Misplaced Pages

Burmese Indians: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 04:29, 7 February 2009 edit70.234.210.89 (talk) →Economic roles: fixed wording← Previous edit Latest revision as of 16:45, 19 November 2024 edit undoFrietjes (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Template editors1,000,827 edits replace {{my|...}} with {{lang|my|...}} per TfD outcome 
(644 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Ethnic community}}
{{Cleanup|date=October 2008}}
{{EngvarB|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox Ethnic group

|group = Burmese Indians
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}{{Infobox ethnic group
|poptime = 950, 000
| group = Burmese Indians
|popplace = ],],]
| native_name =
|langs = ], ], ], ], ]
| native_name_lang =
|rels = ], ],], ]
| image =
|related-c = ]
| caption =
| population = '''2,000,000 - 2,500,000'''<br/>4.5% of the Burmese population
| popplace = ], ], ], ]
| langs = ], ] (majority), ], ] (]<ref name="Manipuri language {{!}} Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Manipuri language {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manipuri-language |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=Manipuri language, Manipuri Meiteilon, also called Meitei (Meetei), a Tibeto-Burman language spoken predominantly in Manipur, a northeastern state of India. Smaller speech communities exist in the Indian states of Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura, as well as in Bangladesh and Myanmar (Burma).}}</ref><ref name="Meitei">{{Cite web |title=Meitei |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mni/25 |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref>), ], ], ], ]
| rels = '''Majority:''' ] <br/> {{hlist| '''Minority:''' ] | ] | ] | ] | ] | ] }}
| related_groups =
| related-c = ], ]
}} }}
{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}
], a ] with ] in ]]]'''Burmese Indians''' are a group of people of ]n origin who live in ] (Burma). The term 'Burmese Indian' refers to a broad range of people from ], most notably from present-day countries such as ] and ]. While Indians have lived in Burma for many centuries, most of the ancestors of the current Burmese Indian community emigrated to Burma from the start of British rule in the mid-19th century to the separation of British Burma from ] in 1937. During colonial times, ethnic Indians formed the backbone of the government and economy serving as soldiers, civil servants, merchants, moneylenders, mobile laborers and dock workers. A series of anti-Indian riots in the 1930s and mass emigration at the onset of the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942 were followed in the 1960s by the forced migration of hundreds of thousands of ethnic Indians, exacerbated by ].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Idealization of a Lost Paradise: Narratives of Nostalgia and Traumatic Return among Indian Repatriates from Burma since the 1960s|first=Renaud|last=Egreteau|date=June 2014|journal=Journal of Burma Studies|volume=18|issue=1|pages=137–180|doi=10.1353/jbs.2014.0002|s2cid=162378961}}</ref>


Burmese Indians today are estimated to account for approximately 5% (about 2.0–2.5 million people) of the population of Burma and are concentrated largely in the two major cities (] and ]) and former colonial towns (] and ]). They wield considerable influence and control over the ] and have a major socio-cultural presence within the country.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Burmese Indians in contemporary Burma: heritage, influence, and perceptions since 1988|first=Renaud|last=Egreteau|date=1 February 2011|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=12|issue=1|pages=33–54|doi=10.1080/14631369.2010.510869|s2cid=143621311}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/images/pdf/Indian-Migrants-Myanmar.pdf|title=Indian Migrants in Myanmar: Emerging Trends and Challenges|author=Medha Chaturvedi|website=Mea.gov.in|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> Amongst the well-known Burmese Indians is ], a leading practitioner and teacher of ] meditation and ], a well-known Bollywood film actress who is also of ] descent.
] in Yangon]]
The '''Burmese Indians''' ({{MYname|MY=ကုလားလူမျိုး|MLCTS=ku. la: lu myui:}}) are a group of people of ]al descent (including ]) from ] (formerly Burma). They form approximately 2% (about 950,000) <ref></ref> on the ] '']''. of the population, although exact figures do not exist due to intermarriage between Indians and other ethnic groups.


== History == == Etymology ==
In the ], Indians are typically called ''kalar'' ({{Linktext|ကုလား}}, spelt ''kula:''). The origins of the term itself are disputed. The ] officially traces the etymology of the word ''kalar'' to the ] term {{IAST|kula}} (ကုလ), which means "noble", "noble race", or "pure".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Myanmar-English Dictionary|publisher=Myanmar Language Commission|year=1993|isbn=1-881265-47-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Opening a Can of Worms in Burmese Teaching: Tackling Controversial Words in a Language Class|url=http://kennethwongsf.blogspot.com/2017/04/opening-can-of-worms-in-burmese.html|access-date=2020-06-16|language=en}}</ref> ] ascribes the origins of this term to a calque of two Burmese words: ကူး+ လာ (lit. "to cross over "), although this etymology has no scholarly basis.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Saw|first=Khin Maung|date=2016-01-20|title=(Mis)Interpretations of Burmese Words: In the case of the term Kala (Kula)|url=http://eng.moemaka.net/2016/01/khin-maung-saw-misinterpretations-of-burmese-words-in-the-case-of-the-term-kala-kula/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127223806/http://eng.moemaka.net/2016/01/khin-maung-saw-misinterpretations-of-burmese-words-in-the-case-of-the-term-kala-kula/|archive-date=2016-01-27|access-date=2020-06-18}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Jayati|title=Indian and Chinese Immigrant Communities: Comparative Perspectives|last2=Kripalani|first2=Coonoor|date=2015-03-01|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-78308-362-6|pages=114–115|language=en}}</ref> The term ''kalar'' also phonetically resembles the word for "black" in several Indic languages, including ] and ] (cf. Sanskrit {{IAST|kāla}}), and is used by Indians as an ethnic slur for dark-skinned people and Africans.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-05-19|title=Let's Talk About Racism {{!}} Movies tell us to use 'kaala' as an all-weather insult|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/let-s-talk-about-racism-movies-tell-us-to-use-kaala-as-an-all-weather-insult/story-eRrj9I0kvsKvVxNy2TRL9I.html|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
The term "Burmese Indian" refers to a broad range of ethnic groups from ], most notably from present-day ] and ]. Within Burma, they are often referred to as ''ka-la'' (historically, the term was used for all foreigners from the west), a term that is considered derogatory. Its root is believed to be ''ku la'' meaning either "to cross over (the Bay of Bengal)" or "person" depending on the way it is pronounced.<ref name=my>{{cite book|title=Muslims of Burma - A study of a Minority Group|author= Moshe Yegar|date=1972|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|location= Wiesbaden|pages= 111, 36, 37, 29, 30, 32}}</ref> An alternative explanation is that the word is derived from “Ku lar”, meaning the people who adhere to a caste system.<ref> “Ancient Pyu” page 4. Professor U Than Tun M.A.B.L.D. Lit. Ph.D. </ref> The majority of Indians arrived in Burma whilst it was part of ] as civil servants, engineers, river pilots, soldiers, indentured labourers and traders.<ref name=my/>


The Burmese language term ''kalar'' has been borrowed into a number of regional languages, including ] (ၵလႃး, ''kala''),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sao Tern Moeng|title=Shan-English Dictionary|publisher=Dunwoody Press|year=1995|isbn=0-931745-92-6}}</ref> Mon (ဂလာ, ''h'lea'')'',''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shorto|first=H.L.|title=Dictionary of Modern Spoken Mon|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1962}}</ref> ] (''kola''),<ref name=":2" /> and ] (កុឡា, ''kola''). The Khmer term ''kola'' refers to the ], a diverse community of migrants from present-day ].
Tensions developed between the Indian community and other ethnic groups in Burma in the 1930s. ] nationalist groups associated began adjutating against the community based on the prominant role some of its members played in the British administration of the country including the civil service, courts and military police <ref name=my/>. Some of the animosity toward the Indian community was based on their physical appearance. Unlike the Chinese who are Buddhists and historically regarded by the ] as their cousins, Indians were regarded differently. White Europeans were also called ''kala hpyu'' (white kala) before British rule became established.<ref name="sy">{{cite book|author=Shway Yoe (Sir ]) 1882|title=The Burman - His Life and Notions|publisher=The Norton Library 1963|location=New York|pages=436,249–251,348,450}}</ref>


