucitano. He decided to divide their area of operations into districts led by a so-called voivode. These bands were allowed free passage by Bulgarian villages.

Clashes

Starting from summer of 1904, clashes between pro-Romanian Aromanian and ethnic Greek or pro-Greek Aromanian bands, be it only between themselves or with other combatants involved, erupted in the village of Condusula (between Edessa and Naousa), Ano Grammatiko, Pyrgoi and Dervent. Pro-Greek schools and churches were destroyed by the pro-Romanian Aromanians and pro-Greek Aromanians retaliated by doing the same to pro-Romanian schools and churches. The two factions expelled each other and even murdered opponent schoolteachers and clergy. One such case took place in 1911, when komitadjis and pro-Romanian Aromanians murdered Emilianos Lazaridis [el], Metropolitan of Grevena [el]. Another example is Haralambie Balamaci [ro], an Aromanian priest murdered in 1914 by Greek antartes.

Greeks and pro-Greek Aromanians suffered attacks from Turkish troops and bashibazouks who killed 41 of them and destroyed 366 and 203 of their houses and shops respectively.

Albanian activity

Conflict with Serbian Chetniks

In 1907, Idriz Seferi came into conflict with Serbian Chetniks that were operating in Eastern Kosovo. Radivojević and his Serbian Chetnik band were sent across Kosovo as aid to fight the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization at Vardar, they were all wearing Albanian clothes with the plan to reach Poreče disguised as Albanian kachaks. However, they were discovered and in July Idriz fought and killed Dragoljub Nikolić and Rade Radivojević, both high ranking Serbian Chetniks, along with their entire Četa in Pasjane and Gjylekar.

Conflict with the Ottomans

In July, during the Albanian revolt of 1912, the Albanian rebels gathered their forces in Kosovo after successfully capturing major cities in the region, including Pristina, Ferizaj, and Gjakova, which were previously under control of the Ottoman Empire. As early August approached, Albanian troops embarked on a southwards march to the provincial capital, Üsküp (Skopje). A four-day battle ensued, which ended in an Albanian Victory and the capture of Üskup by Albanian rebels. Following this battle, Albanian rebels from the Karadak Mountains (Skopska Crna Gora), under Idriz Seferi, marched on Kumanova and Preševo, liberating both of them. Meanwhile, a smaller unit marched towards Tetovo, also capturing it for the Albanians.

Crimes

War crimes were committed by both sides during the Macedonian struggle. According to a 1900 British report compiled by Alfred Biliotti, who is considered to have heavily relied on Greek intelligence agents, starting from 1897, the members of the Exarchist committees had embarked upon a systematic and extensive campaign of executions of the leading members of the Greek side. Moreover, Bulgarian Komitadjis, pursued a campaign of extermination of Greek and Serbian teachers and clergy. On the other hand, there were attacks by Greek Andartes on many Macedonian Bulgarian villages, with the aim of forcing their inhabitants to switch their allegiance from the Exarchate back to the Patriarchate and accept Greek priest and teachers, but they also carried out massacres against the civilian population, especially in the central parts of Macedonia in 1905 and in 1906. One of the notable cases was the massacre at the village Zagorichani (today Vasiliada, Greece), which was a Bulgarian Exarchist stronghold near Kastoria on 25 March 1905, where between 60 and 78 villagers were killed by Greek bands.

According to British reports on political crimes (including the above-mentioned Biliotti report), during the period from 1897 to 1912 over 4000 political murders were committed (66 before 1901, 200 between 1901 and 1903, 3300 between 1903 and 1908 and 600 between 1908 and 1912), excluding those killed during the Ilinden Uprising and the members of the Bulgarian and Greek bands. Of those who were killed, 53% were Bulgarians, 33.5% were Greeks, Serbs and Aromanians together 3.5% and 10% were of unknown ethnicity.

These conflicts decreased their intensity after the revolution of Young Turks in July 1908, as they promised to respect all ethnicities and religions, and to provide a constitution.

Consequences

The success of Greek efforts in Macedonia was an experience that gave confidence to the country. It helped develop an intention to annex Greek-speaking areas, and bolster Greek presence in the still Ottoman ruled Macedonia.

The events in Macedonia, specifically the consequences of the conflicts between Greek and Bulgarian national activists, including Greek massacres against the Bulgarian population in 1905 and 1906, gave rise to pogroms against the ca. 70,000–80,000-strong Greek communities that lived in Bulgaria, who were considered to share responsibility for the actions of the Greek guerrilla groups.

