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{{Short description|Study of general and fundamental questions}}
The term '''philosophy''' derives from a combination of the ] words ''philos'' meaning ] and ''sophia'' meaning ]. What philosophy is, or should be, is itself a philosophical question that philosophers have understood and treated differently through the ages.
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]'' by ] is a symbol of philosophical thought.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2023|p=}} | {{harvnb|Morujão|Dimas|Relvas|2021|p=}} | {{harvnb|Mitias|2022|p=}} }}</ref>|upright=1.2]]
{{Philosophy sidebar}}
'''Philosophy''' ('love of wisdom' in ]) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like ], ], ], ], ], and ]. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.


Historically, many of the individual ]s, such as ] and ], formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the ] include ], ], ], and ]. Western philosophy originated in ] and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and ]. Indian philosophy combines the ] problem of how to reach ] with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and ].
'''Philosophy''' can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers; or to the collective works of major ]; it can also mean a certain critical, creative way of thinking. Contemporary Western academic 'philosophy' has two broad traditions: ']' and ']' philosophy. The former tradition is commonly focused on conceptual analysis. The latter tradition is distinguished by its associations with particular problems. ] is another, distinct tradition. Each of these can be considered individually or in comparison with the others. Philosophy, thus, has several connotations in common speech. This article will focus on philosophy as a ''field of study''.


Major branches of philosophy are ], ], ], and ]. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of ] and explores how good ]s can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of ], existence, ], and ]. Other subfields are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Within each branch, there are competing ] that promote different principles, theories, or methods.
== Philosophical topics ==


Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include ], reliance on ] and ]s, use of ], analysis of ], ], and ]. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, ], ], ], and ]. It provides an ] perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.
Philosophers ponder such concepts as ] or ], ] or ], ], ], and ]. Historically most philosophy has either centered on ]s, or ]. Philosophers may ask critical questions about the nature of these concepts--questions typically outside the scope of science. Several major works of post-medieval philosophy begin by asking the meaning of philosophy. Philosophers are motivated by specific questions such as:


{{toclimit|3}}
*What is truth? How or why do we identify a statement as correct or false, and how do we reason? What is wisdom?
*Is knowledge possible? How do we know what we know?
*Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Are values absolute, or relative? In general or particular terms, how should I live? How is right and wrong defined?
*What is reality, and what things can be described as real? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the nature of thought and thinking? What is it to be a person?
*What is it to be beautiful? How do beautiful things differ from the everyday? What is ]? Does true beauty exist?
]]]In Ancient ], these five broad types of questions were respectively called analytical or ], ], ], ], and ]. They are not the only subjects of philosophical inquiry. ], who was the first to use this classification (as he believed that to call himself a ] (lit. ''wise one'') was immodest), also considered ], modern-day ], ], ], ], and ] as branches of philosophical investigation. The Greeks, through the influence of ] and ], developed a tradition of ], that divided a subject into its components to understand it better.


== Etymology ==
] ]]
The word ''philosophy'' comes from the ] words {{lang|grc|φίλος}} ({{transl|grc|philos}}) {{gloss|love}} and {{lang|grc|σοφία}} ({{transl|grc|sophia}}) {{gloss|wisdom}}.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=350}} |2={{harvnb|Simpson|2002|loc=Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Jacobs|2022|p=}} }}</ref>{{efn|The Ancient Greek ''philosophos'' ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the ] term ''mer-rekh'' (''mr-rḫ'') meaning 'lover of wisdom'.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Herbjørnsrud|2021|p=123}} |2={{harvnb|Herbjørnsrud|2023|p=X}} }}</ref>}} Some sources say that the term was coined by the ] philosopher ], but this is not certain.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bottin|1993|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Jaroszyński|2018|p=}} }}</ref>


]'s observation of how ].]]
Other traditions did not always use such labels, or emphasize the same themes. While ] has similarities with ], there was no word for ''philosophy'' in ], ] or ] until the ], despite long-established philosophical traditions. ], in particular, used different categories than the Greeks. Definitions were not based on common features, but were usually metaphorical and referred to several subjects at once . Boundaries between categories are not distinct in Western philosophy, however, and since at least the 19th century, Western philosophical works have usually addressed a nexus of questions rather than distinct topics.


The word entered the English language primarily from ] and ] starting around 1175 CE. The French {{lang|fr|philosophie}} is itself a borrowing from the Latin {{lang|la|philosophia}}. The term ''philosophy'' acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (], ], ], and ])", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of ], ], and ], and the basic limits of human understanding".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|OED staff|2022|loc=Philosophy, n.}} |2={{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=350}} }}</ref>
== Motives, goals and methods ==


Before the modern age, the term ''philosophy'' was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of ] inquiry, such as the individual ], as its subdisciplines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} }}</ref> For instance, ] was a major branch of philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kenny|2018|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Cotterell|2017|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Maddy|2022|p=}} }}</ref> This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=}} }}</ref> An example of this usage is the 1687 book '']'' by ]. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Cotterell|2017|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Maddy|2022|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} }}</ref>
The word "philosophy" is derived from the ancient Greek (''&#934;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#963;&#959;&#966;&#943;&#945;'', ''philosophia'') which may be translated as "love of wisdom". It suggests a vocation for questioning, learning, and teaching. Philosophers are curious about the world, humanity, existence, values, understanding, and the nature of things.


The meaning of ''philosophy'' changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010}} |3={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=}} |4={{harvnb|AHD Staff|2022}} }}</ref>
Philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines by its methods of inquiry. Philosophers often frame their questions as problems or puzzles, in order to give clear examples of their doubts about a subject they find interesting, wonderful or confusing. Often these questions are about the assumptions behind a belief, or about methods by which people reason.


== Conceptions of philosophy ==
Philosophers typically frame problems in a logical manner, historically using ]s of ], since ] and ] increasingly using ]s, such as ], and then work towards a solution based on critical reading and reasoning. Like Socrates, they search for answers through discussion, responding to the arguments of others, or careful personal contemplation. Philosophers often debate the relative merits of these methods. For example, they may ask whether philosophical "solutions" are objective, definitive, and say something informative about reality. On the other hand, they may ask whether these solutions give greater clarity or insight into the logic of language, or rather act as personal therapy. Philosophers seek justification for the answers to their questions.
{{see also|Metaphilosophy}}


=== General conception ===
Language is the philosopher&#8217;s primary tool. In the ], debates about philosophical method have been closely connected to debates about the relationship between philosophy and language. There is a similar concern in ]. ], the "philosophy of philosophy", studies the nature of philosophical problems, philosophical solutions, and the proper method for getting from one to another. These debates are also connected to debates over language and interpretation.
The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Quinton|2005|p=702}} |3={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} |4={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023a}} |5={{harvnb|OUP Staff|2020}} |6={{harvnb|Adler|2000}} }}</ref> It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.{{sfn|Perry|Bratman|Fischer|2010|p=}}


The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Russell|1912|p=91}} |2={{harvnb|Blackwell|2013|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Pojman|2009|page=2}} |4={{harvnb|Kenny|2004|p=xv}} |5={{harvnb|Vintiadis|2020|p=}} }}</ref> For example, Socrates stated that "]" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.{{sfn|Plato|2023|loc=}}{{sfn|McCutcheon|2014|p=}} And according to ], "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Russell|1912|p=91}} |2={{harvnb|Blackwell|2013|p=}} }}</ref>
These debates are not ''less'' relevant to philosophy as a whole, since the nature and role of philosophy itself has always been an essential part of philosophical deliberations. The existence of fields such as ] point to a lengthy debate that is beyond the scope of this article ''(see ])''.


=== Academic definitions ===
Philosophy may also be approached by examining the relationships between components, as in ] and ]. The nature of science is examined in general terms ''(see ])'', and for particular sciences, ''(])''.
{{main|Definitions of philosophy}}
Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Quinton|2005|p=702}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} }}</ref> and are studied in ].{{sfn|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=vii, 17}} Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Mittelstraß|2005|loc=}} }}</ref> Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain ] and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Joll}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} }}</ref>


Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Rescher|2013|loc=|pp=1–3}} |3={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|pp=}} }}</ref> Such an approach is pursued by ], who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?"<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Guyer|2014|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Kant|1998|p=A805/B833}} |3={{harvnb|Kant|1992|p=9:25}} }}</ref> Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.{{sfn|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}}
== Non-academic uses of the word ==


Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.{{sfn|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some ], such as ], philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Hylton|Kemp|2020}} }}</ref> Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Chalmers|2015|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Dellsén|Lawler|Norton|2021|pp=814–815}} }}</ref> This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Mittelstraß|2005|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} }}</ref> In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hacker|2013|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} }}</ref>
Popularly, the word ''philosophy'' is often used to mean any form of assimilated knowledge. It may also refer to someone's perspective on life (as in "philosophy of life") or the basic principles behind, or method of achieving, something (as in "my philosophy about driving on highways"). This is also commonly referred to as a '']''.


Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with ], ], or the clarification of language.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Rescher|2013|loc=|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> According to one view, philosophy is ], which involves finding the ] for the application of concepts.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=}} }}</ref> Another definition characterizes philosophy as ''] about thinking'' to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|p=}} }}</ref> A further approach presents philosophy as a ] therapy. According to ], for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Joll|loc=Lead Section, § 2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein}} |3={{harvnb|Biletzki|Matar|2021}} }}</ref>
Reacting to a tragedy ''philosophically'' might mean abstaining from passionate reactions in favour of intellectualized detachment. This usage arose from the example of ], who calmly discussed the nature of the soul with his followers before consuming a deadly potion of hemlock as ordered by an Athenian jury. The ]s followed Socrates in seeking freedom from their passions, hence the modern use of the term ''stoic'' to refer to calm fortitude.


], such as ], characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating ]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Joll|loc=§ 4.a.i}} |2={{harvnb|Gelan|2020|p=|loc=Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences}} |3={{harvnb|Ingarden|1975|pp=|loc=The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science}} |4={{harvnb|Tieszen|2005|p=}} }}</ref> They practice a radical ] of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.{{sfn|Smith|loc=§ 2.b}}
==Philosophical traditions==


An early approach found in ] and ] is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banicki|2014|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Hadot|1995|loc=}} }}</ref> This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's ] by leading a reflective life.{{sfn|Grimm|Cohoe|2021|pp=}} For example, the ] saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve ] and flourish in life.{{sfn|Sharpe|Ure|2021|pp=}}
Members of many societies have considered philosophical questions and built philosophic traditions based upon each other's works. The term "philosophy" in a Euro-American ] context may misleadingly refer solely to the philosophic traditions of ]. This is also called ''"]"'', especially when contrasted with ''"]"'', which broadly subsumes the philosophic traditions of ]. Both terms group together diverse, even incompatible ].


== History {{anchor|Historical overview}} ==
Eastern and Middle Eastern philosophical traditions have influenced Western philosophers. Russian, Jewish, Islamic and recently Latin American philosophical traditions have contributed to, or been derivative of Western philosophy, yet retain a unique identity.
{{main|History of philosophy}}
As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Copleston|2003|pp=4–6}} |2={{harvnb|Santinello|Piaia|2010|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=}} }}</ref> Some theorists see it as a part of ], but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Laerke|Smith|Schliesser|2013|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Frede|2022|p=x}} |4={{harvnb|Beaney|2013|p=}} }}</ref> The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes ]s, ], and proverbial lore.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Scharfstein|1998|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Is There Indian Philosophy?}} |3={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=1–3}} |4={{harvnb|Rescher|2014|p=}} |5={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1–2}} }}</ref>


Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include ], ], ], and ]. Other philosophical traditions are ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=v, 1–12}} |2={{harvnb|Flavel|Robbiano|2023|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Solomon|Higgins|2003|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Contents, Preface}} }}</ref>
It is convenient to divide contemporary Western academic philosophy into two traditions, since use of the term ''"Western philosophy"'' over the past century has often revealed a bias towards one or the other.


=== Western ===
] (1889-1951)]]
{{main|Western philosophy}}


] was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.{{sfn|Shields|2022|loc=Lead Section}}]]
'']'' is characterized by a precise approach to analysing the language of philosophical questions. The purpose is to lay bare any underlying conceptual confusion. This approach dominates Anglo-American philosophy, but has roots in continental Europe, where it is also practiced. The tradition of analytic philosophy began with ] at the turn of the twentieth-century, and was carried on by ], ] and ].


Western philosophy originated in ] in the 6th century BCE with the ]. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the ] as a whole.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Presocratic Thought}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|pp=}} }}</ref> The philosophy following them was shaped by ] (469–399 BCE), ] (427–347 BCE), and ] (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like ], ], and what the ] and ] is.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Socrates, Plato, Aristotle}} }}</ref> The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Long|1986|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=Chapter 10}} |3={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=6. Post-Hellenistic Thought}} }}</ref> The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate ]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Lagerlund|2020|p=v}} |3={{harvnb|Marenbon|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|MacDonald|Kretzmann|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref><ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2019|pp=3–4}} }}</ref>
'']'' is a label for various schools predominant in continental Europe, but also at home in many English-speaking Humanities departments, that may examine language, metaphysical approaches, ], perspectivalism, or various aspects of the ] and ]. One of the focuses of recent continental philosophical schools is the attempt to reconcile academic philosophy with issues that appear non-philosophical, subverting common expectations of what philosophy is meant to be.


The ] period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular ]. ] also emerged in this period.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1, 3}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2022|pp=155–157}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Renaissance}} |4={{harvnb|Chambre|Maurer|Stroll|McLellan|2023|loc=Renaissance Philosophy}} }}</ref> The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Anstey|Vanzo|2023|pp=}} }}</ref> Many of these innovations were used in the ] to challenge traditional authorities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Kenny|2006|pp=90–92}} }}</ref> Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by ] and ].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of ], the focus on the ] as well as ], and movements in ] like phenomenology, ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Livingston|2017|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Silverman|Welton|1988|pp=}} }}</ref> The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at ]s.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} There was also a noticeable growth in the number of ], but they still remained underrepresented.{{sfn|Waithe|1995|pp=xix–xxiii}}
The differences between traditions are often based on their favored historical philosophers, or emphases on ideas, styles or language of writing. The subject matter and dialogues of each can be studied using methods derived from the others, and there have been significant commonalities and exchanges between them.


=== Arabic–Persian ===
Other philosophical traditions, such as African, are rarely considered by foreign academia. On account of the widespread emphasis on Western philosophy as a reference point, the study, preservation and dissemination of valuable but not widely known non-Western philosophical works faces many obstacles.
{{main|Islamic philosophy|Iranian philosophy}}
], one of the most influential philosophers of the ].]]
Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the ]. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|p=1}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic–Persian Philosophy}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=5–6}} }}</ref>


] (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Esposito|2003|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Nasr|Leaman|2013|loc=11. Al-Kindi}} |3={{harvnb|Nasr|2006|pp=109–110}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2020|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> ] (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gutas|2016}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} }}</ref> ] (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed ] and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=140–146}} |2={{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=Lead Section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî's "Refutations" of Falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam}} }}</ref> Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Rushd (Averroes)}} |2={{harvnb|Kaminski|2017|p=}} }}</ref> ] (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Rizvi|2021|loc=Lead Section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology}} |2={{harvnb|Chamankhah|2019|p=}} }}</ref> The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of ], which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moaddel|2005|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Masud|2009|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Safi|2005|loc=}} }}</ref>
Languages can either be a barrier or a vehicle for ideas. The question of which specific languages can be considered essential to philosophizing is a theme in the works of many recent philosophers.


===Western philosophy=== === Indian ===
{{main|Indian philosophy}}


] developed the ] view of ], stating that the existence of a plurality of distinct entities is an ].]]
The Western philosophic tradition began with the ] and continues to the present day. Major Western ]s include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].


One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the ] question of how to reach ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|p=3}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} }}</ref> It started around 900 BCE when the ] were written. They are the foundational scriptures of ] and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the ] and ] as well as the question of how ] are reborn based on their ].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Pooley|Rothenbuhler|2016|p=}}|{{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|p=}}}}</ref> This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like ] and ].<ref name="auto1">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Ruether|2004|p=}} }}</ref> Buddhism was founded by ] (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a ] and proposed ] to liberate oneself from ].<ref name="auto1"/> Jainism was founded by ] (599–527 BCE), who emphasized ] as well as respect toward all forms of life.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Vallely|2012|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Gorisse|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref>
Other influential contemporary Western philosophers include ] (now deceased), ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (now deceased), and ].


