Revision as of 19:00, 3 February 2011 editIaaasi (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,462 editsNo edit summary← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 13:39, 20 December 2024 edit undo46.188.151.197 (talk) Try to learn the difference between 'Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen' and 'Kingdom of Hungary proper'Tag: Visual edit | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Central European monarchy (1000–1946)}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} | |||
{{Infobox former country | {{Infobox former country | ||
| native_name = {{line-height|1.1em| | |||
|native_name = ''Magyar Királyság'' <small>(])</small><br />''Regnum Hungariae'' <small>(])</small> | |||
{{native name|hu|Magyar Királyság}}<br/>{{native name|la|Regnum Hungariae}}<br/>{{native name|de|Königreich Ungarn}}}} | |||
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Hungary<br /><small>]</small> | |||
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Hungary<br/>] | |||
|common_name = Hungary | |||
| era = ] | |||
|continent = Europe | |||
| |
| status = | ||
| status_text = | |||
|year_start = 1000 | |||
| |
| empire = | ||
| government_type = ] (1000–1301)<br>] (1301–1868)<br>] ] ] (1848–1918; 1920–46) | |||
|life_span = 1000–1918 <br/>1920–1946 | |||
|event_start = Coronation of |
| event_start = Coronation of ] | ||
| date_start = 25 December | |||
|event1 = {{nowrap|Ottoman occupation}}<br />{{spaces|4}}of ] | |||
| year_start = 1000 | |||
|date_event1 = 1541 | |||
| event_end = ] | |||
|event2 = ] | |||
| date_end = 1 February | |||
|date_event2 = 1848 | |||
| year_end = 1918 | |||
|event3 = ] | |||
| life_span = 1000–1918{{efn|After the death of the ] at ] in 1526, Hungarian noble groups elected two kings dividing Hungary in two: Royal Hungary and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. During the Ottoman occupation between 1541 and 1699, the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into three separate parts: | |||
|date_event3 = 1867 | |||
* ] | |||
|event4 = ] | |||
* ] which became the ] | |||
|date_event4 = 1920 | |||
* ] | |||
]}} | |||
| | |||
<br/>1920–1946 | |||
|image_flag = Flag of Hungary (1867-1918).svg | |||
| |
| year_exile_start = | ||
| year_exile_end = | |||
|flag_type = Flag | |||
| event1 = ] | |||
|image_coat = HUN Coa.svg | |||
| date_event1 = 24 April 1222 | |||
|symbol_type = Royal Coat of arms | |||
| event2 = ] | |||
|coa_size = 60px | |||
| date_event2 = 11 April 1241 | |||
| | |||
| |
| event3 = ] | ||
| date_event3 = 29 August 1526 | |||
|image_p1 = ] | |||
| event4 = {{nowrap|]}}<br/>of ] | |||
|s1 = Hungarian Democratic Republic | |||
| date_event4 = 29 August 1541 | |||
|flag_s1 = Civil Ensign of Hungary.svg | |||
| event5 = ] | |||
| | |||
| date_event5 = 26 January 1699 | |||
| | |||
| event6 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|image_map = Kingdom of hungary europe.png | |||
| date_event6 = 15 March 1848 | |||
|image_map_caption = Territory of Kingdom of Hungary by the end of the 15th century | |||
| event7 = ] | |||
|national_motto = | |||
| date_event7 = 30 March 1867 | |||
|national_anthem = | |||
| event8 = ] | |||
|capital = ];<br/>];<br/>];<br/>];<br/>];<br/>] | |||
| date_event8 = 4 June 1920 | |||
|common_languages = ], ], ] | |||
| event_pre = | |||
|religion = ], later ], ] and others<ref>Also ], ], ]</ref> | |||
| date_pre = | |||
|government_type = Monarchy | |||
| event_post = | |||
|title_leader = ] | |||
| |
| date_post = | ||
| p1 = Principality of Hungary | |||
|year_leader1 = 1000–38 | |||
| |
| flag_p1 = Arms of Hungary (ancient).svg | ||
| |
| border_p1 = no | ||
| p2 = Hungarian Republic (1919–1920){{!}}Hungary | |||
|title_deputy = | |||
| flag_p2 = Flag of Hungary (1915-1918, 1919-1946).svg | |||
|deputy1 = | |||
| s1 = First Hungarian Republic{{!}}Hungary (First) | |||
|year_deputy1 = | |||
| |
| flag_s1 = Flag of Hungary (1918–1919).svg | ||
| flag_s2 = Flag of Bohemia.svg | |||
|year_deputy2 = | |||
| s2 = First Czechoslovak Republic{{!}}Czechoslovakia | |||
|legislature = | |||
| |
| flag_s3 = Flag of Romania.svg | ||
| |
| s3 = Kingdom of Romania{{!}}Romania | ||
| flag_s4 = Flag of Yugoslavia (1918–1941; 1992–2006) (3-5).svg | |||
|stat_year1 = 1711 | |||
| s4 = Kingdom of Yugoslavia{{!}}Yugoslavia | |||
|stat_area1 = | |||
| |
| flag_s5 = Flag of Austria.svg | ||
| s5 = First Austrian Republic{{!}}Austria | |||
|stat_year2 = 1790 | |||
| flag_s6 = Flag of Hungary (1946-1949, 1956-1957; 1-2 aspect ratio).svg | |||
|stat_area2 = | |||
| s6 = Second Hungarian Republic{{!}}Hungary (Second) | |||
|stat_pop2 = 8000000 | |||
| image_flag = Flag of Hungary (1896-1915; angels).svg | |||
|stat_year3 = 1918 | |||
| |
| flag_size = 140px | ||
| |
| flag = Flag of Hungary | ||
| |
| flag_type = Flag<br>(1915–1918) | ||
| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown (1915-1918, 1919-1946).svg | |||
|stat_area4 = | |||
| |
| coa_size = 60px | ||
| |
| coat_alt = | ||
| symbol = Coat of arms of Hungary | |||
|stat_area5 = | |||
| |
| symbol_type = Coat of arms | ||
| image_map = Kingdom of Hungary 1190.svg | |||
|currency = ] (1325),<br />]<br />] (1754-1867),<br />] (1867–1892),<br />] (1892–1918),<br />] (1919–1926),<br />] (1927–1946),<br />] (1946) | |||
| image_map_alt = | |||
|footnotes = Population source:<ref name="carth">''Historical World Atlas. With the commendation of the ].'' Carthographia, ], ], 2005. ISBN 963-352-002-9CM</ref> about religion<ref name=religion>The majority of Hungarian people became Christian in the 10th century. Hungary's first ], ], took up ]. Hungary remained Catholic until the 16th century, when the ] took place and, as a result, first ], then soon afterwards ] started to spread.</ref> | |||
| image_map_caption = The Kingdom of Hungary in union with ] (green) in 1190 | |||
| image_map2 = Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen in 1914.png | |||
| image_map2_alt = | |||
| image_map2_caption = The Kingdom of Hungary (dark green) and ] (light green) within ] in 1914 | |||
| capital = ] | |||
----''']:'''{{plainlist| | |||
*] (1000–1256) | |||
*] (1315–23) | |||
*] (1323–1408) | |||
*] (1256–1315; 1408–85; 1490–1541; 1783–1873) | |||
*] (1485–90) | |||
*] (1536–1848) | |||
*] (1848-1873) | |||
*] (1873–1946) | |||
*] (temporary: 1849; 1944) | |||
*] (place of ], royal seat, crowning and burial site from 1000 to 1543)}} | |||
| capital_exile = | |||
| national_motto = {{native name|la|Regnum Mariae Patronae Hungariae}}<ref>Adeleye, Gabriel G. (1999). ''World Dictionary of Foreign Expressions''. Ed. Thomas J. Sienkewicz and James T. McDonough, Jr. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. {{ISBN|0-86516-422-3}}.</ref><br/>{{native name|hu|Mária királysága, Magyarország védőnője}}<br/>{{native name|en|Kingdom of Mary, the Patroness of Hungary}} | |||
| national_anthem = "{{lang|hu|]}}" (1844–1946)<br/>"Hymn"<br />{{center|]}} | |||
----'''Royal anthem'''<br/>'']''<br/>(1797–1918)<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div><br>{{center|]}} | |||
| official_languages = {{plainlist| | |||
*] (ceremonial/liturgical/administrative until 1844) | |||
*] (1784–90; 1849–67) | |||
*] (1836–49; 1867–1946) | |||
*] (1871–1918, ])}} | |||
----'''Other spoken languages:'''<br />], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| religion = ] (] and ]),<ref name="religion">The majority of Hungarian people became Christian in the 10th century. Hungary's first ], ], took up ]. Hungary remained solely Catholic until the ] took place during the 16th century and, as a result, ] and then, soon afterwards, ] started to spread.</ref> ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| currency = {{plainlist| | |||
*{{nowrap|{{lang|la|]}} (1325–1553)}} | |||
*{{lang|de|]}} | |||
*] (1754–1867) | |||
*{{lang|hu|]}} (1867–92) | |||
*{{lang|hu|]}} (1892–1918) | |||
*{{lang|hu|]}} (1919–26) | |||
*{{lang|hu|]}} (1927–46) | |||
*{{lang|hu|]}} (1946)}} | |||
| leader1 = ] | |||
| leader2 = ] | |||
| leader3 = ] | |||
| year_leader1 = 1000–38 (first) | |||
| year_leader2 = 1916–18 (last) | |||
| year_leader3 = 1920–44 (]) | |||
| title_leader = ] | |||
| representative1 = ] | |||
| representative2 = ] | |||
| year_representative1 = 1009–38 (first) | |||
| year_representative2 = 1847–48 (last) | |||
| title_representative = ] | |||
| deputy1 = ] | |||
| deputy2 = ] | |||
| year_deputy1 = 1848 (first) | |||
| year_deputy2 = 1945–46 (last) | |||
| title_deputy = ]| | |||
| legislature = ] (from the 1290s) | |||
| house1 = ]<br/>(1867–1918; 1926–45) | |||
| type_house1 = | |||
| house2 = ]<br/>(1867–1918; 1927–45) | |||
| type_house2 = | | |||
| stat_year1 = 1200<ref>J. C. Russell, "Population in Europe 500–1500," in The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages, ed. Carlo M. Cipolla (London: Collins/Fontana Books, 1972), p. 25.</ref> | |||
| stat_area1 = 282870 | |||
| stat_pop1 = 2,000,000 | |||
<!-- can only have 5 years, so removing this one as least significant | |||
|stat_year2 = 1711<ref name="carth">''Historical World Atlas. With the commendation of the ].'' Carthographia, ], ], 2005. {{ISBN|963-352-002-9}}</ref> | |||
|stat_area2 = | |||
|stat_pop2 = 3,000,000 | |||
-->| stat_year2 = 1790<ref name="carth">''Historical World Atlas. With the commendation of the ].'' Carthographia, ], ], 2005. {{ISBN|963-352-002-9}}</ref> | |||
| stat_area2 = | |||
| stat_pop2 = 8,000,000 | |||
| stat_year3 = 1910<ref>Emil Valkovics: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501083057/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAjsAAAAMAAJ |date=1 May 2016 }}, 1996, p. 15</ref> | |||
| stat_area3 = 282,870 | |||
| stat_pop3 = 18,264,533 | |||
| stat_year4 = 1930<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Kollega Tarsoly, István |encyclopedia=Révai nagy lexikona |title=Magyarország |language=Hungarian |year=1996 |publisher=Hasonmás Kiadó |volume=21 |location=Budapest |isbn=963-9015-02-4 |page=572}}</ref> | |||
| stat_area4 = 93,073 | |||
| stat_pop4 = 8,688,319 | |||
| stat_year5 = 1941<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Élesztős László |encyclopedia=Révai új lexikona |title=Magyarország |language=Hungarian |year=2004 |publisher=Hasonmás Kiadó |volume=13 |location=Budapest |isbn=963-9556-13-0 |pages=882, 895|display-editors=etal}}</ref> | |||
| stat_area5 = 172,149 | |||
| stat_pop5 = 14,669,100 | |||
| demonym = ] | |||
| area_km2 = | |||
| area_rank = | |||
| GDP_PPP = | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = | |||
| HDI = | |||
| HDI_year = | |||
| today = ] | |||
}} | }} | ||
The '''Kingdom of Hungary''' was a ] in ] that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946. The ] emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the ] of the first king ] at ] around the year 1000;<ref name="Kristó">Kristó Gyula – Barta János – Gergely Jenő: Magyarország története előidőktől 2000-ig (History of Hungary from the prehistory to 2000), Pannonica Kiadó, Budapest, 2002, {{ISBN|963-9252-56-5}}, pp. 37, 113, 678 ("Magyarország a 12. század második felére jelentős európai tényezővé, középhatalommá vált."/"By the 12th century Hungary became an important European factor, became a middle power.", "A Nyugat részévé vált Magyarország.../Hungary became part of the West"), pp. 616–644</ref> his family (the ]) led the monarchy for 300 years. By the 12th century, the kingdom became a European power.<ref name="Kristó"/> | |||
The '''Kingdom of Hungary''' emerged in 1000, when the ], founded in 896, was recognized as a Kingdom. The form of government was changed from ] to Republic briefly in 1918 and again in 1946, ending the Kingdom and creating the ]. During most of its history, it was a considerable state in Central Europe, including, besides Hungary proper and ], ] and a territory known as the ].<ref>Aldásy, Antal. "Hungary", ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 17 April 2009 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07547a.htm>.</ref> | |||
Due to the ] occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: the Habsburg ], ], and the semi-independent ].<ref name="Kristó"/> The ] held the Hungarian throne after the ] in 1526 continuously until 1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire. | |||
==Names== | |||
]]] | |||
In the late Middle Ages, the Latin terms "''Natio Hungarica''" and "''Hungarus''" referred to all of the population, as loyalty and patriotism towards the crown existed among all inhabitants, regardless of ethnic origins. However, according to ]'s ], the ''"Natio Hungarica"'' referred only to the privileged noblemen (regardless of ethnicity), as subjects of the ] | |||
From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into ] under the name of ]. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king ] in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "]" of 1920–46, ending under the ] in 1946.<ref name="Kristó"/> | |||
The ] ''{{lang|la|Regnum Hungariae/Vngarie}}'' (''Regnum'' meaning kingdom); '']'' (Kingdom of ]); or simply ''Hungaria'' was the form used in official documents from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. | |||
The Kingdom of Hungary was a ]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA63 |title=National, regional and minority languages in Europe: contributions to the annual conference 2009 of EFNIL in Dublin |first=Gerhard |last=Stickel |date=2010 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3631603659 |via=Google Books |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323173440/https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}</ref> state from its inception<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hungary |title=Hungary | Culture, History, & People |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=15 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215102212/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary/214181/History |url-status=live }}</ref> until the ] and it covered what is today ], ], ] and other parts of ], ] (now part of ]), ] (now part of ]), the territory of ] (now part of ]), ] (now part of ]), ] (now part of ]) and a few villages which are now part of ]. From 1102 it also included the ], being in ] with it, united under the ]. | |||
The ] name (''{{lang|de|Königreich Ungarn}}'') was used from 1849 to the 1860s, and the ] name (''{{lang|hu|Magyar Királyság}}'') was used in the 1840s, and again from the 1860s to 1918. The names in other languages of the kingdom were: {{lang-pl|Królestwo Węgier}}, {{lang-ro|Regatul Ungariei}}, {{lang-hr|Kraljevina Ugarska}}, {{lang-sl|Kraljevina Ogrska}}, {{lang-cs|Uherské království}}, {{lang-sk|Uhorské kráľovstvo}}, ] (for the city of ]), ''Regno d'Ungheria''. | |||
According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of ] before the ], however in the mid-19th century out of a population of 14 million less than 6 million were Hungarian due to the resettlement policies and continuous immigration from neighboring countries.<ref>Leslie Konnyu, Hungarians in the United States: an immigration study, American Hungarian Review, 1967, p. 4 ] https://books.google.hu/books?ei=flgWTb7eI8yChQeli6W3Dg&ct=result&id=40RCAAAAIAAJ&dq=population+1490+Magyars+80%25&q=+80+stock&redir_esc=y#search_anchor</ref><ref>László Kósa, István Soós, A companion to Hungarian studies, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1999, p. 16 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716093638/https://books.google.com/books?ei=2JYbTaH6AtOxhQeimaC3Dg&ct=result&id=0rhnAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+companion+to+Hungarian+studies&q=+Hungarians++about+eighty+percent+|date=16 July 2020}}</ref> Major territorial changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after ]. More than nine-tenths of the population of modern Hungary is ethnically Hungarian and speaks ] as their mother tongue. | |||
In ] (1867–1918), the unofficial name ''Transleithania'' was sometimes used to denote the regions covered by the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term ''Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen'' was included for the Hungarian part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, although this term was also in use prior to that time. | |||
] (orange)]] | |||
Today, the feast day of the first king ] (20 August) is a ] in Hungary, commemorating the foundation of the state (Foundation Day).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.officeholidays.com/holidays/hungary/saint-stephens-day |title=Saint Stephen's Day in Hungary in 2020 |website=Office Holidays |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330221337/https://www.officeholidays.com/countries/hungary/st_stephensday.php |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==History== | |||
{{Main|History of Hungary}} | |||
== |
==Names== | ||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Name of Hungary}} | ||
The ] forms {{lang|la|Regnum Hungariae}} or {{lang|la|Ungarie}} ({{lang|la|Regnum}} meaning kingdom); {{lang|la|]}} (Kingdom of ]); or simply {{lang|la|Hungaria}}, were the names used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. | |||
] illustrating the ] legend from the ]: ]'s dream of the ] bird]] | |||
From 9 BC to the end of the 4th century, ] was part of the ] on a part of later Hungary's area. In the final stages of the expansion of the Roman empire, the Carpathian Basin fell for a while into the sphere of the Mediterranean, Greco-Roman civilization - town centers, paved roads, and written sources were all part of the advances which the Migration of Peoples ended. | |||
The ] name {{lang|de|Königreich Ungarn}} was used officially from 1784 to 1790<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Cqv3YDE5uoC&pg=PA174 |title=Naming and Thinking God in Europe Today: Theology in Global Dialogue |first=Norbert |last=Hintersteiner |date=9 February 2017 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-9042022058 |via=Google Books |access-date=20 December 2014 |archive-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323151301/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Cqv3YDE5uoC&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref> and again between 1849 and the 1860s. | |||
Among the first to arrive were the ], who built up a powerful empire under ]. Attila was regarded as an ancestral ruler of the ], however, this claim is rejected today by the most scholars. After Hunnish rule faded away, the Germanic ] and then the ] came to Pannonia, and the ] had a presence in the eastern part of the ] for about 100 years. In the 560s the ] founded the ],<ref></ref> a state which maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries and had the military power to launch attacks against all its neighbours. The Avar Khaganate was weakened by constant wars and outside pressure and finally the Avars' 250 year rule ended when the Khaganate was conquered by the ] under ] in the West and the ] under ] in the East. Neither of these two nor others{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} were able to create a lasting state in the region until the freshly unified ] led by ] settled in the ] starting in 895.<ref></ref> The force led by Árpád is estimated at about 400,000 people, consisting of seven Hungarian tribes, one Kabar tribe, and other smaller tribes.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Country Study: Hungary |publisher=Federal Research Division, ]|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+hu0013)|accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref> | |||
The ] name ({{lang|hu|Magyar Királyság}}) was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The unofficial Hungarian name of the kingdom was {{lang|hu|Magyarország}},<ref name="Fényes">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fszek.hu/digitdoc/fenyes/ |title=Magyarország geográfiai szótára |website=www.fszek.hu |access-date=12 July 2013 |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319122412/http://www.fszek.hu/digitdoc/fenyes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which is still the colloquial, and also the official name of Hungary.<ref name="constitution">]</ref> | |||