The term ''kalar'' has a long history; it is attested in ] stone inscriptions dating to the 1100s, and was the name of a prominent 17th century Burmese historian, ].<ref name=":2" /> During the pre-colonial era, Westerners, including those from the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and Europe, were collectively known as ''kalar,'' an ] used by Burmese speakers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Myint-U|first=Thant|title=The Hidden History of Burma: Race, Capitalism, and the Crisis of Democracy in the 21st Century|date=2019-11-12|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-1-324-00330-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> For instance, ''kalaphyu'' (ကုလားဖြူ, {{Lit|white ''kalar''}}) or ''bayinngyi kalar'' (ဘရင်ဂျီကုလား, {{Lit|] ''kalar''}}) were used as Burmese exonyms for Europeans.<ref name=":1" /> To this day, the word ''kalar'' features in many Burmese compound words, including ''kalahtaing'' (ကုလားထိုင်, {{Lit|''kalar'' seat}} or 'chair') and ''kala be'' (ကုလားပဲ, {{Lit|''kalar'' bean}} or 'chickpea')"<ref name=":1" /> By 1886, the conventional use of ''kalar'' in reference to a "native of continental India" was documented in dictionaries.<ref name=":0" /> Burma was administered as a part of ] for the majority of its time under British occupation between 1826 and 1948. Colonial exploitation during ] engendered nationalist and anti-Indian sentiment among locals, which was reinforced in the use of ''kalar'' as an exonym with negative connotations.<ref name=":0" />
There were also tensions between Indian landowners/moneylenders and the Bamars. ]-speaking ] came into Burma when the rice trade boomed after the opening of the ] <ref name=my/>.<ref name="sy"/><ref name="ms">{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|year=1991|title=Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London,New Jersey|pages=43–44,98,56–57,176}}</ref> During the economic depression of the 1930s, the price of rice plummetted creating tensions over foreclosures.<ref name=my/> Urban riots broke out between the Indian and Bamar communities after port authorities in ] (Rangoon) attempted to break an Indian dockers strike by bringing in Burmese workers.<ref name="ms"/><ref name=my/> The distubances spread beyond Yangon to locations such as ] (Maymyo).


The term ''kalar'' is now considered ] by some members of the Burmese Indian community.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How the word 'kalar' is a depressing indictment of Myanmar society|url=https://myanmarmix.com/en/articles/how-the-word-kalar-is-a-depressing-indictment-of-myanmar-society|access-date=2020-06-16|website=Myanmar Mix|language=en}}</ref> In 2017, following the ], the social media company ] added ''kalar'' to its censored words, creating collateral censorship for related words like chair and chickpea.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cebu |first=Juan |date=2 June 2017 |title=Facebook Bans Racist Word 'Kalar' in Myanmar, Triggers Collateral Censorship |language=en |website=Global Voices Advox |url=https://advox.globalvoices.org/2017/06/02/facebook-bans-racist-word-kalar-in-myanmar-triggers-collateral-censorship/}}</ref>
=== The Second World War and after ===


==History==
At the start of ], almost half of Yangon's population was ]n or ],<ref></ref> and about 16% of the population of Burma was ethnically Indian.<ref>{{Citation|title=Burma|last=Christian|first=John|journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=226|date=March 1943|pages=120–128|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1024343}}</ref>
]
===Indian immigration===


Before the British conquest, the Indians in Lower Burma primarily engaged in trade. The small Indian community was located almost wholly in during and preceding eras. After 1852, they migrated to ] because of the jobs available in the expanding economy and the new provincial bureaucracy of the ]. Their population rapidly rose from 37,000 in 1871 in Lower Burma to 297,000 in 1901 with 86% being born outside Burma by that year. Most Indians were from ] and ]. Over 60% in the last decades of 19th century were from Madras (present ]). 30% were from Bengal in 1881 and 25% in 1901.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Czd7xXIf3MC&pg=PA86|title=The Burma Delta: Economic Development and Social Change on an Asian Rice Frontier, 1852–1941|author=Michael Adas|author-link=Michael Adas|publisher=]|year=2011|page=86|isbn=9780299283537}}</ref>
As a consequence of the Japanese invasion of 1942, half a million members of the Indian community fled Burma overland into ] largely on foot. The refugees suffered terribly and thousands died. Some of the Indian community remained in Burma during the war, others returned after the war. Many never returned after the war.<ref name="ms"/>


There were no effective curbs on Indian immigration until the eve of ] despite the implementation of the ''Government of Burma Act''. By 1931, there were more than one million Indians in Burma, about 7% of the population, and were mostly concentrated in Lower Burma.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nmc2DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260|title=Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar)|author=Donald M. Seekins|publisher=]|year=2017|page=260|isbn=9781538101834}}</ref> The census of 1931 enumerated 1,017,825 Indians in Burma with 617,521 born in India.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT265|title=Nepali Diaspora in a Globalised Era|editor=Tanka B. Subba, A.C. Sinha|publisher=]|year=2015|isbn=9781317411031}}</ref> Per the census of 1931, the total population of Rangoon was 400,415 out of which comprised 212,929 Indians. They comprised 2.5% of population in ] and 10.9% in Lower Burma.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qf3XSIJqSZkC&pg=PA179|title=South East Asia, Colonial History: High imperialism (1890s-1930s)|editor=Paul H. Kratoska|publisher=]|year=2001|page=179|isbn=9780415215428}}</ref>
After Independence, Burmese law treated a large percentage of the Indian community as "resident aliens". Though many had long ties to Burma or were born there, they were not considered citizens under the law.


The majority of Indians arrived in Burma whilst it was part of ]. Starting with the annexation of Tenasserim and Western Burma after the ], a steady stream of Indians moved to Burma as civil servants, engineers, river pilots, soldiers, indentured labourers, and traders.<ref name=my>{{cite book|title=Muslims of Burma - A study of a Minority Group|author= Moshe Yegar|year=1972|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|location= Wiesbaden|pages= 111, 36, 37, 29, 30, 32}}</ref> Following the annexation of ] in 1885, numerous infrastructure projects started by the British colonial government and increases in rice cultivation in the delta region caused an unprecedented economic boom in Burma that drew many Indians, particularly from southern India, to the ] region.<ref name="Butkaew">{{citation | first =Samart | last =Butkaew| url =http://www.burmaissues.org/En/Newsletter/BINews2006-02.pdf | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070928103307/http://www.burmaissues.org/En/Newsletter/BINews2006-02.pdf | url-status =dead | archive-date =2007-09-28 | title =Burmese Indians: The Forgotten Lives| publisher =Burma Issues | date= February 2005 | access-date =2006-07-07}}</ref>
] rise to power in 1962 led to a relentless persecution of all groups denied recognition as citizens of the Union of Burma. This led to an exodus of some 300,000 from racial discrimination and particularly after wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.<ref name="ms"/>


===Anti-Indian sentiments===
=== Origin of Burmese Indians ===
See main article ]


After the ], anti-Indian sentiments began to rise<ref>“The Muslims of Burma”, p.32</ref> for a number of reasons. The number of ethnic Indians was growing rapidly (almost half of Yangon's population was Indian by the ]<ref name="Encyclopedia of Modern Asia">{{citation | url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/yangon-ema-06/ | title =Encyclopedia of Modern Asia| publisher =Charles Scribner's Sons | date= November 2002 | access-date =2009-09-03}}</ref>). Indians played a prominent role in the British administration and became the target of Burmese nationalists.<ref name=my/> Racial animosity toward Indians because of their skin-colour and appearance also played a role. Meanwhile, the price of rice plummeted during the economic depression of the 1930s and the ] from South India, who were prominent moneylenders in the rice belt, began to foreclose on land held by native Burmese.<ref name=my/><ref name="ms">{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|year=1991|title=Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London, New Jersey|pages=43–44,98,56–57,176|isbn = 978-984-05-1499-1}}</ref>
Burmese Indians consist of numerous groups from different parts of India, namely Tamils, Hindi speakers, Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya, Punjabis and Pathans.


