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Revision as of 01:30, 25 June 2008 edit78.105.198.36 (talk) →The Braahmik Alphabet← Previous edit Latest revision as of 18:07, 10 October 2024 edit undo129.186.253.130 (talk) Added a 'h' after t, similar to Aathu - meaning house. This trasnlates to Housekeeper/husband. Otherwise Aatukaran will be 'Goat herder/keeper'.Tag: Visual edit 
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{{short description|Dialect of Tamil}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2006}}
'''Brahmin Tamil''' is the name of a ] of ] traditionally spoken by ]s. The dialect, largely, uses Classical Tamil along with a heavy proportion of Sanskrit derivatives.<ref name="kasbekarp217">{{cite book|title=Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle|page=217|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2006|isbn=1851096361}}</ref><ref name="rayp436">{{cite book|title=The Atlantic Companion to Literature in English|page=436|editor=Mohit K. Ray|publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors|year=2007|isbn=978-8126908325}}</ref><ref name="langvariation">{{cite web|title=Language variation in Tamil|url=http://www.lisindia.net/Tamil/Tamil_vari.html|access-date=2012-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723185203/http://www.lisindia.net/Tamil/Tamil_vari.html|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{expert}}
{{Inappropriate tone|date=December 2007}}
'''Brahmin Tamil''' or '''Braahmik''' is the name for a number of closely related ] dialects used by the ] communities (''']s''' and ''']s''') of ] and in the neighbouring states.


==Dialects== == History ==
{{See also|Manipravalam|Grantha alphabet}}
'''Braahmik''' is the proposed name for these dialects {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.


During the early 1900s, Brahmin Tamil was used as the lingua-franca for inter-caste communication.<ref name="langvariation" /><ref name="standardization">{{cite web|title=Standardization or Restandardization: the case for 'Standard' Spoken Tamil|author=Harold F. Schiffman|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/public/stantam/STANTAM.HTM}}</ref> The principal characters in the Tamil films of the period (1930s and 1940s) also spoke the Brahmin dialect.<ref name="batep188">{{cite book|title=Tamil Oratory and the Dravidian Aesthetic: Democratic Practice in South India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8uP7LHS3cDMC&pg=PT212|pages=188–189|chapter=Notes - 12|first=Bernard|last=Bate|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0231147569}}</ref><ref name="baskaranp66">{{cite book|title=The eye of the serpent: An Introduction to Tamil cinema|page=66|first=S. Theodore|last=Baskaran|author-link=S. Theodore Baskaran|publisher=East West Books|year=1996}}</ref> However, with the rise of the ] and the entry of Dravidian ideologues into Tamil cinema in the 1950s, Brahmin Tamil was gradually displaced from public spheres.<ref name="langvariation" /><ref name="batep188" /><ref name="comriep182">{{cite book|title=The Major Languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa|first=Bernard|last=Comrie|page=182|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1990|isbn=0415057728}}</ref> Today, Brahmin Tamil is used in films and television soaps centred on the Brahmin society.<ref name="batep188" /> Brahmin Tamil, has however, continued to flourish among the Brahmin community including the expatriates. Often non-Brahmins use this dialect in soaps and films for comic effect while engaging with Brahmins conversationally. And Brahmins effortlessly code switch by speaking the standard Tamil while engaging with non-Brahmins and revert to Brahmin Tamil when conversing among themselves.
The 2 dialects are


The first systematic study of Brahmin Tamil was undertaken by ] in 1910.<ref name="langvariation" /> However, the most detailed study was conducted by ] and ] in the 1960s.<ref name="langvariation" /> More recent researches on Brahmin Tamil and other socio-dialects have been conducted by ].<ref name="langvariation" />
* The Thanju style, spoken in ], mainly represented by ] or ] and


== Variations ==
* The Paalu style spoken in ] mainly represented by ] or ].


There are many forms of Brahmin Tamil spoken. Brahmin Tamil, in general, is less influenced by regional dialects than the dialects used by other Tamil communities.<ref name="shapirop155">{{cite book|title=Language and society in South Asia|page=155|first1=Michael|last1=C. Shapiro|first2=Harold|last2=F. Schiffman|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1981}}</ref> The two main regional variations are the Thanjavur and Palakkad sub-dialects. Other sub-dialects include Ashtagrama Iyer Tamil, Mysore Vadama Iyer Tamil, Mandyam Tamil and Hebbar Tamil.
There are two main differences between these two styles :


The differences between Thanjavur and Palakkad sub-dialects are:
# In the words ending in ''m'' and ''n'' preceded by a ], the vowel is nasalised but the ] style. In the ] style the ] in these cases are always pronounced.
# There is also often a difference in the vocabulary of the two styles. To give only one example, the word for 'news' is ''samaachaaram'' in Thanju, but ''varthamaanam'' in Paalu.


# In the words ending in ''m'' and ''n'' preceded by a ], the vowel is nasalised, but the ] themselves are not pronounced except when followed by a word beginning with a vowel in the ] style. In the ] style, the nasal stops in these cases are always pronounced.
Both styles of Brahmin Tamil dialects augment their vocabulary by freely borrowing from ], ] and ].
# The accent, style and vocabulary of Tamil used by Tamil Brahmins from Palakkad is greatly influenced by Malayalam apart from Sanskrit, while the sub-dialects used in Tamil Nadu borrow only from Sanskrit.


The Iyengars, particularly those outside Tamil Nadu, speak a dialect retaining ancient lexicon from religious texts such as the ].
A common ] based on the ] has been proposed for both styles of Braahmik.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}


== Differences with standard Tamil ==
==The Braahmik ]==


=== Vocabulary ===
*]s : ''a, i, u, e, o''
*]s : ''aa, ii /ie, uu, ee, oo''
*] : ''ai / ei, au''
*]s : ''k, g''
*]s : ''ch, j''
*]s : ''t, d''
*]s : ''th, dh''
*]s : ''p, b''
*] : ''ng''
*] : ''nj''
*] : ''hn''
*Dental or ] : ''n''
*] : ''m''
*]s and continuants : ''y, r, l, v, zh, hl, sz, sh, s, h, rr, z''