The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE{{efn|The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|p=}} | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview}} | {{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=}} }}</ref>}} and was characterized by the emergence of the six ]: ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy, The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Adamson|Ganeri|2020|pp=}} }}</ref> The school of ] developed later in this period. It was systematized by ] ({{circa|700}}–750 CE), who held that ] and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, 2. Metaphysics}} |3={{harvnb|Menon|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> A slightly different perspective was defended by ] (1017–1137 CE),{{efn|These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works}}}} who founded the school of ] and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses}} He also helped to popularize the ], which taught ] as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ranganathan|loc=4. Rāmānuja's Soteriology}} |2={{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Seshadri|1996|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Jha|2022|p=}} }}</ref> The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Modern Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023}} }}</ref> Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, ] (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banhatti|1995|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Bilimoria|2018|pp=529–531}} |3={{harvnb|Rambachan|1994|pp=}} }}</ref>
Western philosophy is sometimes divided into various branches of study, based on the kind of questions addressed. The most common categories are: ], ], ], and ]. Some other disciplines include ], ], ], and ]. For more information, see ].


===Eastern philosophy=== === Chinese ===
{{main|Chinese philosophy}}


] on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.]]
Eastern philosophy follows the broad traditions that originated from, or were popular within, ancient India and China. Major Eastern philosophers include ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (Lao Tzu), ], ] (Chuang Tzu), ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].


Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=3, 70–71}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |5={{harvnb|Cua|2009|pp=43–45}} |6={{harvnb|Wei-Ming|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Many ] emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perkins|2013|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Ma|2015|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Botz-Bornstein|2023|p=}} }}</ref> Confucianism was founded by ] (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral ]s and explored how they lead to harmony in society.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=70–76}}|{{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1b. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) of the Analects}}|{{harvnb|Boyd|Timpe|2021|pp=}}|{{harvnb|Marshev|2021|pp=}}}}</ref> Daoism was founded by ] (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the ] or the natural order of the universe.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Slingerland|2007|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> Other influential early schools of thought were ], which developed an early form of altruistic ],<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1c. Mozi (c. 470–391 B.C.E.) and Mohism}} |3={{harvnb|Defoort|Standaert|2013|p=}} }}</ref> and ], which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Kim|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods}} }}</ref>
Indian philosophy is perhaps the most comparable to Western philosophy. For instance, the ancient ] school of ] explores ] as some modern Analytic philosophers do; similarly the school of ] was openly ]ical and ]. However there are important differences - e.g. ancient Indian philosophy traditionally emphasized the teachings of schools or ancient texts, rather than individual philosophers, most of whom either wrote anonymously or whose names were simply not transmitted or recorded. For more information on Eastern philosophies, see ].


Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into ].<ref name="auto">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=§ Early Buddhism in China}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of ] emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.<ref name="auto"/> ] developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of ]—which focused on ], ], and ]—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Jiang|2009|pp=473–480}} |3={{harvnb|Qi|2014|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Tian|2009|pp=512–513}} }}</ref> Another development was the emergence of ], which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Van Norden|2022|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Redse|2015|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Makeham|2003|pp=}} }}</ref>
Other philosophical traditions are linked below.


=== Other traditions ===
==Applied philosophy==
Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous ] religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 3.2 Confucianism, § 3.3 Buddhism}} |2={{harvnb|Kasulis|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following ] and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=§ 4.3 Edo-period Philosophy (1600–1868)}}|{{harvnb|Kasulis|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The ] emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (''zettai-mu''), place (''basho''), and the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Davis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Absolute Nothingness: Giving Philosophical Form to the Formless}} |2={{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=§ 4.4.2 Modern Academic Philosophies}} }}</ref>


Latin American philosophy in the ] was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gracia|Vargas|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. History}} |2={{harvnb|Stehn|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Indigenous Period}} |3={{harvnb|Maffie}}}}</ref> It has similarities to ], which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Arola|2011|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Rivera Berruz|2019|p=72}} }}</ref> Latin American philosophy during the ], starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of ]. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were ], the ], and the exploration of identity and culture.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gracia|Vargas|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. History}} |2={{harvnb|Stehn|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Twentieth Century}} }}</ref>
Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical applications. The most obvious applications are those in ] &mdash; ] in particular &mdash; and in ]. The political philosophies of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] have shaped and been used to justify governments and their actions.


Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=African Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=Lead Section, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Mangena|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as ], ], ], Marxism, ], the role of cultural identity, ], ], and the critique of ].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Bell|Fernback|2015|p=}} | {{harvnb|Coetzee|Roux|1998|pp=}} | {{harvnb|Wiredu|2005|p=12}} | {{harvnb|Chimakonam|Ogbonnaya|2021}} }}</ref>
] deserves special mention, as well; progressive education as championed by ] has had a profound impact on educational practices in the ] in the twentieth century. It could be argued that some ] philosophies, such as the "]", inadvertently educate people about human psychology and power relationships through the use of spiritual metaphor.


== Core branches ==
Other important applications can be found in ], which might help one to regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. Two useful ways that epistemology and ] can inform the real world are through the fields of ] and police investigation. ] has many useful and practical applications, helping citizens to be critical in reading ] and in everyday discussion. ] discusses the underpinnings of the ]. ] can help to interpret discussions of ]. Even ], surely the most abstract and least practical-seeming branch of philosophy, has had important consequences for logic and ].
{{See also|Outline of philosophy#Branches of philosophy|Outline of philosophy#Philosophical schools of thought}}


Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brenner|1993|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Palmquist|2010|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Jenicek|2018|p=}} }}</ref> There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and ] are sometimes linked under the general heading of ] as they investigate ] or evaluative aspects.{{sfn|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead Section: "In its broadest sense, 'value theory' is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist philosophy and the philosophy of religion – whatever areas of philosophy are deemed to encompass some 'evaluative' aspect."}} Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kenny|2018|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Lazerowitz|Ambrose|2012|pp=}} }}</ref>
In general, the various "philosophies of," such as ], can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.


=== Epistemology ===
Often, philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not understood well enough to be its own branch of knowledge. What were
{{Main|Epistemology}}
once merely philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields of ], ], ], and
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as ''theory of knowledge'' and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Martinich|Stroll|2023|loc=Lead Section, The Nature of Epistemology}} |2={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=Article Summary}} }}</ref> Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|p=ix}}
] (among others). ], ] and ] are modern areas of research that philosophy has played a role in developing.


Epistemology is primarily interested in ] or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates ], such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and ], for example, knowing a celebrity personally.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead Section, 2. What Is Knowledge?}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} |3={{harvnb|Colman|2009a|loc=}} }}</ref>
Moreover, a burgeoning profession devoted to applying philosophy to the problems of ordinary life has recently developed, called ]. Many Eastern philosophies can and do help millions of people with anxiety problems through their emphasis on meditation for calming the mind and the connection between the health of the body and the health of the soul.


One area in epistemology is the '']''. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a ''belief'' that is ''justified'' and ''true''. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Martinich|Stroll|2023|loc=The Nature of Knowledge}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge}} }}</ref> Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of ] instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=§ 2d. The Gettier Problem}} }}</ref>
== History (of Western philosophy) ==
(Main Article: ])


Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge}} }}</ref> According to ], all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like ], are not acquired through experience.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hetherington|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=}} }}</ref> The ] is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an ] or ]. ]s avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=3. The Nature of Justification}} }}</ref> Another solution is presented by ]s, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.{{sfn|Olsson|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism}}
Traditionally, the history and study of the history of philosophy is divided into three areas: ], ], and ]. There is also now focus being put on the post-modern period, especially ]. ], in his book ''The Unity of Philosophic Experience'', attempts to show important connections between the ideas of the medieval period and their development in the modern period; this is contrary to traditional interpretations of modern philosophy as a new era unconcerned with the past.


Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of ], which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=6. The Limits of Cognitive Success}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=4. The Extent of Human Knowledge}} |3={{harvnb|Johnstone|1991|p=}} }}</ref>
Ancient Greek Philosophy is typically divided into the ], the philosophy of Plato, and the philosophy of Aristotle. Important pre-Socratic philosophers include ], ], ], ], and ]. The pre-Socratics, as far as we know from the fragments which survive, were mostly interested in ]; their goal was to find the universal <i>arche</i> or defining principle of the world. Also notable are arguments about the distinction between the one and the many and the possibility of change.


=== Ethics ===
] and his pupil ] revolutionized philosophy. While Socrates wrote nothing, his influence survives through that of his pupil. Plato defined the issues with which philosophy still wrestles.
{{Main|Ethics}}
], '']'' (1863){{sfn|Mill|1863|p=}}]]


Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right ]. It is also concerned with the moral ] of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of ] are and how to live a good life.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=325–326}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380}} |3={{harvnb|Lambert|2023|p=}} }}</ref> Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|pp=vii–xi}}
A student of Plato's, Aristotle, was concerned with all matters of knowledge, and his ] would form the basis of all later ethical discussions. He also deepened the study of ], improving on the theory of forms suggested by Plato and creating the ''hylomorphic'' theory (ie. All things in the universe are composites of form and matter--of the immaterial universal and the material particular).