Nevertheless, the Young Turk movement resulted in a few instances of collaboration between Greek and Bulgarian bands, while this time the official policy in both countries continue to support the penetration of armed fighters into Ottoman Macedonia, but without having fully ensured that there would be no attacks on each other.

Commemoration and historiography

Many museums have been dedicated to the conflict, including:

• Museum for the Macedonian Struggle in Thessaloniki, which is housed in the former Greek consulate
• Museum of the Macedonian Struggle in Kastoria
• Museum of the Macedonian Struggle in Chromio
• Museum of the Macedonian Struggle in Skopje.

There have been fiction and non-fiction accounts of the events of the struggle and its participants, including:

• Greek writer Penelope Delta wrote the novel Τά μυστικά τοῦ Βάλτου about the fighting around the Giannitsa Lake.
• Germanos Karavangelis published his memoirs as Ὁ Μακεδονικός Ἀγών .
• The 1973 Greek film Pavlos Melas depicts the life and death of Pavlos Melas.
• Albert Sonnichsen, an American volunteer in the IMRO depicted Bulgarian activities in the book Confessions of a Macedonian Bandit: A Californian in the Balkan Wars.

See also

• Macedonian Question
• List of Macedonian Revolutions

Notes

1. Macedonian Struggle – Bulgarian: Македонска борба, romanized: Makedonska borba; Greek: Μακεδονικός Αγώνας, romanized: Makedonikós Agónas; Macedonian: Борба за Македонија, romanized: Borba za Makedonija; Serbian: Борба за Македонију, romanized: Borba za Makedoniju; Turkish: Makedonya Mücadelesi
2. Clogg (1992). p. 70: "For the last two decades of the nineteenth century and the first of the twentieth, Macedonia, with its inextricably mixed populations of Greeks, Bulgars, Serbs, Albanians, Turks and Vlachs, was to be the focus of the competing nationalisms of Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia, as each sought to carve out as large a stake as possible of the crumbling Ottoman possessions in the Balkans."
3. For further on this, see:
   • Sherman (1980). p. 10: "The revolutionary committee dedicated itself to fight for 'full political autonomy for Macedonia and Adrianople'. Since they sought autonomy only for those areas inhabited by Bulgarians, they denied other nationalities membership in IMRO. According to Article 3 of the statutes, 'any Bulgarian could become a member'."
   • Lange-Akhund (1998). p. 39: "As a Bulgarian historian, Pandev underlined the fact that, since its foundation the organization chose its Bulgarian identity by selecting the name 'Bulgarian revolutionary committees'."
   • Bechev (2009). "Introduction": "The IMARO activists saw the future autonomous Macedonia as a multinational polity, and did not pursue the self-determination of Macedonian Slavs as a separate ethnicity. Therefore, Macedonian (and also Adrianopolitan) was an umbrella term covering Bulgarians, Turks, Greeks, Vlachs, Albanians, Serbs, Jews, and so on. While this message was taken aboard by some Vlachs as well as some Patriarchist Slavs, it failed to impress other groups for whom the IMARO remained the 'Bulgarian Committee'.".
4. Among others, the memoirs of the IMRO revolutionary Kosta Tsipushev are used, in which Tsipushev, citing Delchev, writes that autonomy was only tactics for that time, with the eventual aim being future unification with Bulgaria.