{{History of Hungary}} | |||
The Kingdom of Hungary consisted of present-day ], ] (in present-day ]), ], ] (in present-day ]), ] (in present-day ]), ] (in present-day ]), ], ], ] (in present day ]), and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders. | |||
The names in the other native languages of the kingdom were: {{langx|pl|Królestwo Węgier}}, {{langx|ro|Regatul Ungariei}}, {{langx|sr|Kraljevina Ugarska}}, {{langx|hr|Kraljevina Ugarska}}, {{langx|sl|Kraljevina Ogrska}}, {{langx|sk|Uhorské kráľovstvo}}, and ] (for the city of ]), {{lang|it|Regno d'Ungheria}}. | |||
Despite the interruption caused by the Mongol invasion of 1241, Transylvania evolved during the following centuries into a distinctive autonomous unit within the Hungarian kingdom, with its special voivode (or governor), its united, although heterogeneous, leadership (descended from ], ], and ] colonists), and its own constitution<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Transylvania|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603323/Transylvania|encyclopedia=]|publisher=]|year=2008|accessdate=2009-02-27}}</ref> until ] when it effectively became independent<ref name=Britannica/>(see ]). | |||
In Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), the unofficial name {{lang|la|]}} was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term ] was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, although this term was also in use prior to that time. | |||
The provinces of Croatia and Slavonia, and after 1868 the autonomous province of ] had autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary from 1091-1918.<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref name="encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com">http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Ladislaus+I</ref><ref name="thefreedictionary.com">http://www.thefreedictionary.com/croatia</ref> Also, one of the greatest Hungarian jurists and statesmen of the 16th century, ] in his work ''Tripartitum'' treats Croatia as a kingdom separate to Hungary. | |||
==Capital cities== | |||
] along with other ] ]] | |||
{{main|List of historical capitals of Hungary}} | |||
{|class="wikitable sortable" | |||
|- | |||
! Name !! Time period | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1000–1543 | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1000–1256 | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1256–1315 | |||
|- | |||
|Temesvár (now ]) ||1315–1323 | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1323–1408 | |||
|- | |||
|Buda ||1408–1485 | |||
|- | |||
|] (Bécs) ||1485–1490 | |||
|- | |||
|Buda ||1490–1536 (1541) | |||
|- | |||
|Lippa (now ]) – ] ||1541–1542 | |||
|- | |||
|Gyulafehérvár (now ]) – Eastern Hungarian Kingdom ||1542–1570 | |||
|- | |||
||Pressburg (Pozsony, now ]) ||1536–1848 | |||
|- | |||
|Buda ||1848–1849 | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1849 | |||
|- | |||
|Buda ||1849–1873 | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1873–1944 | |||
|- | |||
|Debrecen ||1944 | |||
|- | |||
|] ||1944–1946 | |||
|} | |||
==History== | |||
] ]]] | |||
===Origins=== | |||
===Árpád dynasty{{anchor|The Árpád dynasty}}=== | |||
{{main|Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin|Principality of Hungary}} | |||
{{Main|Árpád dynasty}} | |||
The Hungarians, led by ] (who might have been either their ] or '']'') or their military leader or '']'', settled the Carpathian Basin in 895 and established the ] (896–1000).<ref name='Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae'> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329043435/https://books.google.com/books?id=kNkTAQAAMAAJ&q=%22age+of+principality%22+Arpad&dq=%22age+of+principality%22+Arpad&hl=en&ei=69eOTrrGB4qb0QWhh8EU&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ |date=29 March 2017 }} Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), 1982, p. 419</ref> The Hungarians led several successful ] to Western Europe, until they were stopped by ] in ]. | |||
The first kings of the kingdom were from the ], and the first Christian ] was ] who was ] as a ] ]. He fought against ] and in 998, with ]n help, defeated him near ]. | |||
===Middle Ages{{anchor|The Medieval Kingdom (1000–1526)}}=== | |||
The Roman Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian ] and German knights wanted a Christian kingdom established in ]. It was he who created the Hungarian heavy cavalry as an example for Western European powers. | |||
{{more citations needed|section|date=December 2019}} | |||
====High Middle Ages==== | |||
After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the ] tried to conquer ], but they were defeated at Vértes mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called ], in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the ], was overthrown by king ].<ref>http://www.csongrad-megye.hu/turizmus/szoborpark/03.htm</ref><ref>http://www.sulinet.hu/oroksegtar/data/100_falu/Feldebro/pages/003_aba.htm</ref> This period of revolts ended during the reign of ]. Hungarian chroniclers praised ] for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The terms ] have been used since the 11th century for the King of Hungary and his family, but it were then only a few that were mentioned in official documents as such. | |||
{{main|Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)}} | |||
]]] | |||
The principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I (son of principal Géza. Originally called Vajk until baptized) at ] on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the ]. He fought against ] and in 998, with ]n help, defeated him near ]. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians and German knights wanted a Christian kingdom established in Central Europe. ] was ] as a ] ] in 1083 and an ] saint in 2000. | |||
The second greatest Hungarian king, also from the Árpád dynasty, was ], who stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. He was also canonized as a saint. Under his rule ] successfully fought against the Cumans and conquered ] in 1091, due to a dynastic crisis in Croatia, he managed to swiftly seize power in the kingdom, he also was a claimant to the throne due to the fact that his sister was married to the late Croatian king ]. Although it is still debated among historians it can safely be said that Ladislaus created a ], however kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor ].<ref name="encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com"/><ref name="thefreedictionary.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korcula.net/history/mmarelic/byzant.htm|title=Marko Marelic : The Byzantine and Slavic worlds}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hunyadi/hu02.htm|title=Hungary in American History Textbooks}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://erwin.bernhardt.net.nz/hungary/hungaryfacts.html|title=Hungary, facts and history in breef}}</ref> <!-- Under the reign of ] the Kingdom rose to be equal to other European states in the 12th century. // ennek a mondatnak nincs értelme, mit akartál írni?-->In 1222 ] issued the ] which laid down the principles of law. | |||
Around the 11th century, the Kingdom of Hungary became a ],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alex Kish |first1=George |title=The Origins of the Baptist Movement Among the Hungarians: A History of the Baptists in the Kingdom of Hungary From 1846 to 1893 |date=2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004211360 |page=18 |quote=}}</ref> and ] in the Hungarian Kingdom was a ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=N. Ciolan |first1=Ioan |title=Transylvania: Romanian History and Perpetuation |date=1993 |publisher=Military Publishing House |isbn=9789733203162 |page=41 |quote=Catholicism in the Hungarian Kingdom was a state religion}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hóman |first1=Bálint |title=King Stephen the Saint |date=1983 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=9789733203162 |page=18 |quote=The Roman Catholic Church was placed under State protection, while the Catholic religion became the state religion of the Hungarian Kingdom}}</ref> | |||
After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the ] tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at ]. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called ], in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the ], was overthrown by king ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csongrad-megye.hu/turizmus/szoborpark/03.htm |title=Aba Sámuel |website=www.csongrad-megye.hu |access-date=25 December 2008 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209153325/http://www.csongrad-megye.hu/turizmus/szoborpark/03.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206061247/http://www.sulinet.hu/oroksegtar/data/100_falu/Feldebro/pages/003_aba.htm|date=6 December 2007}}</ref> | |||
====Mongol invasion==== | |||
] along with other ]]] | |||
{{Main|Mongol invasion of Europe}} | |||
]]] | |||
In 1241, Hungary was invaded by the ] and while the first minor battles ended in Hungarian victories, the Mongols finally destroyed the Hungarian army at the ]. | |||
This period of revolts ended during the reign of ]. Hungarian chroniclers praised ] for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. He was succeeded by ], who further stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. He was also canonized as a saint. Under his rule Hungarians successfully fought against the ] and acquired parts of ] in 1091. Due to a dynastic crisis in Croatia, with the help of the local nobility who supported his claim, he managed to swiftly seize power in northern parts of the Croatian kingdom (]), as he was a claimant to the throne due to the fact that his sister was married to the late Croatian king ] who died without an heir. | |||
The Mongols attacked Hungary with three armies, one of them through Poland in order to withhold possible ] auxiliaries, and defeated the army of Duke ] of ] at the ]. A southern army attacked ] defeating the ] and crushing the Transylvanian Hungarian {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} army. The main army led by ] and ] attacked Hungary through the fortified ] and annihilated the army led by the ] on 12 March 1241.<ref name=Saunders>Saunders, J. J. (1971). ''The History of the Mongol Conquests'', Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7</ref> | |||
]) in 1190, during the rule of ]]] | |||
However, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor ]. With the coronation of King Coloman as "]" in ] in 1102, the two kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were united under one crown.<ref name=Larousse>], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327102048/https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/pays/Croatie/115207#395864 |date=27 March 2019 }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref><ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Croatia (History) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143561/Croatia/223953/History |encyclopedia=] |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303164923/https://www.britannica.com/place/Croatia |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the precise terms of this relationship became a matter of dispute in the 19th century, it is believed that Coloman created a ]. The nature of the relationship varied through time, Croatia retained a large degree of internal autonomy overall, while the real power rested in the hands of the local nobility.<ref>{{The Early Medieval Balkans|page=288}}</ref> Modern Croatian and Hungarian historiographies mostly view the relations between ] and Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 as a form of a ], i.e. that they were connected by a common king.<ref name=Mezey>Barna Mezey: Magyar alkotmánytörténet, Budapest, 1995, p. 66</ref> Also, one of the greatest Hungarian jurists and statesmen of the 16th century, ] in his work ''Tripartitum'' treats Croatia as a kingdom separate to Hungary. | |||
Despite the appearance of the Mongol invasion having been a surprise attack, the ] had known, from various sources, that the ] were coming. Notable heralds of the oncoming invasion include the ] group, which warned the king about impending invasion it had established contact with ] and saw the aftermath of the destruction of both the Magna Hungaria and ] earlier in the 13th century. | |||
Especially ] and ] travelers from this time praised the richness country, the dense pastures, the nicely cultivated lands, the plentiful animals in waters and forests. They said that the wheat is cheap, the markets are populous, the cities flourish and the folk are wealthy. Although it is hardly credible that they refer to all layers of society, the documents were inspired by the reality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Pál |title=Beilleszkedés Európába a kezdetektől 1440-ig |publisher=Háttér Lap- és Könyvkiadó |year=1990 |isbn=963-7403-892 |editor-last=Glatz |editor-first=Ferenc |volume=Magyarok Európában I |page=174 |trans-title=Integration into Europe from the start until 1440 |chapter=Magyarország a 12. században |trans-chapter=Hungary in the 12th century |editor-last2=Burucs |editor-first2=Kornélia}}</ref> | |||
In 1242, after the end of the ], numerous fortresses to defend against future invasion were erected by ]. In gratitude, the ] acclaimed him as the "Second Founder of the Homeland", and the Hungarian Kingdom again became a considerable force in Europe. In 1260 ] lost the War of Babenberg Succession, his army was defeated at ] by the united Czech troops, however after in 1278, ] and Austrian troops fully destroyed the Czech army at ]. | |||
In 1222 ] issued the ] which laid down the principles of law. | |||
In 1301, with the death of ], the Árpád dynasty died out. The dynasty was replaced by the ], followed by the ]s, and then by several non-dynastic rulers, notably ] and ]. | |||
=== |
===== Mongol invasion ===== | ||
{{Main|Charles I of Hungary|Louis I of Hungary}} | |||
]]] | |||
] on ], ]]] | |||
When Ladislaus IV of Hungary died before Andrew III, another nobleman reclaimed the throne for himself: ], the son of the King ] and ] (the daughter of the king ]). However Andrew III assured the power for himself, and ruled without inconvenience after the death of ] in 1295. When Andrew III died in 1301 the queen Mary of Hungary, who raised Charles Martel's children, reclaimed the throne of Hungary for his grandson ] who was 13 years old. Taking control after a chaotic period, he was finally crowned as the king ]. He implemented considerable economic reforms, and defeated the remaining nobility who were in opposition to royal rule, led by ]. The kingdom of Hungary reached an Age of prosperity and stability under the rule of the king who had already learned the language from his grandmother, and also knew Italian, Latin, and French. The gold mines of the Kingdom were extensively worked and soon Hungary reached a prominent place in the European gold production. The ] currency was introduced to replace the denars, and soon after the reforms introduced by the King, the economy of the Kingdom was placed again in a correct direction after its disastrous state in the XIII century. | |||
{{Main|Mongol invasion of Europe}} | |||
Charles I exalted the cult to the King Saint ], and used him as a symbol of braveness, justice, purity (actually this monarch was Knight, King and Saint, everything at the same time, something unusual), being the ideal to follow. Charles I also venerated his uncle ], and on the other hand he gave importance to the cult of the princess ] and ], which became an instrument for the new king, added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the feminine branches, legitimizing himself with it.<ref>A szentek élete I. (szerk. Dr. Diós István), Szent István Társulat, 1984.</ref> Charles I restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and then he made them swear loyalty to himself, the new nobility that stood by his side. For this he founded in 1326 the ], which was the first secular ] in the world, and included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom. | |||
], painting by ] (1873)]] | |||
After marrying three times and losing all his wives one after the other, he took as his fourth wife the daughter of the Polish King ]: ]. She gave him many children, most of them boys, which assured the continuity of the family in the power. When Charles I died in 1342, his eldest son succeeded him and was crowned as ]. The new King followed his father's steps, being advised closely by his mother, making the widow queen one of the most influential personalities in the Kingdom. | |||
In 1241, Hungary was invaded by the ] and while the first minor battles with Subutai's vanguard probes ended in seeming Hungarian victories, the Mongols finally destroyed the combined Hungarian and Cuman armies at the ]. The Mongol invasions ultimately resulted in the death of 15-25% of Hungary's population, some 300,000-500,000 people in total.<ref>Sugar, p.27: "In the plains, between 50 and 80 percent of the settlements were destroyed. In forested areas, in the mountains, and in Transylvania, the demographic loss is estimated at 25-30 percent".</ref> In 1242, after the end of the Mongol invasion, numerous fortresses to defend against future invasion were erected by ]. In gratitude, the Hungarians acclaimed him as the "Second Founder of the Homeland", and the Hungarian Kingdom again became a considerable force in Europe. In 1260 ] lost the War of Babenberg Succession, his army was defeated at the ] by the united Bohemian forces. However, in 1278, ] and Austrian troops fully destroyed the Bohemian army at the ]. | |||
Before Charles I's death, he had also arranged the marriage of his other sons, ] with the queen ]. However, the Queen, fearing that a stranger might take control over his throne (actually both belonged to the same royal family), started conspiring and ordered Andrew's murder. The prince was killed in 1345, and almost immediately the King Louis declared war on Naples and conduced a first campaign in 1347-48. However, the war was interrupted by the rage of the very contagious ], and the Hungarian armies went back home. Surprisingly the Italians suffered many deaths and the Hungarians were barely affected (the wife of Louis I died of it). Without giving himself up, the Hungarian King resumed the war in 1349-50, conquering the Kingdom of Naples. Seeing that keeping rule in both far states, he signed a treaty with the Queen Joan I and left them independent. Decades later, Louis I met with success on the battlefield when he defended the Hungarian Kingdom from new attacks by lesser Mongol forces in the latter half of the 14th century. | |||
], ] in Transylvania, ] in ], and ] in Transylvania - represented by the ]) in the late ]]] | |||
Louis I's uncle died in 1370, and after this the King of Hungary also inherited the Kingdom of Poland, because the monarch had no children that could succeed him in the throne. In the beginning Louis was not widely accepted as Polish king, and the nobility protested. Even the Widow Queen Elisabeth of Poland was threatened, and his committee was executed when she visited Poland, because she was not considered as Polish by his people. However, pacting with the nobility, Louis became the new king of the two states. A tragic event occurred a decade later. In 1382 Louis died, leaving no male heirs for both kingdoms, only two daughters: ] and Saint ]. | |||
=== |
====Late Middle Ages==== | ||
{{ |
{{main|Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)}} | ||
]]] | |||
] always kept good and close relationships with the ] ]. Considering his son ] for succeeding him as King of Hungary, he named him his heir, and arranged the marriage with his daughter ]. Sigismund lived in the court of Louis, and soon learnt the language and Hungarian way of life, however, the queen consort ], mother of Mary and Jadwiga disliked the very young prince's presence. After the death of Louis the widow Queen made his best effort for Sigismund not to be crowned as King of Hungary. This generated a chaotic period where the little Mary became queen of Hungary, but her mother and the nobility decided for her. Sigismund and Mary were married in 1385, but soon he was sent away. | |||
The Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of ]. Subsequently, Hungary was ruled by the ] until the end of the 14th century, and then by several non-dynastic rulers – notably ] and ] – until the early 16th century. | |||
The Hungarian noblemen brought the King of Naples, ], which was the only living male relative to Louis I of Hungary, and crowned him as '''Charles II of Hungary''' in 1385. However, the Widow Queen and his advisors soon conspired, and Charles II was murdered in 1386. The raged people created disturbances, and the Widow Queen and Mary lost a lot of adepts, and eventually were captured and locked up in a tower. The Widow Queen was strangled in 1387, and soon Mary was released by Sigismund, who was crowned king of Hungary, having the full support of the nobility. | |||
=====The Anjou Age===== | |||
Sigismund became a strong king that conducted a lot of improvements in the Hungarian law system and rebuilt the palaces of Buda and Visegrád, bringing materials from Austria and Bohemia, ordering the creating of the most luxurious building in all central Europe. In his laws can be seen the traces of the early ], and also worked hardly to keep the nobility under his control. | |||
]]] | |||
] | |||
When Andrew III's predecessor, ], was assassinated in 1290, another nobleman was set up as titular King of Hungary: ]. Charles Martel was the son of King ] and ], the sister of Ladislaus IV. However, Andrew III took the crown for himself and ruled without inconvenience after Charles Martel's death in 1295. Upon Andrew's death in 1301, the country was divided between ] hostile to each other. A coalition of some of these oligarchs first crowned ], who quickly fled from the anarchy, then ], who was forced to leave by the ]. Charles, remaining as the only candidate, was finally crowned King ] in 1310. ], described as "most cruel battle since the ]" by the '']'', ended ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sugar |first1=Peter F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKwmGQCT0MAC |title=A History of Hungary |last2=Hanák |first2=Péter |date=1990 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20867-5 |page=36 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Geréb |first=László |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/10600/10642/ |title=Képes krónika |publisher=Magyar Hírlap and Maecenas |year=1993 |isbn=963-8164-07-7}}</ref> | |||
A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the Ottoman empire, which started to extend its frontiers and influence to Europe. In 1396 was fought the ] against the ottomans, which resulted in a defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund and ]. However Sigismund continued successfully containing the Ottoman forces outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life. | |||
He implemented considerable economic reforms and defeated the remaining nobility who were in opposition to royal rule, led by ]. The kingdom of Hungary reached an age of prosperity and stability under Charles I. The gold mines of the Kingdom were extensively worked and soon Hungary reached a prominent standing in European gold production. The ] was introduced as a currency, replacing the ''denars'', and soon after Charles's reforms were implemented, the economy of the Kingdom started to prosper again, having fallen into a parlous state following the Mongol invasion. | |||
Losing popularity between the Hungarian nobility, Sigismund soon became victim of an attempt against his rule, and ] (the son of the murdered King of Naples Charles II of Hungary) was called and crowned. However, as the ceremony was not performed with the Hungarian Holy Crown, and in the city of Székesfehérvár, it was considered illegitimate. Ladislaus stayed only few days in Hungarian territory and soon left it, remaining no inconvenience for Sigismund. | |||
Charles exalted the cult to Saint Ladislaus I, using him as a symbol of bravery, justice and purity. He also venerated his uncle, ]. On the other hand, he gave importance to the cults of the princesses ] and ], which added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the feminine branches.<ref>A szentek élete I. (szerk. Dr. Diós István), Szent István Társulat, 1984.</ref> | |||
In 1408 he found the ], which included the most relevant monarchs and noblemen of that regions of Europe in that time. This was just a first step for what was coming: in 1410 he was elected ], making him the supreme monarch over the German territories. He had to deal with the ] movement, a religious reformist group that was born in Bohemia, and he preceded the ], where the theologist founder ], was judged. In 1419 Sigismund inherited the ] after the death of his brother ], obtaining the formal control of three medieval states, but he struggled for control of Bohemia until the peace agreement with the Hussites and his coronation in 1436. In 1433 was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope and ruled until his death in 1437, leaving as his only heir his daughter ] and her husband. The marriage of Elizabeth was arranged with the Duke ], who was later crowned as King '''Albert of Hungary''' in 1437. | |||
Charles restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and then made the lords swear loyalty to him. For this, he founded in 1326 the ], which was the first secular ] in the world, and included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom. | |||
] in 1490]] | |||
] on ], ]]] | |||
Charles married four times. His fourth wife was ], the daughter of ]. When Charles died in 1342, his eldest son by Elizabeth succeeded him as ]. In the first years of his reign, Louis was advised closely by his mother, making her one of the most influential personalities in the Kingdom. | |||
===Hunyadi family{{anchor|The Hunyadi family}}=== | |||
{{Main|Hunyadi family|John Hunyadi|Matthias Corvinus of Hungary}} | |||
]]] | |||
The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of ], the son of ]. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. In 1485, aiming to limit the influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs, he occupied Vienna for 5 years. After his death, ] of the ] was placed on the Hungarian throne. | |||
]]] | |||
]]] | |||
] during ]]] | |||
At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. ] was leader of the ] in which the ] tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans; early on it was successful, but finally they had to withdraw. In 1456 ], the father of Matthias Corvinus, delivered a crushing defeat on the Ottomans at the ]. The ] commemorates the fallen Christian warriors. In the 15th century, the ] was a formidable modern mercenary army, with the ] the most skilled troops of the ]. In 1479, under the leadership of ], the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the ]. The Army of Hungary destroyed its enemies almost every time when Matthias was the king. | |||
Charles had arranged the marriage of his second son, ], with his cousin ], the granddaughter of King ], in 1332. Robert died in 1343, bequeathing his kingdom to Joanna but excluding the claim of Andrew. In 1345, a group of noble Neapolitan conspirators murdered Andrew at ]. Almost immediately, Louis ], conducting a first campaign in 1347–1348 and a second in 1350. He eventually signed peace with Joanna in 1352. Louis also waged wars against the ] and the ], restoring the Hungarian monarchs' authority over territories along the frontiers which had been lost during the previous decades. | |||
In 1526, at the ], the forces of the ] annihilated the Hungarian army, and in trying to escape ] drowned in the Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, ], also died in the battle. | |||
In 1370 Louis's uncle, ], died without male issue. Louis succeeded him, thus establishing the first ]. This lasted until 1382 when Louis himself died without male issue; his two daughters, ] and ], then ascended the thrones of Hungary and Poland respectively. | |||
===Ottoman occupation=== | |||
{{See also|Ottoman-Hungarian Wars|Ottoman Hungary|Royal Hungary|Transylvania}} | |||
Due to Ottoman pressure, central authority collapsed and a struggle for power broke out. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected ] (10 November 1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with ], who was Archduke of ], and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the ] would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump diet in December 1526. | |||
=====The Age of Sigismund===== | |||
On 29 February 1528, King ] received the support of the Ottoman Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary". At this time there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles. In 1532, ] defended ] and stopped a powerful Ottoman army. By 1541, the fall of ] marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. In the year 1542 ] the ] of ] and ] from 1537 to 1542 was sentenced as an ] by the Parliament in ], because of his special agreement with the ]. Even with a decisive 1552 victory over the Ottomans at the ], which raised the hopes of the ], the country remained divided until the end of the 17th century. The heroes' memory continues to live in a famous poem written by ], ''Summáját írom Eger várának'' ("I am writing the history of Eger's castle"). | |||
]]] | |||
] always kept good and close relationships with the ] ] and finally proclaimed Charles's son ] to succeed him as the co-ruler of Louis' daughter and Sigismund's bride, ]. Initially, Mary reigned as a sole monarch which led to turmoil, perhaps due to gender expectations of the time. Sigismund married her in 1385 and finally became a co-ruler in 1387. After his wife's death in 1395, he remained alone on the throne. Sigismund became a renowned king who created many improvements in the Hungarian law system and who rebuilt the palaces of Buda and Visegrád. He brought materials from Austria and Bohemia and ordered the creation of the most luxurious building in all of central Europe. In his laws can be seen the traces of the early ]. He worked hard to keep the nobility under his control. A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the Ottoman Empire, which started to extend its frontiers and influence to Europe. In 1396 was fought the ] against the Ottomans, which resulted in a defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund and ]. However, Sigismund continued to successfully contain the Ottoman forces outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life. | |||
Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows: | |||
Losing popularity among the Hungarian nobility, Sigismund soon became victim of an attempt against his rule, and ] (the son of the murdered King of Naples Charles II of Hungary) was called in and crowned. Since the ceremony was not performed with the Hungarian Holy Crown, and in the city of ], it was considered illegitimate. Ladislaus stayed only few days in Hungarian territory and soon left it, no longer an inconvenience for Sigismund. In 1408 he founded the ], which included most of the relevant monarchs and noblemen of that region of Europe at that time. This was just a first step for what was coming. In 1410 he was elected ], making him the supreme monarch over the German territories. He had to deal with the ] movement, a religious reformist group that was born in Bohemia, and he presided at the ], where the theologist founder ], was judged. In 1419 Sigismund inherited the ] after the death of his brother ], obtaining the formal control of three medieval states, but he struggled for control of Bohemia until the peace agreement with the Hussites and his coronation in 1436. In 1433 was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope and ruled until his death in 1437, leaving as his only heir his daughter ] and her husband. The marriage of Elizabeth was arranged with the Duke ], who was later crowned as King Albert of Hungary in 1437. | |||
* ], which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuity of the Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered greatly from the nearly constant wars taking place. | |||
=====Hunyadi family{{anchor|The Hunyadi family}}===== | |||
] | |||
] (attributed to), ] (previous attribution) 1476)]] | |||
]. ] and the ] capturing back Buda.]] | |||
]]] | |||
The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of ] (1458–1490), the son of ]. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs. | |||
* ] The ] (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including south-eastern Transdanubia and the ]), partly without north-eastern present-day Hungary. | |||
At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the ], in which the Hungarians tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans. Initially, they were successful, but later at the ], the Ottomans won a decisive if ]. ] was decapitated during this battle. | |||
* ] under the ]. Note that this territory, often under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included various other territories sometimes referred to as ]. | |||
In 1456, John Hunyadi delivered a crushing defeat of the Ottomans at the ]. The ] commemorates the fallen Christian warriors. In the 15th century, the ] was a modern mercenary army, with the ]s the most skilled troops of the ]. In 1479, under the leadership of ], the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the ]. The army of Hungary destroyed its enemies almost every time when Matthias was king.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}} | |||
In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the ] forces, such as the ] or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 - 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by ] burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of ] in eastern ], interrupting a Turkish supply line in ]. At the ], ] and ] defeated the Turkish army. | |||
Matthias died without legitimate heir, and was thus succeeded by ] ] (1490–1516), the son of ]. In turn, Vladislaus was succeeded by his son ] (1516–26). | |||
After the Ottoman invasion of Austria failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to conquer the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital ] was again free, with European help. | |||
In 1526, at the ], the forces of the ] led by ] annihilated the Hungarian army. In trying to escape, Louis II drowned in the Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, ], also died in the battle. | |||
'''1703–1711''' | |||
===Early modern history{{anchor|Kingdom of Hungary between 1526 and 1867}}=== | |||
Rákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711) was the first significant freedom fight in Hungary against absolutist Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen, wealthy and high-ranking progressives who wanted to put an end to the inequality of power relations, led by Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc in Hungarian). Its main aims were to protect the rights of the different social orders, and to ensure the economic and social development of the country. Due to the adverse balance of forces, the political situation in Europe and internal conflicts the freedom fight was eventually suppressed, but it succeeded in keeping Hungary from becoming an integral part of the Habsburg Empire, and its constitution was kept, even though it was only a formality. | |||
{{Main|Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)}} | |||
====The divided kingdom==== | |||
After the departure of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs dominated the Hungarian Kingdom. The Hungarians' renewed desire for freedom led to ]. The most important reasons of the war were the new and higher taxes and a renewed Protestant movement. Rákóczi was a Hungarian nobleman, son of the legendary heroine '']'', who was a ] and spent a part of his youth in Austrian captivity. The ''Kurucs'' were troops of Rákóczi. Initially, the ] army attained several important victories due to their superior light cavalry. Their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabre and '']''. At the ], ] decisively defeated the Austrian army. The famous Hungarian colonel ] nearly captured ], the King of Hungary and Emperor of Austria. | |||
{{See also|Ottoman–Hungarian Wars|Ottoman Hungary|Royal Hungary|Eastern Hungarian Kingdom|Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)}} | |||
Due to a serious defeat by the Ottomans (]) the central authority collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected ] (10 November 1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with ], who was Archduke of ], and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the ] would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump ] in December 1526. | |||
In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at ], and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While the ] were exhausted by the fights, the ] defeated the French army in the ]. They could send more troops to ] against the rebels. Transylvania became part of ] again starting at the end of the 17th century, and was led by governors.<ref>http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603323/Transylvania</ref><ref>http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Grand+Principality+of+Transylvania</ref> | |||
Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows: | |||
===1711–1920{{anchor|History between 1711 and 1920}}=== | |||
*], which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuity of the Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered greatly from the nearly constant wars taking place. | |||
{{Main|History of Hungary 1700–1919}} | |||
*]: The ] (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including south-eastern Transdanubia and the ]), partly without north-eastern present-day Hungary. | |||
{{See|Hungarian Revolution of 1848|Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867|Austria-Hungary|Hungary in World War I|Treaty of Trianon}} | |||
*] under the ]. This territory, often under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included various other territories sometimes referred to as ]. Later the entity was called ]. | |||
] | |||
]: Hungarians and the ] reconquering Buda]] | |||
] (1910). The population of areas under 20 persons/km<sup>2</sup> is represented in the nearest area above that level, and the area is left blank.]] | |||
On 29 February 1528, King ] received the support of the Ottoman Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary". At this time there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles. In 1532, ] defended ] and stopped a powerful Ottoman army. By 1541, the fall of ] marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. The country remained divided until the end of the 17th century. | |||
In 1711, Austrian Emperor ] became the next ruler of Hungary. From this time on, the designation ''Royal Hungary'' was abandoned, and the area was once again referred to as the ''Kingdom of Hungary''. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own Diet (parliament) and constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council ''(Helytartótanács'', the office of the ]) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior economic institution, the ], was directly subordinated to the ] in ]. The Hungarian Language reform started under reign of ]. The reform age of Hungary was started by ] a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the ]. | |||
In 1547, the ] was signed between ] and ]. Through this treaty, ] and ] recognized total Ottoman control of Hungary,<ref>''Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian societies'' by John Brian Harley p.245 </ref> and agreed to pay to the Ottomans a yearly tribute of 30,000 gold florins for their Habsburg possessions in northern and western Hungary.<ref name="Sandler">''Ground warfare: an international encyclopedia'' by Stanley Sandler p.387 </ref><ref name="Cambridge"></ref> | |||