The main branches of ethics are ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380}} }}</ref> Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like ''right action'' and '']''. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be ] and how to acquire knowledge of them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=390–391}} |4={{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Barsky|2009|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380, 390–391}} }}</ref>
Marcus Tullius ] was one of the greatest Roman orators and legal philosophers of the ancient world. His explication of the Natural Law, the belief that the rule of law must be rooted in the nature of the cosmos itself, held great sway in the ancient and medieval world. It was Cicero who offerred one of the first conceptions of the commonwealth, as a people united by common interests and a shared sense of law (''lex''). The Romans rooted law in concepts of rights and power, which through their military might they projected throughout Europe.


Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, ], and ] are influential schools of thought.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=382, 386–388}} }}</ref> ''Consequentialists'' judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is ], which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. ''Deontologists'' judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. ''Virtue theorists'' judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=382, 386–388}} |3={{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2022|loc=1.2 Practical Wisdom}} }}</ref>
Law was already an important concept in the near east when the Romans invaded and conqured. The ] living in Jerusalem already had a complex understanding of law and of its relation to the creator of the cosmos. Law for them was intimately related to the idea of being a people or a nation. The Law was a grif from God given to the Hebrew people as a means for maintaining their identity and purity before their creator-God.


=== Logic ===
In the 200s-400s early Christians built on this already ancient Hebrew understanding. A number of important Christian thinkers sought to understand the nature of law and its relation to the early Church. ] of Lyon, ], ] and ] of Milan rank among the most important.
{{Main|Logic}}


Logic is the study of ]. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad ]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hintikka|2019}} |2={{harvnb|Haack|1978|loc=Philosophy of Logics}} }}</ref> It is usually divided into formal and ]. Formal logic uses ] with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blair|Johnson|2000|pp=94–96}} |2={{harvnb|Walton|1996}} |3={{harvnb|Tully|2005|p=532}} |4={{harvnb|Johnson|1999|pp=265–267}} |5={{harvnb|Groarke|2021}} }}</ref>
It was ], however, who had the greatest and longest impact. A convert to Christianity, Augustine wrote many important texts. One of his most widely read works are ], his biography recounting his studies in Cicero's philosophy, his conversion to the Gnostic religion of ], and his eventual conversion to Christianity. Another important Augustinian text is his ] in which he argued against the claim then circulating among some Romans that the Christians were the cause of Rome's decline. Augustine argued that Christians had strengthened a corrupt Empire, slowing its ineviditable decline. In Book 19 he argues against Cicero's understanding of the commonwealth, stating in the alternative that the commonwealth is defined by people who are united in a commitment to share what they love.


Logic examines a variety of arguments. ] are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively ] if the truth of its ]s ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a ], like '']'', which has the following ]: "''p''; if ''p'' then ''q''; therefore ''q''". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Velleman|2006|pp=8, 103}} |2={{harvnb|Johnson-Laird|2009|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=334–336, 432}} }}</ref>
After Augustine, many important Christian thinkers, including ], ], and ] shaped philosophy in the early medival period. An issue of great importance was coming to grips with the great political power that the Church had achieved, particularly in the office of the papacy.


The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=432, 470}} |2={{harvnb|Anshakov|Gergely|2010|p=}} }}</ref> One form is ]. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Vickers|2022}} |2={{harvnb|Nunes|2011|pp=|loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=432–449, 470}} }}</ref> Another form is ]. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Douven|2022}} |2={{harvnb|Koslowski|2017|pp=366–368|loc=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation}} |3={{harvnb|Nunes|2011|pp=|loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}} }}</ref>
In the thirteenth century, the works of Aristotle had become influential once again, after having been lost to Western Europe since the fall of Rome. One of the greatest synthesizers of Christian and Aristotelian thought was ]. His synthesis of Aristotelian metaphysics and practical reasoning with Christian teaching became characteristic of ]. A central issue of which was understanding the nature of Being-as-such and the God who identifies himself as the Creator of all beings. In his ], Aquinas attempted to answer in brief format all the major theological issues of his day by synthesising Christian belief with Aristotelian hylopmorphic metaphysics.


Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called '']'' and are divided into ] and ] based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hansen|2020}} |2={{harvnb|Dowden|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|p=290}} |4={{harvnb|Vleet|2011|p=}} }}</ref>
Aquinas divided the concept of law into four modes: Eternal Law, Natural Law, Human Law, and Divine Law. The Eternal Law reflects God's intentions for creation. The Natural Law are laws immanent in Being. The human law is the positive law of princes; and the Divine Law is the revelation of God in the Scripture. Natural law relies on the power of the human mind to know the form and substance of things and thereby their ''telos'' (their eternal purpose, goal, or end) that makes it possible to know the natural law. Aquinas argued that ultimately the ''tele'' (plural of ''telos'') merged into the desire to achieve union with God.


=== Metaphysics ===
] offered an imporant alternative to Thomistic philosophy. He argued against the premise that Thomas Aquinas accepted on faith, that a true and accurate understanding of the ''tele'' can be known through human experience, and thus he argued against the Natural Law as Aquinas had proposed it.
{{Main|Metaphysics}}
] in an ] decorated with hand-painted miniatures.]]


Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of ], such as existence, ] and their ], ], ] and ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Craig|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} }}</ref> There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.{{sfn|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section}} Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "]"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|pp=ix–x}}
Modern thinkers would find much of value in the thought of Ockham. ], who is often called the father of modern philosophy, proposed that philosophy should begin with a radical skepiticism about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge. In his ''Meditations'', he systematically destroys all the foundations of knowledge except one (I am thinking, therefore I am), and then uses this single indubitable fact to rebuild a system of knowledge. The questions he raises would then be dealt with by ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The period was marked by an association with the natural sciences and rationalism.


Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Craig|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Gracia|1999|p=}} }}</ref>
The many debates among these modern philosophers caused strains in every area of philosophy, most notably metaphysics. Finally, ] wrote his ] and attempted to reconcile conflicting views and establish a new groundword for studying metaphysics rooted in the analysis of the conditions for the possiblity of knowledge. A central claim of Kant's program of "critique" involved the refutation of classical and Thomistic conceptions of metaphysics, which suggested investigated an abstact concept of being-as-such. Kant argued that being predicates nothing, such that to claim "that x" and "that x is" are equvilant expressions. There is no "Being" in the abstract, only particular beings and these are known only as phenomena of human experience. No knowledge of things in themselves (noumena) is possible. Kant dubbed this insight in his philosophy a "Copernican Revolution".


An important area in metaphysics is ]. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like ], ], and reality. It studies the ] and asks what exists on the most fundamental level.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Haaparanta|Koskinen|2012|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Fiet|2022|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} |4={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Another subfield of metaphysics is ]. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} |2={{harvnb|Coughlin|2012|p=}} }}</ref>
Kant's moral philosophy is rooted in the claim set out in the ] that "There is nothing that is good without qualification, except a good will." Why is this? Simply because anything at all can be either good or evil ''except a '''desire''' to do good.'' The only thing that guides human action to be moral is the individual will seeking to obey the dictates of reason. In his famous ], he sets out the principle of moral judgment: "As such that the principle of one's action can be willed to be a universal principle (held by all)." Kant's thought offered a means for thinking about moral duty without reference to metaphysical programs, which were becoming increasingly dubious in the light of advancing scientific progess. The duty to obey what practical reason demands became the mode of moral reasoning known as Kantianism. Kantian philosophy continues to cast a long shaddow in legal theory. Conteporary theorists like ] and ] draw much of their inspiration from Kantian predecessors.


A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as ]s and ]s) and ] (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of ]. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} According to one view, entities have ] and ]. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Robertson Ishii|Atkins|2023|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p=}} }}</ref> A central distinction in metaphysics is between ]s and ]. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=683}} |2={{harvnb|Kuhlmann|2010|loc=Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien}} }}</ref> Other metaphysical questions are whether the past ] the present and what implications this would have for the existence of ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kane|2009|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Kane|2013|p=}} }}</ref>
By the late 19th Century, however, several important philosophers argued against the Kant's skepical attitude. One of the most influential was Edumund ], who founded the philosophical mode known as phenomenology. Husserl's approach to philosophical method indirectly inspired a wide-range of important thinkers in the twentieth century. Through the writings of Catholic thinkers, such as ] and Karol Wojtyla (]) phenomenology was coupled with Thomistic thought to investigate the nature of the dignity of the human person. Coupled with existentialism, the phenomenology of ] influenced thinkers as diverse as ], ], ], and ].


=== Other major branches ===
==See also==
{{See also|List of philosophies}}
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There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Stambaugh|1987|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Phillips|2010|p=16}} |3={{harvnb|Ramos|2004|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Shand|2004|pp=}} }}</ref>
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] in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of ] and other aesthetic properties, like ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Janaway|2005|p=9|loc=Aesthetics, History Of}} }}</ref> Although it is often treated together with the ], aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Nanay|2019|p=4}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} }}</ref> In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and ]".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kelly|1998|p=ix}} |2={{harvnb|Riedel|1999}} }}</ref> A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Sartwell|2022|loc=}} }}</ref> Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and ]. Further topics include the essence of ] and the processes involved in creating them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} }}</ref>
== Bibliography ==


The ] studies the nature and function of ]. It examines the concepts of ], ], and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human ] and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Language}} |2={{harvnb|Russell|Fara|2013|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in ] due to the works of ] and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal ] of sentences{{efn|The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.{{sfn|Birner|2012|p=}}}} and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Wolf|2023|loc=§§ 1.a-b, 3–4}} |2={{harvnb|Ifantidou|2014|p=}} }}</ref>
=== Introductions ===
==== For beginners ====
*''Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction'' by ]
*''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Philosophy (2nd Edition)'' by Jay Stevenson
*''Philosophy and Living'' by Ralph Blumenau
*''Sophie's World'' by ]
*'''' magazine
*''Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy'' by ]
*''A Short History of Philosophy'' by Robert C. Solomon, Kathleen M. Higgins
* '''' by Bertrand Russell
*''Philosophy: The Basics'' by Nigel Warburton.
*Sober, E. (2001). ''Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings''. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall.
*
*


The ] studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2000|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Crumley|2006|pp=}} }}</ref> It aims to understand different types of ] and ] ], like ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ], and free will.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Mind}} |2={{harvnb|Heidemann|2014|p=}} }}</ref> An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The ] is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are ], which assumes that matter is more fundamental; ], which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and ], which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is ], which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 9, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weir|2023|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Shiraev|2010|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Polger|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The mind-body problem is closely related to the ], which asks how the physical brain can produce ]<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weisberg|loc=Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem}} }}</ref>
==== Topical introductions ====


The ] investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with ]. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the ], and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of ]s that reject religious doctrines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 5.2}} |2={{harvnb|Burns|2017|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} |4={{harvnb|Meister|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 1}} "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 5.1.1}} and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 6}} It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} }}</ref> It differs from ] since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bayne|2018|pp=1–2}} |2={{harvnb|Louth|Thielicke|2014}} }}</ref>
*''What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy'' by Thomas Nagel
*''A Short History of Modern Philosophy'' by ]
*''World Philosophies'' by Ninian Smart
*''Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction'' by Sue Hamilton
*''A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy'' by Oliver Leaman
*''Eastern Philosophy For Beginners'' by Jim Powell, Joe Lee
*''An Introduction to African Philosophy'' by Samuel Oluoch Imbo
*''Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to ] and ]'' by ]
*''Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction'' by Simon Critchley
*''Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy'' by Jay Stevenson
*''Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts'' by OmegaX


The ] examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from ]. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} |2={{harvnb|Kitcher|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Losee|2001|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Wei|2020|p=}} |5={{harvnb|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=2–3}}}}</ref> Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=7}} "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=5}} and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"{{sfn|Papineau|2005|pp=855–856}} It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the ] and the philosophy of the ], with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Papineau|2005|p=852}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} }}</ref>
==== Anthologies ====


] is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of ]. It investigates the nature and purpose of ] and compares its different forms.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2012|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Bowle|Arneson|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |5={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=}} }}</ref> It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is ], rather than a form of simple violence.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Howard|2010|p=4}} }}</ref> In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and ].{{sfn|Wolff|2006|pp=1–2}} Other topics are ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from ], which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} }}</ref> Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Subfields of Ethics}} Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of Thought}} |2={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=}} }}</ref>
*''Philosophic Classics: From Plato to Derrida (4th Edition)'' by Forrest E. Baird
*''The Story of Philosophy'' by Will Durant
*''Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1 & 2, 2nd edition)'' by Louis P. Pojman
*''Classics of Philosophy: The 20th Century (Vol. 3)'' by Louis P. Pojman
*''The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill'' by Edwin Arthur Burtt
*''European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche'' by Monroe Beardsley
*''Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings'' by James Baillie
*''Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)'' by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom
*''The Phenomenology Reader'' by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney
*''Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings'' edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi
*''A Source Book in Indian Philosophy'' by ], Charles A. Moore
*''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy'' by ]
*Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). ''Metaphysics: An Anthology''. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
*''The Oxford Handbook of Free Will'' (2004) edited by ]


=== Reference works === == Methods ==
{{main|Philosophical methodology}}
*''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'' edited by ]
Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McKeon|2002|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} }}</ref> A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the ] in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2010|loc=|p=9}} |2={{harvnb|Williamson|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Ichikawa|2011}} }}</ref> The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Nado|2017|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Dever|2016|loc=}} }}</ref> This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2010|loc=|pp=9–11}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|Dever|2016|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophical Methodology?}} }}</ref>
*''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'' by Robert Audi
*'']'' (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (also available online by subscription); or
*''The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
*''Routledge History of Philosophy'' (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon
*''History of Philosophy'' (9 vols.) by Frederick Copleston
*''A History of Western Philosophy'' (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones
*''Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies'' (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al ('''first 6 volumes out of print''')
*''Indian Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
*''A History of Indian Philosophy'' (5 vols.) by ]
*''History of Chinese Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by ], Derk Bodde
*''Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy'' edited by Antonio S. Cua
*''Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion'' by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs
*''Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'' by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
*''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English'' by John A. Grimes
*''History of Islamic Philosophy'' edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
*''History of Jewish Philosophy'' edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman
*''A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries'' by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin
*Ayer, A. J. et al. Ed. (1994) ''A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations''. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
*Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)''The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy''. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
*Mauter, T., Ed. ''The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy''. London, Penguin Books.
*Runes, D., ED. (1942). ''The Dictionary of Philosophy''. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.
*Angeles, P. A., Ed. (1992). ''The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy''. New York, Harper Perennial.
*Bunnin, N. et. al.,Ed.(1996) ''The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy''. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
*Popkin, R. H. (1999). ''The Columbia History of Western Philosophy''. New York, Columbia University Press.


Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} }}</ref> Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Williamson|2020}} |2={{harvnb|Singer|1974|pp=420–421}} |3={{harvnb|Venturinha|2013|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Walsh|Teo|Baydala|2014|p=}} }}</ref>
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibookspar||Introduction to Philosophy}}
{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Philosophy}}
{{Wikisource}}
Some of these websites contain links to online texts of philosophy, as do many related articles on Misplaced Pages.


Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|p=915}}|{{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=}}|{{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=}}}}</ref> Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on ]. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ichikawa|2011}} |2={{harvnb|Reynolds|2010|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|EB Staff|2007}} }}</ref> It is similar to how ] approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Parker-Ryan|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|EB Staff|2022}} }}</ref>
===Resources===
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* by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
* (currently unavailable)
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* A sampling of philosophies in certain geographical areas. Warning: some links are not updated.


] is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley to save a group of people.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Woollard|Howard-Snyder|2022|loc=§ 3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction}} |2={{harvnb|Rini|loc=§ 8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref>]]
===eJournals===
* Sic et Non. Journal for philosophy and culture. on the net. (expanding to english texts, discussions, booktips, wikis etc.)


Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to ]s, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Duignan|2009}} }}</ref> For example, they play an important role in ]s, which employ ] to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Goffi|Roux|2011|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|pp=915–916}} }}</ref> The method of ] also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a ] position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Daniels|2020|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Method of Reflective Equilibrium}} |3={{harvnb|Little|1984|pp=}} }}</ref>
===Forums===


Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McDermid|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> According to the ] as formulated by ], the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McDermid|loc=Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A Maxim}} |2={{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce}} }}</ref>
* -- What is the meaning of life?
* -- A place to discuss philosophies of religion, and other such topics.
* -- Philter Philosophy is the resource for learning and discussing philosophy.
* -- a place to discuss Philosophy with a discursive library on Philosophical topics.
*
* -- A place to discuss topics in all areas of philosophy from ethics to aesthetics.
* -- a place to discuss philosophy from basic to advanced levels, with a library of introductory essays for beginners.
* -- the Internet's first online Wiki for the development of multiple points of view on a range of philosophical topics.
* -- A discussion board covering Philosophy, Logic/Mathematics, Culture, Literature, The Arts, and Technology.
* Ongoing debate on the veracity of the words of the greats.
* eJournal for philosophy and culture. Discussion-board and journal with topics on poststructuralism, critical theorie, political philosophy, sociology, media, hypertext


Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or ]. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Cogan|loc=Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction}} |2={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Smith|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?}} |4={{harvnb|Smith|loc=Lead Section, § 2.Phenomenological Method}} }}</ref>
===Organizations, websites and associations===

*
] places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Fischer|Collins|2015|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Fisher|Sytsma|2023|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Papineau|2023|loc=§ 2. Methodological Naturalism}} }}</ref>
*

*
== Relation to other fields ==
*
Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an ] perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}} Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} }}</ref>
*

*
The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In ], philosophical considerations related to ] affect issues like whether an ] is already a ] and under what conditions ] is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Bioethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} |4={{harvnb|Crary|2013|pp=321–322}} }}</ref> In relation to ] and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} }}</ref>
*

*
Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.{{sfn|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=51–53}} This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on ] but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already ]. A closely connected problem is whether the available ] to decide between competing theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bird|2010|pp=5–6, 8–9}} |2={{harvnb|Rosenberg|2013|pp=}} }}</ref> Epistemological problems in relation to the ] include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person ] of a crime. A related issue in ] is how to ensure truth and ] when reporting on events.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}}
*

*
In the fields of ] and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether ] in the form of holy books and ]s of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Reason/Rationality}} |2={{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Dougherty|2014|pp=97–98}} }}</ref>
*

*
] is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement.]]
Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kakas|Sadri|2003|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Li|2014|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Nievergelt|2015|pp=v–vi}} }}</ref> Further fields influenced by philosophy include ], ], linguistics, ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=332–37}} |2={{harvnb|Murphy|2018|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, Table of Contents}} |4={{harvnb|Frankena|Raybeck|Burbules|2002|loc=§ Definition}} }}</ref> The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.{{sfn|Cropper|1997}}

In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} }}</ref> Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in ] laid the foundation for ] and played a role in the ] and the ].{{sfn|Bristow|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory}} Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the ] and the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Pipes|2020|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Wolff|Leopold|2021|loc=§ 9. Marx's Legacy}} |3={{harvnb|Shaw|2019|p=}} }}</ref> In India, ]'s ] shaped the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Singh|2014|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Bondurant|1988|pp=23–24}} }}</ref>

An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the ] movement through philosophers such as ], ], and ]. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of ], how it differs from ], and what role it plays in the formation of ]. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and ] and their implications with respect to the ] in ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McAfee|2018|loc=Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements}} |2={{harvnb|Ainley|2005|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Hirschmann|2008|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|McAfee|Garry|Superson|Grasswick|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism?}}}}</ref>

The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Jones|Bos|2007|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Rickles|2020|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Lockie|2015|pp=24–28}} }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Main|Outline of philosophy}}
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
{{cols}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{colend}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|22em}}

===Bibliography===
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* {{cite book |last1=Chamankhah |first1=Leila |title=The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World |date=2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-22692-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGtDwAAQBAJ |access-date=9 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Chambre |first1=Henri |last2=Maurer |first2=Armand |last3=Stroll |first3=Avrum |last4=McLellan |first4=David T. |last5=Levi |first5=Albert William |last6=Wolin |first6=Richard |last7=Fritz |first7=Kurt von |title=Western Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=30 May 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=13 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135159/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Chimakonam |first1=Jonathan O. |title=History of African Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=14 June 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605181437/https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chimakonam |first1=Johnathan O. |last2=Ogbonnaya |first2= L. Uchenna |title=African Metaphysics, Epistemology and a New Logic |chapter=Toward an African Theory of Knowledge |year=2021 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8 |isbn=9783030724474}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Clark |first1=Kelly James |title=Religious Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=21 September 2022 |date=2022 |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921184650/https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Coetzee |first1=Pieter Hendrik |last2=Roux |first2=A. P. J. |title=The African Philosophy Reader |date=1998 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-18905-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iz90Qo8G_oC&pg=PA88 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Cogan |first1=John |title=Phenomenological Reduction, The |url=https://iep.utm.edu/phen-red/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404124423/https://www.iep.utm.edu/phen-red/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Colman |first1=Andrew M. |title=A Dictionary of Psychology |date=2009a |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953406-7 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095705926;jsessionid=A19D30BFCF6E02A0F21A87B805F10DEE |chapter=Declarative Knowledge |access-date=16 April 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330090713/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095705926;jsessionid=A19D30BFCF6E02A0F21A87B805F10DEE |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copleston |first1=Frederick |title=History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome |date=2003 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-6895-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y08L-MC36JUC |access-date=25 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cotterell |first1=Brian |title=Physics and Culture |date=2017 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-1-78634-378-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |access-date=25 August 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coughlin |first1=John J. |title=Law, Person, and Community: Philosophical, Theological, and Comparative Perspectives on Canon Law |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-987718-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QPFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |title=Metaphysics |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/metaphysics/v-1 |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |access-date=15 July 2023 |date=1998 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801213535/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/metaphysics/v-1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Crary |first1=Alice |editor1-last=Petrus |editor1-first=Klaus |editor2-last=Wild |editor2-first=Markus |title=Animal Minds & Animal Ethics |date=2013 |publisher=transcript Verlag |isbn=978-3-8394-2462-9 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321/pdf |chapter=13. Eating and Experimenting on Animals |doi=10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html |title=Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work |last=Cropper |first=Carol Marie |date=1997 |newspaper=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=2 May 2016 |archive-date=28 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128202946/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Crumley |first1=Jack S |title=A Brief Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind |date=2006 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-7212-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |access-date=19 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cua |first1=Antonio S. |chapter=The Emergence of the History of Chinese Philosophy |editor1-last=Mou |editor1-first=Bo |title=History of Chinese Philosophy |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-00286-5 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dalal |first1=Neil |title=Śaṅkara |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 June 2023 |date=2021 |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127111736/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Christopher |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-34455-7 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 |chapter=Introduction and Historical Overview |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1057/9781137344557_1 |doi-broken-date=3 December 2024 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501081115/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Christopher |title=An Introduction to Philosophical Methods |date=2010 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-55111-934-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ |chapter=Introduction |access-date=7 June 2022 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Daniels |first1=Norman |title=Reflective Equilibrium |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=28 February 2022 |date=2020 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222215102/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Davis |first1=Bret W. |title=The Kyoto School |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 November 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928152229/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Defoort |first1=Carine |last2=Standaert |first2=Nicolas |title=The Mozi as an Evolving Text: Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-23434-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdl0smlDVtEC |access-date=21 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dehsen |first1=Christian von |title=Philosophers and Religious Leaders |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-95102-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ |access-date=28 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dellsén |first1=Finnur |last2=Lawler |first2=Insa |last3=Norton |first3=James |title=Thinking about Progress: From Science to Philosophy |journal=Noûs |date=2021 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=814–840 |doi=10.1111/nous.12383 |s2cid=235967433 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/2836808 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dever |first1=Josh |editor-first1=Herman |editor-first2=Tamar Szabó |editor-first3=John |editor-last1=Cappelen |editor-last2=Gendler |editor-last3=Hawthorne |chapter=What Is Philosophical Methodology? |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology |date=2016 |pages=3–24 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.34 |isbn=978-0-19-966877-9 |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205194742/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34 |url-status=live |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dittmer |first1=Joel |title=Ethics, Applied |url=https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=2 July 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601064729/https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dougherty |first1=Trent |title=Faith, Trust, and Testimony |journal=Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue |date=2014 |pages=97–123 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672158.003.0005 |isbn=978-0-19-967215-8 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |title=Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0385.xml |encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114239/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0385.xml |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley H. |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=22 January 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603000334/https://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley H. |title=Logical Reasoning |date=2020 |url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602004345/https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf |url-status=live }} (for an earlier version, see: {{cite book |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley H. |title=Logical Reasoning |date=1993 |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-534-17688-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzMQAQAAIAAJ |access-date=17 July 2023 |ref=none }}){{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Intuitionism (Ethics) |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intuitionism-ethics |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=28 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123948/https://www.britannica.com/topic/intuitionism-ethics |url-status=live |last1=Duignan |first1=Brian |date=2009 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Duignan |first1=Brian |title=Ancient Philosophy: From 600 BCE to 500 CE |date=2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc |isbn=978-1-61530-141-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC |access-date=30 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Duignan |editor1-first=Brian |title=The Science and Philosophy of Politics |date=2012 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-748-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ye-cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=21 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Chinese Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=12 June 2023 |date=2017 |archive-date=2 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502233005/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2017}} }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=History and Periods of Indian Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Indian-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=10 June 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=11 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611075241/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Indian-philosophy |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2023}} }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamic Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2020 |access-date=7 June 2023 |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607072850/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-philosophy |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2020}} }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy |access-date=29 May 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=23 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223162559/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy |url-status=live |date=2023 |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2023a}} }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Philosophy of Common Sense |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-common-sense |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123948/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-common-sense |url-status=live |date=2007 |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2007}} }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ordinary Language Analysis |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ordinary-language-analysis |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=28 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123949/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ordinary-language-analysis |url-status=live |date=2022 |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2022}} }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eder |first1=Anna-Maria A. |last2=Lawler |first2=Insa |last3=van Riel |first3=Raphael |title=Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny: Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods |journal=Synthese |date=2020 |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=915–923 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2 |s2cid=54631297 |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Espín |first1=Orlando O. |last2=Nickoloff |first2=James B. |title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies |date=2007 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA8 |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512559-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC |date=2003 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Eugen |last2=Collins |first2=John |title=Experimental Philosophy, Rationalism, and Naturalism: Rethinking Philosophical Method |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-50027-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Eugen |last2=Sytsma |first2=Justin |editor1-last=Bauer |editor1-first=Alexander Max |editor2-last=Kornmesser |editor2-first=Stephan |title=The Compact Compendium of Experimental Philosophy |date=2023 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-071702-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C83bEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9 |chapter=Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fiet |first1=James O. |title=The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship |date=2022 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-80037-147-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nK1jEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Flavel |first1=Sarah |last2=Robbiano |first2=Chiara |title=Key Concepts in World Philosophies: A Toolkit for Philosophers |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-16814-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q0KaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT279 |access-date=19 August 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Forrest |first1=Peter |title=The Epistemology of Religion |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 September 2022 |date=2021 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710182220/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Frankena |first1=William K. |last2=Raybeck |first2=Nathan |last3=Burbules |first3=Nicholas |contribution=Philosophy of Education |year=2002 |title=Encyclopedia of Education |edition=2nd |editor-last=Guthrie |editor-first=James W. |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865594-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=The Historiography of Philosophy |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884072-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cy9VEAAAQBAJ |access-date=24 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gelan |first1=Victor Eugen |chapter=Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences |title=The Subject(s) of Phenomenology |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-29357-4 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 |series=Contributions to Phenomenology |volume=108 |pages=97–105 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 |doi-broken-date=3 December 2024 |s2cid=213082313 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302082534/http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Glenney |first1=Brian |last2=Silva |first2=José Filipe |title=The Senses and the History of Philosophy |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-73106-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ |access-date=16 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goffi |first1=Jean-Yves |last2=Roux |first2=Sophie |author2-link=Sophie Roux |title=On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment |journal=Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts |date=2011 |pages=165–191 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35 |isbn=978-90-04-20177-4 |s2cid=260640180 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030152653/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Gorisse |first1=Marie-Hélène |title=Jaina Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 November 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217095842/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gracia |first1=Jorge J. E. |title=Metaphysics and Its Task: The Search for the Categorial Foundation of Knowledge |date=1999 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4214-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrUkAQAAMAAJ |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Gracia |first1=Jorge J. E. |last2=Vargas |first2=Manuel |title=Latin American Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 November 2023 |date=2018 |archive-date=11 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611112950/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Graham |first1=Jacob N. |title=Ancient Greek Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=25 May 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825215433/https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86931-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxbLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 |access-date=7 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grayling |first1=A. C. |title=The History of Philosophy |date=2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-241-98086-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ |access-date=30 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Greco |first1=John |title=Epistemology |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/epistemology/v-3 |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |access-date=14 July 2023 |date=2021 |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714173814/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/epistemology/v-3 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Griffel |first1=Frank |title=Al-Ghazali |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-ghazali/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 June 2023 |date=2020 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528070053/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-ghazali/ |url-status=live }}
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* {{cite book |last1=Vintiadis |first1=Elly |title=Philosophy by Women: 22 Philosophers Reflect on Philosophy and Its Value |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-20324-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT137 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Jacob E. Van |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2011 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-5433-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCFYUGRG5dcC&pg=PR9 |access-date=17 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Waithe |first1=Mary Ellen |title=A History of Women Philosophers. 4: Contemporary Women Philosophers 1900 - today |date=1995 |publisher=Nijhoff |isbn=978-0-7923-2808-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walsh |first1=Richard T. G. |last2=Teo |first2=Thomas |last3=Baydala |first3=Angelina |title=A Critical History and Philosophy of Psychology: Diversity of Context, Thought, and Practice |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87076-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8JxcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas |title=Formal and Informal Logic |editor-last1=Craig |editor-first1=Edward |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wei |first1=Wang |title=Philosophy of Science: An Introduction to the Central Issues |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-54231-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2wNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |access-date=21 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wei-Ming |first1=Tu |title=Self-cultivation in Chinese Philosophy |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/self-cultivation-in-chinese-philosophy/v-1 |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |access-date=20 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820081451/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/self-cultivation-in-chinese-philosophy/v-1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weir |first1=Ralph Stefan |title=The Mind-Body Problem and Metaphysics: An Argument From Consciousness to Mental Substance |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-91432-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUXAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |access-date=19 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Weisberg |first1=Josh |title=Hard Problem of Consciousness |url=https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 July 2023 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719172212/https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Williamson |first1=Timothy |title=Philosophical Method: A Very Short Introduction |chapter=1. Introduction |year=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-184724-0 |url=https://www.veryshortintroductions.com/view/10.1093/actrade/9780198810001.001.0001/actrade-9780198810001-chapter-1 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307131007/https://www.veryshortintroductions.com/view/10.1093/actrade/9780198810001.001.0001/actrade-9780198810001-chapter-1 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wiredu |first=Kwasi |chapter=Introduction: African Philosophy in Our Time |year=2005 |title=A Companion to African Philosophy |pages=1–27 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |doi=10.1002/9780470997154.ch1 |isbn=978-0-470-99715-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wolf |first=Michael P. |year=2023 |title=Philosophy of Language |encyclopedia=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/ |access-date=13 July 2023 |archive-date=15 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615132016/https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wolff |first1=Jonathan |last2=Leopold |first2=David |title=Karl Marx |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 September 2023 |date=2021 |archive-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116010243/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Wolff |first=Jonathan |year=2006 |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy |edition=Rev. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965801-5 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Woollard |first1=Fiona |last2=Howard-Snyder |first2=Frances |title=Doing vs. Allowing Harm |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/doing-allowing/#TrolProb |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 September 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005193642/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/doing-allowing/#TrolProb |url-status=live }}
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Latest revision as of 09:16, 3 December 2024

Study of general and fundamental questions For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation).

Photo of Auguste Rodin's statue The Thinker
The statue The Thinker by Auguste Rodin is a symbol of philosophical thought.
Part of a series on
Philosophy
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Philosophers

Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.

Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.

Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.

Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.

Etymology

The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek words φίλος (philos) 'love' and σοφία (sophia) 'wisdom'. Some sources say that the term was coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras, but this is not certain.

Wood engraving of Isaac Newton under an apple tree
Physics was originally part of philosophy, like Isaac Newton's observation of how gravity affects falling apples.

The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".

Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of rational inquiry, such as the individual sciences, as its subdisciplines. For instance, natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy. This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology. An example of this usage is the 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.

The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and mathematics.

Conceptions of philosophy

See also: Metaphilosophy

General conception

The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions. It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.

The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense. For example, Socrates stated that "the unexamined life is not worth living" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence. And according to Bertrand Russell, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."

Academic definitions

Main article: Definitions of philosophy

Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial and are studied in metaphilosophy. Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term. Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.

Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions. Such an approach is pursued by Immanuel Kant, who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?" Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.

Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, such as W. V. O. Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations. Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences. This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".

Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language. According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts. Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature. A further approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ordinary language.

Phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating essences. They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.

An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities. This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life. For example, the Stoics saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve eudaimonia and flourish in life.

History

Main article: History of philosophy

As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines. Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant. The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.

Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Other philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.

Western

Main article: Western philosophy
Bust of Aristotle
Aristotle was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.

Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole. The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act, how to arrive at knowledge, and what the nature of reality and mind is. The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism. The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines.

The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. Humanism also emerged in this period. The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience. Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities. Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by German idealism and Marxism. Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic, the focus on the role of language as well as pragmatism, and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology, existentialism, and post-structuralism. The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions. There was also a noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers, but they still remained underrepresented.

Arabic–Persian

Main articles: Islamic philosophy and Iranian philosophy
Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase
Portrait of Avicenna, one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age.

Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran.

Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith. Avicenna (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight. Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned. Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period. The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism, which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.

Indian

Main article: Indian philosophy
Painting of Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara developed the monistic view of Advaita Vedanta, stating that the existence of a plurality of distinct entities is an illusion.

One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment. It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. They are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions. This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to liberate oneself from suffering. Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who emphasized non-violence as well as respect toward all forms of life.

The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism: Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It was systematized by Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE), who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion. A slightly different perspective was defended by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE), who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity. He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement, which taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE. The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought. Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.

Chinese

Main article: Chinese philosophy
Painting of Confucius
The teachings of Confucius on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.

Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation. Many schools of thought emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism was founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society. Daoism was founded by Laozi (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the Dao or the natural order of the universe. Other influential early schools of thought were Mohism, which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism, and Legalism, which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.

Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into new forms of Buddhism. Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of Xuanxue emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations. Neo-Confucianism developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics. The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of Chinese Marxism—which focused on class struggle, socialism, and communism—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape. Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism, which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.

Other traditions

Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous Shinto religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination. Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following Edo period and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world. The Kyoto School emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (zettai-mu), place (basho), and the self.

Latin American philosophy in the pre-colonial period was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans. It has similarities to indigenous North American philosophy, which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things. Latin American philosophy during the colonial period, starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of scholasticism. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were positivism, the philosophy of liberation, and the exploration of identity and culture.

Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like Ubuntu. Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as ethnophilosophy, négritude, pan-Africanism, Marxism, postcolonialism, the role of cultural identity, relativism, African epistemology, and the critique of Eurocentrism.

Core branches

See also: Outline of philosophy § Branches of philosophy, and Outline of philosophy § Philosophical schools of thought

Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches. There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects. Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.

Epistemology

Main article: Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality. Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"

Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and knowledge by acquaintance, for example, knowing a celebrity personally.

One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem. Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of cognitive virtues instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.

Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony. According to empiricists, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like innate knowledge, are not acquired through experience. The regress problem is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning. Foundationalists avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves. Another solution is presented by coherentists, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.

Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.

Ethics

Main article: Ethics
Drawing of John Stuart Mill
"The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end." — John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right conduct. It is also concerned with the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life. Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"

The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like right action and obligation. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them. Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.

Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics are influential schools of thought. Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is utilitarianism, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty.

Logic

Main article: Logic

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad arguments. It is usually divided into formal and informal logic. Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.

Logic examines a variety of arguments. Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference, like modus ponens, which has the following logical form: "p; if p then q; therefore q". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".

The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true. One form is inductive reasoning. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens. Another form is abductive reasoning. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.

Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called fallacies and are divided into formal and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.

Metaphysics

Main article: Metaphysics
Incunabulum showing the beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics
The beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics in an incunabulum decorated with hand-painted miniatures.

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, space and time, events, and causation. There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages. Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "Why is there something rather than nothing?"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"

Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.

An important area in metaphysics is ontology. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like being, becoming, and reality. It studies the categories of being and asks what exists on the most fundamental level. Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical cosmology. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.

A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as souls and experiences) and abstract entities (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of identity. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity. According to one view, entities have essential and accidental features. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature. A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects. Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will.

Other major branches

See also: List of philosophies

There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.

Aesthetics in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and other aesthetic properties, like the sublime. Although it is often treated together with the philosophy of art, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty. In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature". A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience. Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments. Further topics include the essence of works of art and the processes involved in creating them.

The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language. It examines the concepts of meaning, reference, and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human thought and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics. The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal truth conditions of sentences and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with speech act theory.

The philosophy of mind studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world. It aims to understand different types of conscious and unconscious mental states, like beliefs, desires, intentions, feelings, sensations, and free will. An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The mind-body problem is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are materialism, which assumes that matter is more fundamental; idealism, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and dualism, which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is functionalism, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play. The mind-body problem is closely related to the hard problem of consciousness, which asks how the physical brain can produce qualitatively subjective experiences.

The philosophy of religion investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with religion. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the divine, and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of worldviews that reject religious doctrines. Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?"; "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?"; and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?" It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy. It differs from theology since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.

The philosophy of science examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from pseudoscience. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science. Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?"; "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?"; and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?" It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the natural sciences and the philosophy of the social sciences, with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.

Political philosophy is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of politics. It investigates the nature and purpose of government and compares its different forms. It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is legitimate, rather than a form of simple violence. In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and legal rights. Other topics are justice, liberty, equality, sovereignty, and nationalism. Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from political science, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states. Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics. Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are liberalism, conservativism, socialism, and anarchism.

Methods

Main article: Philosophical methodology

Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories. A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment. The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them. This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence.

Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend. Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.

Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts. Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue. It is similar to how ordinary language philosophy approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.

Diagram depicting a trolley that is headed towards a group of people. There is an alternate track with only one person and a switch to change tracks.
The trolley problem is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley to save a group of people.

Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles. For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories. The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.

Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true. According to the pragmatic maxim as formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.

Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or epoché. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.

Methodological naturalism places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.

Relation to other fields

Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an interdisciplinary perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope. Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.

The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In medicine, philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a person and under what conditions abortion is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for research experiments. In relation to business and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of corporate social responsibility.

Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs. This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already include theoretical assumptions. A closely connected problem is whether the available evidence is sufficient to decide between competing theories. Epistemological problems in relation to the law include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime. A related issue in journalism is how to ensure truth and objectivity when reporting on events.

In the fields of theology and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether revelation in the form of holy books and religious experiences of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.

Photo of Judith Butler
Judith Butler is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement.

Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and computer science. Further fields influenced by philosophy include psychology, sociology, linguistics, education, and the arts. The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.

In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just. Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution. In India, Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence movement.

An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the feminist movement through philosophers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone de Beauvoir, and Judith Butler. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of gender, how it differs from biological sex, and what role it plays in the formation of personal identity. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and equality and their implications with respect to the prejudicial treatment of women in male-dominated societies.

The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.

See also

Main article: Outline of philosophy

References

Notes

  1. The Ancient Greek philosophos ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the Ancient Egyptian term mer-rekh (mr-rḫ) meaning 'lover of wisdom'.
  2. The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.
  3. These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.
  4. The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.

Citations

  1. Perry, Bratman & Fischer 2010, p. 4.
  2. Plato 2023, Apology.
  3. McCutcheon 2014, p. 26.
  4. Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. vii, 17.
  5. Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–22, What Is Philosophy?.
  6. Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe.
  7. Smith, § 2.b.
  8. Grimm & Cohoe 2021, pp. 236–237.
  9. Sharpe & Ure 2021, pp. 76, 80.
  10. Shields 2022, Lead Section.
  11. Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century.
  12. Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century.
  13. Waithe 1995, pp. xix–xxiii.
  14. ^
  15. Ranganathan, 1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works.
  16. Ranganathan, Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses.
  17. ^
    • Littlejohn 2023, 4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era
    • EB Staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
    • Davis 2022, Lead Section, § 3. Absolute Nothingness: Giving Philosophical Form to the Formless
    • Kasulis 2022, § 4.4.2 Modern Academic Philosophies
  18. Schroeder 2021, Lead Section: "In its broadest sense, 'value theory' is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist philosophy and the philosophy of religion – whatever areas of philosophy are deemed to encompass some 'evaluative' aspect.".
  19. Mulvaney 2009, p. ix.
  20. Olsson 2021, Lead Section, § 1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism.
  21. Mill 1863, p. 51.
  22. Mulvaney 2009, pp. vii–xi.
    • Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
    • Nagel 2006, pp. 382, 386–388
  23. van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, Lead Section.
  24. Mulvaney 2009, pp. ix–x.
  25. Audi 2006, § Metaphysics.
  26. Birner 2012, p. 33.
  27. Taliaferro 2023, § 1.
  28. Taliaferro 2023, § 5.1.1.
  29. Taliaferro 2023, § 6.
  30. Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 7.
  31. Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 5.
  32. Papineau 2005, pp. 855–856.
  33. Wolff 2006, pp. 1–2.
  34. Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9.
  35. Audi 2006, § Subfields of Ethics.
  36. ^ Audi 2006, pp. 332–337.
  37. Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 51–53.
  38. Cropper 1997.
  39. Bristow 2023, Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory.

Bibliography

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