In May 1930, a British firm of ]s at the port of Rangoon employed Burmese workers in an attempt to break a strike organised by its Indian workers. When, on 26 May, the strike ended and the Indians returned to work, clashes developed between the returning Indian workers and the Burmese workers who had replaced them. The clashes soon escalated into large-scale anti-Indian riots in the city. Over 200 Indians were killed and their bodies flung into the river. Authorities ordered the police to fire upon any assembly of five or more who refused to lay down their arms, under Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code. Within two days the riot spread throughout the country to locations such as ].<ref name="Maurice Collis, Trials in Burma">{{Cite book|last=Collis|first=Maurice|publisher=Penguin Books|title=Trials in Burma|place=London|year=1945|isbn=978-0-404-54812-4}}</ref>
=== Indians in Burmese History ===
Main article ].<br />
Indians have a long and active history in Burma. Indians have actively engaged in Burma for over 2000 years in all spheres of life i.e. politics, religion, culture, arts and cuisine and the effect can be seen till this day.


===The Second World War and after===
== Culture ==
]
At the start of ], almost half of Rangoon's (modern-day Yangon) population was ]n,<ref name="Encyclopedia of Modern Asia"/> and about 16% of the population of Burma was ethnically Indian.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1177/000271624322600112|title=Burma|last=Christian|first=John|journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=226|date=March 1943|pages=120–128|jstor=1024343|s2cid=220854395}}</ref> As a consequence of the Japanese invasion of 1942, half a million members of the Indian community fled Burma overland into ], largely on foot. The refugees suffered terribly and thousands died. Some of the Indian community remained in Burma during the war; others returned after the war, although many never did.<ref name="ms"/> After independence, Burmese law treated a large percentage of the Indian community as 'resident aliens.' Though many had long ties to Burma or were born there, they were not considered citizens under the 1982 Burma citizenship law which restricted citizenship for groups immigrating before 1823.<ref>{{cite web|title=Burma Citizenship Law|publisher=United Nations Human Rights Commission|date=15 October 1982|access-date=9 October 2009|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?docid=3ae6b4f71b}}</ref>


After he seized power through a military coup in 1962, General ] ordered a large-scale expulsion of Indians. Although many Indians had been living in Burma for generations and had integrated into Burmese society, they became a target for discrimination and oppression by the junta. This, along with a wholesale nationalisation of private ventures in 1964, led to the emigration of over 300,000 ethnic Indians from Burma.<ref name="ms"/> Indian-owned businesses as well as Burmese businesses were nationalised due to the so-called "Burmese way to Socialism". Many Indians returned and were given 175 ] for their trip to India. This caused a significant deterioration in Indian-Burmese relations and the Indian government arranged ferries and aircraft to lift Burmese of Indian ethnicity out of ].<ref name="irrawaddy-1999">{{cite magazine |date=March 1999 |title=India and Burma: working on their relationship |url=http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=1170 |magazine=The Irrawaddy |volume=7 |issue=3 |access-date=3 January 2014 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104013119/http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=1170 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
India has been particularly influential in ] as the cradle of Buddhism, and ancient Hindu traditions can still be seen in ] presiding over important ceremonies such as weddings and ear-piercings but most notably in ], the Burmese New Year festival.<ref name="sy"/> Traditions of kingship including coronation ceremonies and formal royal titles as well as those of lawmaking were also Hindu in origin.<ref name="sy"/> Many Burmese dishes and breads came as a result of Indian influence, prominently reflected in the Burmese version of Indian ].


==Culture==
== Economic roles ==
]
] has been ] in ] as the cradle of Buddhism, and ancient ] can still be seen in ] presiding over important ceremonies such as weddings and ear-piercings but most notably in ], the Burmese New Year festival.<ref name="sy">{{cite book|author=Shway Yoe (Sir ]) 1882|title=The Burman - His Life and Notions|publisher=The Norton Library 1963|location=New York|pages=436, 249–251, 348, 450}}</ref> The Burmese poetry tradition of '']'' (notably the '']'') also has Indian origins.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Ryuji|last1=Okudaira|first2=Andrew|last2=Huxley|title=A Burmese Tract on Kingship: Political Theory in the 1782 Manuscript of Manugye|publisher=]|volume=64|issue=2|year=2001|page=253}}</ref> Traditions of kingship including coronation ceremonies and formal royal titles as well as those of ] in origin.<ref name="sy"/> Many Burmese dishes and breads came as a result of ], prominently reflected in the Burmese version of Indian ].


Burmese Indians came from various groups from different parts of India, including ] (majority) and also minority groups such as ], ], Hindustani speakers, ]s and ]. Today they form approximately 2% (about 950,000)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/|title=Burma|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|work=World Factbook | access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref> of the population, according to the ] '']'', although exact figures do not exist due to uncertainties over census results and methods in ]. Disaffected young Indians often flee the cities and join ethnic resistance movements. The ] whose members consist largely of ]s of Indian origin is routinely labelled by the government as "]". It operates alongside the ] which has a militant wing and, despite a swelling of its ranks following anti-Muslim riots in the eighties, remains a very minor force.<ref name="Priestly">{{citation|first=Harry |last=Priestly |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5380 |title=The Outsiders |publisher=] |date=January 2006 |access-date=2009-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119160146/http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5380 |archive-date=2012-01-19 }}</ref>
Burmese Indians had made their livelihoods as merchants, traders and shopkeepers as well as manual labourers such as coolies, dockers, municipal workers, rickshaw men, pony cart drivers, malis and durwans. They were also heavily represented in certain professions such as civil servants, university lecturers, pharmacists, opticians, lawyers and doctors. They totally dominated several types of businesses such as auto parts and electrical goods, ironmongery and hardware, printing and bookbinding, books and stationery, paper and printing ink, tailoring and dry-cleaning, English tuition, and money lending. They traded in textiles, gold and jewellery where the market was traditionally dominated by Burmese women. However, ] rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma) led to an exodus of some 300,000 from racial discrimination and particularly after wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.<ref name="ms"/>


==Religion== ===Religion===
{{Main|Buddhism in Burma|Hinduism in Southeast Asia#Burma}}
]
] gather for ] festival in ], c.1941-42]]
Burmese Indians practise ], ], ], ] and ] (Mahamaydin - ] pronounced in Myanmar language) than any other religion, perhaps indicating a preponderance of people who had come from East Bengal, although there are large numbers of ]. Burmese Muslims, some of them of mixed blood born of Burmese mothers, call themselves ''Bama Musalin'' ({{my|ဗမာမူစလင္}}) and the majority belongs to the ] sect with small numbers of ]. The Burmese call them ''Zaydabayi'' or ''Pathi kala'' ({{my|ပသီကုလား}}). Other religions practised by Burmese Indians include Hinduism.
]


Burmese Indians practise ], ], ], ] and ]. ] have good and peaceful relationships with the native Burmese.
Also see ]


Predominantly, Burmese Indians are Hindu. The practice of Hinduism among Burmese Indians is also influenced by Buddhism. In addition of Hindu deities, the Buddha is also worshiped and many Hindu temples in Myanmar house statues of the Buddha.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-25438275|title=Myanmar's Tamils seek to protect their identity|last=Natarajan|first=Swaminathan|date=2014-03-06|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-06-04|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/myanmars-hindu-community-looks-west|title=Myanmar's Hindu community looks west|last=Han|first=Thi Ri|work=Frontier Myanmar|access-date=2018-06-04|language=en}}</ref>
== Racial Discriminations ==
'''Expulsion of Indians from Burma in 1962'''<br />
] Military ruler General ] who seized power in ] ordered expulsion of the ]ns. This caused a significant deterioration in Indian-Burmese relations. India arranged ferries and aircraft to lift Indians out of ].