References

Citations

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Works cited

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  • Bechev, Dimitar (2009). Historical dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia. Lanham, Maryland (US): Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810862951.
• Christopoulos, Georgios; Bastias, Ioannis (1977). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Εθνους: Νεώτερος Ελληνισμός απο το 1881 ως 1913 [History of the Greek Nation: Modern Greece from 1881 until 1913] (in Greek). Vol. XIV. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon.
• Clogg, Richard (1992). "Nation building, the 'Great Idea' and National Schism 1831–1922". A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–99. ISBN 978-0-521-37830-7.
• Clogg, Richard, ed. (2002). Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. Hurst. ISBN 978-1-85065-705-7.
  • Winnifrith, T. J. (2002). "Vlachs". (Chapter 7). In Richard Clogg (ed.) Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. pp. 112–121.
  • Karakasidou, Anastasia (2002). "Cultural illegitimacy in Greece: The Slav-Macedonian 'non-minority'" (Chapter 8). In Richard Clogg (ed.) Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. pp. 122–164.
• Dakin, Douglas (1993) . The Greek struggle in Macedonia, 1897–1913. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies. ISBN 9607387007.
• Dragostinova, Theodora (2011). Between Two Motherlands: Nationality and Emigration among the Greeks of Bulgaria, 1900–1949. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-6116-3.
• Gounaris, Basil C. (2007). "IX. National Claims, Conflicts and Developments in Macedonia, 1870–1912" (PDF). In Ioannis Koliopoulos (ed.). The History of Macedonia. Thessaloniki: Museum of the Macedonian Struggle. pp. 183–213. Retrieved 8 May 2012 – via macedonian-heritage.gr.
• Kahl, Thede (2002). "The Ethnicity of Aromanians after 1990: the Identity of a Minority that Behaves like a Majority". Ethnologia Balkanica (6): 145–169 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library.
• Karavangelis, Germanos. Ὁ Μακεδονικός Ἀγών: Αναμνήσεις Γερμανού Καραβαγγέλη (in Greek). Μπαρμπουνάκη . December 1980. ISBN 978-9602672204. (memoir). In Koliopoulos, Ioannis (Giannēs), ed. (2000). Ιστορία της Ελλάδας από το 1800: Το Έθνος, το Κράτος και η Κοινωνία [The History of Greece from 1800: The Nation, State and Society] (in Greek). Thessalonikē: Ekdoseis Vanias. ISBN 960-288-072-4.
• Kōfos, Evangelos (1993). Nationalism and Communism in Macedonia: Civil conflict, politics of mutation, national identity. New Rochelle, New York: Aristide D. Caratzas, Publisher. ISBN 978-0-89241-540-3. (Author name also rendered: Euangelos Kōphos).
• Koykoudis, Asterios I. (2003). The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora. Volume 2 of Studies on the Vlachs (in four volumes). Thessaloniki: Zitros Publications. (Author name also rendered: Koukoudēs).
• Lange-Akhund, Nadine (1998). The Macedonian question, 1893–1908, from Western sources. Boulder, Colorado (US); New York: East European Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780880333832.
• Nicea, Cola (2001). "Memorii" (PDF). Scara – revistă de oceanografie ortodoxă (in Romanian) (7): 1–32.
• Rappoport, Alfred: Au pays des martyrs. Notes et souvenirs d'un ancien consul-général d'Autriche-Hongrie en Macédoine (1904–1909). (Detail only; text not available) Librarie Universitaire J. Gamber, Paris, 1927. Memoirs of the General Consul of Austro-Hungary in Macedonia. Cat. No. 7029530203814.
• Richards, Louise Parker (November 1903). "What the Macedonian Trouble Is". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. VII: 4066–4073. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
• Sherman, Laura Beth (1980). Fires on the mountain: The Macedonian revolutionary movement and the kidnapping of Ellen Stone. Vol. 62. Boulder, Colorado (US); New York: East European Monographs; distributed by Columbia University Press. ISBN 0914710559. ISBN 978-0-914710-55-4.
• Sonnichsen, Albert (2004) . Confessions of a Macedonian Bandit: A Californian in the Balkan Wars. Narrative Press. ISBN 978-1-58976-237-4. ISBN 1-58976-237-1. (The Macedonian struggle from the perspective of an American volunteer in IMRO)
  • First edition, 1908
• Sawayanagi, Nanako Murata (2010). "Greek Communities Relocated in the Making of the Balkan Nations: The Greek Parliament's Tackling of Refugee Settlement and Land Distribution in Thessaly (1906–1907)". Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies. 26 (2): 151–184. doi:10.24498/ajames.26.2_151.
• Vakalopoulos, Kōnstantinos A. (1990). Ιστορία του Βορείου Ελληνισμού [History of Northern Hellenism] (2nd ed.). Thessalonikē: Ekdot. Oikos Aphōn Kyriakidē. ISBN 9603430056.