The ] remained ] until 1844. Then, between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867, ] became the official language. | |||
On 1 May 1566, ] led an Ottoman invasion of Habsburg-controlled Hungary, the Ottoman forces of which was one of the most sizable armies he had led in his rule of 46 years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen R |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1326–1699. |publisher=Osprey Publishing Ltd. |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-96913-1 |location=New York (USA) |pages=55}}</ref> After reaching Belgrade and met with ] on 27 June, Suleiman I learned that a Croatian-Hungarian nobleman, ], Ban of Croatia, accomplished an attack on an Ottoman military camp at Siklós.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shelton |first=Edward |title=The book of battles: or, Daring deeds by land and sea |publisher=Houlston and Wright |year=1867 |location=London, UK |pages=82–83}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen R. |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1326–1699 |publisher=Osprey Publishing Ltd. |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-96913-1 |location=New York, USA |pages=55–56}}</ref> Suleiman I held off his attack of Eger for the time being, and began to set off towards Nikola IV Zrinski's fortress at ]. From 2 August to 7 September, the Ottoman forces had laid siege to the fortress with a force, at the least, of 150,000 against Zrinski's 2,300 defenders. While the ] turned into a victory for the Ottomans, it came at the cost of: 25,000 Ottoman soldiers and Suleiman I, who before the final battle of Szigetvár, due to natural causes of old age and illness.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
'''Hungarian Revolution of 1848''' | |||
In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the ] forces, such as the ] or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 – 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by ] burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of ] in eastern ], interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the ], Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army. | |||
The European revolutions of 1848 swept Hungary as well. The ] sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political change, namely independence. The ] was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the Revolution, ]. One of the most famous battles was in 1848 29 September, at the ]. When Serbs attacked the ] in the south in 1848, a great general called Ernő Kiss stopped a three Serbian regiments with only 72 hussar. | |||
After the Ottoman siege of Vienna failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to invade the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from the Ottoman Empire, with the aid of other Europeans. | |||
As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes, which included the brilliant campaigns of the great Hungarian general, ], forced the Austrians on the defensive. Fearing defeat, the Austrians pleaded for Russian help, which, combined with Austrian forces, quelled the revolution. The desired political changes of 1848 were again suppressed until ]. | |||
====The Kuruc age==== | |||
]: Hungary lost 72% of its territory, and lost its sea ports in Croatia. 3,425,000 ethnic Hungarians found themselves separated from their motherland. Hungary lost 8 of its 10 biggest cities.<ref>Molnar, A Concise History of Hungary, p. 262 </ref><ref>Richard C. Frucht, | |||
{{Main|Rákóczi's War of Independence}} | |||
Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture p. 359-360 | |||
] preparing to attack traveling coach and riders, {{circa|1705}}]] | |||
] around 1880]] | |||
] (1890)]] | |||
]}}{{legend|#FF9900|]}}{{legend|#99CC33|]}}{{legend|#336633|]}}{{legend|#FFB6C1|]}}{{legend|#3366CC|]}}{{legend|gray|]}}{{legend|white|border=black solid 2px|Spaces with a smaller density than 20 persons/sq km}}]] | |||
] according to the 1910 census]] | |||
</ref>]] | |||
Rákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711) was the first significant freedom fight in Hungary against absolutist Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen, wealthy and high-ranking progressives who wanted to put an end to the inequality of power relations, led by Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc in Hungarian). Its main aims were to protect the rights of the different social orders, and to ensure the economic and social development of the country. Due to the adverse balance of forces, the political situation in Europe and internal conflicts the freedom fight was eventually suppressed, but it succeeded in keeping Hungary from becoming an integral part of the Habsburg Empire, and its constitution was kept, even though it was only a formality. | |||
Following the ], the Habsburg Empire became the "dual monarchy" of ]. | |||
After the departure of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs dominated the Hungarian Kingdom. The Hungarians' renewed desire for freedom led to Rákóczi's War for Independence. The most important reasons of the war were the new and higher taxes and a renewed Protestant movement. Rákóczi was a Hungarian nobleman, son of the legendary heroine '']''. He spent a part of his youth in Austrian captivity. The ''Kurucs'' were troops of Rákóczi. Initially, the ] army attained several important victories due to their superior light cavalry. Their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabre and '']''. At the ], ] decisively defeated the Austrian army. The Hungarian colonel ] nearly captured ], the King of Hungary and Archduke of Austria. | |||
The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist way of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence and obsolete medieval institutions continued to disappear. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire began to experience rapid economic growth. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). | |||
In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at ], and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While the Hungarians were exhausted by the fights, the Austrians defeated the French army in the ]. They could send more troops to Hungary against the rebels. Transylvania became part of Hungary again starting at the end of the 17th century, and was led by governors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Transylvania |title=Transylvania | Location & History |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420084452/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603323/Transylvania |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Grand+Principality+of+Transylvania |title=Grand Principality of Transylvania |website=TheFreeDictionary.com |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=10 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113335/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Grand%20Principality%20of%20Transylvania |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The Kingdom of Hungary (into which Transylvania was fully incorporated, while Croatia-Slavonia maintained a distinct identity and a certain internal autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary), was granted equal status with the rest of the Habsburg monarchy. Each of the two states comprising Austria-Hungary exercised considerable independence, with certain institutions, notably the reigning house, defence, foreign affairs, and finances for common expenditures, remaining under joint management. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when the ] went down in defeat in ]. | |||
====Age of Enlightenment==== | |||
'''Treaty of Trianon set in 1920''' | |||
{{Main|Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)}}In 1711, Austrian Emperor ] became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own diet (parliament) and constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council (''Helytartótanács'', the office of the ]) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior economic institution, the ], was directly subordinated to the ] in ]. | |||
The Hungarian language reform started under the reign of ]. The reform age of Hungary was started by ] a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the ]. The ] remained Latin until 1836, when Hungarian was introduced.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=5148 |title=1836. évi III. törvénycikk a Magyar Nyelvről |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=1000ev.hu |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Kft. |access-date=24 November 2017 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044304/https://1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=5148 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/egyeb/lexikon/pallas/html/048/pc004822.html#5 |title=A Pallas nagy lexikona "Hivatalos nyelv" |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.mek.iif.hu |publisher=Országos Széchenyi Könyvtár – Hungarian Electronic Library |access-date=24 November 2017 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505192223/http://www.mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/egyeb/lexikon/pallas/html/048/pc004822.html#5 |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867 onward, Hungarian became the exclusively used official language. | |||
The new borders set in 1920 by the ] ceded 72% of the historically Hungarian territory of the Kingdom of Hungary to the neighbouring states. The beneficiaries were ], the newly formed states of ], and the ]. | |||
This left more than 3.5 million ethnic ] outside the new borders, contrary to the terms laid out by US President ]'s ], which were intended to honour the ethnic makeup of the territories. | |||
==== Hungarian Revolution of 1848 ==== | |||
===Interwar period{{anchor|The interwar period}}=== | |||
{{Main|Hungarian Revolution of 1848}} | |||
{{Main|Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungarian Soviet Republic|Hungarian Democratic Republic|Hungary between the two world wars|Hungarian interwar economy}} | |||
] was regent of ].]] | |||
After the pullout of occupation forces of ] in 1920 the country went into civil conflict, with Hungarian ] and ] purging the nation of communists, leftists and others by whom they felt threatened. | |||
Later in 1920, a coalition of right-wing political forces united, and reinstated Hungary's status as a constitutional monarchy. Selection of the new King was delayed due to civil infighting, and a regent was appointed to represent the monarchy. Former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral ] became that ]. New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of ] and 16% ] was retained. In addition, 61% of ], 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of ]s, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of ] output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and banking institutions of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors.<ref>Flood-light on Europe: a guide to the next war | |||
By Felix Wittmer | |||
Published by C. Scribner's sons, 1937 | |||
Item notes: pt. 443 | |||
Original from Indiana University | |||
Digitized 13 November 2008 p. 114</ref><ref>History of the Hungarian Nation | |||
By Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, Danubian Research Center | |||
Published by Danubian Press, 1969 | |||
Original from the University of California | |||
Digitized 19 June 2008 | |||
p. 222</ref><ref name="Tucker">The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia | |||
By Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Justin D. Murphy | |||
Edition: illustrated | |||
Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 | |||
ISBN 0815303998, 9780815303992 | |||
p.697 </ref> | |||
The European revolutions of 1848 swept into Hungary, as well. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political change, namely independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the revolution, ]. | |||
Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population, 56% of its industry. Horthy appointed Count ] as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a ] law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps towards fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km<sup>2</sup> from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after ] unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. King Charles's return produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count István Bethlen, a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921. (For more detail on Charles's attempts to retake the throne, see '']''.) | |||
As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading ] propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the ] in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with ] in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies. | |||
The ] induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, ], who changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany. ], the Prime Minister of Hungary]] Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. On 2 November 1938, the ] transferred parts of ] and Carpathian Ruthenia to Hungary, an area amounting to 11,927 km² and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of which were Hungarians according to the 1941 census). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian armed forces peacefully occupied the newly transferred territories.<ref>Thomas, ''The Royal Hungarian Army in World War II'', pg. 11</ref> Hitler later promised to transfer all of Slovakia to Hungary in exchange for a military alliance, but his offer was rejected. Instead, Horthy chose to pursue a territorial revision to be decided along ethnic lines. In March 1939, the Czecho-Slovak Republic was dissolved, ], and the ] was established. On 14 March, ] declared itself to be an independent state. On 15 March, ] declared itself to be an independent state. Hungary rejected the independence of Carpatho-Ukraine and, between 14 March and 18 March, Hungarian armed forces occupied the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and ousted the government of ]. By contrast, Hungary recognized the nazi ] of Slovakia led by the ] ].<ref> - ]</ref> In September 1940, with troops massing on both sides of the Hungarian-Romanian border, war was averted by the ]. This award transferred the northern half of ] to Hungary, with a total area of 43,492 km² and a total population of 2,578,100 with a 53.5% Hungarian majority according to the 1941 census. By dividing Transylvania between Romania and Hungary, Hitler was able to ease tensions in Hungary. In October 1940, the Germans initiated a reciprocity policy between Romania and Hungary which was continued until the end of World War II. The region of ] was given special autonomous status with the intention that (eventually) it would be self governed by the Ruthenian minority. | |||
===During World War II 1941–1945{{anchor|During World War II 1941-1945}}=== | |||
{{Main|Hungary during World War II|Vienna Awards}} | |||
<!-- Deleted image removed: ] tank of the Hungarian 2nd Armoured Division in action near ], 1944.]] --> | |||
After being granted part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia by the Germans and Italians in the ] of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in the ] of 1940, Hungary participated in their first military maneuvers on the side of the Axis powers in 1941. Thus, Hungarian army was part of the ], gaining some more territory and joining the ] in the process). On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the ] in ]. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered ] on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the ]. By 1943, after the ] suffered extremely heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied Hungary in what was known as ]. By then it was clear that Hungarian politics would be suppressed according to Hitler's intention to hold the country in the war on the side of the Nazi Third Reich because of its strategic location. On 15 October 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from the war. The Germans launched ] and Horthy's regime was replaced by a ] under the pro-German ] leader ], thus effectively ending the possibility for independent actions in the war. However, the form of Government was only changed to a republic two years later. | |||
As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes, which included the campaigns of the Hungarian general, ], forced the Austrians on the defensive. One of the most famous battles of the revolution, the ], was fought on 29 September 1848, when the Hungarian revolutionary army led by Lieutenant-General János Móga defeated the troops of the Croatian Ban ]. Fearing defeat, the Austrians pleaded for Russian help. The combined forces of the two empires quelled the revolution. The desired political changes of 1848 were again suppressed until the ]. | |||
===Transitioning into a republic=== | |||
Following its ], the ] imposed harsh conditions allowing it to seize important material assets and control internal affairs.<ref name="wettig51">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=51}}</ref> After the ] set up police organs to persecute class enemies, the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support the communists in the coming elections.<ref name="wettig85">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=85}}</ref> The communists fared poorly, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a ] under Prime Minister ].<ref>Norton, Donald H. (2002). ''Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present'', p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey. ISBN 0-87891-711-X.</ref> Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious ].<ref name="wettig85"/> In 1945, Soviet ] ] forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the ]. Communist Interior Minister ] established the ], which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.<ref>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF||1.47 ]<!-- application/pdf, 1548737 bytes -->}}</ref> In 1946 the form of government was changed to a republic. Soon after the monarchy was finally abolished, the Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader ] to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle."<ref name="wettig110">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=110}}</ref> What emerged was a communist state lasting until October 1989 when the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving the way for ]. In today's free republic, the Kingdom is regarded as one long stage in the development of the state. This sense of continuity is reflected in the republic's national symbols such as the ] and the ], which are the same as when the form of government was still a monarchy. Several holidays, the official language ], and the capital city ] are also shared by the country as they were when the form of government was still a monarchy, and the short form of the country's name in Hungarian (''Magyarország'') is the same as when the form of government was still a monarchy. The millennium of Hungarian statehood was commemorated in 2000 and codified by the Millennium Act of 2000.<ref name="millenniumact"> {{hu icon}}</ref> | |||
'''Population 1910 (Kingdom of Hungary without ])'''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.antikvarium.hu/konyv/torteneti-statisztikai-idosorok-1867-1992-i-567680 |title=Történeti statisztikai idősorok 1867–1992 I.: Népesség-népmozgalom |last1=Fajth |first1=Gáspár |last2=Dr Gyulay |first2=Ferenc |last3=Dr Klinger |first3=András |last4=Dr Harcsa |first4=István |last5=Kamarás |first5=Ferenc |last6=Dr Csahók |first6=István |last7=Dr Ehrlich |first7=Éva |year=1992 |publisher=Hungarian Central Statistical Office |isbn=9789637070433 |language=Hungarian |access-date=3 June 2019 |archive-date=2 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602225155/https://www.antikvarium.hu/konyv/torteneti-statisztikai-idosorok-1867-1992-i-567680 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==Coat of arms== | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