Burmese Muslims, some of them of mixed blood born of Burmese mothers and some of them with full Burmese blood, ({{lang|my|ဗမာမူစလင်}}); with small numbers of ]s.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Indian minority in Burma: the rise and decline of an immigrant community|last= Chakravarti|first= Nalini Ranjan|year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations|location= London|isbn= 978-0-19-218194-7|page= |url=https://archive.org/details/indianminorityin0000chak|url-access= registration}}</ref> The Burmese call them ''Zaydabayi''.
==Language==


The constitution grants limited rights to ]; however, some articles in the constitution, as well as other laws and policies, restrict those rights. In practice the government enforced those restrictions.<ref>{{cite web|last1=State Department|first1=USA|title=BURMA 2012 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208430.pdf|website=State.gov|publisher=US Government|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref> "Muslims continue to experience the most severe forms of legal, economic, religious, educational, and social restrictions and discrimination".<ref>{{cite web|last1=US GOV|title=USCIRF {{ndash}} Annual Report 2014|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Burma%202014_0.pdf|website=uscrif.gov|publisher=United States Commission on International Religious Freedom|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref> The military dictatorship rejects or ignores their requests when they want to build mosques in the country or to go abroad for religious ceremonies.<ref name="Butkaew"/><ref name="Priestly"/> Although there is limited freedom of religion in Burma, Muslims decided not to hold ] in 2012 due to Rakhine-Rohingya strikes in ].
Burmese Indians also speak an array of different languages. There are ], ], ], ] and Marawaris as well as ] and ]. Most can only communicate in ], due to years of assimilation and lack of education in languages other than ]. However, small segments of the population can speak other languages, such as ], ], ], and ].


===Languages===
== Notable Burmese Indians ==
Burmese Indians are from an array of linguistic groups, mostly are ] from ]. There is also significant population of the ] (]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meitei {{!}} people {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meitei |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=Meitei, also spelled Meetei or Meithei, also called Manipuri, ...}}</ref><ref name="Manipuri language {{!}} Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Manipuri language {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manipuri-language |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=Manipuri language, Manipuri Meiteilon, also called Meitei (Meetei), a Tibeto-Burman language spoken predominantly in Manipur, a northeastern state of India. Smaller speech communities exist in the Indian states of Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura, as well as in Bangladesh and Myanmar (Burma).}}</ref><ref name="Meitei">{{Cite web |title=Meitei |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mni/25 |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref>), coming from Myanmar's western neighborhood ] state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipur {{!}} History, Government, Map, Capital, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Manipur |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Other minorities are ] from ] and ] from the ] region of India's ] state as well as ] hailing from the Indian state of ] as well as the present-day independent nation of ].
*'''Ba Than Haq''' - Professor of Geology and Minister of Mines. (A Muslim who converted to Buddhism) <ref name=RUIA>History of Myanmar Muslims, Rangoon University Islamic Association.</ref>
Prior to the expulsion of Indians, there were also ]s from ], ] from ], ] from the state of ] who are mostly ] and two groups of ], both ]-speaking ]s and ] proper who are mostly ] or ] by faith hailing from the state of ].
*] or '''Bahadur Shah Zafar''', the last ] was exiled to ] after the ]. He, along with his wife Zeenat Mahal and granddaughter Raunaq Zamani Begum, is buried at the Mazar (mausoleum) at No. 6 Theatre Road in Yangon.<ref>Independent-Bangladesh, Bahadur Shah Zafar’s Mazar, Myanmar turns down Pakistan’s claim, PTI, Yangon. Nov 16:2003</ref>
All can and were able to communicate in ] due to years of assimilation and lack of education in languages other than ]. ] is the most spoken Indian language in ]. Other minority ] are quite frequently used.
*'''Suk Bahadur''' For much of the 1960s, the Burmese national selection team was led by the Gurkha-born striker from Shan State, Suk Bahadur, known as the Pelé of Burmese football. He was also a famous tennis and hockey player and the national 100-meter sprint champion.
*] - eminent ] Buddhist meditation teacher (b. 1924)
*'''H. N. Goshal aka Thakin Ba Tin''' - ] leader and founding member from the 1940s to the 1960s killed in an internal purge 1967 <ref name="ms"/>
*]. Born Helen Jairag Richardson Khan in Rangoon on July 14, 1938, she fled to India during the ] and became famous for playing the vamp in Indian cinema.
*'''Dr. Maung Di''' - Department chair and dean of Rangoon Arts and Science University (now ]), Deputy Education Minister. Son of the Dean of Islamic Religious College in ]. <ref name=RUIA/>
*'''S. Mukerjee aka Pyu Win''' - Communist trade union leader killed in the 1950s <ref name="ms"/>
*'''Dr. Nath aka Tun Maung''' - Communist leader and founding member killed in the 1960s <ref name="ms"/>
*'''Captain Ohn Kyaw Myint.''' Martyred after failed attempt of ] <ref name=RUIA/>
*'''Saya Rajan aka Aung Naing''' - Communist trade union leader captured in the 1950s <ref name="ms"/>
*'''M. A. Raschid''' - Government Minister in the 1950s <ref name="ms"/>
*](Shia Muslim who converted to Buddhism) - Prime Minister of General Ne Win’s government.<ref name=RUIA/>
*'''Thakin Tha Khin''' (Shan Indian) - Government Minister in the 1950s <ref name="ms"/>
*'''Daw Tint Tint aka Usha Narayanan''' The wife of former Indian President, ], was ethnically Bamar and met and married (8 June 1951) Mr. Narayanan when he was a diplomat at the Indian embassy in Rangoon. <ref>Haresh Pandya: "K. R. Narayanan: Indian president from downtrodden caste", '']'', 29 Nov. 2005</ref> She adopted the Indian name Usha, became an Indian citizen and worked on several social welfare programmes for women and children.<ref>Mrs President's interview with '']'', Malaysia</ref>She translated and published several Burmese short stories; a collection of translated stories by ], titled ''Sweet and Sour'', appeared in 1998.