Brahmin Tamil varies slightly from standard Tamil. It retains minor adaptations of classical Tamil (''Sentamil'') words that are no longer in common usage. For instance, ''ām'', a Brahmin Tamil word for "house", is derived from the classical Tamil word a''gam.'' It also notably incorporates a plethora of ] words. This may be observed in the etymology of several words in the Brahmin Tamil lexicon such as ''namaskaram'' (greeting), ''tirtham'' (water), and ''bhakshanam'' (food offering). There are also unique words in the dialect for signifying time, such as ''kartala'' to indicate morning. While non-Brahmin Tamils generally tend to use Sanskrit derivatives in their Prakrit form, Brahmins tend to use original Sanskrit. According to Bright and Ramanujan (1964),
Many of these can occur as ]s : ''kk, gg, nng, nnj, hnn, mm, nn, cch, jj, tt, dd, tth, ddh, pp, bb, ll, hll, trr''


{{quote|It is the Brahmin dialect which has innovated by introducing the loan words. Brahmin Tamil frequently preserves non-native phonology, which non-Brahmin Tamil assimilates to native pattern<ref name="langvariation" />}}
There are also aspirated stop ] : ''kh, gh, chh, jh, t'h, d'h, thh, dhh, ph, bh''


{| class = "wikitable" border = "2" style="margin:1em auto;"
''Idhu'' 'this, this is'. The link ] 'to be' is not used in the ]. There is no ], definite or indefinite. 'This table' as a full sentence means 'this is a table'.
|+ '''''Differences with standard Tamil'''''

! '''Brahmin Tamil''' !! '''Standard Tamil''' !! '''English''' !! '''Notes'''
The final ''-u'' in words is pronounced as an unrounded back vowel, something between ''i'' and ''u''.

] are followed by postpositions like ''kite'' 'near', ''le'' 'in' or ''kiizhe'' 'below'. There are also compound postpostions made up of a postposition plus noun plus postposition like ''k adi le'' 'below'. The verb ''iruku'' means 'is' or 'there is'.

] are in an oblique form before a ]. Most nouns have no special oblique form. Many have. ''Pusthahath'' is the oblique form of ''pusthaham''. Sometimes between the oblique form and the postposition a dummy particle like ''u'' or ''n'' is placed. ''Chevar'' has an oblique form ''chevath''. ] words in English spelling are freely used in Braahmik.

hi

==]==

The article 'a' or 'the' has to be understood from context.

] are usually given in their ] singular form in the ].
They form their three main ] from three different bases. Often the bases are identical. But in most other cases they are different.

The ] ''iru'' 'to be' is in its imperative singular form.
Its ] base is 'iruk'. In all three tense forms, verbs have different endings for different persons in the singular and plural numbers.

The ] singular neuter form of ''iru'' is ''iruku''

'''] and their oblique forms:'''

In the table below the ] and their oblique forms are given:
<center>
{| border = ”2” bgcolor = ”#FF00FF”
|+ '''''Personal Pronouns and Oblique Forms'''''
! '''Thanju''' !! '''Paalu''' !! '''English'''
|- |-
| ''Avāl'', ''Avā'' || ''Avargal'' || they || Probably derived from 'Avarhal' where the r & h are silent. Alternatively derived from the Telugu word ''Vālu'' meaning "person"<ref name="pillaipxiv">{{cite book|title=A history of Tamil literature with texts and translations from the earliest times to 600 A.D.|first1=J. M. Somasundaram|last1=Pillai|first2=T. P.|last2=Meenakshisundaram|year=1968|page=xiv|chapter=Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cyw0AAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
| naan (en, ena) || naan (en, ena) || I
|- |-
| ''Ivāl'', ''Ivā'' || ''Ivargal'' || these people ||
| nie (on, ona) || nie (on, ona) || you (sg)
|- |-
| ''Ām''/Aathu || ''Veedu'' || house || Derived from ] ''Agam'' (with the g pronounced more like silent 'h' -- 'a(h)am') <ref name="comriep182" /><ref name="dravidicp154">{{cite book|title=Dravidic Studies|page=154|chapter=The Sanskritic Elements in the vocabulary of Dravidian languages|first=S. Anavartavinayakam|last=Pillai|year=1974|publisher=University of Madras|editor=Mark Collins}}</ref>
| nier (om, oma) || nier (om, oma) || you (sg, hon)
|- |-
| ''Tirtham'', ''Jalam'' || ''Taṇṇīr'' || water || ''Thūtham'' is largely used in the Thanjavur sub-dialect and is derived from the Sanskrit ''Tīrtham''. Iyengars, however, use the Sanskrit original.<ref name="comriep182" /><ref name="brightp35" />
| avan (avan) || avan (avan) || he
|- |-
| ''Sittha'' || ''Konjam'' || some ||Probably derived from Tamil ''Sattru'' meaning "a little."
| ava(hl) (avahl) || avahl (avahl) || she
|- |-
| ''Manni'' || ''Anni'' || elder brother's wife<ref name="linguisticsp20">{{cite book|title=Linguistic traits across language boundaries|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|page=20|editor=Sree Krishnan}}</ref> || Derived from "Maru-annai" meaning "another mom"
| avar (avar) || avar (avar) || he / (she) (hon)
|- |-
| ''Athimbēr'' || ''Athai kozhunan'' || paternal aunt's husband || Derived from 'Ahathin Anbar'
| adhu (adhu) || adhu (adhu) || it
|- |-
| ''Kshēmam''/Sowkyam || ''Nalam'' || goodness (esp. with regard to health) || Derived from Sanskrit
| naama, namma(hl) (nammahl) || nammahl (nammahl) || we (incl)
|- |-
| ''Vāṅgō'' || ''Vāruṅgal'' (Literary), ''Vāṅga'' (Spoken) || Come<ref name="comriep182" /> ||
| naanga(hl) (engalh) || naangahl (engahl) || we (excl)
|- |-
| ''Pōṅgō'' || ''Pōkuṅgal'' (Literary), ''Pōṅga'' (Spoken) || Go<ref name="comriep182" /> ||
| nienga(hl) (ongahl) || niengahl (ongahl) || you (pl / sg(hon))
|- |-
| ''Aathukaran''|| ''Vītukkāran'' || Husband || Derived from ''Agam-udayān'' (house-holder)<ref name="dravidicp154" />
| avaa(hl) (avaahl) || avaa(hl) (avaahl) || they (m / f pl, sg(hon))
|-
| adhuha(hl) (adhuhahl) || adhuhahl (adhuhahl) || they (n pl)
|} |}
</center>


The Ramanujan-Bright hypothesis which examined Brahmin Tamil in detail concluded -
The oblique forms given above are followed by postpositions. ] have ] forms that are placed before ] as ]. The table below gives the attributive forms of pronouns, that is the possessive adjectives.