The following are a few examples of the Coat of Arms, used over the centuries: | |||
|+ | |||
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5px" border="0" | |||
|style="background:#ddffdd;" |'''Ethnicity''' | |||
! style="background:#ddffdd;" |'''Number''' | |||
! style="background:#ddffdd;" |Percentage | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Hungarian | |||
| width="160px" | ] | |||
|align="center"|9 944 627 | |||
| | |||
|align="center"|54.44% | |||
The most ancient element of the coat of arms is the double cross. For a long time, it was thought to be the symbol of the apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. The most accepted theory is that it derives from ] influence, as the cross appeared around 1190 during the reign of King ], who was raised in the Byzantine court. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Romanian | |||
| ] | |||
|align="center"|2 948 186 | |||
| | |||
|align="center"|16.14% | |||
The red and white stripes were the symbol of the ], and they were first used in the coat of arms in 1202 on a ] of King ]. This seal did not include the double cross, only the stripes, and there were nine ]s on the red stripes. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Slovak | |||
| ] | |||
|align="center"|1 946 357 | |||
| | |||
|align="center"|10.65% | |||
The coat of arms with the stripes on the left and the cross on the hills on the right appeared during the reign of ] (1342–1382). The crown above the coat of arms appeared during the reign of ] (1440–1444). At first it was only a non-specific diadem but on the 1464 seal of ] it resembled the ] more. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|German | |||
| ] | |||
|align="center"|1 903 357 | |||
| | |||
|align="center"|10.42% | |||
During the ], following the dethroning of the Habsburg dynasty on 14 April 1849, the Holy Crown was removed from the coat of arms. The remaining small coat of arms is usually referred to as the "Kossuth Coat of Arms" ({{lang-hu|Kossuth-címer}}) after ], Regent-President of Hungary. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Ruthenian | |||
| ] | |||
|align="center"|464 270 | |||
| | |||
|align="center"|2.54% | |||
The coat of Arms of the today's Republic of Hungary, adopted in 1990 even though a Republic, the coat features the ], a key symbol of Hungary. The current coat of arms of ] was adopted on 3 July 1990, after the end of the ] regime. The arms have been used before, both with and without the Holy Crown of Hungary, sometimes as part of a larger, more complex coat of arms, and many of its elements date back to the ]. | |||
|- | |||
|Serbian | |||
|align="center"|461 516 | |||
|align="center"|2.52% | |||
|- | |||
|Croatian | |||
|align="center"|194 808 | |||
|align="center"|1.06% | |||
|- | |||
|Other | |||
|align="center"|401 412 | |||
|align="center"|2.19% | |||
|- | |||
|All | |||
|align="center"|18 264 533 | |||
|align="center"|100% | |||
|} | |} | ||
'''Population 1910 (])'''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.antikvarium.hu/konyv/torteneti-statisztikai-idosorok-1867-1992-i-567680 |title=Történeti statisztikai idősorok 1867–1992 I.: Népesség-népmozgalom |last1=Fajth |first1=Gáspár |last2=Dr Gyulay |first2=Ferenc |last3=Dr Klinger |first3=András |last4=Dr Harcsa |first4=István |last5=Kamarás |first5=Ferenc |last6=Dr Csahók |first6=István |last7=Dr Ehrlich |first7=Éva |year=1992 |publisher=Hungarian Central Statistical Office |isbn=9789637070433 |language=Hungarian |access-date=3 June 2019 |archive-date=2 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602225155/https://www.antikvarium.hu/konyv/torteneti-statisztikai-idosorok-1867-1992-i-567680 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
{{Portal|Austria-Hungary}} | |||
|+ Spoken languages in Transleithania (Hungary) (1910 census) | |||
{| class=infobox width="300px" <!-- | |||
! Land | |||
--> style="background:clear; margin: 0 0em 1em .25em; text-align: left; <!-- font-size: 85%; --> line-height: 1.4em; border:1px solid #aaa;" | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
|-bgcolor="#bbccee" | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
!colspan=2|<div id="full-names"></div><big>Kingdom of Hungary</big><hr> | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
! colspan=1 | ] | |||
! colspan=1 | Other | |||
! colspan=1 | Total | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ] Right Bank | |||
!colspan=2|<center><big>Official Name</big><hr></center> | |||
| 72% (2,221,295) | |||
| 0% (833) | |||
| 18% (555,694) | |||
| 0.6% (17,188) | |||
| 5.5% (168,436) | |||
| 0.5% (15,170) | |||
| 0% (232) | |||
| 3.4% (105,556) | |||
| 14.8% (3,084,404) | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Danube Left Bank | |||
|colspan=2|]: Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen<ref>Peter Revay: ''Commentarius De Sacra Regni Hungariae Corona'', "Commentary on the Kingdom of the Holy Crown of Hungary" 1613.</ref><ref>Peter Revay: "About the state of Hungary and the Holy Hungarian Crown( of St. Stephen)", 1613</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=Pal |authorlink1= |last2=Palosfalvi |first2=Tamas |first3=Andrew |last3=Ayton |editor1-first= |editor1-last= |editor1-link= |others= |title=The Realm of St Stephen |url=http://books.google.com/?id=vEJNBqanT_8C |format= |accessdate=2009-02-16 |edition=illustrated |year=2005 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=185043977X, 9781850439776}}</ref> | |||
| 32.7% (711,654) | |||
----]: ''A magyar Szent Korona országai'' | |||
| 0% (704) | |||
----]: ''Die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone'' | |||
| 6.6% (144,395) | |||
| 58.8% (1,279,574) | |||
| 0.1% (2,294) | |||
| 0% (200) | |||
| 0% (393) | |||
| 1.7% (36,710) | |||
| 10.4% (2,175,924) | |||
|- | |||
| Danube-Tisza | |||
| 81.2% (3,061,066) | |||
| 0.1% (4,813) | |||
| 9.5% (357,822) | |||
| 2.1% (79,354) | |||
| 0.1% (4,866) | |||
| 4.1% (154,298) | |||
| 0.3% (11,121) | |||
| 4.1% (96,318) | |||
| 18% (3,769,658) | |||
|- | |||
| ] Right Bank | |||
| 53.5% (945,990) | |||
| 0.1% (1,910) | |||
| 5.6% (98,564) | |||
| 25% (441,776) | |||
| 0% (486) | |||
| 0% (247) | |||
| 14.3% (253,062) | |||
| 1.6% (27,646) | |||
| 8.5% (1,769,681) | |||
|- | |||
| Tisza Left Bank | |||
| 61.8% (1,603,924) | |||
| 24% (621,918) | |||
| 3.2% (83,229) | |||
| 3.1% (81,154) | |||
| 0% (327) | |||
| 0% (321) | |||
| 7.5% (194,504) | |||
| 0.3% (8,547) | |||
| 12.4% (2,594,924) | |||
|- | |||
| Tisza-] | |||
| 22.2% (474,988) | |||
| 39.5% (845,850) | |||
| 19.9% (427,253) | |||
| 2.1% (44,715) | |||
| 0.2% (4,950) | |||
| 13.6% (290,434) | |||
| 0.1% (3,188) | |||
| 2.4% (50,391) | |||
| 10.3% (2,141,769) | |||
|- | |||
| ] | |||
| 34.3% (918,217) | |||
| 55% (1,472,021) | |||
| 8.7% (234,085) | |||
| 0.1% (2,404) | |||
| 0% (523) | |||
| 0% (421) | |||
| 0.1% (1,759) | |||
| 1.8% (48,937) | |||
| 12.8% (2,678,367) | |||
|- | |||
| ] | |||
| 13% (6,493) | |||
| 0.3% (137) | |||
| 4.6% (2,315) | |||
| 0.4% (192) | |||
| 26% (12,926) | |||
| 0.9% (425) | |||
| 0% (11) | |||
| 54.8 (27,307, mostly ]) | |||
| 0.2% (49,806) | |||
|- | |||
| ] | |||
| 4% (105,948) | |||
| 0% (846) | |||
| 5.1% (134,078) | |||
| 0.8% (21,613) | |||
| 62.5% (1,638,354) | |||
| 24.6% (644,955) | |||
| 0.3% (8,317) | |||
| 2.6% (67,843) | |||
| 12.6% (2,621,954) | |||
|- | |||
| Total | |||
| 48.1% (10,050,575) | |||
| 14.1% (2,949,032) | |||
| 9.8% (2,037,435) | |||
| 9.4% (1,967,970) | |||
| 8.8% (1,833,162) | |||
| 5.3% (1,106,471) | |||
| 2.3% (472,587) | |||
| 2.2% (469,255) | |||
| 100% (20,886,487) | |||
|} | |} | ||
*] | |||
=== Austria-Hungary (1867–1918) === | |||
*] | |||
{{Main|Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)}} | |||
] of ] and ] at ], ], 8 June 1867]] | |||
Following the ], the Habsburg Monarchy became the "dual monarchy" of ]. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist way of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence and obsolete medieval institutions continued to disappear. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire began to experience rapid economic growth. The ] grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). | |||
The lands of the Hungarian Crown (comprising the Kingdom of Hungary proper, into which Transylvania was fully incorporated, and the ], which maintained a distinct identity and internal autonomy) were granted equal status with the Austrian Empire. Each of the two states comprising Austria-Hungary exercised considerable independence, with certain institutions, notably the reigning house, defence, foreign affairs, and finances for common expenditures, remaining under joint management. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when the ] went down in defeat in ]. | |||
===Transitions (1918 to 1920)===<!-- may need a better heading (see TALK) --> | |||
====Two short-lived republics====<!-- may need a better heading (see TALK#Transitions (1918 to 1920) --> | |||
{{Main|Hungarian Democratic Republic|Hungarian Soviet Republic}} | |||
The '''Hungarian Soviet Republic''' or '''Hungarian Republic of Councils''' ({{langx|hu|Magyarországi Tanácsköztársaság}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://hu.wikisource.org/A_Forradalmi_Korm%C3%A1nyz%C3%B3tan%C3%A1cs_XXVI._sz%C3%A1m%C3%BA_rendelete |title=A Forradalmi Kormányzótanács XXVI. számú rendelete – Wikiforrás |website=hu.wikisource.org |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707124557/https://hu.wikisource.org/A_Forradalmi_Korm%C3%A1nyz%C3%B3tan%C3%A1cs_XXVI._sz%C3%A1m%C3%BA_rendelete |url-status=live }}</ref> or ''Magyarországi Szocialista Szövetséges Tanácsköztársaság''<ref>Official name of the state between 23 June and 1 August according to the constitution, see: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430024151/https://hu.wikisource.org/A_Magyarorsz%C3%A1gi_Szocialista_Sz%C3%B6vets%C3%A9ges_Tan%C3%A1csk%C3%B6zt%C3%A1rsas%C3%A1g_alkotm%C3%A1nya |date=30 April 2022 }}</ref>) was a short-lived independent ] established in ]. | |||
It lasted only from 21 March until 1 August 1919. The state was led by ] and was not recognized by France, the UK or the US.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GjY7aV_6FPwC&pg=PA574 |title=A Study of Crisis |first1=Michael |last1=Brecher |author2-link=Jonathan Wilkenfeld |first2=Jonathan |last2=Wilkenfeld |date=1 January 1997 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0472108069 |via=Google Books |access-date=12 June 2016 |archive-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323144704/https://books.google.com/books?id=GjY7aV_6FPwC&pg=PA574 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was the second socialist state in the world to be formed after the ] in ] brought the ]s to power. The Hungarian Republic of Councils had ] with the ] (see ]), the ] and the evolving ]. It collapsed on 1 August 1919 when Hungarians sent representatives to negotiate their surrender to the ] forces and Béla Kun, together with other high-ranking Communists, fled to Austria.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.workmall.com/wfb2001/hungary/hungary_history_hungarian_soviet_republic.html |title=Hungary Hungarian Soviet Republic – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System |year=2002 |access-date=12 June 2016 |archive-date=26 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426200635/http://www.workmall.com/wfb2001/hungary/hungary_history_hungarian_soviet_republic.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
A 1919 attempt to form a federation with the ] also failed, when the Romanian King ultimately refused to accept the Hungarian Crown.<ref>Béla K. Király, Gunther Erich Rothenberg, ''War and Society in East Central Europe: Trianon and East Central Europe antecedents and repercussions'', p. 114</ref> | |||
====The restoration of the Kingdom==== | |||
After the pullout of occupation forces of ] in 1920 the country went into civil conflict, with Hungarian ] and ] purging the nation of communists and others by whom they felt threatened. On 29 February 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, the Kingdom of Hungary was restored, a coalition of right-wing political forces united and reinstated Hungary's status as a constitutional monarchy. Selection of the new King was delayed due to civil infighting, and a ] was appointed to represent the monarchy, former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral ]. | |||
====Treaty of Trianon (1920)==== | |||
]: Hungary lost 72% of its territory, its sea access, half of its 10 biggest cities and all of its precious metal mines; 3,425,000 ethnic Hungarians found themselves separated from their motherland.<ref>Francis Tapon: '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723032048/https://books.google.com/books?id=GlbAmn_cajYC&pg=PA221&dq=Hungary+biggest+cities+treaty+of+trianon&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uZ-GT-OfN42ciQfU3tCyBw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22half%20of%20its%2010%20biggest%20cities%22&f=false |date=23 July 2016 }}'', Thomson Press India, 2012</ref><ref>Molnar, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326232604/https://books.google.com/books?id=y0g4YEp7ZrsC&pg=PA262&dq=found+themselves+separated+from+their+motherland&ei=UI13Sa3bEouYMsCR-L4E |date=26 March 2017 }}, p. 262</ref><ref>Richard C. Frucht, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015232209/https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=RA1-PA360&dq=found+themselves+separated+from+their+motherland&ei=UI13Sa3bEouYMsCR-L4E#PRA1-PA359 |date=15 October 2015 }} pp. 359–360M1</ref>]] | |||
The new borders set in 1920 by the ] ceded 72% of the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary to the neighbouring states. The main beneficiaries were ], the newly formed states of ], and the ], but ], ] and ] also gained smaller territories. The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them separately) possessed a majority of non-Hungarian population, but more than 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians were left outside the new borders of Hungary. Many{{who|date=June 2013}} view this as contrary to the terms laid out by US President ]'s ],{{citation needed|date=February 2014}} which were intended to honour the ethnic makeup of the territories. As President Wilson left the conference to emphasize his disagreement, and because the US Congress did not ratify the treaty, the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.<ref>1921. évi XLVIII. törvénycikk | |||
az Amerikai Egyesült-Államokkal 1921. évi augusztus hó 29. napján Budapesten kötött békeszerződés becikkelyezéséről – XLVIII. Act of 1921 about the enactment the peace treaty signed in Budapest on 29. August 1921 with the United States of America – http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=7504 {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921040629/https://1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=7504 |date=21 September 2017 }}</ref> | |||
===Between 1920 and 1946{{anchor|Kingdom of Hungary (1920–46)}}=== | |||
{{Main|Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)}} | |||
====Interwar period{{anchor|The interwar period}}==== | |||
{{main|Hungary between the World Wars|Hungarian interwar economy}} | |||
] was regent of Hungary from 1920 to 1944]] | |||
The new international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of ] and 16% ] was retained. In addition, 61% of ], 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of ]s, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of ] output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and banking institutions of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors.<ref>''Flood-light on Europe: a guide to the next war'' by Felix Wittmer, published by C. Scribner's sons, 1937, Item notes: pt. 443, Original from Indiana University, Digitized 13 November 2008 p. 114</ref><ref>''History of the Hungarian Nation'' by Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, Danubian Research Center, Published by Danubian Press, 1969, Original from the University of California, Digitized 19 June 2008 p. 222</ref><ref name="Tucker">''The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia'' by Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Justin D. Murphy, Edition: illustrated, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 {{ISBN|0-8153-0399-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0399-2}}, p.697 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511041604/https://books.google.com/books?id=UPySOvxjJQcC&pg=RA1-PA698&lpg=RA1-PA698&dq=treaty+of+trianon+air+force+heavy+military&source=bl&ots=t0dnrsRUmA&sig=NDHEy6mXTJuULTrJnwpmhECnR5Y&hl=en&ei=ci29SeCBKpDDjAeS-bCMCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PRA1-PA697,M1|date=11 May 2016}}</ref> | |||
Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population and 56% of its industry. Horthy appointed Count ] as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a ] law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps towards fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km<sup>2</sup> from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after ] unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. The return of King Charles produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count ], a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921. (For more detail, see '']''.) | |||
], the Prime Minister of Hungary]] | |||
As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading ] propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the ] in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with ] in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies. | |||
The ] induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, ], who changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. On 2 November 1938, as the result of the ] parts of Czechoslovakia – ] and a part of Carpathian Ruthenia – were returned to Hungary, an area amounting to 11,927 km<sup>2</sup> and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of which were Hungarians according to the 1941 census). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian armed forces peacefully occupied the newly transferred territories.<ref>Thomas, ''The Royal Hungarian Army in World War II'', pg. 11</ref> Hitler later promised to transfer all of Slovakia to Hungary in exchange for a military alliance, but his offer was rejected. Instead, Horthy chose to pursue a territorial revision to be decided along ethnic lines. In March 1939, the Czecho-Slovak Republic was dissolved, ], and the ] was established. On 14 March, ] declared itself to be an independent state. | |||
On 15 March, ] declared itself to be an independent state. Hungary rejected the independence of Carpatho-Ukraine and, between 14 March and 18 March, Hungarian armed forces occupied the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and ousted the government of ]. By contrast, Hungary recognized the Nazi ] of Slovakia led by the ] ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3430.htm |title=Slovakia |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=22 May 2019 |archive-date=2 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602164206/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3430.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 1940, with troops massing on both sides of the Hungarian-Romanian border, war was averted by the ]. This award transferred the northern half of ] to Hungary, with a total area of 43,492 km<sup>2</sup> and a total population of 2,578,100 with a 53.5% Hungarian majority according to the 1941 census. By dividing Transylvania between Romania and Hungary, Hitler was able to ease tensions in Hungary. In October 1940, the Germans initiated a reciprocity policy between Romania and Hungary which was continued until the end of World War II. The region of ] was given special autonomous status with the intention that (eventually) it would be self-governed by the Ruthenian minority. | |||