== See also == ==Economic role==


Historically, Burmese Indians have made their livelihoods as merchants, traders and shopkeepers as well as manual labourers such as coolies, dockers, municipal workers, rickshaw men, pony cart drivers, malis and durwans. They were also heavily represented in certain professions such as ], university lecturers, pharmacists, opticians, lawyers and doctors. They dominated several types of businesses such as auto parts and electrical goods, ironmongery and hardware, printing and bookbinding, books and stationery, paper and printing ink, tailoring and dry-cleaning, English tuition, and money lending. They traded in textiles, gold and jewellery, where the market was traditionally dominated by Burmese women. The ] of Burma functioned as moneylenders and have been thought crucial in the growth in agricultural output of Burma during the colonial era.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8446.2007.00232.x|title=The Chettiars in Burma|last1=Turnell|first1=Sean|journal=Australian Economic History Review|volume=48|issue=1|pages=1–25|year=2008|url=http://econpapers.repec.org/article/blaozechr/v_3a48_3ay_3a2008_3ai_3a1_3ap_3a1-25.htm|last2=Ward|first2=RL|last3=Campbell|first3=BJ}}</ref> Today, many Indians live in central Rangoon on both sides of the Su Lei Paya Road and are largely involved in businesses, including restaurants, jewellery shops and money exchanges.
*]

*]
==Notable Burmese Indians and others==
<!--- Alphabetical list --->
]
* ] - (1929–2000) was the fourth ]. He was born in ] of mixed Burmese, Irish and French ancestry.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|bishop|bdelastic|Archbishop Alan Basil de Lastic|21 January 2015}}</ref>
* ], an ] film and theatre actress who was born in Burma.<ref name=ie>{{cite news |title=Veteran Actor Bhanumati Devi dead |url=http://newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/article1408447.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130108221522/http://newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/article1408447.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 January 2013 |work= ] |date=2013-01-05 |access-date=2013-01-16}}</ref>
* ], martyred after failed attempt of ]<ref name=RUIA>{{cite book|author=Pathi Ko Ko Lay|title=History of Myanmar Muslims|publisher=Rangoon University Islamic Association}}</ref>
* ], princess of ] and queen of ]
* ], the wife of former President of India, ]
* ], a communist leader and founding member killed in the 1960s<ref name="ms" />
*], a leader of Communist Party of Burma and founding member from the 1940s to the 1960s, killed in an internal purge in 1967. was an ethnic ].<ref name="ms"/>
* ], born Helen Jairag Richardson Khan in Rangoon on 14 July 1938, she fled to India during ] and became famous for playing the vamp in Indian cinema.
*] was born in Sodugudi, Ilayangudi, a politician in South-East Asia of Indian origin. Before the Second World War Karim Ghani was a parliamentary secretary in ] under Dr ].
* ], a ] meditation teacher (born 1924)
* Saya Rajan aka Aung Naing, a communist trade union leader captured in the 1950s<ref name="ms"/>
* ], Minister of Health of ] from 1960 to 1962.
* ], an Indian freedom fighter and Minister of Health in ] from 1937 to 1940.
* ], prominent Burmese lawyer and an expert on constitutional law, legal advisor to ] until 2017 when he was assassinated.
* ] (1935–2020) is a noted ] novelist<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/11/stories/2008081158940200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815211107/http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/11/stories/2008081158940200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 August 2008 |title=U.A. Khader, in his own words - KERALA |date=11 August 2008 |newspaper=] |access-date=12 August 2016}}</ref>
* ] (20 January 1898 &ndash; 19 July 1947; Arabic: Abdul Razak) Burmese politician
*], mathematician

==See also==
{{Div col}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
*]
* {{portal-inline|Myanmar}}
{{col div end}}


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite news | first =Harry | last =Priestly| url =http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 | title =The Outsiders| publisher ='']'' | date= 2006-01 | accessdate =2006-07-07}}
*{{cite news | first =Samart | last =Butkaew| url =http://www.burmaissues.org/En/Newsletter/BINews2006-02.pdf |format=PDF| title =Burmese Indians: The Forgotten Lives| publisher =Burma Issues | date= 2005-02 | accessdate =2006-07-07}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/kolam/kolam4/gregjames.html |title=Myanmar: A Neglected Area of Tamil Lexicography | last=Gregory |first=James |publisher=]}}
*] and ], "The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma", Rangoon University Press, Rangoon, Burma, January 1960.
*Dr Than Tun (History Professor, Mandalay University) M.A., B.L., D. Lit., Ph.D."Bagan Culture",
*Tamil Studies Abroad, A Symposium edited by Xavier S. Thaninayagam, published by the International Association of Tamil Research, 1968:
*The Chettiars in Burma by Sean Turnell, Economics Department, ].
*The Sikh Regiment In The Second World War, Colonel F.T. Birdwood OBE.
*Myanmar Muslim History, Myanmar Muslim Students Association, Rangoon Arts and Science University. Limited Edition.
*Bertil Lintner, Swedish journalist, expert on Burma, 17th. of April 1988 in the Bangkok Post.
*"Dialogue with a Shan Leader: H.R.H Hso Khan Pha" - Tiger Yawnghwe or Prince Hso Khan Pha; he is the eldest son of ], the former ] (Prince) of ] (Nyaung-Shwe) and the first ] after Burma's independence from British colonial rule. Interview with Dr Tayza, Chief Editor of Burma Digest.
*Dr Than Tun (History Professor, Mandalay University) "The Story of Myanmar Told in Pictures".
*Elizabeth Moore, Myanmar Historical Research Journal 2004.
*], "A History of South East Asia", New York, 1968.
*], "History of Burma", London 1925.
*D. G. E Hall, Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan, Journal of the ], VOL XXVI, 1936, P. 6. and Mr. R. B. Smart, Burma Gazetteer-Akyab District, voL A., Rangoon. 1957
*], "History of Burma", 1853.
*A. P. Phayre, Journal of the ], 1846.
*Haresh Pandya: "K. R. Narayanan: Indian president from downtrodden caste", The Guardian, 29 Nov. 2005.
*Suresh Kohli, Helen of Bollywood. Hindu, India's National Newspaper Friday, Apr 14, 2006.
*], Arakan's place in the civilization of the Bay, Journal of the ], 50th Anniversary publications No.2, Rangoon, 1960.


==Notes== ==Further reading==
* Prasenjit K. Basu " Asia Reborn: A Continent Rises from the Ravages of Colonialism and War to a New Dynamism", Publisher: Aleph Book Company
{{reflist|2}}
* Gregory, James ''Myanmar: A Neglected Area of Tamil Lexicography.'' University of Cologne.
* ] and ], ], Rangoon University Press, Rangoon, Burma, January 1960.
* ] (History Professor, Mandalay University) "Bagan Culture",
* Tamil Studies Abroad, A Symposium edited by Xavier S. Thaninayagam, published by the International Association of Tamil Research, 1968:
* The Chettiars in Burma by Sean Turnell, Economics Department, ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216090611/http://www.econ.mq.edu.au/research/2005/chettiar.pdf |date=16 February 2012 }}.
* The Sikh Regiment in the Second World War, Colonel F. T. Birdwood OBE.
* Myanmar Muslim History, Myanmar Muslim Students Association, Rangoon Arts and Science University. Limited Edition.
* Bertil Lintner, Swedish journalist, expert on Burma, 17th. of April 1988 in the ''Bangkok Post''.
* "Dialogue with a Shan Leader: H.R.H. Hso Khan Pha" - Tiger Yawnghwe or Prince Hso Khan Pha; he is the eldest son of ], the former ] (Prince) of ] (Nyaung-Shwe) and the first ] after Burma's independence from British colonial rule. Interview with Dr Tayza, Chief Editor of ''Burma Digest''.
* Dr Than Tun (History Professor, Mandalay University) "The Story of Myanmar Told in Pictures".
* Elizabeth Moore, Myanmar Historical Research Journal 2004.
* D. G. E. Hall, Daniel George Edward Hall, "A History of South East Asia", New York, 1968.
* G. E. Harvey, Geoffrey Eric Harvey, "History of Burma", London 1925.
* D. G. E. Hall, Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan, Journal of the ], Vol. XXVI, 1936, p.&nbsp;6. and Mr. R. B. Smart, Burma Gazetteer-Akyab District, vol. A, Rangoon. 1957
* ], "History of Burma", 1853.
* ], Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Purves Phayre, Journal of the ], 1846.
* ], Maurice Stewart Collis, Arakan's place in the civilization of the Bay, Journal of the ], 50th Anniversary publications No.2, Rangoon, 1960.