{{quote|In general, the Brahmin dialect seems to show great innovation on the more conscious levels of linguistic change – those of borrowing and semantic extension—while the non-Brahmin dialect shows greater innovation in less conscious type of change—those involving phonemic and morphological replacements<ref name="langvariation" />}}
<center>
'''Possessive Adjectives:'''
</center>


Bright attributes these changes to the comparatively high literacy rate of the Brahmin community.
<center>
{| border = "2" bgcolor = "yellow"
|+ '''''Possessive Adjectives'''''
|-
! '''Thanju''' !! '''Paalu''' !! '''English'''
|-
| en || en || my
|-
| on || on || your (sg)
|-
| om || om || your (sg hon)
|-
| avan || avan || his
|-
| avahl || avahl || her
|-
| avar || avar || his (/ her) (hon)
|-
| adhu || adhu, adhu n || its
|-
| namma || namma || our (incl)
|-
| enga || enga || our (excl)
|-
| onga || onga || your (pl)
|-
| avaa || avaa || their (m / f)
|-
| adhuha || adhuha || their (n pl)
|}
</center>


{{quote|A possible hypothesis is that literacy, most common among Brahmins has acted as a brake on change in their dialects-that the ‘frozen’ phonology and grammar of the literary language have served to retard change in Brahmin speech<ref name="langvariation" />}}
<br/><br/>


; Nicknames
'''Verb Forms:'''
<br/><br/>


There are also a few nicknames and sobriquets used in Brahmin Tamil alone.
The most important forms of verbs in Braahmik are : the ''imperative form'', the ''] form'', the ''] base'', the ''] base'', the ''] form'', the '']'' and the ''personal endings'' for the past /present and future tenses.<br/>


{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;" border = "2"
In the following tables, these forms are grouped as follows :
! '''Nickname''' !! '''Source''' !! '''Meaning''' !! '''Usage'''
<br/>
1) Imperative – Infinitive – Past Participle
<br/>
2) (Personal Endings for:) Past / Present – (and) Future
<br/>
3) Imperative – Present Base – Past Base – Future Base
<br/><br/>

'''Imperative—Infinitive—Past Participle:'''
<br/>
<center>
{| border = ”1” bgcolor = ”pink”
|+ ''''''Imperative—Infinitive—Past<br/> Participle'''''<br/>
(Both Thanju and Paalu)
|- |-
| ''Ammānji'' || Name for mother's brother's child (a cousin) ||
! '''Imperative''' !! '''Infinitive''' !! '''Past Paticiple'''
|- |-
| ''Pillaiyāndān'' || ''Pillai'' and ''Āndavan'' || || Used to denote a dear child<ref name="guptap28">{{cite book|title=Indian Linguistics|first=Baldev Raj|last=Gupta|page=28|publisher=Ariana Publishing House|year=1990}}</ref>
| padi 'read, study' || padika || padichu
|-
| iru 'be' || iruka || irundhu
|-
| peeszu 'speak, talk; || peesza || peeszi
|-
| chaapdu, szaapdu 'eat, have food' || chaapda, szaapda || chaaptu, szaaptu
|-
| oodu 'run' || ooda || oodi
|-
| nada 'walk' || nadaka || nadandhu
|-
| po, poo 'go' || pooha || pooy
|-
| nillu 'stand, stop' || nika || ninnu
|-
| edu 'take, remove' || eduka || eduthu
|-
| vizhu 'fall' || vizha || vizhundhu
|-
| chiri, sziri 'laugh' || chirika, szirika || chirichu, szirichu
|-
| chollu, szollu 'say, tell' || cholla, szolla || cholli, szolli
|-
| keehlu 'ask, hear, listen' || keeka || keetu
|-
| vei 'put, keep' || veika || vechu
|-
| vei 'scold' || veia || vesszu (mainly Thanju)
|-
| thitu 'scold' || thita || thiti
|-
| kaahnu 'meet, be seen' || kaahna || kahndu
|} |}
</center>


=== Structure and pronunciation ===
'''Personal Endings of Past / Present and Future'''


As in standard spoken Tamil, the temporal verbal participles (as in {{lang|ta-Latn|-ccē/-sē}} from '{{lang|ta-Latn|samayam}}' (time)) in Brahmin Tamil, have been borrowed from relative participle constructions on the model {{lang|ta-Latn|varaccē < varuxiṟa samayam}} ('while coming') and {{lang|ta-Latn|pōxasē < pōxiṟa samayam}} ('while going').<ref name="andronovp258">], p 258</ref> Brahmin Tamil also uses the ] |ɻ| used in Old Tamil, but no longer in use in most non-Brahmin dialects.<ref name="brightp35">{{cite book|title=Variation and change in language: Essays|chapter=Social dialect and language history|page=|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1976|first=William|last=Bright|isbn=0804709262|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/variationchangei0000brig/page/35}}</ref>
<center>
{| border = “1” bgcolor = “green”
|+ '''''Personal Endings (Past / Present<br/> and Future)'''''
|-
! Pronoun !! Past / Presnet !! Future
|-
| naan || en || en
|-
| nie || e, aay || e, aay
|-
| nier || ier || ier
|-
| avan || aan || an. aan
|-
| ava(hl) || aa(hl) || a(hl)
|-
| adhu || adhu / dhu* || um*
|-
|naama, namma(hl) || om || om
|-
| naanga(hl) || om || om
|-
| nienga(hl) || ehl || ehl
|-
| avaa(hl) || aa(hl) || aa(hl)
|-
| adhuha(hl) || adhu(hahl) / *dhu(hagl) || *um
|}
</center>


== Usage ==
'''Notes:'''


Though mainly used by Tamil Brahmins, the Brahmin dialect is also used occasionally, and to a lesser extent, by other forward caste Tamils such as Vellalars and Mudaliyars.<ref name="langvariation" /> Until the rise of ], the usage of Brahmin Tamil was favoured as the common Tamil dialect<ref name="langvariation" /> In the early decades of the 20th century, the Brahmin Tamil variant spoken in Madras city was considered to be standard spoken Tamil.<ref name="batep188" /><ref name="comriep182" /> However, since the 1950s and the gradual elimination of Sanskrit loan words from the spoken tongue, Brahmin Tamil has fallen into disuse and has been replaced by the ] and ] Tamil dialects, by non Brahmin communities, as the preferred spoken dialects for day-to-day use.<ref name="standardization" />
(*) The ] third p. n. ending ''-um'' is generally attached to the ] form after removing the ending ''-a''.