====During World War II 1941–1945{{anchor|During World War II 1941–1945}}==== | |||
{{Main|Hungary during World War II}} | |||
] | |||
] | |||
After being granted part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia by the Germans and Italians in the ] of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in the ] of 1940, Hungary participated in their first military maneuvers on the side of the Axis powers in 1941. Thus, the Hungarian army was part of the ], gaining some more territory and joining the ] in the process. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the ] in ]. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered ] on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the ]. By 1943, after the ] suffered extremely heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied Hungary in what was known as ]. By then it was clear that Hungarian politics would be suppressed according to Hitler's intention to hold the country in the war on the side of the Nazi Third Reich because of its strategic location. On 15 October 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from the war. The Germans launched ] and Horthy's regime was replaced by a ] under the pro-German ] leader ], thus effectively ending the possibility for independent actions in the war. However, the form of government was only changed to a republic two years later. | |||
====Transitioning into a republic==== | |||
Following its ], the ] imposed harsh conditions allowing the Soviets to seize important material assets and control internal affairs.<ref name="wettig51">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=51}}</ref> After the ] set up police organs to persecute | |||
"class enemies", the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support the Communists in the coming elections.<ref name="wettig85">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=85}}</ref> The Communists fared poorly, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a ] under Prime Minister ].<ref>Norton, Donald H. (2002). ''Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present'', p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey. {{ISBN|0-87891-711-X}}.</ref> Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious ].<ref name="wettig85" /> In 1945, Soviet ] ] forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the ]. Communist Interior Minister ] established the ], which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.<ref>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{cite web |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf |title=Chapter II.N, para 89(xi) (p. 31) |access-date=12 September 2009 |archive-date=20 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320024559/http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf |url-status=live }} (1.47 MB)</ref> In 1946 the form of government was changed to a republic. Soon after the monarchy was abolished, the Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader ] to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle."<ref name="wettig110">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=110}}</ref> What emerged was a communist state lasting until 23 October 1956 when the Soviet occupation was swept away by the ], victorious until 10 November 1956. The Soviet occupation was then restored, lasting until 1989 when the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving the way for ]. In today's republic, the Kingdom is regarded as one long stage in the development of the state. This sense of continuity is reflected in the republic's national symbols such as the ] and the ], which are the same as when the monarchy was still in place. Several holidays, the official language (Hungarian), and the capital city ] have also been retained. The official ] name of the country is {{lang|hu|Magyarország}} (simply Hungary) since 2012;<ref name="constitution"/> it was also the common name of the monarchy.<ref name="Fényes"/> The millennium of the Hungarian statehood was commemorated in 2000 and codified by the Millennium Act of 2000.<ref name="millenniumact">{{Cite web |url=http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=9797 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212202555/http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=9797 |url-status=dead |title=Text of the Millennium Act |archive-date=12 February 2009}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
{{Portal|Hungary|Monarchy}} | |||
*] | *] | ||
*] | |||
*] | *] | ||
*] | *] | ||
*] | |||
*]; ]; | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*]; | |||
== |
==Notes== | ||
{{notelist}} | |||
* Frucht, Richard. ''Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism'' (2000) | |||
* Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. ''A History of Modern Hungary, 1867-1994'' (1996) | |||
* Hanak, Peter et al. ''A History of Hungary'' (1994) | |||
* Kontler, Laszlo. ''A History of Hungary'' (2006) | |||
* Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. ''A Concise History of Hungary'' (2001) | |||
* Palffy, Geza. ''The Kingdom of Hungary and the Habsburg Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century'' (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2010) 406 pages; Covers the period after the battle of Mohacs in 1526 when the Kingdom of Hungary was partitioned in three, with one segment going to the Habsburgs. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist |
{{Reflist}} | ||
== |
==Sources== | ||
*{{Citation| title = Stalin and the Cold War in Europe | |||
* | |||
| last = Wettig | first = Gerhard | |||
<!-- * DEAD LINK--> | |||
| year = 2008 | |||
| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | |||
{{Hun-hist-develop | |||
| isbn = 978-0-7425-5542-6 | |||
|before=← ]<br/>(896-1000) | |||
|flag=Coat of arms of Hungary.png | |||
|after=] →<br />(1526-1571)<br /><br />] →<br />(1526-1571) | |||
<br /><br />Southern parts occupied by the ] →<br />(1541-1699) | |||
|current=Kingdom of Hungary | |||
}} | }} | ||
==Further reading== | |||
*Engel, Pál. ''The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526''. (2001). | |||
*Frucht, Richard. . {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318003453/https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106917725 |date=18 March 2010 }} (2000). | |||
*Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. ''{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, 1867–1994'' (1996) | |||
*Hanak, Peter et al. ''A History of Hungary'' (1994) | |||
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Hungary |volume= 13 | pages = 894–931 |short= 1}} | |||
* {{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://mki.gov.hu/assets/pdf/MKI_EN_006_kings_and_saints_B5_web.pdf |title=Kings and Saints – The Age of the Árpáds |publisher=Institute of Hungarian Research |year=2022 |isbn=978-615-6117-65-6 |location=Budapest, Székesfehérvár}} | |||
*Kontler, Laszlo. ''A History of Hungary'' (2006) | |||
*Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. ''A Concise History of Hungary'' (2001) | |||
*Palffy, Geza. ''The Kingdom of Hungary and the Habsburg Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century'' (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2010) 406 pages; Covers the period after the battle of Mohacs in 1526 when the Kingdom of Hungary was partitioned in three, with one segment going to the Habsburgs. | |||
{{Commons category|Kingdom of Hungary}} | |||
{{HUCountiesto1918}} | {{HUCountiesto1918}} | ||
{{Hungary articles}} | |||
{{coord|47|29|46|N|19|02|22|E|display=title}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kingdom of Hungary}} | |||
{{coord|47|28|N|19|03|E|source:kolossus-kowiki|display=title}} | |||
] | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hungary, Kingdom Of}} | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 13:39, 20 December 2024
Central European monarchy (1000–1946)
Kingdom of Hungary Names ↓ Magyar Királyság (Hungarian) Regnum Hungariae (Latin) Königreich Ungarn (German) | |||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1000–1918
1920–1946 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Flag (1915–1918) Coat of arms | |||||||||||||||||||||
Motto: Regnum Mariae Patronae Hungariae (Latin) Mária királysága, Magyarország védőnője (Hungarian) Kingdom of Mary, the Patroness of Hungary (English) | |||||||||||||||||||||
Anthem: "Himnusz" (1844–1946) "Hymn" Royal anthem God save, God protect Our Emperor, Our Country! (1797–1918) | |||||||||||||||||||||
The Kingdom of Hungary in union with Kingdom of Croatia (green) in 1190 | |||||||||||||||||||||
The Kingdom of Hungary (dark green) and Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (light green) within Austria-Hungary in 1914 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | Budapest
Historical capitals:
| ||||||||||||||||||||
Official languages |
Other spoken languages: Carpathian Romani, Croatian, Polish, Romanian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Yiddish | ||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | Catholicism (Latin and Eastern Catholic), Calvinism, Lutheranism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Unitarianism, Judaism | ||||||||||||||||||||
Demonym(s) | Hungarian | ||||||||||||||||||||
Government | Feudal monarchy (1000–1301) Absolute monarchy (1301–1868) Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1848–1918; 1920–46) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Monarch | |||||||||||||||||||||
• 1000–38 (first) | Stephen I | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1916–18 (last) | Charles IV | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1920–44 (Regent) | Miklós Horthy | ||||||||||||||||||||
Palatine | |||||||||||||||||||||
• 1009–38 (first) | Samuel Aba | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1847–48 (last) | Stephen Francis Victor | ||||||||||||||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||||||||||||||
• 1848 (first) | Lajos Batthyány | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1945–46 (last) | Zoltán Tildy | ||||||||||||||||||||
Legislature | Diet (from the 1290s) | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Upper house | House of Magnates (1867–1918; 1926–45) | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Lower house | House of Representatives (1867–1918; 1927–45) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | 2nd millennium | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Coronation of Stephen I | 25 December 1000 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Golden Bull of 1222 | 24 April 1222 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Battle of Mohi | 11 April 1241 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Battle of Mohács | 29 August 1526 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Ottoman occupation of Buda | 29 August 1541 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Treaty of Karlowitz | 26 January 1699 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Hungarian Revolution | 15 March 1848 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1867 Compromise | 30 March 1867 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Treaty of Trianon | 4 June 1920 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Monarchy abolished | 1 February 1918 | ||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||
1200 | 282,870 km (109,220 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||
1910 | 282,870 km (109,220 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||
1930 | 93,073 km (35,936 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||
1941 | 172,149 km (66,467 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||||||||||
• 1200 | 2,000,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1790 | 8,000,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1910 | 18,264,533 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1930 | 8,688,319 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1941 | 14,669,100 | ||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | |||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||
Today part of | Hungary |
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom around the year 1000; his family (the Árpád dynasty) led the monarchy for 300 years. By the 12th century, the kingdom became a European power.
Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: the Habsburg Royal Hungary, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 continuously until 1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire.
From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of 1920–46, ending under the Soviet occupation in 1946.
The Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic state from its inception until the Treaty of Trianon and it covered what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania and other parts of Romania, Carpathian Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), the territory of Burgenland (now part of Austria), Međimurje (now part of Croatia), Prekmurje (now part of Slovenia) and a few villages which are now part of Poland. From 1102 it also included the Kingdom of Croatia, being in personal union with it, united under the King of Hungary.
According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of Hungarians before the Battle of Mohács, however in the mid-19th century out of a population of 14 million less than 6 million were Hungarian due to the resettlement policies and continuous immigration from neighboring countries. Major territorial changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after World War I. More than nine-tenths of the population of modern Hungary is ethnically Hungarian and speaks Hungarian as their mother tongue.
Today, the feast day of the first king Stephen I (20 August) is a national holiday in Hungary, commemorating the foundation of the state (Foundation Day).
Names
Main article: Name of HungaryThe Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum Marianum (Kingdom of Mary); or simply Hungaria, were the names used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s.
The German name Königreich Ungarn was used officially from 1784 to 1790 and again between 1849 and the 1860s.
The Hungarian name (Magyar Királyság) was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The unofficial Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarország, which is still the colloquial, and also the official name of Hungary.
The names in the other native languages of the kingdom were: Polish: Królestwo Węgier, Romanian: Regatul Ungariei, Serbian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Croatian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Slovene: Kraljevina Ogrska, Slovak: Uhorské kráľovstvo, and Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.
In Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, although this term was also in use prior to that time.
Capital cities
Main article: List of historical capitals of HungaryName | Time period |
---|---|
Székesfehérvár | 1000–1543 |
Esztergom | 1000–1256 |
Buda | 1256–1315 |
Temesvár (now Timișoara) | 1315–1323 |
Visegrád | 1323–1408 |
Buda | 1408–1485 |
Vienna (Bécs) | 1485–1490 |
Buda | 1490–1536 (1541) |
Lippa (now Lipova) – Eastern Hungarian Kingdom | 1541–1542 |
Gyulafehérvár (now Alba Iulia) – Eastern Hungarian Kingdom | 1542–1570 |
Pressburg (Pozsony, now Bratislava) | 1536–1848 |
Buda | 1848–1849 |
Debrecen | 1849 |
Buda | 1849–1873 |
Budapest | 1873–1944 |
Debrecen | 1944 |
Budapest | 1944–1946 |
History
Origins
Main articles: Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and Principality of HungaryThe Hungarians, led by Árpád (who might have been either their sacred ruler or kende) or their military leader or gyula, settled the Carpathian Basin in 895 and established the Principality of Hungary (896–1000). The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor in Battle of Lechfeld.
Middle Ages
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Kingdom of Hungary" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
High Middle Ages
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)The principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I (son of principal Géza. Originally called Vajk until baptized) at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the Árpád dynasty. He fought against Koppány and in 998, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians and German knights wanted a Christian kingdom established in Central Europe. Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Eastern Orthodox saint in 2000. Around the 11th century, the Kingdom of Hungary became a Christian state, and Catholicism in the Hungarian Kingdom was a state religion.
After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called Bratislava, in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary.
This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I. Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. He was succeeded by Ladislaus I of Hungary, who further stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. He was also canonized as a saint. Under his rule Hungarians successfully fought against the Cumans and acquired parts of Croatia in 1091. Due to a dynastic crisis in Croatia, with the help of the local nobility who supported his claim, he managed to swiftly seize power in northern parts of the Croatian kingdom (Slavonia), as he was a claimant to the throne due to the fact that his sister was married to the late Croatian king Zvonimir who died without an heir.
However, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman. With the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd in 1102, the two kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were united under one crown. Although the precise terms of this relationship became a matter of dispute in the 19th century, it is believed that Coloman created a kind of personal union between the two kingdoms. The nature of the relationship varied through time, Croatia retained a large degree of internal autonomy overall, while the real power rested in the hands of the local nobility. Modern Croatian and Hungarian historiographies mostly view the relations between Kingdom of Croatia (1102–1526) and Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 as a form of a personal union, i.e. that they were connected by a common king. Also, one of the greatest Hungarian jurists and statesmen of the 16th century, István Werbőczy in his work Tripartitum treats Croatia as a kingdom separate to Hungary.
Especially Arabic and Byzantine travelers from this time praised the richness country, the dense pastures, the nicely cultivated lands, the plentiful animals in waters and forests. They said that the wheat is cheap, the markets are populous, the cities flourish and the folk are wealthy. Although it is hardly credible that they refer to all layers of society, the documents were inspired by the reality.
In 1222 Andrew II of Hungary issued the Golden Bull which laid down the principles of law.
Mongol invasion
Main article: Mongol invasion of EuropeIn 1241, Hungary was invaded by the Mongols and while the first minor battles with Subutai's vanguard probes ended in seeming Hungarian victories, the Mongols finally destroyed the combined Hungarian and Cuman armies at the Battle of Muhi. The Mongol invasions ultimately resulted in the death of 15-25% of Hungary's population, some 300,000-500,000 people in total. In 1242, after the end of the Mongol invasion, numerous fortresses to defend against future invasion were erected by Béla IV of Hungary. In gratitude, the Hungarians acclaimed him as the "Second Founder of the Homeland", and the Hungarian Kingdom again became a considerable force in Europe. In 1260 Béla IV lost the War of Babenberg Succession, his army was defeated at the Battle of Kressenbrunn by the united Bohemian forces. However, in 1278, Ladislaus IV of Hungary and Austrian troops fully destroyed the Bohemian army at the Battle on the Marchfeld.
Late Middle Ages
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)The Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of Andrew III. Subsequently, Hungary was ruled by the Angevins until the end of the 14th century, and then by several non-dynastic rulers – notably Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and Matthias Corvinus – until the early 16th century.
The Anjou Age
When Andrew III's predecessor, Ladislaus IV, was assassinated in 1290, another nobleman was set up as titular King of Hungary: Charles Martel of Anjou. Charles Martel was the son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, the sister of Ladislaus IV. However, Andrew III took the crown for himself and ruled without inconvenience after Charles Martel's death in 1295. Upon Andrew's death in 1301, the country was divided between powerful lords hostile to each other. A coalition of some of these oligarchs first crowned Wenceslaus III, who quickly fled from the anarchy, then Otto III, who was forced to leave by the Kán family. Charles, remaining as the only candidate, was finally crowned King Charles I in 1310. His famous battle at Rozgony, described as "most cruel battle since the Mongol invasion of Europe" by the Chronicon Pictum, ended his war of reunification.
He implemented considerable economic reforms and defeated the remaining nobility who were in opposition to royal rule, led by Máté Csák III. The kingdom of Hungary reached an age of prosperity and stability under Charles I. The gold mines of the Kingdom were extensively worked and soon Hungary reached a prominent standing in European gold production. The forint was introduced as a currency, replacing the denars, and soon after Charles's reforms were implemented, the economy of the Kingdom started to prosper again, having fallen into a parlous state following the Mongol invasion.
Charles exalted the cult to Saint Ladislaus I, using him as a symbol of bravery, justice and purity. He also venerated his uncle, Saint Louis of Toulouse. On the other hand, he gave importance to the cults of the princesses Saint Elizabeth and Saint Margaret, which added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the feminine branches.
Charles restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and then made the lords swear loyalty to him. For this, he founded in 1326 the Order of Saint George, which was the first secular chivalric order in the world, and included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom.
Charles married four times. His fourth wife was Elizabeth, the daughter of Władysław I of Poland. When Charles died in 1342, his eldest son by Elizabeth succeeded him as Louis I. In the first years of his reign, Louis was advised closely by his mother, making her one of the most influential personalities in the Kingdom.
Charles had arranged the marriage of his second son, Andrew, with his cousin Joanna, the granddaughter of King Robert of Naples, in 1332. Robert died in 1343, bequeathing his kingdom to Joanna but excluding the claim of Andrew. In 1345, a group of noble Neapolitan conspirators murdered Andrew at Aversa. Almost immediately, Louis declared war on Naples, conducting a first campaign in 1347–1348 and a second in 1350. He eventually signed peace with Joanna in 1352. Louis also waged wars against the Serbian Empire and the Golden Horde, restoring the Hungarian monarchs' authority over territories along the frontiers which had been lost during the previous decades.
In 1370 Louis's uncle, Casimir III of Poland, died without male issue. Louis succeeded him, thus establishing the first union of Hungary and Poland. This lasted until 1382 when Louis himself died without male issue; his two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga, then ascended the thrones of Hungary and Poland respectively.
The Age of Sigismund
Louis I of Hungary always kept good and close relationships with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg and finally proclaimed Charles's son Sigismund of Luxembourg to succeed him as the co-ruler of Louis' daughter and Sigismund's bride, Mary. Initially, Mary reigned as a sole monarch which led to turmoil, perhaps due to gender expectations of the time. Sigismund married her in 1385 and finally became a co-ruler in 1387. After his wife's death in 1395, he remained alone on the throne. Sigismund became a renowned king who created many improvements in the Hungarian law system and who rebuilt the palaces of Buda and Visegrád. He brought materials from Austria and Bohemia and ordered the creation of the most luxurious building in all of central Europe. In his laws can be seen the traces of the early mercantilism. He worked hard to keep the nobility under his control. A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the Ottoman Empire, which started to extend its frontiers and influence to Europe. In 1396 was fought the Battle of Nicopolis against the Ottomans, which resulted in a defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund and Philip of Artois, Count of Eu. However, Sigismund continued to successfully contain the Ottoman forces outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life.
Losing popularity among the Hungarian nobility, Sigismund soon became victim of an attempt against his rule, and Ladislaus of Anjou-Durazzo (the son of the murdered King of Naples Charles II of Hungary) was called in and crowned. Since the ceremony was not performed with the Hungarian Holy Crown, and in the city of Székesfehérvár, it was considered illegitimate. Ladislaus stayed only few days in Hungarian territory and soon left it, no longer an inconvenience for Sigismund. In 1408 he founded the Order of the Dragon, which included most of the relevant monarchs and noblemen of that region of Europe at that time. This was just a first step for what was coming. In 1410 he was elected King of the Romans, making him the supreme monarch over the German territories. He had to deal with the Hussite movement, a religious reformist group that was born in Bohemia, and he presided at the Council of Constance, where the theologist founder Jan Hus, was judged. In 1419 Sigismund inherited the Crown of Bohemia after the death of his brother Wenceslaus of Luxembourg, obtaining the formal control of three medieval states, but he struggled for control of Bohemia until the peace agreement with the Hussites and his coronation in 1436. In 1433 was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope and ruled until his death in 1437, leaving as his only heir his daughter Elizabeth of Luxembourg and her husband. The marriage of Elizabeth was arranged with the Duke Albert V of Austria, who was later crowned as King Albert of Hungary in 1437.
Hunyadi family
The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), the son of John Hunyadi. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs.
At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the Crusade of Varna, in which the Hungarians tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans. Initially, they were successful, but later at the Battle of Varna, the Ottomans won a decisive if Pyrrhic victory. Wladyslaw III was decapitated during this battle.
In 1456, John Hunyadi delivered a crushing defeat of the Ottomans at the Siege of Belgrade. The Noon Bell commemorates the fallen Christian warriors. In the 15th century, the Black Army of Hungary was a modern mercenary army, with the Hussars the most skilled troops of the Hungarian cavalry. In 1479, under the leadership of Pál Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. The army of Hungary destroyed its enemies almost every time when Matthias was king.
Matthias died without legitimate heir, and was thus succeeded by Vladislaus II Jagiellon (1490–1516), the son of Casimir IV of Poland. In turn, Vladislaus was succeeded by his son Louis II (1516–26).
In 1526, at the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Suleiman the Magnificent annihilated the Hungarian army. In trying to escape, Louis II drowned in the Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle.
Early modern history
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)The divided kingdom
See also: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, Ottoman Hungary, Royal Hungary, Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, and Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)Due to a serious defeat by the Ottomans (Battle of Mohács) the central authority collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected John Zápolya (10 November 1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, who was Archduke of Austria, and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump diet in December 1526.
Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows:
- Royal Hungary, which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuity of the Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered greatly from the nearly constant wars taking place.
- Ottoman Hungary: The Great Alföld (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including south-eastern Transdanubia and the Banat), partly without north-eastern present-day Hungary.
- Eastern Hungarian Kingdom under the Szapolyai. This territory, often under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included various other territories sometimes referred to as Partium. Later the entity was called Principality of Transylvania.
On 29 February 1528, King John I of Hungary received the support of the Ottoman Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary". At this time there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles. In 1532, Nikola Jurišić defended Kőszeg and stopped a powerful Ottoman army. By 1541, the fall of Buda marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. The country remained divided until the end of the 17th century.
In 1547, the Truce of Adrianople was signed between Charles V and Suleiman the Magnificent. Through this treaty, Ferdinand I of Austria and Charles V recognized total Ottoman control of Hungary, and agreed to pay to the Ottomans a yearly tribute of 30,000 gold florins for their Habsburg possessions in northern and western Hungary.
On 1 May 1566, Suleiman I led an Ottoman invasion of Habsburg-controlled Hungary, the Ottoman forces of which was one of the most sizable armies he had led in his rule of 46 years. After reaching Belgrade and met with John II Sigismund Zápolya on 27 June, Suleiman I learned that a Croatian-Hungarian nobleman, Nikola IV Zrinski, Ban of Croatia, accomplished an attack on an Ottoman military camp at Siklós. Suleiman I held off his attack of Eger for the time being, and began to set off towards Nikola IV Zrinski's fortress at Szigetvár. From 2 August to 7 September, the Ottoman forces had laid siege to the fortress with a force, at the least, of 150,000 against Zrinski's 2,300 defenders. While the siege turned into a victory for the Ottomans, it came at the cost of: 25,000 Ottoman soldiers and Suleiman I, who before the final battle of Szigetvár, due to natural causes of old age and illness.
In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the Ottoman forces, such as the Long War or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 – 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by Miklós Zrínyi burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of Osijek in eastern Slavonia, interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664), Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army.
After the Ottoman siege of Vienna failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to invade the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from the Ottoman Empire, with the aid of other Europeans.
The Kuruc age
Main article: Rákóczi's War of IndependenceRákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711) was the first significant freedom fight in Hungary against absolutist Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen, wealthy and high-ranking progressives who wanted to put an end to the inequality of power relations, led by Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc in Hungarian). Its main aims were to protect the rights of the different social orders, and to ensure the economic and social development of the country. Due to the adverse balance of forces, the political situation in Europe and internal conflicts the freedom fight was eventually suppressed, but it succeeded in keeping Hungary from becoming an integral part of the Habsburg Empire, and its constitution was kept, even though it was only a formality.
After the departure of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs dominated the Hungarian Kingdom. The Hungarians' renewed desire for freedom led to Rákóczi's War for Independence. The most important reasons of the war were the new and higher taxes and a renewed Protestant movement. Rákóczi was a Hungarian nobleman, son of the legendary heroine Ilona Zrínyi. He spent a part of his youth in Austrian captivity. The Kurucs were troops of Rákóczi. Initially, the Kuruc army attained several important victories due to their superior light cavalry. Their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabre and fokos. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1705), János Bottyán decisively defeated the Austrian army. The Hungarian colonel Ádám Balogh nearly captured Joseph I, the King of Hungary and Archduke of Austria.
In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at Battle of Trencsén, and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While the Hungarians were exhausted by the fights, the Austrians defeated the French army in the War of the Spanish Succession. They could send more troops to Hungary against the rebels. Transylvania became part of Hungary again starting at the end of the 17th century, and was led by governors.
Age of Enlightenment
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)In 1711, Austrian Emperor Charles VI became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own diet (parliament) and constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council (Helytartótanács, the office of the palatine) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior economic institution, the Hungarian Chamber, was directly subordinated to the Court Chamber in Vienna.
The Hungarian language reform started under the reign of Joseph II. The reform age of Hungary was started by István Széchenyi a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. The official language remained Latin until 1836, when Hungarian was introduced. Between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867 onward, Hungarian became the exclusively used official language.
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1848The European revolutions of 1848 swept into Hungary, as well. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political change, namely independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the revolution, Sándor Petőfi.
As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes, which included the campaigns of the Hungarian general, Artúr Görgey, forced the Austrians on the defensive. One of the most famous battles of the revolution, the Battle of Pákozd, was fought on 29 September 1848, when the Hungarian revolutionary army led by Lieutenant-General János Móga defeated the troops of the Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić. Fearing defeat, the Austrians pleaded for Russian help. The combined forces of the two empires quelled the revolution. The desired political changes of 1848 were again suppressed until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.
Population 1910 (Kingdom of Hungary without Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia)
Ethnicity | Number | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Hungarian | 9 944 627 | 54.44% |
Romanian | 2 948 186 | 16.14% |
Slovak | 1 946 357 | 10.65% |
German | 1 903 357 | 10.42% |
Ruthenian | 464 270 | 2.54% |
Serbian | 461 516 | 2.52% |
Croatian | 194 808 | 1.06% |
Other | 401 412 | 2.19% |
All | 18 264 533 | 100% |
Population 1910 (Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen)
Land | Hungarian | Romanian | German | Slovak | Croatian | Serbian | Ruthenian | Other | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Danube Right Bank | 72% (2,221,295) | 0% (833) | 18% (555,694) | 0.6% (17,188) | 5.5% (168,436) | 0.5% (15,170) | 0% (232) | 3.4% (105,556) | 14.8% (3,084,404) |
Danube Left Bank | 32.7% (711,654) | 0% (704) | 6.6% (144,395) | 58.8% (1,279,574) | 0.1% (2,294) | 0% (200) | 0% (393) | 1.7% (36,710) | 10.4% (2,175,924) |
Danube-Tisza | 81.2% (3,061,066) | 0.1% (4,813) | 9.5% (357,822) | 2.1% (79,354) | 0.1% (4,866) | 4.1% (154,298) | 0.3% (11,121) | 4.1% (96,318) | 18% (3,769,658) |
Tisza Right Bank | 53.5% (945,990) | 0.1% (1,910) | 5.6% (98,564) | 25% (441,776) | 0% (486) | 0% (247) | 14.3% (253,062) | 1.6% (27,646) | 8.5% (1,769,681) |
Tisza Left Bank | 61.8% (1,603,924) | 24% (621,918) | 3.2% (83,229) | 3.1% (81,154) | 0% (327) | 0% (321) | 7.5% (194,504) | 0.3% (8,547) | 12.4% (2,594,924) |
Tisza-Maros | 22.2% (474,988) | 39.5% (845,850) | 19.9% (427,253) | 2.1% (44,715) | 0.2% (4,950) | 13.6% (290,434) | 0.1% (3,188) | 2.4% (50,391) | 10.3% (2,141,769) |
Transylvania | 34.3% (918,217) | 55% (1,472,021) | 8.7% (234,085) | 0.1% (2,404) | 0% (523) | 0% (421) | 0.1% (1,759) | 1.8% (48,937) | 12.8% (2,678,367) |
Fiume | 13% (6,493) | 0.3% (137) | 4.6% (2,315) | 0.4% (192) | 26% (12,926) | 0.9% (425) | 0% (11) | 54.8 (27,307, mostly Italian) | 0.2% (49,806) |
Croatia-Slavonia | 4% (105,948) | 0% (846) | 5.1% (134,078) | 0.8% (21,613) | 62.5% (1,638,354) | 24.6% (644,955) | 0.3% (8,317) | 2.6% (67,843) | 12.6% (2,621,954) |
Total | 48.1% (10,050,575) | 14.1% (2,949,032) | 9.8% (2,037,435) | 9.4% (1,967,970) | 8.8% (1,833,162) | 5.3% (1,106,471) | 2.3% (472,587) | 2.2% (469,255) | 100% (20,886,487) |
Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)Following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Habsburg Monarchy became the "dual monarchy" of Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist way of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence and obsolete medieval institutions continued to disappear. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire began to experience rapid economic growth. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).
The lands of the Hungarian Crown (comprising the Kingdom of Hungary proper, into which Transylvania was fully incorporated, and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, which maintained a distinct identity and internal autonomy) were granted equal status with the Austrian Empire. Each of the two states comprising Austria-Hungary exercised considerable independence, with certain institutions, notably the reigning house, defence, foreign affairs, and finances for common expenditures, remaining under joint management. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when the Central Powers went down in defeat in World War I.
Transitions (1918 to 1920)
Two short-lived republics
Main articles: Hungarian Democratic Republic and Hungarian Soviet RepublicThe Hungarian Soviet Republic or Hungarian Republic of Councils (Hungarian: Magyarországi Tanácsköztársaság or Magyarországi Szocialista Szövetséges Tanácsköztársaság) was a short-lived independent communist state established in Hungary.
It lasted only from 21 March until 1 August 1919. The state was led by Béla Kun and was not recognized by France, the UK or the US. It was the second socialist state in the world to be formed after the October Revolution in Russia brought the Bolsheviks to power. The Hungarian Republic of Councils had military conflicts with the Kingdom of Romania (see Hungarian–Romanian War), the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the evolving Czechoslovakia. It collapsed on 1 August 1919 when Hungarians sent representatives to negotiate their surrender to the Romanian forces and Béla Kun, together with other high-ranking Communists, fled to Austria.
A 1919 attempt to form a federation with the Kingdom of Romania also failed, when the Romanian King ultimately refused to accept the Hungarian Crown.
The restoration of the Kingdom
After the pullout of occupation forces of Romania in 1920 the country went into civil conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists purging the nation of communists and others by whom they felt threatened. On 29 February 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, the Kingdom of Hungary was restored, a coalition of right-wing political forces united and reinstated Hungary's status as a constitutional monarchy. Selection of the new King was delayed due to civil infighting, and a regent was appointed to represent the monarchy, former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral Miklós Horthy.
Treaty of Trianon (1920)
The new borders set in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon ceded 72% of the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary to the neighbouring states. The main beneficiaries were Romania, the newly formed states of Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, but Austria, Poland and Italy also gained smaller territories. The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them separately) possessed a majority of non-Hungarian population, but more than 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians were left outside the new borders of Hungary. Many view this as contrary to the terms laid out by US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which were intended to honour the ethnic makeup of the territories. As President Wilson left the conference to emphasize his disagreement, and because the US Congress did not ratify the treaty, the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.
Between 1920 and 1946
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)Interwar period
Main articles: Hungary between the World Wars and Hungarian interwar economyThe new international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and banking institutions of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors.
Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population and 56% of its industry. Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a numerus clausus law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps towards fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after Charles IV unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. The return of King Charles produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count István Bethlen, a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921. (For more detail, see Charles IV of Hungary's attempts to retake the throne.)
As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the League of Nations in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies.
The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, Gyula Gömbös, who changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. On 2 November 1938, as the result of the First Vienna Award parts of Czechoslovakia – Southern Slovakia and a part of Carpathian Ruthenia – were returned to Hungary, an area amounting to 11,927 km and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of which were Hungarians according to the 1941 census). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian armed forces peacefully occupied the newly transferred territories. Hitler later promised to transfer all of Slovakia to Hungary in exchange for a military alliance, but his offer was rejected. Instead, Horthy chose to pursue a territorial revision to be decided along ethnic lines. In March 1939, the Czecho-Slovak Republic was dissolved, Germany invaded it, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was established. On 14 March, Slovakia declared itself to be an independent state.
On 15 March, Carpatho-Ukraine declared itself to be an independent state. Hungary rejected the independence of Carpatho-Ukraine and, between 14 March and 18 March, Hungarian armed forces occupied the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and ousted the government of Avgustyn Voloshyn. By contrast, Hungary recognized the Nazi puppet state of Slovakia led by the Clerical Fascist Jozef Tiso. In September 1940, with troops massing on both sides of the Hungarian-Romanian border, war was averted by the Second Vienna Award. This award transferred the northern half of Transylvania to Hungary, with a total area of 43,492 km and a total population of 2,578,100 with a 53.5% Hungarian majority according to the 1941 census. By dividing Transylvania between Romania and Hungary, Hitler was able to ease tensions in Hungary. In October 1940, the Germans initiated a reciprocity policy between Romania and Hungary which was continued until the end of World War II. The region of Sub-Carpathia was given special autonomous status with the intention that (eventually) it would be self-governed by the Ruthenian minority.
During World War II 1941–1945
Main article: Hungary during World War IIAfter being granted part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia by the Germans and Italians in the First Vienna Award of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in the Second Vienna Award of 1940, Hungary participated in their first military maneuvers on the side of the Axis powers in 1941. Thus, the Hungarian army was part of the invasion of Yugoslavia, gaining some more territory and joining the Axis powers in the process. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered World War II on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the Battle of Uman. By 1943, after the Royal Hungarian Army suffered extremely heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied Hungary in what was known as Operation Margarethe. By then it was clear that Hungarian politics would be suppressed according to Hitler's intention to hold the country in the war on the side of the Nazi Third Reich because of its strategic location. On 15 October 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from the war. The Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and Horthy's regime was replaced by a fascist puppet government under the pro-German Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi, thus effectively ending the possibility for independent actions in the war. However, the form of government was only changed to a republic two years later.
Transitioning into a republic
Following its occupation of Hungary in 1944, the Soviet Union imposed harsh conditions allowing the Soviets to seize important material assets and control internal affairs. After the Red Army set up police organs to persecute "class enemies", the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support the Communists in the coming elections. The Communists fared poorly, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party. In 1945, Soviet Marshal Kliment Voroshilov forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the Hungarian Communist Party. Communist Interior Minister László Rajk established the ÁVH secret police, which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture. In 1946 the form of government was changed to a republic. Soon after the monarchy was abolished, the Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader Mátyás Rákosi to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle." What emerged was a communist state lasting until 23 October 1956 when the Soviet occupation was swept away by the Hungarian uprising, victorious until 10 November 1956. The Soviet occupation was then restored, lasting until 1989 when the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving the way for free elections in March 1990. In today's republic, the Kingdom is regarded as one long stage in the development of the state. This sense of continuity is reflected in the republic's national symbols such as the Holy Crown of Hungary and the coat of arms of Hungary, which are the same as when the monarchy was still in place. Several holidays, the official language (Hungarian), and the capital city Budapest have also been retained. The official Hungarian name of the country is Magyarország (simply Hungary) since 2012; it was also the common name of the monarchy. The millennium of the Hungarian statehood was commemorated in 2000 and codified by the Millennium Act of 2000.
See also
- Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary
- Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)
- Demographics of the Kingdom of Hungary
- List of Hungarian rulers
- Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary
Notes
- After the death of the Hungarian king at Battle of Mohács in 1526, Hungarian noble groups elected two kings dividing Hungary in two: Royal Hungary and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. During the Ottoman occupation between 1541 and 1699, the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into three separate parts:
- Royal Hungary 1526–1699
- Eastern Hungarian Kingdom 1526–1570 which became the Principality of Transylvania 1570–1711
- Ottoman Hungary 1541–1699
References
- Adeleye, Gabriel G. (1999). World Dictionary of Foreign Expressions. Ed. Thomas J. Sienkewicz and James T. McDonough, Jr. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-86516-422-3.
- The majority of Hungarian people became Christian in the 10th century. Hungary's first king, Saint Stephen I, took up Western Christianity. Hungary remained solely Catholic until the Reformation took place during the 16th century and, as a result, Lutheranism and then, soon afterwards, Calvinism started to spread.
- J. C. Russell, "Population in Europe 500–1500," in The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages, ed. Carlo M. Cipolla (London: Collins/Fontana Books, 1972), p. 25.
- Historical World Atlas. With the commendation of the Royal Geographical Society. Carthographia, Budapest, Hungary, 2005. ISBN 963-352-002-9
- Emil Valkovics:Demography of contemporary Hungarian society Archived 1 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 1996, p. 15
- Kollega Tarsoly, István, ed. (1996). "Magyarország". Révai nagy lexikona (in Hungarian). Vol. 21. Budapest: Hasonmás Kiadó. p. 572. ISBN 963-9015-02-4.
- Élesztős László; et al., eds. (2004). "Magyarország". Révai új lexikona (in Hungarian). Vol. 13. Budapest: Hasonmás Kiadó. pp. 882, 895. ISBN 963-9556-13-0.
- ^ Kristó Gyula – Barta János – Gergely Jenő: Magyarország története előidőktől 2000-ig (History of Hungary from the prehistory to 2000), Pannonica Kiadó, Budapest, 2002, ISBN 963-9252-56-5, pp. 37, 113, 678 ("Magyarország a 12. század második felére jelentős európai tényezővé, középhatalommá vált."/"By the 12th century Hungary became an important European factor, became a middle power.", "A Nyugat részévé vált Magyarország.../Hungary became part of the West"), pp. 616–644
- Stickel, Gerhard (2010). National, regional and minority languages in Europe: contributions to the annual conference 2009 of EFNIL in Dublin. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3631603659. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2015 – via Google Books.
- "Hungary | Culture, History, & People". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 December 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- Leslie Konnyu, Hungarians in the United States: an immigration study, American Hungarian Review, 1967, p. 4 ] https://books.google.hu/books?ei=flgWTb7eI8yChQeli6W3Dg&ct=result&id=40RCAAAAIAAJ&dq=population+1490+Magyars+80%25&q=+80+stock&redir_esc=y#search_anchor
- László Kósa, István Soós, A companion to Hungarian studies, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1999, p. 16 Archived 16 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- "Saint Stephen's Day in Hungary in 2020". Office Holidays. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- Hintersteiner, Norbert (9 February 2017). Naming and Thinking God in Europe Today: Theology in Global Dialogue. Rodopi. ISBN 978-9042022058. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2014 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Magyarország geográfiai szótára". www.fszek.hu. Archived from the original on 19 March 2018. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
- ^ Fundamental Law of Hungary (2012), Wikisource
- Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Volume 36 Archived 29 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), 1982, p. 419
- Alex Kish, George (2011). The Origins of the Baptist Movement Among the Hungarians: A History of the Baptists in the Kingdom of Hungary From 1846 to 1893. BRILL. p. 18. ISBN 9789004211360.
- N. Ciolan, Ioan (1993). Transylvania: Romanian History and Perpetuation. Military Publishing House. p. 41. ISBN 9789733203162.
Catholicism in the Hungarian Kingdom was a state religion
- Hóman, Bálint (1983). King Stephen the Saint. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 18. ISBN 9789733203162.
The Roman Catholic Church was placed under State protection, while the Catholic religion became the state religion of the Hungarian Kingdom
- "Aba Sámuel". www.csongrad-megye.hu. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 25 December 2008.
- Archived 6 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- Larousse online encyclopedia, Histoire de la Croatie: Archived 27 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine (in French)
- "Croatia (History)". Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 March 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
- Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) . The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 288. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
- Barna Mezey: Magyar alkotmánytörténet, Budapest, 1995, p. 66
- Engel, Pál (1990). "Magyarország a 12. században" [Hungary in the 12th century]. In Glatz, Ferenc; Burucs, Kornélia (eds.). Beilleszkedés Európába a kezdetektől 1440-ig [Integration into Europe from the start until 1440]. Vol. Magyarok Európában I. Háttér Lap- és Könyvkiadó. p. 174. ISBN 963-7403-892.
- Sugar, p.27: "In the plains, between 50 and 80 percent of the settlements were destroyed. In forested areas, in the mountains, and in Transylvania, the demographic loss is estimated at 25-30 percent".
- Sugar, Peter F.; Hanák, Péter (1990). A History of Hungary. Indiana University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-253-20867-5.
- Geréb, László (1993). Képes krónika. Magyar Hírlap and Maecenas. ISBN 963-8164-07-7.
- A szentek élete I. (szerk. Dr. Diós István), Szent István Társulat, 1984.
- Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian societies by John Brian Harley p.245
- Ground warfare: an international encyclopedia by Stanley Sandler p.387
- The Cambridge history of Islam by Peter Malcolm Holt p.328
- Turnbull, Stephen R (2003). The Ottoman Empire, 1326–1699. New York (USA): Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 55. ISBN 0-415-96913-1.
- ^ Shelton, Edward (1867). The book of battles: or, Daring deeds by land and sea. London, UK: Houlston and Wright. pp. 82–83.
- Turnbull, Stephen R. (2003). The Ottoman Empire, 1326–1699. New York, USA: Osprey Publishing Ltd. pp. 55–56. ISBN 0-415-96913-1.
- Spatiul istoric si ethnic romanesc, Editura Militara, Bucuresti, 1992
- "Transylvania | Location & History". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- "Grand Principality of Transylvania". TheFreeDictionary.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- "1836. évi III. törvénycikk a Magyar Nyelvről". 1000ev.hu. Wolters Kluwer Kft. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
- "A Pallas nagy lexikona "Hivatalos nyelv"". www.mek.iif.hu. Országos Széchenyi Könyvtár – Hungarian Electronic Library. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
- Fajth, Gáspár; Dr Gyulay, Ferenc; Dr Klinger, András; Dr Harcsa, István; Kamarás, Ferenc; Dr Csahók, István; Dr Ehrlich, Éva (1992). Történeti statisztikai idősorok 1867–1992 I.: Népesség-népmozgalom (in Hungarian). Hungarian Central Statistical Office. ISBN 9789637070433. Archived from the original on 2 June 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
- Fajth, Gáspár; Dr Gyulay, Ferenc; Dr Klinger, András; Dr Harcsa, István; Kamarás, Ferenc; Dr Csahók, István; Dr Ehrlich, Éva (1992). Történeti statisztikai idősorok 1867–1992 I.: Népesség-népmozgalom (in Hungarian). Hungarian Central Statistical Office. ISBN 9789637070433. Archived from the original on 2 June 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
- "A Forradalmi Kormányzótanács XXVI. számú rendelete – Wikiforrás". hu.wikisource.org. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- Official name of the state between 23 June and 1 August according to the constitution, see: A Magyarországi Szocialista Szövetséges Tanácsköztársaság alkotmánya (in Hungarian) Archived 30 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- Brecher, Michael; Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (1 January 1997). A Study of Crisis. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472108069. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 12 June 2016 – via Google Books.
- "Hungary Hungarian Soviet Republic – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System". 2002. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
- Béla K. Király, Gunther Erich Rothenberg, War and Society in East Central Europe: Trianon and East Central Europe antecedents and repercussions, p. 114
- Francis Tapon: The Hidden Europe: What Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us Archived 23 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Thomson Press India, 2012
- Molnar, A Concise History of Hungary Archived 26 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 262
- Richard C. Frucht, Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture Archived 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine pp. 359–360M1
- 1921. évi XLVIII. törvénycikk az Amerikai Egyesült-Államokkal 1921. évi augusztus hó 29. napján Budapesten kötött békeszerződés becikkelyezéséről – XLVIII. Act of 1921 about the enactment the peace treaty signed in Budapest on 29. August 1921 with the United States of America – http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=7504 Archived 21 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- Flood-light on Europe: a guide to the next war by Felix Wittmer, published by C. Scribner's sons, 1937, Item notes: pt. 443, Original from Indiana University, Digitized 13 November 2008 p. 114
- History of the Hungarian Nation by Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, Danubian Research Center, Published by Danubian Press, 1969, Original from the University of California, Digitized 19 June 2008 p. 222
- The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia by Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Justin D. Murphy, Edition: illustrated, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 ISBN 0-8153-0399-8, ISBN 978-0-8153-0399-2, p.697 Archived 11 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Thomas, The Royal Hungarian Army in World War II, pg. 11
- "Slovakia". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2 June 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
- Wettig 2008, p. 51
- ^ Wettig 2008, p. 85
- Norton, Donald H. (2002). Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present, p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey. ISBN 0-87891-711-X.
- UN General Assembly Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (1957) "Chapter II.N, para 89(xi) (p. 31)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2009. (1.47 MB)
- Wettig 2008, p. 110
- "Text of the Millennium Act". Archived from the original on 12 February 2009.
Sources
- Wettig, Gerhard (2008), Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6
Further reading
- Engel, Pál. The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. (2001).
- Frucht, Richard. Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism. Archived 18 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine (2000).
- Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. History of Modern Hungary, 1867–1994 (1996)
- Hanak, Peter et al. A History of Hungary (1994)
- "Hungary" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 894–931.
- Kings and Saints – The Age of the Árpáds (PDF). Budapest, Székesfehérvár: Institute of Hungarian Research. 2022. ISBN 978-615-6117-65-6.
- Kontler, Laszlo. A History of Hungary (2006) excerpt and text search
- Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. A Concise History of Hungary (2001) excerpt and text search
- Palffy, Geza. The Kingdom of Hungary and the Habsburg Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2010) 406 pages; Covers the period after the battle of Mohacs in 1526 when the Kingdom of Hungary was partitioned in three, with one segment going to the Habsburgs.
47°29′46″N 19°02′22″E / 47.49611°N 19.03944°E / 47.49611; 19.03944
Categories:- Kingdom of Hungary
- Medieval history of Hungary
- Early modern history of Hungary
- Modern history of Hungary
- Subdivisions of the Habsburg monarchy
- Territorial evolution of Hungary
- Former kingdoms
- Kingdom of Croatia
- Medieval history of Vojvodina
- Medieval history of Serbia
- Transylvania in the Kingdom of Hungary
- Vojvodina under Habsburg rule
- Historical geography of Ukraine
- History of Slovakia by topic
- History of Transylvania
- Christian states
- 10th-century establishments in Hungary
- 1918 disestablishments in Hungary
- States and territories established in 1000
- States and territories disestablished in 1918
- 1000 establishments in Europe
- 1918 disestablishments in Europe
- 2nd millennium in Hungary
- Axis powers
- Lands of the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)