==External links== ==External links==
*Office of UN High Commissioner for Human Rights * Office of UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
*US Department of State, Burma, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices- 2005.Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor * US Department of State, Burma, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices- 2005. Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
*Amnesty International's report on Burma * Amnesty International's report on Burma
* Burma's Rangoon University 1957, History lecture by Professor Kyaw Thet's YouTube video In English about Chittiers, Irrawaddy Delta Agriculture and loans.
*{{cite news | first =Samart | last =Butkaew| url =http://www.burmaissues.org/En/Newsletter/BINews2006-02.pdf |format=PDF| title =Burmese Indians: The Forgotten Lives| publisher =Burma Issues | date= 2005-02 | accessdate =2006-07-07}}
* History of South East Asia
*Burma’s Rangoon University 1957, History lecture by Professor Kyaw Thet’s YouTube videoIn English about Chittiers, Irrawaddy Delta Agriculture and loans.

*
{{Ethnic groups in Burma}}
*
{{NRI-PIO}} {{Tamil diaspora}}
{{Indian diaspora}}
{{Good article}}


] ]
]
]
]
]
]
] ]
] ]
]

Latest revision as of 16:45, 19 November 2024

Ethnic community

Ethnic group
Burmese Indians
Total population
2,000,000 - 2,500,000
4.5% of the Burmese population
Regions with significant populations
Yangon, Mandalay, Taunggyi, Myitkyina
Languages
Burmese, Tamil (majority), Telugu, Meitei (Manipuri), Bengali, Gujarati, Odia, Hindustani
Religion
Majority: Hinduism
Related ethnic groups
Malaysian Indians, Singaporean Indians
This article contains Burmese script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Burmese script.
Shri Kali Temple, Burma, a Hindu temple with Dravidian architecture in Yangon

Burmese Indians are a group of people of Indian origin who live in Myanmar (Burma). The term 'Burmese Indian' refers to a broad range of people from South Asia, most notably from present-day countries such as India and Bangladesh. While Indians have lived in Burma for many centuries, most of the ancestors of the current Burmese Indian community emigrated to Burma from the start of British rule in the mid-19th century to the separation of British Burma from British India in 1937. During colonial times, ethnic Indians formed the backbone of the government and economy serving as soldiers, civil servants, merchants, moneylenders, mobile laborers and dock workers. A series of anti-Indian riots in the 1930s and mass emigration at the onset of the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942 were followed in the 1960s by the forced migration of hundreds of thousands of ethnic Indians, exacerbated by internal conflict in Myanmar.

Burmese Indians today are estimated to account for approximately 5% (about 2.0–2.5 million people) of the population of Burma and are concentrated largely in the two major cities (Yangon and Mandalay) and former colonial towns (Pyin U Lwin and Kalaw). They wield considerable influence and control over the Burmese economy and have a major socio-cultural presence within the country. Amongst the well-known Burmese Indians is S N Goenka, a leading practitioner and teacher of vipassanā meditation and Helen, a well-known Bollywood film actress who is also of Anglo-Burmese descent.

Etymology

In the Burmese language, Indians are typically called kalar (ကုလား, spelt kula:). The origins of the term itself are disputed. The Myanmar Language Commission officially traces the etymology of the word kalar to the Pali term kula (ကုလ), which means "noble", "noble race", or "pure". Folk etymology ascribes the origins of this term to a calque of two Burmese words: ကူး+ လာ (lit. "to cross over "), although this etymology has no scholarly basis. The term kalar also phonetically resembles the word for "black" in several Indic languages, including Hindi and Urdu (cf. Sanskrit kāla), and is used by Indians as an ethnic slur for dark-skinned people and Africans.

The Burmese language term kalar has been borrowed into a number of regional languages, including Shan (ၵလႃး, kala), Mon (ဂလာ, h'lea), S'gaw Karen (kola), and Khmer (កុឡា, kola). The Khmer term kola refers to the Kula people, a diverse community of migrants from present-day Shan State.

The term kalar has a long history; it is attested in Pagan Kingdom stone inscriptions dating to the 1100s, and was the name of a prominent 17th century Burmese historian, U Kala. During the pre-colonial era, Westerners, including those from the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and Europe, were collectively known as kalar, an exonym used by Burmese speakers. For instance, kalaphyu (ကုလားဖြူ, lit. 'white kalar') or bayinngyi kalar (ဘရင်ဂျီကုလား, lit. 'Frank kalar') were used as Burmese exonyms for Europeans. To this day, the word kalar features in many Burmese compound words, including kalahtaing (ကုလားထိုင်, lit. 'kalar seat' or 'chair') and kala be (ကုလားပဲ, lit. 'kalar bean' or 'chickpea')" By 1886, the conventional use of kalar in reference to a "native of continental India" was documented in dictionaries. Burma was administered as a part of British India for the majority of its time under British occupation between 1826 and 1948. Colonial exploitation during British Burma engendered nationalist and anti-Indian sentiment among locals, which was reinforced in the use of kalar as an exonym with negative connotations.

The term kalar is now considered pejorative by some members of the Burmese Indian community. In 2017, following the Rohingya genocide, the social media company Facebook added kalar to its censored words, creating collateral censorship for related words like chair and chickpea.

History

Brahmins in British Burma, circa 1900

Indian immigration

Before the British conquest, the Indians in Lower Burma primarily engaged in trade. The small Indian community was located almost wholly in during and preceding eras. After 1852, they migrated to Lower Burma because of the jobs available in the expanding economy and the new provincial bureaucracy of the British Raj. Their population rapidly rose from 37,000 in 1871 in Lower Burma to 297,000 in 1901 with 86% being born outside Burma by that year. Most Indians were from Madras Presidency and Bengal Presidency. Over 60% in the last decades of 19th century were from Madras (present Chennai). 30% were from Bengal in 1881 and 25% in 1901.

There were no effective curbs on Indian immigration until the eve of World War II despite the implementation of the Government of Burma Act. By 1931, there were more than one million Indians in Burma, about 7% of the population, and were mostly concentrated in Lower Burma. The census of 1931 enumerated 1,017,825 Indians in Burma with 617,521 born in India. Per the census of 1931, the total population of Rangoon was 400,415 out of which comprised 212,929 Indians. They comprised 2.5% of population in Upper Burma and 10.9% in Lower Burma.

The majority of Indians arrived in Burma whilst it was part of British India. Starting with the annexation of Tenasserim and Western Burma after the First Anglo-Burmese War, a steady stream of Indians moved to Burma as civil servants, engineers, river pilots, soldiers, indentured labourers, and traders. Following the annexation of Upper Burma in 1885, numerous infrastructure projects started by the British colonial government and increases in rice cultivation in the delta region caused an unprecedented economic boom in Burma that drew many Indians, particularly from southern India, to the Irrawaddy Delta region.

Anti-Indian sentiments

After the First World War, anti-Indian sentiments began to rise for a number of reasons. The number of ethnic Indians was growing rapidly (almost half of Yangon's population was Indian by the Second World War). Indians played a prominent role in the British administration and became the target of Burmese nationalists. Racial animosity toward Indians because of their skin-colour and appearance also played a role. Meanwhile, the price of rice plummeted during the economic depression of the 1930s and the Chettiar from South India, who were prominent moneylenders in the rice belt, began to foreclose on land held by native Burmese.

In May 1930, a British firm of stevedores at the port of Rangoon employed Burmese workers in an attempt to break a strike organised by its Indian workers. When, on 26 May, the strike ended and the Indians returned to work, clashes developed between the returning Indian workers and the Burmese workers who had replaced them. The clashes soon escalated into large-scale anti-Indian riots in the city. Over 200 Indians were killed and their bodies flung into the river. Authorities ordered the police to fire upon any assembly of five or more who refused to lay down their arms, under Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code. Within two days the riot spread throughout the country to locations such as Maymyo.