Further reading

• Chotzidis, Angelos A.; Gounaris, Basil C. ; Panayotopoulou, Anna A. , eds. (1993). The events of 1903 in Macedonia as presented in European diplomatic correspondence. Annotated by Angelos A. Chotzidis; Basil C. Gounaris; Anna A. Panayotopoulou. Introduction by Basil C. Gounaris. Thessaloniki: Museum of the Macedonian Struggle. ISBN 978-960-85303-3-1. (in English).
• Mavridis, Dimitris X. (2016). Ο Μακεδονικός Αγώνας στη περιοχή των Ποροΐων (1895-1912) (in Greek). Democritus University of Thrace. (Author name transliterated from the Greek, Δημήτρης Ξ. Μαυρίδης).
• Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (1988). Νέα Ελληνική Ιστορία, 1204–1985 [Modern Greek History, 1204–1985] (in Greek) (3rd ed.). Thessaloniki: εκδόσεις Βάνιας . OCLC 221373229.
• Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (Apostolos Euangelou) (1970). Origins of the Greek nation: The Byzantine period, 1204–1461. Translated by Moles, Ian. New Brunswick, New Jersey (US): Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0659-3. (in English).
• Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (Apostolos Euangelou) (1975). The Greek nation, 1453–1669: The cultural and economic background of modern Greek society. Translated by Moles, Ian; Moles, Phania. New Brunswick, N.J. (US): Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0810-8. (in English).

v t e Aromanians
Names	Aromanians Vlachs Koutsovlachs Macedo-Romanians Macedonians Tsintsars
History	Origin of the Aromanians Vlach uprising of 1066 Great Vlachia Ottoman era Macedonian Struggle Ottoman Aromanians in Romanian foreign policy Romanian churches in the Balkans St. Sotir Church, Korçë Romanian schools in the Balkans Armatoles Chetas Ullah millet World War I Samarina Republic World War II Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania Roman Legion (1941–1943) Principality of the Pindus Recommendation 1333 (1997)
Identity	Genetic studies on Aromanians Aromanian nationalism Aromanian studies Aromanian question Grecomans Flag of the Aromanians Aromanian National Day Dimãndarea pãrinteascã Political parties Alliance for Equality and European Justice Democratic Union of the Vlachs of Macedonia Party of the Vlachs of Macedonia
Culture	Aromanian cuisine Aromanian folk dance Aromanian language alphabet dialects Bible translations into Aromanian Influence on Slavic languages Linguistic parallels with Albanian Aromanian-language names Aromanian literature Aromanian Missal Codex Dimonie Aromanian mass media I'm Not Famous but I'm Aromanian Newspapers Românul de la Pind Radio stations Radio Romania International Aromanian music Aromanian Orthodox Church Aromanian traditional clothing Avdhela Project Celnic Subgroups of the Aromanians Organizations Lunjina Serbian–Aromanian Association Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs Society Farsharotu Trâ Armânami Association of French Aromanians Union for Aromanian Language and Culture
Population	Geographical distribution Albania Bulgaria Greece North Macedonia Romania Serbia diaspora Settlements Avdella Bitola Constanța Gramos Kruševo Malovište Metsovo Moscopole Peshtera Samarina
People	Nicolae Constantin Batzaria Constantin Belimace Mihail G. Boiagi Toma Caragiu Matilda Caragiu Marioțeanu Alcibiades Diamandi Pitu Guli Gheorghe Hagi Simona Halep Manaki brothers Nicolaos Matussis Gheorghe Constantin Roja Nuși Tulliu Constantin Ucuta
Related groups	Romanians Moldovans Megleno-Romanians Istro-Romanians