The Vaishnavite ] having a unique subdialect of Brahmin Tamil of their own, called the Sri Vaishnava Manipravalam which interested linguistics for its peculiar grammatical forms and vocabulary.<ref name="srilatha">{{cite book|title=Self-surrender (prapatti) to God in Śrīvaiṣṇavism: Tamil Cats and Sanskrit Monkeys|first=Srilatha|last=Raman|pages=63–64|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2007|isbn=978-0415391856}}</ref> However, due to the development of a homogenised Brahmin identity during the medieval period, Vaishnavite Brahmins in the Tamil country have largely assimilated Brahmin Tamil with their own dialect, retaining several words of the Vaishnava Manipravalam in their vocabulary. The Hebbar and Mandyam Iyengars who reside outside the native Tamil land, however, continue to use Iyengar Tamil as their mother tongue. So do Ashtagrama Iyers and Mysore Vadama Iyers whose Tamil dialects while largely uses Brahmin Tamil has some Kannada influence. In contrast to peninsular India, the Brahmin dialect was never used by the Tamil Brahmins of ].<ref name="veluppilaip175">{{cite book|title=Epigraphical evidences for Tamil studies|first=A.|last=Veluppillai|page=175|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|year=1980}}</ref>
The ] and ] endings also differ (''-adhu / -dhu'') in the 3 rd p. n. forms..


The difference between the Smartha and Sri Vaishnava variants are currently limited to vocabulary, particularly to words related to ritual and familial ties, alone.<ref name="beteillep54">{{cite book|title=Caste, Class, and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village|first=Andre|last=Beteille|author-link=Andre Beteille|publisher=University of California Press|year=1965|page=54|isbn=0520020537}}</ref>
In the ] in which the past tense base ends in ''-in'', the 3 rd p. n. ending is ''-thu'' (as in ''oodithu'' 'it ran') in the past tense.

{| class = "wikitable" border = "2" style="margin:1em auto;"
The forms ''poochu'' 'it went' and ''aachu'' 'it was over' are prominent exceptions..
|+ '''''Words unique to the Sri Vaishnava variant'''''

! '''Smartha Brahmin Variant''' !! '''Sri Vaishnava Variant''' !! '''English meaning'''
'''Imperative – Present Base – Past Base – Future Base:'''

<center>
{| border = “1” bgcolor = “orange”
|+''''''Imperative—Present Base—Past<br/> Base—Future Base'''''
|- |-
| ''Rasam'' || ''Sattru amudu'' || ].<ref name="beteillep54" /> Literally means the stew that is used to mix with rice.
! Imperative !! Present Base !! Past Base !! Future Base
|- |-
| ''Chithappa''|| ''Chithiya'' || Father's younger brother (colloquial)<ref name="beteillep54" />
| padi || padikar || padichu || padipu
|- |-
| ''Abhishekham'' || ''Thirumanjanam'' || Bath of temple idols in a ceremonial way.<ref name="beteillep54" />
| iru || iruku || irundhu || irupu
|- |-
|''Payasam''
| peeszu || peeszar || peeszin || peeszuv
|''Thirukanan amudhu''
|Sweet Porridge
|- |-
|''Samayal''
| chaapdu, szaapdu || chaapdar, szaapdar || chaaptu, szaaptu || chaapduv, szaapduv
|''Thaligai''
|Cooking
|- |-
|''Adukull''
| oodu, || oodar || oodin || ooduv
|''Thirumadapalli / Thaligai panra ull''
|Kitchen. Under Sri Vaishnava variant, the first one is to refer kitchen in temples, while the second one is used to refer kitchen in houses.
|- |-
|''Kari''
| nada || nadakar || nadandhu || nadapu
|''Kari amudhu''
|Vegetable Fry
|- |-
|''kozhambu, sambar''
| po, poo || poohar, poor || poon || poov
|''Kozhambu''
|Liquid gravy, with dhal or even without dhal (for Sri Vaishnava variant only).
|- |-
|''Narukurathu''
| nillu || nikar || ninnu || nipu
|''Thirutharathu''
|To cut (generally vegetables)
|- |-
|''Thootham/Jalam''
| edu || edukar || eduthu || edupu
|''Theertham''
|Water
|- |-
|''Thayir Saadham''
| vizhu || vizhar || vizhundhu || vizhuv
|''Dodhyonam''
|Curd rice
|- |-
|''Thaalikkarathu''
| chiri, sziri || chirikarm szirikar || chirichu, szirichu || chiripu, sziripu
|''Thirupu maarapanrathu''/''Thirumaararthu''
|]; the process of frying mustard, asafoetida in oil or ghee for aroma
|- |-
|''Vendikarathu''
| chollum szollu || chollar, szollar || chonn, szonn || cholluv, szolluv
|''Sevikkarathu''
|To worship
|- |-
|''Kumbabhishekam''
| keehlu || keekar || keetu || keepu
|''Samprokshanam''
|Consecration of a temple.
|- |-
|''Namam pottukarathu''
| vei || vekar || vechu || vepu
|''Thiruman ittukarathu''
|To apply one or three stroke Namam (Iyengar tilakam) on forehead
|- |-
|''Ecchal idardhu''
| vei || veiar || veszzu || veiv
|''Ecchapiratal''
|-
|Cleaning the left overs after having food
| thitu || thitar || thitin || thituv
|-
| kaahnu || kaahnar || kanhd / kand || kaanhuv
|} |}
</center>


== See also ==
The verb forms ''uhlla, thangara'' and ''thaamasikara'' in the above Thanju and Paalu passages are '''present participial adjective''' forms.
{{wikibooks}}


* ]
The phrases containing these forms are equivalent to a relative clause in ]:
* ]
* ]


== Notes ==
''Hotel le thaamasikara puhlleiahl'' means 'the boys. who stay in a hotel' or 'the boys staying in a hotel'.

In Braahmik there is no relative clause, threre are only participial adjectival phrases that precede the head noun.

] can be formed from the present and past tense bases by just adding the suffix ''-a''. The future 3 rd p n form itself serves as the future adjectival participle, but that form is very rarely used in Braahmik.

A few ] like ''iru'' 'to be', ''poo'' 'to go' or ''aa'' 'to be, become' have these forms formed irregularly. They are listed below :

''Irukara, irundha, irukum'', ''poora / poohara, poona, poohum'' and ''aara / aahara, aana, aahum''

''Dilli ki poora vandi'' means 'the ] bound ]'

''Poona varsham'' means 'last year, the year that went by'

''Naan poona varsham Madras le irundha poodhu'' means 'when I was in ] last year'

The participial adjectives are the same for all genders and numbers.

''Padikara paian, padikara paszangahl, padikara pohnnu'' all mean 'student(s)'.

''Padicha manushan, padicha pohnnu'' mean 'the educated man, the educated girl'

For the ], instead of using the form ending in ''-um'', the construction made up of the ] of a ] plus the present adjectival participle ''poora'' is used:

''Nie padicha paadam 3 (muuhn) aavadhu, nie padika poora paadam 4 (naal) aavadhu'' means 'the lesson you studied is the 3 rd, the lesson you are going to study is the 4 th'.

Braahmik at one time had, like ], separate auciliary verbs to give a ], ] or ] sense to the main verb. Being a rapidly growing colloquial language, it contracted these auxiliary verbs into mere verbal suffixes to convert the main verb into a reflexive, concessive or perfective verb.
The verbs are ''kohllu'' (reflexive / concessive) contracted to ''-ko'' and ''vidu'' (perfect tense auxiliary) contracted to ''-du''.

In the following table, ordinary verbs and the corresponding reflexive / concessive and prefective verbs are given:

<center>
{| border= "2" bgcolor = "pink"
|+ '''Verbs'''
! '''Ordinary''' !! '''Reflexive / concessive''' !! '''Perfective'''
|-
| poo 'go' || pooyko 'you may go' || pooydu 'go away'
|-
| vaa 'come' || vandhuko / -ho 'you may come' || vandhudu 'come away'
|-
| edu 'take' || eduthuko 'you may take' || eduthudu 'ake it away'
|-
| okaaru 'sit down' || okaandhuko / -ho 'take your seat' || okandhudu '(just) sit down (and don't get up)'
|- vei 'put, keep' || vechuko 'keep it to yourself, you may keep it' || vechudu 'keep it down (and don't touch it)'
|-
| sziri /chiri 'Laugh' || sziri- / chirichuko 'snuke, laugh in your sleeves' || sziri- / chirithudu 'burst out laughing'
|}
</center>

<br/>

'''Cardinal Numerals'''
<br/>

] ohnnu, ] rendu, ] muuhnu / muunnu, ] naalu, ] anju, ] aarru, ] eezhu, ] etu, ] ombadhu, ] pathu.
<br/>

The verb ''iru'' does work for both 'to be' and 'to have', The difference is brought out by syntax :
<br/>

''Avan oru kozhandhei'' 'he (is) a child'
<br/>

''Avan u ku oru kozhandhei iruku'' 'he has a child'
<br/>

''Naan pahna kaaran'' 'I am a rich man'
<br/>

''En kite pahnam iruku'' 'I have money'
<br/>

''King Midas u ku kazhudhei kaadhu'' '[[King
Midas]] has ass's ears'.
<br/>

''Enga thaathaa ku romba vayas aachu'' 'My gandfather is very old'.
<br/>

''Kozhandhei ki pathu vayasu'' 'The child is 10 years old'.
<br/>

''En kite oru pusthaham iruku'' 'I have a book'.
<br/>

''Ena k oru thambi irukaan'' 'I have a younger brother'.
<br/><br/>

Braahmik uses ] words freely, especially when discussing ] subjects or when referring to modern equipment of western origin.

The ] form of some ] can also serve as an ]:
''Nerreia'' (infinitive of ''nerrei (nerreiar, nereinj, nerreiuv)'' 'to fill up, fill to the brim'). As an adjective it means 'a lot of'

English verbs can be turned into a braahmik verb by placing the verb ''pahnnu'' after the English infinitive :

''Arrange pahnnu'' 'to arrange'

The ] of one or more verbs followed by another verb is a common construction, often translatable by a single word in English :
''Vaangi thaa'' 'buy (for me), buy and give'

''Eduthu kondu vaa (eduthundu vaa), kondu vandhu thaa'' 'bring'

''Kuutindu poo'' 'accompany, escort'

''Arrange pahnni vei'' 'keep smth. arranged' (ordinary)

''Arrange pahnni vech iru'' 'keep smth arranged. (perfective)
<br/>

''']'''

Corresponding to the English possessive adjectives (mu, your, his, her, our, etc.), there are possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, etc.)

In Braahmik too there are possessive pronouns corresponding to the possessive adjectives.
'''Negative Forms of Verbs:'''

The negative form of the verb common to the simple past and present is obtained by placing the negative particle ''lei'' after the infinitive form of a verb. The verb ''maaten, maate, ....'' placed after the infinitive form, acts as the future negative:

''Naan pooha lei'' 'I didn't go, I don't go, I am not going'
''Naan pooha maaten'' 'I will not go, I am not going''

''']'''

Participial nouns referring to the action indicated by the verb are formed by affixing ''-adhu'' to the present or past tense bases/
The future participial noun of the same kind is obtained by placing the participial nouns ''pooradhu'' or ''poonadhu'' after the infinitive of a verb:

''Kalambra oodaradhu odambu ku nalladhu'' 'Running in the morning is good for the body'.
''Padichadhu manasu le nikahnum'' 'What was studied must be retained in the mind'.

The participial noun can also refer to the person or thing that performed the action. In this case the endings attached to the present and past bases are:

''-an'' (m sg), ''-a(hl)'' (f sg), ''-ar'' (hon sg), ''-dhu'' (n sg), ''-vaa(hl)'' (pl) ''-adhu(ha(hl))'':

''Vandhavan, (-vahl, -dhu) yaaru ?'' 'Who is the one that came ?'

''Vandhavaahl u k ellaam szaapadu pootaa'' 'They served lunch for all who came''.

'''Exercises 6:'''

'''Exercise 6.1: Translate into English'''

1.Indha pakam poonadhu on thambi a ?
2.Naan innei ki Madraas u ku poo lei.
3.Nahlei ki pooha poore a ?
4.Vehli le poonavaahl ellaam aathu ku vandhutaahl a ?

'''Exercise 6.2: Translate into Braahmik:'''

1.Go home.
.
2.I won't go to the office tomorrow.

3.If you come, I will also come.

4.Did you have school yesterday ?

'''The Imperative (2 nd p) Singular and Plural Forms of Verbs'''

<center>
{| border = ''1'' bgcolor = ''LightBlue''
|+ '''The imperative Singular and Plural of Verbs'''
|-
! '''Infinitive''' !! Imp Sinfular !! Imp Plural
|-
| po, poo 'to go' || (nie) po, (nier) pom || (nienga(hl)) poongo(hl)
|-
| oodu 'to run' || (nie) oodu, (nier) oodum || (nienga(hl)) odungo(hl)
|-
| padi 'to read, study' || (nie) padi, (nier) padium || (nienga(hl)) padingo(hl)
|-
| nillu 'stand up, stop, wait' || (nie) nillu || (nier) nillum || (nienga(hl)) nillungo(hl)
|-
| porrapadu 'get ready, start' || (nie) porrapadu || (nier) porrapadum || (nienga(hl)) porrapadungo(hl)
|-
| vaa 'come' || (nie) vaa || (nier) vaarum \\ (nienga(hl)) vaango(hl)
|-
| iru 'be, stay, wait' || (nie) iru || (nier) irum || (nienga(hl)) irungo(hl)
|-
| nada 'walk' || (nie) nada || (nier) nadaum || (nienga(hl)) nadango(hl)/nadaungo(hl)
|-
| eduthuko 'you may take' || (nie) eduthuko || (nier) duthukum || (nienga(hl)) eduthukongo(hl) eduthukungo(hl)

|}
</center>

'''The ]'''

The negative imperative forms are obtained from the infinitive form by removing the final ''-a'' and attaching ''-aadhe, aadheum, aadhengo / aadheungo / aadhungo'':

''Indha edam szuddham aa illei. Nier inge varaadheum, ange e irum'' ' This place is not clean. (Please) don't come here, (sir), Please stay there itself'.

''']'''

Braahmik has a number of imprsoanal verbs that have only the 3 rd person neuter singular form.

It has usually a passive sense. The main recipient or subject of the action is a noun or pronoun with the postposition ''ku''.

A few such verbs are given in the following table:

<center>
{| border = ''1''
|+ '''Impersonal Verbs'''
|-
! '''Braahmik !! '''English'''
|-
| their (theriaradhu, therinjudhu, therium || to be known.
|-
| veendi iru (iruku, irundhudhu, irukum) || to be needed
|-
| kaanhu (kaahnaradhu, kandudhu, kaahnum) || to be seen
|-
| pidi (pidikaradhu, pidichudhu, pidikum) || to be liked
|}
</center>

There is also a defective impersonal verbal particle that has only one form:

*''veehnam, veehnum'' 'it is needed'.

*Its negative form is ''veendaam, veehnaam'' 'it is not needed'.

*This defective verb in its abbreviated form of ''-nham, -nhum'' and its negative form ''-hndaa(m), -hnaam'' 'it is not needed' is attached to the infinitive form of any verb, meaning 'it is necessary to' or 'it is not necessary to', translatable by the words 'must' or 'don't':

*The negative forms of the defective impersonal verbs are obtained as follows:

*The infinitive followed by the negative particle ''lei'' gives the common past and present tense form.

*For the future tense the suffix ''-aadhu'' is affixed to the infinitive after dropping the final ''-a'':

*''Ena ku theria lei'' 'I cannot / could not see, didn't / don't know'.

*''Theriaadhu'' 'I will not be able to (I generally cannot) see, will not know, I don't, as a matter of fact, know'.

*''innei ki mazhei peium a ?'' 'Willl it rain today ?'

*''Theria lei / theriaadhu'' 'I don't know'

*''Maapahlei ki sweets pidikaadhu'' 'The bridegroom doesn't like sweets'.

* The use of the particle ''e'' as ''avan irukaan e'' 'as for him', ''nie iruke e'' 'as for you; oh, you, you', ''adhu iruk e'' 'that one, oh God; as far as that is concerned', has no parallel in English.

* Degrees of comparison are expressed by using the expression ''ei vida'' followed by an adjective like ''peria, chinna'' 'great(er), small(er)':

* ''idhu adh ei vida peria thapu'' 'this is a greater mistake than that'.
* ''Nie en ei vida oyaram'' 'you are taller than I', where ''oyaram'' 'height' is a noun.

* Onomotopoetic words followed by ''innu, na, nu'' give rise to adverbs:

* ''Chat na'' 'quickly, suddenly', ''pahlich nu'' 'dazzlingly', ''mazha mazha nu'' 'sloppily' ''O nu, oo nu'' 'loudly' as in ''kozhandhei oo nu azhudhudhu'' 'the child cried loudly'.

* When giving strong advice to children or when admonishing subordinates, instead of 'you should do this, you should do that', a construction that translates 'we did this, we did that, it should be like that' is used :

* ''poonom, vandhom innu irukanham'' 'you should go quickly and come back quickly'.

* The particle ''a'' has several meanings, depending on context:

* It converts a statement into a question : ''nie padiche a, illei a ?'' 'did you study or not ?'

* Placed after any word in a question, it emphasises that word in the question : ''idh ei nie a ezhudhine ?'' 'is it you who wrote this ?'

* The particle ''a'' converts a noun into an adverb : Indhy puu azhah a iruku'' 'this flower is beautiful'. (''a'' is an abbreviation of ''aaha'', infinitive of the verb ''aa'' to become).

* The particle ''a'' (abbr. of ''aaha'') is used with the link verb in the past and future tenses : ''Eng apaa vaadhiaar'' 'my father is a teacher', ''avar vadhiaar a irundhaar'' 'he was a teacher'.

* The particle ''a / aal'' is a conditional clause or phrase marker: ''nie kadei ki poon a, saamaan vangindu vaa.” 'If you go to the shop, buy (and bring) the things'. ''Nie padikara paian a irundh a.'' 'If you are a student'.

* Further numerals : 11 padhin ohnnu / onnu, 12 pannendu / pandhrendu, 13 padhi muuynu / muunnu, 14 padhi naalu, 15 padjin anju, 16 padhin aarru, 17 padhin eezhu, 18 padhin etu, 19 path ombadhu, 20 iruvadhu.

* When giving expression to an approximate number, one may say :

* ''ohnn o rend o'' or ''ohnnu rendu'' 'one or two'.
''En kite pathu padhin anju ruubaay iruku'', 'I have 10 or 15 rupees with me'.

==See also==
{{wikibooks}}
*]
*]
*]


{{reflist|2}}
==References==


== References ==
'''Dr. P. C. Ganeshsundaram (Sydney)'''


* {{cite book|title=A comparative grammar of Dravidian languages|first=Michail|last=S. Andronov|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2003|isbn=3447044551|ref=Andronov}}
'''Rudin (Leningrad / Petrograd)'''
* {{cite book|title=Study of social dialects in Tamil|publisher=All India Tamil Linguistics Association|year=1981|author=K. Karunakaran, C. Sivashanmugman}}
{{Tamil language}}
{{Dialects of Tamil}}


] ]

Latest revision as of 18:07, 10 October 2024

Dialect of Tamil

Brahmin Tamil is the name of a dialect of Tamil traditionally spoken by Tamil Brahmins. The dialect, largely, uses Classical Tamil along with a heavy proportion of Sanskrit derivatives.

History

See also: Manipravalam and Grantha alphabet

During the early 1900s, Brahmin Tamil was used as the lingua-franca for inter-caste communication. The principal characters in the Tamil films of the period (1930s and 1940s) also spoke the Brahmin dialect. However, with the rise of the Pure Tamil Movement and the entry of Dravidian ideologues into Tamil cinema in the 1950s, Brahmin Tamil was gradually displaced from public spheres. Today, Brahmin Tamil is used in films and television soaps centred on the Brahmin society. Brahmin Tamil, has however, continued to flourish among the Brahmin community including the expatriates. Often non-Brahmins use this dialect in soaps and films for comic effect while engaging with Brahmins conversationally. And Brahmins effortlessly code switch by speaking the standard Tamil while engaging with non-Brahmins and revert to Brahmin Tamil when conversing among themselves.

The first systematic study of Brahmin Tamil was undertaken by Jules Bloch in 1910. However, the most detailed study was conducted by A K Ramanujan and William Bright in the 1960s. More recent researches on Brahmin Tamil and other socio-dialects have been conducted by Kamil Zvelebil.

Variations

There are many forms of Brahmin Tamil spoken. Brahmin Tamil, in general, is less influenced by regional dialects than the dialects used by other Tamil communities. The two main regional variations are the Thanjavur and Palakkad sub-dialects. Other sub-dialects include Ashtagrama Iyer Tamil, Mysore Vadama Iyer Tamil, Mandyam Tamil and Hebbar Tamil.

The differences between Thanjavur and Palakkad sub-dialects are:

  1. In the words ending in m and n preceded by a vowel, the vowel is nasalised, but the nasal stops themselves are not pronounced except when followed by a word beginning with a vowel in the Thanjavur style. In the Palakkad style, the nasal stops in these cases are always pronounced.
  2. The accent, style and vocabulary of Tamil used by Tamil Brahmins from Palakkad is greatly influenced by Malayalam apart from Sanskrit, while the sub-dialects used in Tamil Nadu borrow only from Sanskrit.

The Iyengars, particularly those outside Tamil Nadu, speak a dialect retaining ancient lexicon from religious texts such as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham.

Differences with standard Tamil

Vocabulary

Brahmin Tamil varies slightly from standard Tamil. It retains minor adaptations of classical Tamil (Sentamil) words that are no longer in common usage. For instance, ām, a Brahmin Tamil word for "house", is derived from the classical Tamil word agam. It also notably incorporates a plethora of Sanskrit words. This may be observed in the etymology of several words in the Brahmin Tamil lexicon such as namaskaram (greeting), tirtham (water), and bhakshanam (food offering). There are also unique words in the dialect for signifying time, such as kartala to indicate morning. While non-Brahmin Tamils generally tend to use Sanskrit derivatives in their Prakrit form, Brahmins tend to use original Sanskrit. According to Bright and Ramanujan (1964),

It is the Brahmin dialect which has innovated by introducing the loan words. Brahmin Tamil frequently preserves non-native phonology, which non-Brahmin Tamil assimilates to native pattern

Differences with standard Tamil
Brahmin Tamil Standard Tamil English Notes
Avāl, Avā Avargal they Probably derived from 'Avarhal' where the r & h are silent. Alternatively derived from the Telugu word Vālu meaning "person"
Ivāl, Ivā Ivargal these people
Ām/Aathu Veedu house Derived from Old Tamil Agam (with the g pronounced more like silent 'h' -- 'a(h)am')
Tirtham, Jalam Taṇṇīr water Thūtham is largely used in the Thanjavur sub-dialect and is derived from the Sanskrit Tīrtham. Iyengars, however, use the Sanskrit original.
Sittha Konjam some Probably derived from Tamil Sattru meaning "a little."
Manni Anni elder brother's wife Derived from "Maru-annai" meaning "another mom"
Athimbēr Athai kozhunan paternal aunt's husband Derived from 'Ahathin Anbar'
Kshēmam/Sowkyam Nalam goodness (esp. with regard to health) Derived from Sanskrit
Vāṅgō Vāruṅgal (Literary), Vāṅga (Spoken) Come
Pōṅgō Pōkuṅgal (Literary), Pōṅga (Spoken) Go
Aathukaran Vītukkāran Husband Derived from Agam-udayān (house-holder)

The Ramanujan-Bright hypothesis which examined Brahmin Tamil in detail concluded -

In general, the Brahmin dialect seems to show great innovation on the more conscious levels of linguistic change – those of borrowing and semantic extension—while the non-Brahmin dialect shows greater innovation in less conscious type of change—those involving phonemic and morphological replacements

Bright attributes these changes to the comparatively high literacy rate of the Brahmin community.

A possible hypothesis is that literacy, most common among Brahmins has acted as a brake on change in their dialects-that the ‘frozen’ phonology and grammar of the literary language have served to retard change in Brahmin speech

Nicknames

There are also a few nicknames and sobriquets used in Brahmin Tamil alone.

Nickname Source Meaning Usage
Ammānji Name for mother's brother's child (a cousin)
Pillaiyāndān Pillai and Āndavan Used to denote a dear child

Structure and pronunciation

As in standard spoken Tamil, the temporal verbal participles (as in -ccē/-sē from 'samayam' (time)) in Brahmin Tamil, have been borrowed from relative participle constructions on the model varaccē < varuxiṟa samayam ('while coming') and pōxasē < pōxiṟa samayam ('while going'). Brahmin Tamil also uses the retroflex approximant |ɻ| used in Old Tamil, but no longer in use in most non-Brahmin dialects.

Usage

Though mainly used by Tamil Brahmins, the Brahmin dialect is also used occasionally, and to a lesser extent, by other forward caste Tamils such as Vellalars and Mudaliyars. Until the rise of Anti-Brahminism, the usage of Brahmin Tamil was favoured as the common Tamil dialect In the early decades of the 20th century, the Brahmin Tamil variant spoken in Madras city was considered to be standard spoken Tamil. However, since the 1950s and the gradual elimination of Sanskrit loan words from the spoken tongue, Brahmin Tamil has fallen into disuse and has been replaced by the Central and Madurai Tamil dialects, by non Brahmin communities, as the preferred spoken dialects for day-to-day use.

The Vaishnavite Iyengars having a unique subdialect of Brahmin Tamil of their own, called the Sri Vaishnava Manipravalam which interested linguistics for its peculiar grammatical forms and vocabulary. However, due to the development of a homogenised Brahmin identity during the medieval period, Vaishnavite Brahmins in the Tamil country have largely assimilated Brahmin Tamil with their own dialect, retaining several words of the Vaishnava Manipravalam in their vocabulary. The Hebbar and Mandyam Iyengars who reside outside the native Tamil land, however, continue to use Iyengar Tamil as their mother tongue. So do Ashtagrama Iyers and Mysore Vadama Iyers whose Tamil dialects while largely uses Brahmin Tamil has some Kannada influence. In contrast to peninsular India, the Brahmin dialect was never used by the Tamil Brahmins of Sri Lanka.

The difference between the Smartha and Sri Vaishnava variants are currently limited to vocabulary, particularly to words related to ritual and familial ties, alone.

Words unique to the Sri Vaishnava variant
Smartha Brahmin Variant Sri Vaishnava Variant English meaning
Rasam Sattru amudu Rasam. Literally means the stew that is used to mix with rice.
Chithappa Chithiya Father's younger brother (colloquial)
Abhishekham Thirumanjanam Bath of temple idols in a ceremonial way.
Payasam Thirukanan amudhu Sweet Porridge
Samayal Thaligai Cooking
Adukull Thirumadapalli / Thaligai panra ull Kitchen. Under Sri Vaishnava variant, the first one is to refer kitchen in temples, while the second one is used to refer kitchen in houses.
Kari Kari amudhu Vegetable Fry
kozhambu, sambar Kozhambu Liquid gravy, with dhal or even without dhal (for Sri Vaishnava variant only).
Narukurathu Thirutharathu To cut (generally vegetables)
Thootham/Jalam Theertham Water
Thayir Saadham Dodhyonam Curd rice
Thaalikkarathu Thirupu maarapanrathu/Thirumaararthu Tempering; the process of frying mustard, asafoetida in oil or ghee for aroma
Vendikarathu Sevikkarathu To worship
Kumbabhishekam Samprokshanam Consecration of a temple.
Namam pottukarathu Thiruman ittukarathu To apply one or three stroke Namam (Iyengar tilakam) on forehead
Ecchal idardhu Ecchapiratal Cleaning the left overs after having food

See also

Notes

  1. Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle. ABC-CLIO. 2006. p. 217. ISBN 1851096361.
  2. Mohit K. Ray, ed. (2007). The Atlantic Companion to Literature in English. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. p. 436. ISBN 978-8126908325.
  3. ^ "Language variation in Tamil". Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
  4. ^ Harold F. Schiffman. "Standardization or Restandardization: the case for 'Standard' Spoken Tamil".
  5. ^ Bate, Bernard (2009). "Notes - 12". Tamil Oratory and the Dravidian Aesthetic: Democratic Practice in South India. Columbia University Press. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-0231147569.
  6. Baskaran, S. Theodore (1996). The eye of the serpent: An Introduction to Tamil cinema. East West Books. p. 66.
  7. ^ Comrie, Bernard (1990). The Major Languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Taylor & Francis. p. 182. ISBN 0415057728.
  8. C. Shapiro, Michael; F. Schiffman, Harold (1981). Language and society in South Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 155.
  9. Pillai, J. M. Somasundaram; Meenakshisundaram, T. P. (1968). "Introduction". A history of Tamil literature with texts and translations from the earliest times to 600 A.D. p. xiv.
  10. ^ Pillai, S. Anavartavinayakam (1974). "The Sanskritic Elements in the vocabulary of Dravidian languages". In Mark Collins (ed.). Dravidic Studies. University of Madras. p. 154.
  11. ^ Bright, William (1976). "Social dialect and language history". Variation and change in language: Essays. Stanford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0804709262.
  12. Sree Krishnan (ed.). Linguistic traits across language boundaries. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 20.
  13. Gupta, Baldev Raj (1990). Indian Linguistics. Ariana Publishing House. p. 28.
  14. Andronov, p 258
  15. Raman, Srilatha (2007). Self-surrender (prapatti) to God in Śrīvaiṣṇavism: Tamil Cats and Sanskrit Monkeys. Taylor & Francis. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0415391856.
  16. Veluppillai, A. (1980). Epigraphical evidences for Tamil studies. International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 175.
  17. ^ Beteille, Andre (1965). Caste, Class, and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village. University of California Press. p. 54. ISBN 0520020537.

References

  • S. Andronov, Michail (2003). A comparative grammar of Dravidian languages. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3447044551.
  • K. Karunakaran, C. Sivashanmugman (1981). Study of social dialects in Tamil. All India Tamil Linguistics Association.
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