The Second World War and after

Indians on 39th Street, Rangoon, leaving Burma in the wake of the Japanese bombing December 1941

At the start of World War II, almost half of Rangoon's (modern-day Yangon) population was Indian, and about 16% of the population of Burma was ethnically Indian. As a consequence of the Japanese invasion of 1942, half a million members of the Indian community fled Burma overland into Assam, largely on foot. The refugees suffered terribly and thousands died. Some of the Indian community remained in Burma during the war; others returned after the war, although many never did. After independence, Burmese law treated a large percentage of the Indian community as 'resident aliens.' Though many had long ties to Burma or were born there, they were not considered citizens under the 1982 Burma citizenship law which restricted citizenship for groups immigrating before 1823.

After he seized power through a military coup in 1962, General Ne Win ordered a large-scale expulsion of Indians. Although many Indians had been living in Burma for generations and had integrated into Burmese society, they became a target for discrimination and oppression by the junta. This, along with a wholesale nationalisation of private ventures in 1964, led to the emigration of over 300,000 ethnic Indians from Burma. Indian-owned businesses as well as Burmese businesses were nationalised due to the so-called "Burmese way to Socialism". Many Indians returned and were given 175 kyat for their trip to India. This caused a significant deterioration in Indian-Burmese relations and the Indian government arranged ferries and aircraft to lift Burmese of Indian ethnicity out of Burma.

Culture

A Hindu temple procession in Yangon

India has been particularly influential in Burmese culture as the cradle of Buddhism, and ancient Hindu traditions can still be seen in Brahmans presiding over important ceremonies such as weddings and ear-piercings but most notably in Thingyan, the Burmese New Year festival. The Burmese poetry tradition of niti (notably the Dhammaniti) also has Indian origins. Traditions of kingship including coronation ceremonies and formal royal titles as well as those of lawmaking were also Hindu in origin. Many Burmese dishes and breads came as a result of Indian influence, prominently reflected in the Burmese version of Indian biryani.

Burmese Indians came from various groups from different parts of India, including Tamils (majority) and also minority groups such as Telugus, Bengalis, Hindustani speakers, Gujaratis and Punjabis. Today they form approximately 2% (about 950,000) of the population, according to the CIA World Factbook 2006, although exact figures do not exist due to uncertainties over census results and methods in Myanmar. Disaffected young Indians often flee the cities and join ethnic resistance movements. The All Burma Muslim Union whose members consist largely of Muslims of Indian origin is routinely labelled by the government as "Muslim terrorist insurgents". It operates alongside the Karen National Union which has a militant wing and, despite a swelling of its ranks following anti-Muslim riots in the eighties, remains a very minor force.

Religion

Main articles: Buddhism in Burma and Hinduism in Southeast Asia § Burma
Bengali Hindus gather for Durga Puja festival in Rangoon, c.1941-42
The Bengali Sunni Jameh Mosque, built in the colonial era, is one of many mosques in Yangon.

Burmese Indians practise Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism and Christianity. Burmese-Indian Hindus have good and peaceful relationships with the native Burmese.

Predominantly, Burmese Indians are Hindu. The practice of Hinduism among Burmese Indians is also influenced by Buddhism. In addition of Hindu deities, the Buddha is also worshiped and many Hindu temples in Myanmar house statues of the Buddha.

Burmese Muslims, some of them of mixed blood born of Burmese mothers and some of them with full Burmese blood, (ဗမာမူစလင်); with small numbers of Twelvers. The Burmese call them Zaydabayi.

The constitution grants limited rights to freedom of religion; however, some articles in the constitution, as well as other laws and policies, restrict those rights. In practice the government enforced those restrictions. "Muslims continue to experience the most severe forms of legal, economic, religious, educational, and social restrictions and discrimination". The military dictatorship rejects or ignores their requests when they want to build mosques in the country or to go abroad for religious ceremonies. Although there is limited freedom of religion in Burma, Muslims decided not to hold Eid al-Adha in 2012 due to Rakhine-Rohingya strikes in Rakhine State.

Languages

Burmese Indians are from an array of linguistic groups, mostly are Tamils from Tamil Nadu. There is also significant population of the Meiteis (Manipuris), coming from Myanmar's western neighborhood Manipur state. Other minorities are Telugus from Andhra Pradesh and Marwaris from the Marwar region of India's Rajasthan state as well as Bengalis hailing from the Indian state of West Bengal as well as the present-day independent nation of Bangladesh. Prior to the expulsion of Indians, there were also Malayalis from Kerala, Odias from Odisha, Punjabis from the state of Punjab who are mostly Sikhs and two groups of Gujaratis, both Gujarati-speaking Parsis and Gujaratis proper who are mostly Hindus or Muslims by faith hailing from the state of Gujarat. All can and were able to communicate in Burmese due to years of assimilation and lack of education in languages other than English. Tamil is the most spoken Indian language in Myanmar. Other minority Indian languages are quite frequently used.

Economic role

Historically, Burmese Indians have made their livelihoods as merchants, traders and shopkeepers as well as manual labourers such as coolies, dockers, municipal workers, rickshaw men, pony cart drivers, malis and durwans. They were also heavily represented in certain professions such as civil servants, university lecturers, pharmacists, opticians, lawyers and doctors. They dominated several types of businesses such as auto parts and electrical goods, ironmongery and hardware, printing and bookbinding, books and stationery, paper and printing ink, tailoring and dry-cleaning, English tuition, and money lending. They traded in textiles, gold and jewellery, where the market was traditionally dominated by Burmese women. The Chettiars of Burma functioned as moneylenders and have been thought crucial in the growth in agricultural output of Burma during the colonial era. Today, many Indians live in central Rangoon on both sides of the Su Lei Paya Road and are largely involved in businesses, including restaurants, jewellery shops and money exchanges.