v t e Hellenic Macedonian Committee
Macedonian Committee	Ion Dragoumis Stefanos Dragoumis Dimitrios Kalapothakis Germanos Karavangelis Pavlos Melas Georgios Pentzikis
Armed bands leaders & participants (with nom de guerre)	Theodoros Adam Sarantis-Tellos Agapinos (Agras) Michail Anagnostakos (Matapas) Charalambos Boufidis (Fourtounas) Theodoros Boulasikis Ioannis Boubaras Antigonos Choleris Petros Christou Konstantinos Christou (Kottas) Nikolaos Dailakis Panagiotis Danglis (Parmenion) Stergios Daoutis (Perifanos) Nikolaos Davelis Ioannis Demertzis Ioannis Demestichas (Nikiforos) Christos Dogiamas (Itsos) Dimitrios Dogiamas (Bikas) Lazos Dogiamas (Barovitsalis) Konstantinos Dogras Georgios Doitsinis Nikolaos Doumpiotis (Amyntas) Periklis Drakos Ioannis Evaggelopoulos Doukas Gaitatzis (Zervas) Konstantinos Garefis Dimitrios Golnas Nikolaos Gousios Stergios Goutas Pavlos Gyparis Petros Hatzitasis Simos Ioannidis (Armenskiotis) Georgios Kakoulidis (Dragas) Nikostratos Kalomenopoulos (Nidas) Pantelis Kandilas Efthymios Kaoudis (Old Kaoudis) Filippos Kapetanopoulos Georgios Karaiskakis Ioannis Karavitis Georgios Katechakis (Rouvas) Dimitrios Kechagias (Dalipis) Nikolaos Kollias Georgios Kondylis Alexandros Kontoulis (Skourtis) Stavros Kotsopoulos (Banitsiotis) Evangelos Koukoudeas Theodoros Koukoulakis Georgios Koutles Pavlos Kyrou Dimitrios Lalas Georgios Lepidatos (Arkoudas) Traianos Liantzakis (Traikos) Nikolaos Manos Konstantinos Manos (Michailidis) Petros Manos (Vergos) Ioannis Martzios Apostolis Matopoulos Konstantinos Mazarakis-Ainian (Akritas) Pavlos Melas (Mikis Zezas) Alexandros Merentitis (Doukas) Georgios Modis Evangelos Natsis (Srebreniotis) Pavlos Nikolaidis (Rakovitis) Alexandros Othonaios (Palamidis) Markos Palamidis Pantelis Papaioannou (Nikotsaras) Konstantinos Papastavrou (Mavromatis) Iraklis Patikas Filolaos Pichion (Filotas) Nikolaos Pyrzas (Lakis) Stavros Rigas (Kavodoros) Nikolaos Rokas (Kolios) Michail Sapkas Dimitrios Sarros Georgios Savvas Georgios Seridis (Spanos) Ioannis Simanikas Michael Sionidis Konstantinos Sorros (Kallas) Georgios Soulios Spyros Spyromilios (Bouas) Dimitrios Stagas (Mizas) Athanasios Stavroudis Christos Stogiannidis (Lilis or Iason) Markos Theodoridis Georgios Thomopoulos (Gogos) Georgios Tombras (Roupakias) Ioannis Tsangaridis Lazaros Tsamis Dimitrios Tsapanos Nikolaos Tsipouras Dimitrios Tsitsimis Christos Tsolakopoulos (Rembelos) Georgios Tsontos (Vardas) Lazaros Varzis (Zarkadas) Zisis Verros Ioannis Villioglou (Ramnalis) Stergios Vlachveis Argyrios Vouzas Zisis Vrakas Georgios Yiotas (Gonos) Antonios Zois
Consular officials & undercover agents	Ion Dragoumis Athanasios Exadaktylos (Antoniou) Lambros Koromilas Spyridon Levidis Alexandros Mazarakis-Ainian (Ioannidis) Anastasios Pichion Ptolemaios Sarigiannis (Kalamidis)
Related	Museum for the Macedonian Struggle (Thessaloniki) Museum of the Macedonian Struggle (Kastoria) Museum of the Macedonian Struggle (Chromio) Folklore Museum of Giannitsa Pavlos Melas Museum Captain Kottas Museum

v t e Megali Idea
Background	Fall of Constantinople Ottoman Greece Greek Plan Greek War of Independence First Hellenic Republic Kingdom of Greece
Annexations	Ionian Islands (1864) Thessaly (1881) Crete (1912) Epirus (1912) Macedonia (1912) North Aegean islands (1912) Western Thrace (1919) Dodecanese (1947)
Temporary acquisitions	Eastern Thrace (1920–23) Imbros and Tenedos (1912–13, 1920–23) Northern Epirus (1914–17, 1919–21, 1940–41) Smyrna Zone (1919–22 as dependency) Constantinople, Zone of the Straits (1918–23 with France, Italy and United Kingdom)
Other areas	Asia Minor which included: Ionia Aeolis Doris Cappadocia (Cappadocian Greeks) Lydia Caria Mysia Troas Phrygia Galatia Bithynia Lycia Cilicia Cataonia Lycaonia Pamphylia Isauria Pisidia Paphlagonia Chamanene Armenia Minor Part of Commagene Cyprus Eastern Rumelia Pelagonia (Monastiri region) Gevgeli Sazan island Pontus
Ideas	Greek nationalism Hellenization Enosis
People/Organizations	Ioannis Kolettis Aristotelis Valaoritis Ethniki Etaireia Macedonian Committee Alexandros Koumoundouros Dimitrios Kalapothakis Stephanos Dragoumis Pavlos Melas Kostis Palamas Military League Eleftherios Venizelos Penelope Delta Themistoklis Sofoulis Nikolaos Plastiras Georgios Christakis-Zografos Theodoros Pangalos Northern Epirus Liberation Front EOKA Georgios Grivas Dimitrios Ioannidis
Events	Party of Radicals (Ionian Islands) Epirus Revolt of 1854 1854 Macedonian rebellion 1867 Macedonian rebellion Cretan revolt (1866–1869) Cretan revolt (1878) Epirus Revolt of 1878 1878 Macedonian rebellion Macedonian Struggle Greco-Turkish War (1897) Theriso revolt Balkan League Balkan Wars Himara revolt of 1912 Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus Provisional Government of National Defence National Defence Army Corps Greece in WWI Occupation of Constantinople Greek landing at Smyrna Republic of Pontus Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) Great Fire of Smyrna 1931 Cyprus Revolt Greece in WWII Greco-Italian War Cyprus Emergency 1974 Cypriot coup d'état
Treaties	Treaty of London (1864) Greek-Serbian Alliance of 1867 Treaty of Berlin (1878) Convention of Constantinople (1881) Treaty of Constantinople (1897) Greek-Serbian Alliance of 1913 Treaty of London (1913) Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Treaty of Athens (1913) Protocol of Corfu (1914) Venizelos–Tittoni agreement (1919) Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (1919) Treaty of Sèvres (1920) Treaty of Lausanne (1923) Treaty of Paris (1947) Treaty of Guarantee (1960)

v t e Macedonia (Greece)
People	Ancient Macedonians List Macedonians (Greeks) List Jews of Thessaloniki Slavic speakers Macedonian Bulgarians, Ethnic Macedonians Aromanians Megleno-Romanians
History	Ancient Macedonia History Government Kings Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Macedonian Wars Roman Macedonia Barbarian invasions Theme of Macedonia Theme of Thessalonica Theme of Strymon Sack of Thessalonica (904) Byzantine–Bulgarian wars Sack of Thessalonica (1185) Kingdom of Thessalonica Empire of Thessalonica Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328 Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 Zealots of Thessalonica Byzantine–Ottoman wars Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430) Ottoman Greece Rumelia Eyalet Greek War of Independence Manastir Vilayet Sanjak of Monastir Sanjak of Serfiğe Salonica Vilayet Sanjak of Drama Sanjak of Salonica Sanjak of Siroz Macedonian Struggle Balkan Wars Macedonian front Provisional Government of National Defence Axis occupation Greek Civil War Macedonia naming dispute Prespa agreement
Administration	Ministry of Macedonia and Thrace Western Macedonia Central Macedonia Eastern Macedonia and Thrace
Economy	Agios Dimitrios Power Plant Amyntaio Power Plant Drama coal mine Gerakini mine Olympias mine Piavitsa mine Port of Kavala Port of Thessaloniki Prinos oil field Ptolemaida-Florina coal mine Skouries mine Stratoni mine Thessaloniki International Fair
Major cities	Thessaloniki Kavala Kastoria Serres Veria Katerini Edessa Florina Drama Naousa Kozani Siatista Kilkis Other
Nature	Axios River Doiran Lake Falakro Galikos River Haliacmon Lake Kerkini Lake Koroneia Lake Orestiada Lake Prespa Small Prespa Lake Lake Vegoritida Lake Volvi Mount Paiko Nestos (river) Mount Olympus Pangaion Hills Pindus (Pindus National Park) Petralona cave Strymon River Vasilitsa Vermio Mountains Seli Verno Voras Mountains Islands: Thasos Ammouliani
Monuments	Agios Athanasios Alexandrion (Litochoro) Amphipolis Lion of Amphipolis Kasta Tomb Dion Archaeological Park Hellenistic theatre Mount Athos Mieza (Tomb of Judgement, Tomb of the Palmettes) Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki Pella Philippi Platamon Castle Vergina Museums : Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis, Aiani Archaeological Museum, Archaeological Museum of Dion, Archaeological Museum of Pella, Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, Museum of Byzantine culture
Culture	Vergina Sun Flag Music Cuisine
Greek Macedonia Portal

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