Notable Burmese Indians and others

U Razak

See also

References

  1. ^ "Manipuri language | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 12 February 2023. Manipuri language, Manipuri Meiteilon, also called Meitei (Meetei), a Tibeto-Burman language spoken predominantly in Manipur, a northeastern state of India. Smaller speech communities exist in the Indian states of Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura, as well as in Bangladesh and Myanmar (Burma).
  2. ^ "Meitei". Ethnologue. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  3. Egreteau, Renaud (June 2014). "The Idealization of a Lost Paradise: Narratives of Nostalgia and Traumatic Return among Indian Repatriates from Burma since the 1960s". Journal of Burma Studies. 18 (1): 137–180. doi:10.1353/jbs.2014.0002. S2CID 162378961.
  4. Egreteau, Renaud (1 February 2011). "Burmese Indians in contemporary Burma: heritage, influence, and perceptions since 1988". Asian Ethnicity. 12 (1): 33–54. doi:10.1080/14631369.2010.510869. S2CID 143621311.
  5. Medha Chaturvedi. "Indian Migrants in Myanmar: Emerging Trends and Challenges" (PDF). Mea.gov.in. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  6. Myanmar-English Dictionary. Myanmar Language Commission. 1993. ISBN 1-881265-47-1.
  7. "Opening a Can of Worms in Burmese Teaching: Tackling Controversial Words in a Language Class". Retrieved 16 June 2020.
  8. ^ Saw, Khin Maung (20 January 2016). "(Mis)Interpretations of Burmese Words: In the case of the term Kala (Kula)". Archived from the original on 27 January 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
  9. ^ Bhattacharya, Jayati; Kripalani, Coonoor (1 March 2015). Indian and Chinese Immigrant Communities: Comparative Perspectives. Anthem Press. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-1-78308-362-6.
  10. "Let's Talk About Racism | Movies tell us to use 'kaala' as an all-weather insult". Hindustan Times. 19 May 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
  11. Sao Tern Moeng (1995). Shan-English Dictionary. Dunwoody Press. ISBN 0-931745-92-6.
  12. Shorto, H.L. (1962). Dictionary of Modern Spoken Mon. Oxford University Press.
  13. ^ Myint-U, Thant (12 November 2019). The Hidden History of Burma: Race, Capitalism, and the Crisis of Democracy in the 21st Century. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-1-324-00330-4.
  14. "How the word 'kalar' is a depressing indictment of Myanmar society". Myanmar Mix. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
  15. Cebu, Juan (2 June 2017). "Facebook Bans Racist Word 'Kalar' in Myanmar, Triggers Collateral Censorship". Global Voices Advox.
  16. Michael Adas (2011). The Burma Delta: Economic Development and Social Change on an Asian Rice Frontier, 1852–1941. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 86. ISBN 9780299283537.
  17. Donald M. Seekins (2017). Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 260. ISBN 9781538101834.
  18. Tanka B. Subba, A.C. Sinha, ed. (2015). Nepali Diaspora in a Globalised Era. Routledge. ISBN 9781317411031.
  19. Paul H. Kratoska, ed. (2001). South East Asia, Colonial History: High imperialism (1890s-1930s). Taylor & Francis. p. 179. ISBN 9780415215428.
  20. ^ Moshe Yegar (1972). Muslims of Burma - A study of a Minority Group. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 111, 36, 37, 29, 30, 32.
  21. ^ Butkaew, Samart (February 2005), Burmese Indians: The Forgotten Lives (PDF), Burma Issues, archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007, retrieved 7 July 2006
  22. “The Muslims of Burma”, p.32
  23. ^ Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, Charles Scribner's Sons, November 2002, retrieved 3 September 2009
  24. ^ Martin Smith (1991). Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London, New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 43–44, 98, 56–57, 176. ISBN 978-984-05-1499-1.
  25. Collis, Maurice (1945). Trials in Burma. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-404-54812-4.
  26. Christian, John (March 1943). "Burma". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 226: 120–128. doi:10.1177/000271624322600112. JSTOR 1024343. S2CID 220854395.
  27. "Burma Citizenship Law". United Nations Human Rights Commission. 15 October 1982. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
  28. "India and Burma: working on their relationship". The Irrawaddy. Vol. 7, no. 3. March 1999. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
  29. ^ Shway Yoe (Sir James George Scott) 1882. The Burman - His Life and Notions. New York: The Norton Library 1963. pp. 436, 249–251, 348, 450.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  30. Okudaira, Ryuji; Huxley, Andrew (2001). "A Burmese Tract on Kingship: Political Theory in the 1782 Manuscript of Manugye". 64 (2). School of Oriental and African Studies: 253. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  31. "Burma". World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
  32. ^ Priestly, Harry (January 2006), The Outsiders, The Irrawaddy, archived from the original on 19 January 2012, retrieved 3 September 2009
  33. Natarajan, Swaminathan (6 March 2014). "Myanmar's Tamils seek to protect their identity". BBC News. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
  34. Han, Thi Ri. "Myanmar's Hindu community looks west". Frontier Myanmar. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
  35. Chakravarti, Nalini Ranjan (1971). The Indian minority in Burma: the rise and decline of an immigrant community. London: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-19-218194-7.
  36. State Department, USA. "BURMA 2012 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT" (PDF). State.gov. US Government. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
  37. US GOV. "USCIRF – Annual Report 2014" (PDF). uscrif.gov. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
  38. "Meitei | people | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 12 February 2023. Meitei, also spelled Meetei or Meithei, also called Manipuri, ...
  39. "Manipur | History, Government, Map, Capital, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  40. Turnell, Sean; Ward, RL; Campbell, BJ (2008). "The Chettiars in Burma". Australian Economic History Review. 48 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8446.2007.00232.x.
  41. "Archbishop Alan Basil de Lastic". Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
  42. "Veteran Actor Bhanumati Devi dead". The Indian Express. 5 January 2013. Archived from the original on 8 January 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  43. Pathi Ko Ko Lay. History of Myanmar Muslims. Rangoon University Islamic Association.
  44. "U.A. Khader, in his own words - KERALA". The Hindu. 11 August 2008. Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2016.

Further reading

  • Prasenjit K. Basu " Asia Reborn: A Continent Rises from the Ravages of Colonialism and War to a New Dynamism", Publisher: Aleph Book Company
  • Gregory, James Myanmar: A Neglected Area of Tamil Lexicography. University of Cologne.
  • Pe Maung Tin and G.H. Luce or Gordon Hannington Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma, Rangoon University Press, Rangoon, Burma, January 1960.
  • Dr Than Tun (History Professor, Mandalay University) "Bagan Culture",
  • Tamil Studies Abroad, A Symposium edited by Xavier S. Thaninayagam, published by the International Association of Tamil Research, 1968:
  • The Chettiars in Burma by Sean Turnell, Economics Department, Macquarie University Archived 16 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
  • The Sikh Regiment in the Second World War, Colonel F. T. Birdwood OBE.
  • Myanmar Muslim History, Myanmar Muslim Students Association, Rangoon Arts and Science University. Limited Edition.
  • Bertil Lintner, Swedish journalist, expert on Burma, 17th. of April 1988 in the Bangkok Post.
  • "Dialogue with a Shan Leader: H.R.H. Hso Khan Pha" - Tiger Yawnghwe or Prince Hso Khan Pha; he is the eldest son of Sao Shwe Thaik, the former Saopha (Prince) of Yawnghwe (Nyaung-Shwe) and the first President of Burma after Burma's independence from British colonial rule. Interview with Dr Tayza, Chief Editor of Burma Digest.
  • Dr Than Tun (History Professor, Mandalay University) "The Story of Myanmar Told in Pictures".
  • Elizabeth Moore, Myanmar Historical Research Journal 2004.
  • D. G. E. Hall, Daniel George Edward Hall, "A History of South East Asia", New York, 1968.
  • G. E. Harvey, Geoffrey Eric Harvey, "History of Burma", London 1925.
  • D. G. E. Hall, Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan, Journal of the Burma Research Society, Vol. XXVI, 1936, p. 6. and Mr. R. B. Smart, Burma Gazetteer-Akyab District, vol. A, Rangoon. 1957
  • A. P. Phayre, "History of Burma", 1853.
  • A. P. Phayre, Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Purves Phayre, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1846.
  • M. S. Collis, Maurice Stewart Collis, Arakan's place in the civilization of the Bay, Journal of the Burma Research Society, 50th Anniversary publications No.2, Rangoon, 1960.

External links

  • Office of UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
  • US Department of State, Burma, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices- 2005. Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
  • Amnesty International's report on Burma
  • Burma's Rangoon University 1957, History lecture by Professor Kyaw Thet's YouTube video In English about Chittiers, Irrawaddy Delta Agriculture and loans.
  • History of South East Asia
Ethnic groups in Myanmar
Burmese people
Kachin (12)
Kayah (9)
Kayin (Karen) (11)
Chin (53)
Bamar (Burman) (9)
Mon (1)
Rakhine
(Arakanese) (7)
Shan (33)
Others / Unrecognised
Tamil diaspora
Tamils
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
See also
India Indian diaspora
Africa
Southeast
Elsewhere
Americas
Caribbean
Latin America
Anglo-America
Asia
South
Southeast
East
West
Europe
Eastern
Northern
Southern
Western
Oceania
See also
Ethnic diasporas
Other related articles

Categories: