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{{Short description|Geographical region in the Pacific Ocean}}
{{Redirect|South West Pacific|the World War II ]|South West Pacific theatre of World War II}}
{{About|the geographical region|the continent|Australia (continent)|the continental mainland|Mainland Australia|other uses}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|South West Pacific|the 1943 Australian film|South West Pacific (film){{!}}''South West Pacific'' (film)|the World War II military command|South West Pacific Area}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Use Australian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Over-quotation|date=August 2024}}


{{Infobox continent
'''Oceania''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˌ|ə|ʊ|ʃ|ɪ|ˈ|ɑː|n|ɪ|ə}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|ə|ʊ|s|ɪ|ˈ|ɑː|n|ɪ|ə}})<ref name="OED Oceania">Pronunciation: ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'' (1998) ISBN 0-19-861263-X - p.1282 "'''Oceania''' /ˌəʊsɪˈɑːnɪə, -ʃɪ-/".</ref> is a ] centered on the ]s of the tropical ].<ref>For a history of the term, see Douglas & Ballard (2008) ''Foreign bodies: Oceania and the science of race 1750–1940''</ref> Opinions of what constitutes Oceania range from the coral atolls and volcanic islands of the ] (] divided into the ]s of ], ], and ])<ref>. 2005. ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. Columbia University Press.</ref>
|title = Oceania
to the entire insular region between ] and the ], including ] and the ].<ref name=OED/> The term is sometimes used more specifically to denote a ] comprising ] and proximate islands,<ref name=OED/><ref name="millenniumindicators.un.org">, United Nations Statistics Division. Revised August 28, 2007. Accessed on line October 11, 2007.</ref><ref>. Revised Date Modified: August 17, 2004. Accessed on line January 31, 2011.</ref><ref name="Encarta Mexico Oceanía">{{cite web|url=http://mx.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557382/Ocean%C3%ADa.html |title=Encarta Mexico "Oceanía" |publisher=Mx.encarta.msn.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257053672622272|archivedate=2009-11-01|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref name="Lewis 1997 32">{{cite book|last=Lewis |first=Martin W. |authorlink= |coauthors=Kären E. Wigen |title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |id=ISBN 0-520-20742-4, ISBN 0-520-20743-2 |pages=32 |chapter= |quote= Interestingly enough, the answer conformed almost precisely to the conventional list: North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania (Australia plus New Zealand), Africa, and Antarctica.}}</ref>
|image = Oceania (centered orthographic projection).svg
or biogeographically as a synonym for either the ] (] and ]) or the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia apart either from ]<ref name="Udvardy 1975">Udvardy. 1975. ''A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world''</ref> or from mainland New Guinea).<ref name="Steadman 2006">Steadman. 2006. ''Extinction & biogeography of tropical Pacific birds''</ref>
|image_size = 210px
|image_caption = An orthographic projection of Oceania
|area = {{convert|9,000,000|km2|abbr=on}} (])
|population = {{UN_Population|Oceania}} ({{UN_Population|Year}}, ]){{UN_Population|ref}}
|density = {{convert|4.94|/km2|abbr=on}}
|GDP_nominal = $1.630 trillion (2018, ])
|GDP_per_capita = $62,316 (2023, ])
|demonym = Oceanian
|religions = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;
|{{Tree list}}
* 62.1% ]
** 32.7% ]
** 24.1% ]
** 4.8% other ]
{{Tree list/end}}
|36.4% ]
|1.3% other<ref>{{cite web |url=https://crgsoft.com/oceania-population-characteristics-economy-and-religions/ |title=Oceania: Population, Characteristics, Economy And Religions |date=17 January 2022 |publisher=CRGSoft |access-date=3 October 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003060402/https://crgsoft.com/oceania-population-characteristics-economy-and-religions/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}
|countries = {{Collapsible list
| title = ] (])
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal
| {{flag|Australia}}
| {{flag|Fiji}}
| {{flag|Kiribati}}
| {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
| {{flag|Micronesia}}
| {{flag|Nauru}}
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| {{flag|Palau}}
| {{nowrap|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}}}
| {{flag|Samoa}}
| {{flag|Solomon Islands}}
| {{flag|Tonga}}
| {{flag|Tuvalu}}
| {{flag|Vanuatu}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| title = ] (])
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| {{nowrap|{{flag|Cook Islands}}}}
| {{flag|Niue}}
}}
|list_countries =
|dependencies = {{Collapsible list
| title = ''']''' (])
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| '''{{flag|Australia}} (5)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|Ashmore and Cartier Islands}}
| {{flag|Christmas Island}}
| {{flag|Cocos (Keeling) Islands}}
| {{flag|Coral Sea Islands}}
| {{flag|Norfolk Island}}
}}
| '''{{flag|Fiji}} (1)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|Rotuma}}
}}
| '''{{flag|France}} (3)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|French Polynesia}}
| {{flag|New Caledonia|local}}
| {{flag|Wallis and Futuna|local}}
}}
| '''{{flag|New Zealand}} (1)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|Tokelau}}
}}
| '''{{flag|Papua New Guinea}} (1)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|Bougainville}}
}}
| '''{{flag|United Kingdom}} (1)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|Pitcairn Islands}}
}}
| '''{{flag|United States}} (11)'''
| {{Bulleted list
| {{flag|American Samoa}}
| {{flag|Baker Island}}
| {{flag|Guam}}
| {{flag|Howland Island}}
| {{flag|Jarvis Island}}
| {{flag|Johnston Atoll}}
| {{flag|Kingman Reef}}
| {{flag|Midway Atoll|local}}
| {{flag|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| {{flag|Palmyra Atoll}}
| {{flag|Wake Island|local}}
}}
}}
<br />{{Collapsible list
| title = ''']''' (])
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| '''{{flag|Chile}} (1)'''
| {{Bulleted list
|{{flag|Easter Island}}
}}
| '''{{flag|Ecuador}} (1)'''
{{Bulleted list
|] ]<ref>The ] are physiographically in ] but it has been physiopolitically associated with Oceania</ref>
}}
| '''{{flag|Indonesia}} (7)'''
{{Bulleted list
| {{flag|Maluku}} (])
| {{flag|Central Papua}}
| {{flag|Highland Papua}}
| {{flag|Papua}}
| {{flag|South Papua}}
| {{flag|Southwest Papua}}
| {{flag|West Papua}}
}}
| '''{{flag|Japan}} (1)'''
{{Bulleted list
| ] ]
}}
| '''{{flag|United States}} (1)'''
| {{Bulleted list
|{{flag|Hawaii}}
}}
}}
|languages = {{Collapsible list
| title = ] (])
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
| ]
}}
|unrecognized =
|time = ] (], ]) to ] (])<br />(west to east)
|cities = <!-- PLEASE LIMIT THE CITIES LISTED HERE TO THE TEN MOST POPULOUS METROPOLISES LISTED ON THE ]. THANKS! -->
{{Collapsible list
| title = ]
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
|
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]
# {{flagicon|New Zealand}} ]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]
# {{flagicon|United States}} ]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]–]
# {{flagicon|New Zealand}} ]
# {{flagicon|Australia}} ]–]
}}
|m49 = <code>009</code> – Oceania<br /><code>001</code> – ]
}}


'''Oceania''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|oʊ|s|i|ˈ|ɑː|n|i|ə|,_|ˌ|oʊ|ʃ|i|-|,_|-|ˈ|eɪ|n|-}} {{respell|OH|s(h)ee|AH|nee|ə|,_-|AY|-}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Oceania.ogg|US|ˌ|oʊ|ʃ|i|ˈ|æ|n|i|ə|,_|-|ˈ|ɑː|n|-}} {{respell|OH|shee|A(H)N|ee|ə}})<ref name="pronun" /> is a ] including ], ], ], and ].<ref name="aging" /><ref name="worldatlas">{{cite web |title=The Four Sub-regions Of Oceania |date=26 December 2017 |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-sub-regions-of-oceania.html |publisher=WorldAtlas |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124222422/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-sub-regions-of-oceania.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Outside of the ], Oceania is generally considered a ], while ] is regarded as its continental ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Montejo |first=Erika |date=2023-12-26 |title=¿Cuándo se formó Oceanía, el continente más pequeño del planeta? |url=https://www.ngenespanol.com/el-mundo/cuando-se-formo-oceania/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=National Geographic en Español |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Larousse |first=Éditions |title=Océanie - LAROUSSE |url=https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/Oc%C3%A9anie/126906 |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=larousse.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceania - Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/oceania/,%20https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/oceania/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Treccani |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=CEON |title=Atlas Geográfico Escolar - IBGE |url=https://atlasescolar.ibge.gov.br/continentes-e-regioes-do-mundo/2970-oceania.html |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Atlas Geográfico Escolar - IBGE |language=pt-br}}</ref> Spanning the ] and ] hemispheres, at the centre of the ], Oceania is estimated to have a land area of about {{convert|9,000,000|km2|sqmi}} and a population of around 44.4 million as of 2022. Oceania is the smallest continent in land area and the ] after ].
==Etymology==
The term was coined as ''Océanie'' ca. 1812 by geographer ].<ref name=OED>{{OED|Oceania}}</ref> The word ''Océanie'' is a ] word derived from the ] word {{lang|grc|]}} (''ōkeanós''), ocean.{{clear}}


Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the ] and globally competitive ] of ], ], ], ], and ], which rank high in ] and ],<ref name="worlda" /><ref name="herita" /> to the much ] of ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="imforg" /> The largest and most populous ] is Australia, and the largest city is ].<ref name="dfatgov" /> ] in ] is the highest peak in Oceania at {{convert|4884|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="modern283" />
==Definitions==

], located on the ] of ]]]
The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 February 2019 |title=Aboriginal Australians |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/02/aboriginal-australians |website=National Geographic |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=24 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824131919/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/02/aboriginal-australians |url-status=live }}</ref> Oceania was ] from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the ], some of the ] and west ]. Spanish and Dutch explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the 18th century, ], who later arrived at the highly developed ], went to ] and followed the ] for the first time.<ref name="foundi" /> The ] in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The ] saw major action during the ] and ]s.
<div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 20em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; line-height: normal;"><!-- start of floated right section -->

<div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;"><!-- start of slate grey box -->
The ] of ] is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world.<ref name="oceanart" /> Most Oceanian countries are ], with ] serving as a large source of income for the ].<ref name="newpol162" />
<big>'''Oceania'''</big>

<div align=center>
==Definitions and extent==
]<br>Geopolitical Oceania
===Characteristics===
</div>
], ], ], and ]]]
{| style="background:none; text-align:left; table-layout:auto; border-collapse:collapse; padding:0; font-size:100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"

! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Demonym
Definitions of Oceania vary.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lidstone |first1=John |last2=Stoltman |first2=Joseph P. |last3=DeChano |first3=Lisa M. |title=International Perspectives on Natural Disasters: Occurrence, Mitigation, and Consequences |date=2004 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |page=193 |isbn=978-1402028519 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94q9GgFtjYoC&dq=%22and+Melanesia,+meaning%22&pg=PA193 |quote=Anthropologists have defined Oceania as that region of the Pacific Ocean that encompasses three distinct geographical areas—Polynesia, meaning "many islands"; Micronesia, meaning "small islands"; and Melanesia, meaning "black islands." Other definitions of Oceania are used by geographers, economists, and oceanographers. The definition of the region generally depends on the context that one assigns to it in research or writing. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064235/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/International_Perspectives_on_Natural_Di/94q9GgFtjYoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22and+Melanesia%2C+meaning%22&pg=PA193&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="asianpacific">{{Cite book |last=Crocombe |first=R. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&dq=%22included+in+cultural+definitions+of+oceania%22&pg=PR13 |title=Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West |date=2007 |publisher=University of the South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies |isbn=978-9820203884 |page=13 |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209001401/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&dq=%22included+in+cultural+definitions+of+oceania%22&pg=PR13 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="worldatlas" /> The broadest definition encompasses the many islands between mainland ] and the ].<ref name="aging">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/med/9780198701590.003.0008 |chapter=Population ageing in Oceania |title=Oxford Textbook of Geriatric Medicine |year=2017 |last1=Flicker |first1=Leon |last2=Kerse |first2=Ngaire |pages=55–62 |isbn=978-0-19-870159-0 |quote=The region of Oceania describes a collection of islands scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean between Asia and the Americas. The region is vast and largely covered by ocean. There are four subregions of this region, including Australasia (Australia and New Zealand), Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and ]), Micronesia (the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Palau etc.), and Polynesia (American Samoa, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, and Tuvalu etc.).}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Oceania {{pipe}} Definition, Population, & Facts {{pipe}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Oceania-region-Pacific-Ocean |website=Britannica.com |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2008-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531185210/https://www.britannica.com/place/Oceania-region-Pacific-Ocean |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="harv">{{Cite book |last=Bequaert |first=Joseph C. |url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op16-11.pdf |title=The Hippoboscidae of Oceania |date=1941 |publisher=Harvard Medical School |quote=In the present taxonomic study of the Hippoboscidae, Oceania covers, rather arbitrarily, the many archipelagos and isolated islands scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean, from the Marianas and Caroline Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia to the Hawaiian islands and the Galapagos. |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124010141/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op16-11.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The island nation of ] is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Margaret |first=Cowan E. |url={{Google books|JIGZhTRPSe4C|page=9|plainurl=yes}} |title=An Analysis of the Process Used to Develop a Publication of International Case Studies on Environmental Education |date=1983 |page=9 |quote=Australia, as a separate continent, is geographically a part of Oceania }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511619007.005 |chapter=Oceania: Pohnpei and the Eastern Carolines |title=The Archaeology of Islands |year=2007 |pages=90–113 |isbn=978-0-521-85374-3 |quote=The thousands of islands of Oceania, excluding the island-continent of Australia and the very large island of New Guinea, are regarded by many as the theatre for island archaeology par excellence. }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=A Master of Science thesis and an archaeology book are poor quality sources to support the text about Australia usually being regarded as a continent|date=January 2023}} The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and ] America.<ref name="edu au">{{cite book |last1=Firth |first1=Stewart |last2=Naidu |first2=Vijay |title=Understanding Oceania: Celebrating the University of the South Pacific and its collaboration with The Australian National University |date=2019 |publisher=ANU Press |page=354 |isbn=978-1-76046-289-5 |url={{Google books|cHmfDwAAQBAJ|page=354|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref> Before ] arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands.<ref name="edu au" /><ref name="cam uk">{{cite web |date=21 September 2016 |title=Unprecedented study of Aboriginal Australians points to one shared Out of Africa migration for modern humans |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/unprecedented-study-of-aboriginal-australians-points-to-one-shared-out-of-africa-migration-for |website=University of Cambridge |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615162942/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/unprecedented-study-of-aboriginal-australians-points-to-one-shared-out-of-africa-migration-for |url-status=live }}</ref> The islands of the ], north of Australia, mainly lie on the ] of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity.<ref name="edu au"/>
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | Oceanic; Oceanian

|-
] Planisphere by A.-H. Brué (1816), showing ''Océanie'', the ''Grand Océan'' and ''Polynésie'' including all the islands of the Pacific Ocean]]
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Area

| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | {{convert|8536716|km2|abbr=on}}
The geographer ] coined the ] expression ''Terres océaniques'' (Oceanic lands) {{circa}} 1804.<ref name="OED" /> In 1814 another French cartographer, Adrien-Hubert Brué, coined from this expression the shorter "Océanie",<ref>Grataloup, Christian, ''Continents et océans : le pavage européen du globe'', Monde(s), 2013, volume nr 3, pages 240.</ref> which derives from the ] word {{wikt-lang|la|oceanus}}, and this from the ] word {{wikt-lang|grc|ὠκεανός}} (''ōkeanós''), "ocean". The term ''Oceania'' is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together.<ref>Tcherkézoff, Serge, ''Polynésie / Mélanésie. L’invention française des « races » et des régions de l’Océanie'', Au vent des îles, Tahiti, 2009. {{ISBN|978-2-915654-52-3}}.</ref> John Eperjesi's 2005 book ''The Imperialist Imaginary'' says that it has "been used by ] cartographers since the mid-19th century to give order to the complexities of the ] area."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eperjesi |first1=John |title=The Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American Culture |date=2004 |publisher=Dartmouth College Press |isbn=978-1-58465-435-3 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>
|-

! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Population
], ], ] and ]]]
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | 35,670,000

|-
In the 19th century, many geographers divided Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions: ''Australasia'', '']'' (encompassing the ]), ''Melanesia'', ''Micronesia'' and ''Polynesia''. The 2011 book ''Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific'', by Richard W. Casteel and Jean-Claude Passeron, states that, "for the purpose of ], Oceania has long been a continent like Africa, Asia and America."<ref>{{cite book |last1=W. Casteel |first1=Richard |last2=Passeron |first2=Jean-Claude |title=Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific |date=2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3110879902 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUryHhPBT3EC&dq=%22ALEUTS%22+%22OCEANIA%22&pg=PR5 |access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> Scottish geographer ] wrote in 1873 that, "the ] consists of ], and the peninsula of ] attached to it. These divisions generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the Ocean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — ], Asia, ], North America, South America and Oceania."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartholomew |first1=John |title=Zell's Descriptive Hand Atlas of the World |date=1873 |publisher=T.E. Zell |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gmSp46xxpJQC&dq=%22oceania%22+%22yokohama%22+%22australia%22&pg=PA3 |access-date=20 August 2022}}</ref> American author ] wrote in his 1854 book ''History of All Nations'' that, "geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania." In this book, the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (the Americas) and the ] (]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goodrich |first1=Samuel Griswold |title=History of All Nations |date=1854 |publisher=Miller, Orton and Mulligan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=heJPYUnr70kC&dq=%22aleutian+islands%22+%22oceania%22&pg=PA52 |access-date=20 December 2022}}</ref> In his 1879 book ''Australasia'', British naturalist ] commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most important feature."<ref name="austral">{{cite book |last1=Wallace |first1=Alfred Russel |title=Australasia |date=1879 |publisher=The University of Michigan |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2kcAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22oceania+is+the+word+often%22&pg=PA2 |access-date=12 March 2022 |quote=Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon This boundless watery domain, which extends northwards of Behring Straits and southward to the Antarctic barrier of ice, is studded with many island groups, which are, however, very irregularly distributed over its surface. The more northerly section, lying between Japan and California and between the Aleutian and Hawaiian Archipelagos is relieved by nothing but a few solitary reefs and rocks at enormously distant intervals. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Australasia/e2kcAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22oceania+is+the+word+often%22&pg=PA2&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world.<ref name="austral"/> ''The Oxford Handbook of World History'' (2011) describes the areas encompassed in Oceania as being "afterthoughts in world history texts, lumped together and included at the end of global surveys as areas largely marginal to the main events of world history".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of World History |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.001.0001 |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-923581-0 |editor-last1=Bentley |editor-first1=Jerry H }}</ref>
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Countries

| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | {{Collapsible list |title=] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |]}}
<div>In most non-]-speaking countries Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other non-English-speaking countries Australia and ] are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe, and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the world".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brotschul |first1=Amy |title=Continents in French |url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/continents-in-french.html |website=Study.com |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Divisões dos continentes |url=https://atlasescolar.ibge.gov.br/images/atlas/mapas_mundo/mundo_034_divisao_continentes.pdf |access-date=12 January 2021 |publisher=IBGE |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813231055/https://atlasescolar.ibge.gov.br/images/atlas/mapas_mundo/mundo_034_divisao_continentes.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, various writers from ]-speaking countries have described Oceania as a continent over the years.<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGyleDQzs0kC&dq=continent+oceania&pg=PA532|title=Daily Consular and Trade Reports|date=6 May 1928|publisher=Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HskKAAAAYAAJ&dq=continent+of+oceania+1920&pg=PA46|title=Mineral Resources of the United States|first=United States Bureau of|last=Mines|date=6 May 1922|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|via=Google Books}}</ref> Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of ], ], Australia, and ] were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in the English-speaking countries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Southwell |first1=Thomas |title=Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society: Volume 4 |date=1889 |publisher=Norfolk Naturalists' Trust and Norfolk & Norwich Naturalists' Society. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P0NMAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22greenland%22+%22island+continent%22&pg=PA164 |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society: Volume 36 |date=1932 |publisher=Royal Aeronautical Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sJPyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22continent+of+greenland%22 |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=lewis32b>{{harvp|Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents|1997|p=32}}: "...the 1950s... was also the period when... Oceania as a "great division" was replaced by Australia as a continent along with a series of isolated and continentally attached islands. "</ref> In his 1961 book ''The United States and the Southwest Pacific'', American author ] commented that, "the use of the word Oceania to cover Australia, ], and the islands now has a slightly old-fashioned flavor."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grattan |first1=Clinton Hartley |title=The United States and the Southwest Pacific |date=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-49244-8 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref> Australia is a founding member of the ] in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific island.<ref name="'O'Malley SMH 21 Sep 2014">{{cite news |last1=O'Malley |first1=Nick |title=Australia is a Pacific island – it has a responsibility |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/australia-is-a-pacific-island--it-has-a-responsibility-20140921-10jwdw.html |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=21 September 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afr.com/world/asia/rudd-on-avoiding-war-and-australia-s-big-policy-failure-in-the-pacific-20220329-p5a945|title=Rudd on avoiding war and Australia's big policy failure in the Pacific|date=31 March 2022|website=Australian Financial Review|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.afr.com/world/asia/rudd-on-avoiding-war-and-australia-s-big-policy-failure-in-the-pacific-20220329-p5a945|url-status=live}}</ref> Some geographers group the ] with others in the Pacific to form a geological continent.<ref>{{harvp|Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents|1997 |page=40 |ps=: "The joining of Australia with various Pacific islands to form the quasi continent of Oceania ... "}}</ref> '']'' states that the term Oceania "establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining characteristic of the continent."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/oceania-physical-geography/|title=Australia and Oceania: Physical Geography|first=National Geographic|last=Society|date=4 January 2012|website=National Geographic Society|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=23 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523144947/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/oceania-physical-geography/|url-status=live}}</ref> Others have labelled it as the "liquid continent".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Werry |first1=Margaret |title=Sea-change: Performing a fluid continent: 2nd Oceanic Performance Biennial: Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8–11 July 2015 |journal=Performance Research |date=3 March 2016 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=90–95 |doi=10.1080/13528165.2016.1173926 |s2cid=148622133 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubow |first1=Cecilie |last2=Bird |first2=Cliff |title=Eco-theological Responses to Climate Change in Oceania |journal=Worldviews |date=2016 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=150–168 |doi=10.1163/15685357-02002003 |jstor=26552256 |url=https://curis.ku.dk/portal/da/publications/ecotheological-responses-to-climate-change-in-oceania(b5e47709-5d0b-41ff-be39-3544eb29a4ff).html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/martin-clunes-ultimate-guide-pacific-islands/ |title=Martin Clunes' ultimate guide to the Pacific islands |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=8 January 2022 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064859/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/martin-clunes-ultimate-guide-pacific-islands/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a "continent of islands", and contains approximately 25,000, which is more than all the other major oceans combined.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eh-resources.org/pacific-islands-bibliography/|title=Environmental history of the Pacific Islands: a Bibliography {{pipe}}|website=Eh-resources.org|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2021-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419224008/https://www.eh-resources.org/pacific-islands-bibliography/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldvision.com.au/docs/default-source/publications/australia-and-the-pacific/the-pacific--transition-and-uncertainty.pdf?sfvrsn=d26fec3c_4 |title=POLICY BRIEF: The Pacific: Transition & Uncertainty |publisher=World Vision |date=March 2008 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317104928/https://www.worldvision.com.au/docs/default-source/publications/australia-and-the-pacific/the-pacific--transition-and-uncertainty.pdf?sfvrsn=d26fec3c_4 |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1991 article, American archeologist Toni L. Carrell wrote, "the immensity of and great distances within the ] often make it difficult to conceptualize the basin as a single earth feature."<ref name="nps">{{cite web |url=http://npshistory.com/series/archeology/scrc/36/report.pdf |title=Micronesia: Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment |publisher=National Park Service |date=1991 |access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref>
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! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Dependencies
Oceania's subregions of ], ], ], and ] cover two major plates; the Australian Plate (also known as the ]) and the ], in addition to two minor plates; the ] and the ].<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates"/> The Australian Plate includes Australia, ], ], ], ], and parts of New Zealand.<ref name="birds">{{cite book |last1=Steadman |first1=David W. |title=Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=7 |isbn=978-0226771427 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBZXJQ3HDg0C&dq=%22tropical+%22easter+island%22+%22indo+australian+plate%22&pg=PA7 |access-date=4 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Extinction_and_Biogeography_of_Tropical/vBZXJQ3HDg0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22tropical+%22easter+island%22+%22indo+australian+plate%22&pg=PA7&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="plates"/> The Pacific Plate covers the ] and parts of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Island).<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates"/> The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island, neighbours the ], and is still considered to be a separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of islands.<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates">{{cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Kumar |first2=Lalit |last3=Eliot |first3=Ian |last4=McLean |first4=Roger F. |title=Classifying Pacific islands |journal=Geoscience Letters |date=December 2016 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=7 |doi=10.1186/s40562-016-0041-8 |bibcode=2016GSL.....3....7N |s2cid=53970527 |doi-access=free }}</ref></div>
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | {{Collapsible list |title=] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |]| ] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |]}}
] and ] with a focus on ]]]
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! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Languages
The new terms ] and ] were proposed in 1973 by anthropologists ] and ]. By their definition, Near Oceania consists of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands, with the exception of the ].<ref>Green & Pawley, 1973, "Dating the Dispersal of the Oceanic Languages"</ref> They are designed to dispel the outdated categories of ], ], and ]; many scholars now replace those categories with Green's terms since the early 1990s, but the old categories are still used in science, popular culture and general usage.<ref>« Although based on a superficial understanding of the Pacific islanders, Dumont d’Urville’s tripartite classification stuck. Indeed, these categories — Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians — became so deeply entrenched in Western anthropological thought that it is difficult even now to break out the mould in which they entrap us (], 1989). Such labels provide handy geographical referents, yet they mislead us greatly if we take them to be meaningful segments of cultural history. Only Polynesia has stood the tests of time and increased knowledge, as a category with historical significance », ], ''On the Road of the Winds : an Archeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact'', Berkeley, University of California Press, 2000: 5.</ref>
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | {{Collapsible list |title=28 Official |Official languages: |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |] |]}}

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===Boundaries===
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{{Further|topic=Oceania borders|Boundaries between the continents of Earth|List of transcontinental countries}}
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | ] (]) to ] (]) (West to East)

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Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the ], a politically integral part of Japan; ], a state of the ]; Clipperton Island, a possession of ]; the ], belonging to Chile; and ], belonging to Australia.<ref name="class">{{cite web |last1=Udvardy |first1=Miklos D.F. |title=A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the World |url=https://fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=18 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218131430/http://www.fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist attractions in Easter Island & Robinson Crusoe |publisher=GoChile |url=https://www.gochile.cl/en/destinations-easter-island-robinson-crusoe.htm |access-date=2 February 2022 |quote=Despite being geographically located in Oceania, Juan Fernández Archipelago belongs to the insular Chilean territory, just like Easter Island. |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202002755/https://www.gochile.cl/en/destinations-easter-island-robinson-crusoe.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ausgov">{{Cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=Lex |url=https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/mn201_trees_for_life_-_final_artwork_-_15052018_web_upload_version.pdf |title=Trees for life in Oceania: Conservation and utilisation of genetic diversity |last2=Doran |first2=John |last3=Clarke |first3=Bronwyn |date=2018 |publisher=Australian Center for International Agricultural Research |location=Canberra, Australia |page=16 |quote=In a number of cases, human exploitation of certain high-value tree species, including sandalwoods and other highly prized timbers, has led to their extinction—such as the sandalwood species ''Santalum fernandezianum'', in Juan Fernández Islands; and others to the brink of extinction, such ''S. boninensis'' in Ogasawara Islands, Japan; or is an ongoing threatening factor in the examples of ''S. yasi'' in Fiji and Tonga, ''Gyrinops spp''. in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and ''Intsia bijuga'' throughout the Pacific Islands. |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124215245/https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/mn201_trees_for_life_-_final_artwork_-_15052018_web_upload_version.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kladnik |first=Drago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69V7DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22geographically+part+of+oceania%22&pg=PA47 |title=Terraced Landscapes |date=2017 |publisher=Založba ZRC |page=47 |isbn=978-9610500193 |quote=In North America, agricultural terraces are exclusive to Mexico and the United States – which Hawaii, in the Pacific, is also part of, but is otherwise geographically part of Oceania. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Terraced_Landscapes/69V7DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22geographically+part+of+oceania%22&pg=PA47&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="realm">{{cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Ian |title=Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama |date=1974 |publisher=Angus & Robertson |page=190 |isbn=978-0207127618 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gcEJAQAAIAAJ&q=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific |access-date=2 February 2022 |quote= can further define the word ''culture'' to mean ''language''. Thus we have the French language part of Oceania, the Spanish part and the Japanese part. The Japanese culture groups of Oceania are the Bonin Islands, the Marcus Islands and the Volcano Islands. These three clusters, lying south and south-east of Japan, are inhabited either by Japanese or by people who have now completely fused with the Japanese race. Therefore they will not be taken into account in the proposed comparison of the policies of non - Oceanic cultures towards Oceanic peoples. On the eastern side of the Pacific are a number of Spanish language culture groups of islands. Two of them, the Galapagos and Easter Island, have been dealt with as separate chapters in this volume. Only one of the dozen or so Spanish culture island groups of Oceania has an Oceanic population — the Polynesians of Easter Island. The rest are either uninhabited or have a Spanish - Latin - American population consisting of people who migrated from the mainland. Therefore, the comparisons which follow refer almost exclusively to the English and French language cultures. |archive-date=18 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618161036/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Island_Realm/gcEJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific&dq=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Horn |first=Walter |url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op12-6.pdf |title=Check list of the Cicindelidae of Oceania. |date=1936 |publisher=Bishop Museum |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=9 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309041008/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pubs-online/pdf/op12-6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="countriesoftheworld">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Robert |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-0DAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22oceania%22+%22juan%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA2 |title=The Countries of the World: Volume 4 |date=1876 |publisher=Oxford University |chapter=Oceania: General Characteristics |access-date=1 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_countries_of_the_world/3-0DAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22oceania%22+%22juan%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA2&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>
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| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | ]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]
====United Nations interpretation====
|}
{{Main|United Nations geoscheme for Oceania}}
</div></div>

]

The ] (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century: Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities, and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island — which was annexed by Chile in 1888.<ref name="stats">{{cite web |title=Countries or areas / geographical regions |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |access-date=25 April 2019 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=30 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830170949/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is used in statistical reports, by the ], and by many atlases.<ref name="Lewis 1997 32" /> The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. Their definition includes ], Australia and their ], the ], ], ], Fiji, ], ], the Marshall Islands, ], New Caledonia, New Zealand, ], the ], ], Papua New Guinea, ], ], the Solomon Islands, ], ], ], ], ], and the ] (], ], ], ], ], and ]).<ref name="stats"/> The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still ] at that point.<ref>{{cite book |title=Status of the 1950 Census Program in the United States: A Preliminary Report |date=1951 |publisher=United States. Bureau of the Census |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3v502REqhUC&dq=United+Nations+%22oceania%22&pg=PA58 |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref> Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original UN definition of Oceania. The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, ] and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of ] and ], located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as are ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tl/tl-nr-04-en.pdf|title=Timor-Leste's Fourth National Report to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity|work=Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste|access-date=12 March 2023|date=October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Westaway |first1=J. |last2=Quintao |first2=V. |last3=de Jesus Marcal |first3=S. |title=Preliminary checklist of the naturalised and pest plants of Timor-Leste |journal=Blumea - Biodiversity, Evolution and Biogeography of Plants |date=30 November 2018 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=157–166 |doi=10.3767/blumea.2018.63.02.13 |s2cid=89935772 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ] also categorizes Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name "Australia and Oceania" is used. Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's definition, and is also used for statistical purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/australia-and-oceania/|title=Australia and Oceania |work=The World Factbook|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064857/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/australia-and-oceania/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Pacific Islands Forum expanded during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French Polynesia, gained membership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/02/how-the-pacific-islands-forum-fell-apart/|title=How the Pacific Islands Forum Fell Apart|website=thediplomat.com}}</ref>

====Early interpretations====
]]]

French writer ] remarked in 1844 that, "the boundaries of Oceania are in reality those of the great ocean itself."<ref name="eic">{{cite book |last1=Mortimer |first1=John |title=Polytechnic Review and Magazine of Science, Literature and the Fine Arts: Volume 1 |date=1844 |publisher=The University of Michigan |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LU5AQAAMAAJ&dq=%22BOUNDARIES+OF+OCEANIA%22&pg=PA42 |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064236/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Polytechnic_Review_and_Magazine_of_Scien/5LU5AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22BOUNDARIES+OF+OCEANIA%22&pg=PA42&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> ] in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the islands of Polynesia (which then included all the Pacific islands) and the Malay Archipelago.<ref>Which includes the present-day countries of Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Malte-Brun |first1=Conrad |title=Universal Geography: Containing the description of part of Asia, of Oceanica, &c. with additional matter, not in the European edition |date=1827 |publisher=Princeton University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXA9AAAAYAAJ |access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> American ] ] wrote in 1840 that Oceania is "a term applied to a vast number of islands which are widely dispersed in the Pacific Ocean they are considered as forming a fifth grand division of the world." He also viewed Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Worcester |first1=Joseph Emerson |title=Elements of Geography, Modern and Ancient with a Modern and an Ancient Atlas |date=1840 |publisher=Lewis and Sampson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmFiAAAAcAAJ |access-date=13 December 2022}}</ref> In 1887, the ] referred to Australia as the area's westernmost land,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Volume 19 |date=1887 |publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society |page=370 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03qFAAAAIAAJ |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064237/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society_of/03qFAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> while in 1870, British Reverend ] identified the ] as its northernmost point, and ] as its southernmost point.<ref name="mac">{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Alexander |title=Manual of modern geography, mathematical, physical, and political: Volume 2 |date=1970 |publisher=Oxford University |page=602 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHEDAAAAQAAJ&dq=macquarie+islands+bonin+islands+oceania&pg=PA602 |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064237/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Manual_of_modern_geography_mathematical/HHEDAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=macquarie+islands+bonin+islands+oceania&pg=PA602&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bonin Islands at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie Island, to the south of ], is a subantarctic island in the Pacific. It was politically associated with Australia and Tasmania by 1870.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/M/Macquarie%20Island.htm |title=Macquarie Island |work=Utas.edu.au |date= |accessdate=2022-09-25}}</ref>

] believed in 1879 that Oceania extended to the ], which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific.<ref name="austral"/> The islands, now politically associated with ], have historically had ] that were related to ]s, in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.arlis.org/docs/vol1/A/1246860.pdf |title=FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA |author1=Olaus J. Murie |author2=Victor B. Scheffer |publisher=Fish and Wildlife service |location= |year=1939 |access-date=3 October 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pandian |first1=Jacob |last2=Parman |first2=Susan |title=The Making of Anthropology: The Semiotics of Self and Other in the Western Tradition |date=2004 |publisher=Vedams |page=206 |isbn=978-8179360149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgO8nLql2KwC&dq=%22some+exclude%22+%22ryukyu%22&pg=PA206 |access-date=31 March 2022 |quote=Some exclude from "Oceania" the nontropical islands such as Ryukyu, the Aleutian islands, and Japan, and the islands such as Formosa, Indonesia, and the Philippines that are closely linked with mainland Asia |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064238/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_Making_of_Anthropology/RgO8nLql2KwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22some+exclude%22+%22ryukyu%22&pg=PA206&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and ] combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe.<ref name="austral"/> American geographer Sophia S. Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857.<ref name="corn">{{cite book |last1=Cornell |first1=Sophia S. |title=Cornell's Primary Geography: Forming Part First of a Systematic Series of School Geographies |year=1857 |publisher=Harvard University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z9hizT9tiAC&dq=%22included+in+oceania%22&pg=RA2-PA95 |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064858/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/CORNELL_S_PRIMARY_GEOGRAPHY/1Z9hizT9tiAC?".hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22included+in+oceania%22&pg=RA2-PA95&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> She stated that Oceania was divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand, and the Melanesian islands), ] (which included all present-day countries within the Malay Archipelago, not the modern country of ]) and Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition).<ref name="corn"/> Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were Borneo, Hawaii, Indonesia's ] and ], New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's ], Tasmania, and Tonga.<ref name="corn"/>

American geographer ]'s 1845 book ''A Practical System of Modern Geography'' stated that it "comprises the numerous isles of the Pacific, lying south east of Asia." Olney divided up Oceania into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand), Malesia and Polynesia (which included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia in his definition).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olney |first1=Jesse |title=A Practical System of Modern Geography |date=1845 |publisher=Pratt, Woodford & cr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JE9SAQAAMAAJ |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref> Publication ''Missionary Review of the World'' claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided up into five groups; Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, "isolated groups and islands, such as the Hawaiian and ]."<ref name="missionary">{{cite book |title=Missionary Review of the World: Volume 18 |date=1895 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |page=533 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRVy7TO2nTsC |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064354/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Missionary_Review_of_the_World/ZRVy7TO2nTsC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1876, French geographer ] labelled Australia's flora as "one of the most characteristic on the globe", adding that "the Hawaiian archipelago also constitutes a separate vegetation zone; of all tropical insular groups it possesses the relatively largest number of endemic plants. In the Galápagos group also more than half of the species are of local origin."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Reclus |first1=Élisée |title=The Earth and Its Inhabitants: Australasia |date=1876 |publisher=Oxford University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DzEBAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22hawaiian+archipelago+also+constitutes%22&pg=PA32-IA6 |access-date=9 January 2023}}</ref> ], an American publisher of maps and atlases, claimed in 1892 that, "Oceania comprises the large island of Australia and the innumerable islands of the Pacific Ocean" and also that the islands of the Malay Archipelago "should be grouped in with Asia."<ref>{{cite book |title=Rand, McNally & Co.'s Universal Atlas of the World |date=1892 |publisher=Rand McNally and Company |page=171 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lixEAQAAMAAJ&q=%22the+110th%22+%22universal+atlas%22 |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064354/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/RAND_MCNALLY_CO_S_UNIVERSAL_ATLAS_OF_THE/lixEAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22the+110th%22+%22universal+atlas%22&dq=%22the+110th%22+%22universal+atlas%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> British linguist ] argued in 1887 that the Malay Archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian civilization.<ref name="ess">{{cite book |last1=Cust |first1=Robert Needham |title=Linguistic and Oriental Essays: 1847-1887 |date=1887 |publisher=Trübner & Company |page=518 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZ4KtNU2-PMC |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064357/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Linguistic_and_Oriental_Essays_1847_1887/vZ4KtNU2-PMC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.<ref name="ess"/> New Zealand was categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his definition of Australasia was Australia.<ref name="ess"/> His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii, which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States.<ref name="ess"/>

The '']'' stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania rather than a small continent. It additionally commented: <blockquote>it is certainly not necessary to consider the Hawaiian Islands and Australia as being in the same part of the world, it is however permissible to unite in one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the Malay Archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished in order to increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Royal Statistical Society (Great Britain) |title=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Volume 55 |date=1892 |publisher=Royal Statistical Society. |page=309 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hujWAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22OCEANIA%22%27&pg=PA309 |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064359/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Journal_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society/hujWAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22OCEANIA%22%27&pg=PA309&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote> Regarding Australia and the Pacific, ''Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia'' observed in 1885 that, "the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of ]."<ref name="chambers"/> It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, "scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject".<ref name="chambers">{{cite book |title=Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia: Volume 9 |date=1885 |publisher=The University of Virginia |page=657 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2NRAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22easter+island%22+%22oceania%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA657 |access-date=13 March 2022 |quote=the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the Indian archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malaysia we have the three geographical divisions of Malesia, Australasia and Polynesia, the last mentioned of which embraces all the groups and single islands not included under the other two. Accepting this arrangement, still the limits between Australasia and Polynesia have not been very accurately defined; indeed, scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject; neither shall we pretend to decide in the matter. The following list, however, comprises all the principal groups and single island not previously named as coming under the division of Australasia: 1. North of the equator—The Ladrone or Marian islands. the Pelew islands, the Caroline islands, the Radack and Ralick chains, the Sandwich islands, Gilbert's or Kingstnill's archipelago. and the Galapagos. 2. South of the equator—The Ellice group, the Phoenix and Union groups. the Fiji islands, the Friendly islands, the Navigator's islands. Cook's or Harvey islands, the Society islands. the Dangerous archipelago, the Marquesas islands, Pitcairn island, and Easter island. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064400/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Chambers_s_New_Handy_Volume_American_Enc/J2NRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22easter+island%22+%22oceania%22+%22galapagos%22&pg=PA657&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> British physician and ethnologist ] claimed in 1847 that the Aleutian Islands and the ] form "the northern boundary of this fifth region of the world, and with the coasts of Asia and America completing its literal termination." However, he wrote that these islands "are not usually reckoned as belonging to it, because they are known to be inhabited by races of people who came immediately from the adjacent continents and are unconnected with those tribes of the human race who peopled the remote islands of this great ocean." He added that Hawaii was the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prichard |first1=James Cowles |title=Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Researches into the history of the Oceanic and of the American nations |date=1847 |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign }}</ref>

The 1926 book ''Modern World History, 1776&ndash;1926'', by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and associated the term with the Malay Archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, the Aleutian Islands, Japan's ], Taiwan and the Kuril Islands.<ref name="flick">{{cite book |last1=Flick |first1=Alexander Clarence |title=Modern World History, 1776-1926: A Survey of the Origins and Development of Contemporary Civilization |date=1926 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |page=492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhGHAAAAMAAJ&q=Modern%20World%20History,%201776-1926A%20Survey%20of%20the%20Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20Contemporary%20Civilization |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064936/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Modern_World_History_1776_1926/PhGHAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Modern+World+History%2C+1776-1926A+Survey+of+the+Origins+and+Development+of+Contemporary+Civilization |url-status=live }}</ref> He further included in his definition ], an island which is geologically part of the ], but that has been administered by Russia since ]. Hong Kong, partly located in another marginal sea of the Pacific (the ]) was also included in his definition. Australia and New Zealand were grouped together by Flick as Australasia, and categorized as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick estimated this definition of Oceania had a population of 70,000,000, and commented that, "brown and yellow races constitute the vast majority" and that the minority of whites were mainly "owners and rulers".<ref name="flick"/> Hutton Webster's 1919 book ''Medieval and Modern History '' also considered Oceania to encompass all islands in the Pacific, stating that, "the term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific Islands." Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions; the continental group, which included Australia, the Japanese archipelago, the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=Hutton |title=World History: Volume 1 |date=1921 |publisher=D. C. Heath |page=563 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ&q=the+term+Oceania,+or+Oceania,+in+its+widest+sense+applies+to+all+the+Pacific+Islands. |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>

Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book ''The Island World of the Pacific Ocean'' considered Oceania to ethnographically encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago, and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, ]'s ] and ], ]'s ] and ] (now known as Haida Gwaii), Chile's ], Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's ], ], ] and ], and Peru's ].<ref name="tyler">{{cite book |last1=Charles Marion |first1=Tyler |title=The Island World of the Pacific Ocean |date=1885 |publisher=Howard & Pariser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8D5CAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22vancouver+island%22+%22pacific+islands%22+%22australia%22&pg=PR6 |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> Islands in marginal seas of the Pacific were also covered in the book, including Alaska's ] and China's ]. Tyler additionally profiled the ], which during the 19th century was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included ]s such as ] and ] which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island.<ref>{{cite book | last = Stommel | first = Henry | title = Lost Islands: The Story of Islands That Have Vanished from Nautical Charts | publisher = University of British Columbia Press | location = Vancouver | year = 1984 | isbn = 0-7748-0210-3 | pages = | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lostislands00henr/page/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzhjAAAAMAAJ|title=Maritime Geography and Statistics ...|first=James Hingston|last=Tuckey|date=13 November 1815|publisher=Black, Parry & Company|via=Google Books}}</ref> Tyler described Australia as "the ] of the island groups of the world".<ref name="tyler"/> In his 1857 book ''A Treatise on Physical Geography'', Francis B. Fogg commented that "the Pacific and its dependencies may be said to contain that portion of the globe termed Oceanica or 'the Maritime World', which is divided into Australasia, Malesia and Polynesia." Fogg defined Polynesia as covering the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as the Ryukyu Islands. He added that, "besides the proceeding, the Pacific contains many other islands, of which the most important are Hainan and Formosa, on the coast of China, the Japan isles, the Kuriles, the Aleutian Islands (stretching from the New World to the Old), Vancouver Island, the Galápagos, Juan Fernández and Chiloé."<ref>{{cite book |last1=B. Fogg |first1=Francis |title=A Treatise on Physical Geography ... |date=1857 |publisher=Ivison & Phinney |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQgAAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22hainan%22+%22galapagos%22+%22aleutian%22&pg=PA3 |access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref> Scottish academic ] in 1879 considered Polynesia to cover the entire South and Central Pacific area, not just islands ethnographically within Polynesia. He wrote in ''The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information'' that, "literally interpreted, the name would include all the groups from Sumatra to the Galápagos, together with Australia."<ref name="suma">{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=John Merry |title=The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information: Volume 6 |year=1879 |publisher=The University of Michigan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rBaRjHkYy1cC&dq=%22literally%22+%22galapagos%22+%22sumatra%22&pg=PA166 |access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref> Ross further wrote, "and to this vast region the term Oceania has been applied. It is more usual at the present time, however, to exclude the archipelago."<ref name="suma"/>

====Historical and contemporary interpretations====
In a 1972 article for the '']'' titled ''Musics of Oceania'', author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote: <blockquote>many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, and other islands closely related to the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus, Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific.<ref name="journal">{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Raymond F. |title=Musics of Oceania |journal=Music Educators Journal |date=October 1972 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=59–64 |doi=10.2307/3394143 |jstor=3394143 |s2cid=191492515 }}</ref></blockquote> Kennedy defined Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.<ref name="journal"/> The ]'s ''Area Handbook for Oceania'' from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large sovereignties of the area. It further states: <blockquote>In its broadest definition Oceania embraces all islands and island groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage, however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the Aleutians and the Kuriles, usually are excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) are not ordinarily considered to be part of the area.<ref name="handbook">{{cite book |last1=Henderson |first1=John William |title=Area Handbook for Oceania |date=1971 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NuOIqt-UQowC&dq=%22oceania%22+%22all+islands%22&pg=PA39 }}</ref></blockquote> In 1948, American military journal ''Armed Forces Talk'' broke the islands of the Pacific up into five major subdivisions; Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the non-tropical Islands. The Indonesia subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were categorized as being North Pacific islands such as Alaska's ], the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be ], with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1479-8298.2007.00250.x|title=Diversity of drosophilid flies on Kume-jima, a subtropical island: comparison with diversity on Iriomote-jima|first1=Masanori|last1=Kondo|first2=Masahito T.|last2=Kimura|date=13 March 2008|journal=Entomological Science|volume=11|issue=1|pages=7–15|doi=10.1111/j.1479-8298.2007.00250.x|s2cid=83888348 }}</ref> The journal associated the term Oceania with the Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical subdivisions.<ref>{{cite book |title=Armed Forces Talk |date=1948 |publisher=War Department |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUQV0sJpJPIC |access-date=7 September 2022}}</ref> The ''Pacific Islands Handbook'' (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, "Pacific Islands generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance." He noted the political significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and categorized New Zealand's ], ], ], ], ] and ] as being non-tropical islands of the South Pacific, along with Australia's ] and Norfolk Island. The Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island are also considered to be subtropical islands. Other non-tropical areas below the ], such as Chiloé Island, Macquarie Island, Tasmania, and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not included in this category.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robson |first1=Robert William |title=The Pacific Islands Handbook North American Ed. 1944 |date=1946 |publisher=Macmillan |pages=357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mmuAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Pacific+Islands+generally+are+regarded+as+Pacific+islands+lying+within+the+Tropics%22 |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>

According to the 1998 book ''Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences'', Oceania refers to Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes that, "the term also come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether or not Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan should be included in Oceania."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marshall Cavendish Corporation |title=Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences: Nuclear physics-Plate tectonics |date=1998 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University |page=876 |isbn=978-0761405511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px7YAAAAMAAJ&q=%22japan%22+%22aleutian%22+%22oceania%22 |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064459/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Earth_and_Physical_Scien/px7YAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22japan%22+%22aleutian%22+%22oceania%22&dq=%22japan%22+%22aleutian%22+%22oceania%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> The Japanese Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan and other islands near China are often deemed as a geological extension of Asia, since they do not have ], instead being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that were once ] connected.<ref>{{cite web |author= |url=https://www.dost.gov.ph/knowledge-resources/news/38-2009-news/365-philippines-islands-to-reunite-with-mainland-asia.html |title=Philippines islands to reunite with mainland Asia |website=Dost.gov.ph |date=28 August 2009 |access-date=14 July 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502045840/https://www.dost.gov.ph/knowledge-resources/news/38-2009-news/365-philippines-islands-to-reunite-with-mainland-asia.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="chen">{{cite book |last1=Chenevière |first1=Alain |last2=Sabater |first2=Roger |title=Pacific: The Boundless Ocean |date=1995 |publisher=Konecky & Konecky |page=14 |isbn=978-1568522395 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=So2r2OogWtoC&q=%22form+part+of+it+since+they+are+attached+both%22 |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064502/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Pacific/So2r2OogWtoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22form+part+of+it+since+they+are+attached+both%22&dq=%22form+part+of+it+since+they+are+attached+both%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osozawa |first1=Soichi |last2=Shinjo |first2=Ryuichi |last3=Armid |first3=Alroem |last4=Watanabe |first4=Yasushi |last5=Horiguchi |first5=Toshiaki |last6=Wakabayashi |first6=John |title=Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the 1.55 Ma synchronous isolation of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan, and Taiwan and inflow of the Kuroshio warm current |journal=International Geology Review |date=September 2012 |volume=54 |issue=12 |pages=1369–1388 |doi=10.1080/00206814.2011.639954 |bibcode=2012IGRv...54.1369O |s2cid=129309233 }}</ref> Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not geologically associated with Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.science.gov/topicpages/r/ryukyu+islands+japan.html|title=ryukyu islands japan: Topics by Science.gov|website=Science.gov|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-04-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408172011/https://www.science.gov/topicpages/r/ryukyu+islands+japan.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ohba |first1=Michio |last2=Tsuchiyama |first2=Akira |last3=Shisa |first3=Noriko |last4=Nakashima |first4=Kei |last5=Lee |first5=Dong-Hyun |last6=Ohgushi |first6=Akira |last7=Wasano |first7=Naoya |title=Naturally occurring Bacillus thuringiensis in oceanic islands of Japan, Daito-shoto and Ogasawara-shoto. |journal=Applied Entomology and Zoology |date=2002 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=477–480 |doi=10.1303/aez.2002.477 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2002AppEZ..37..477O }}</ref> The book ''The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania'' (1966) asserts that, "Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia the Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the ] mainland are excluded from Oceania", and that "all the islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania."<ref name="nz">{{cite book |title=The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania |date=1966 |publisher=Greystone Press |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MhBAAAAIAAJ&q=%22excluded+from+oceania%22 |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064537/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_World_and_Its_Peoples_Australia_New/4MhBAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22excluded+from+oceania%22&dq=%22excluded+from+oceania%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the Pacific Ocean "gives unity to the whole" since "all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the Pacific."<ref name="nz"/>

The 1876 book ''The Countries of the World'', by British scientist and explorer ], labelled the Malay Archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the Asian continent. They are now often referred to as ], with Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore being founding members of the ] regional organization for ] in 1967 (Brunei and East Timor did not exist as independent nations at that point).<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chong |first1=Teck Choy |title=Brunei Darussalam Independence 1984: The Memorable Year 1984, a New Nation was Born |date=2015 |publisher=Sci-Tech Technologies |isbn=978-9991796000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KnUjwEACAAJ |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref> Brown also categorized Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from ''The Countries of the World: Volume 5'', which covered mainland Asia and Hong Kong.<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> However, Brown did not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania.<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> He divided Oceania into two subregions: Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and Southwestern Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand.<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote, "they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia, and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and interesting."<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> Brown went on to add, "the small islands lying off the continent, like the ] in the North Pacific, the ] off California, and the ] off Peru are—to all intents and purposes, only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different."<ref name="countriesoftheworld"/> The Juan Fernández Islands and the neighbouring ] are today seen as the easternmost extension of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south central Pacific component to their marine fauna.<ref name="marine">{{cite journal|title=Marine Biodiversity in Juan Fernández and Desventuradas Islands, Chile: Global Endemism Hotspots |publisher=Journals.plos.org |date=6 January 2016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0145059 |doi-access=free |last1=Friedlander |first1=Alan M. |last2=Ballesteros |first2=Enric |last3=Caselle |first3=Jennifer E. |last4=Gaymer |first4=Carlos F. |last5=Palma |first5=Alvaro T. |last6=Petit |first6=Ignacio |last7=Varas |first7=Eduardo |last8=Muñoz Wilson |first8=Alex |last9=Sala |first9=Enric |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e0145059 |pmid=26734732 |pmc=4703205 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1145059F }}</ref><ref name="east">{{cite journal |last1=Pequeño |first1=Germán |title=Shore Fishes of Easter Island, John E. Randall & Alfredo Cea Egaña |journal=Gayana |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=201–202 |id={{ProQuest|920291064}} |doi=10.4067/S0717-65382011000200011 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="class"/> According to scientific journal '']'', the ] helps create a biogeographic barrier between the marine fauna of these islands and South America.<ref name="marine"/> Chile's government have occasionally considered them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Georgia |title=Rapa Nui Journal: Volumes 7-10 |date=1993 |publisher=University of Texas |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXvjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22juan+fernandez%22+%22oceania%22+%22rapa+nui%22 |access-date=19 March 2022 |quote= Chile Division of Cultural Affairs and Information (DIRACI) that Chile's area included "180 km2 (69.48 miles) of Oceania— Easter Island, Juan Fernandez Archipelago (Robinson Crusoe Island) and other islands off the Chilean coast." The ''Pacific Islands Handbook'' (1989) and ''Encyclopedia of World Cultures'' (1991) did not realize that they had overestimated Rapa Nui because of this. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064541/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Rapa_Nui_Journal/ZXvjAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22juan+fernandez%22+%22oceania%22+%22rapa+nui%22&dq=%22juan+fernandez%22+%22oceania%22+%22rapa+nui%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Chile's government also categorize Easter Island, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled ]. They further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. ''PLOS One'' describe Insular Chile as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."<ref name="marine"/>

], the member states are depicted in blue. The PIF is a governing organization for the Pacific, and all of its members are seen as being politically within Oceania. Territories ethnographically associated with Oceania, but not politically associated with Oceania, such as Easter Island, Hawaii, and Western New Guinea, have considered gaining representation in the PIF. The Pacific island nations of Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan are dialogue partners, but none have full membership. East Timor, located in marginal seas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, also have observer status.]]
] map of the Pacific which includes areas not politically associated with Oceania, that may be considered geographically or geologically within Oceania]]

In her 1997 book ''Australia and Oceania'', Australian historian ] defined the area as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. She excluded Hawaii from her definition, but not Easter Island.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Kate Darian |title=Australia and Oceania |date=1997 |publisher=Raintree Steck-Vaughn |isbn=978-0817247782 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2VnZUM8DzEC&q=%22AUSTRALIA+AND+OCEANIA%22+1997+EASTER |access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> The ] stated in a 1986 report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania "on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart", further noting that other oceanic islands administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania.<ref>{{cite book |title=Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania |date=1986 |isbn=978-2-88032-509-1 |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/30152 |quote=Easter Island on the east has been included on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart. The other islands of the eastern Pacific (Galapagos, Juan Fernandez, etc.) have sometimes been included in Oceania. |last1=Dahl |first1=Arthur Lyon |publisher=The Union }}</ref> In 1987, ''The Journal of Australasian Cave Research'' described Oceania as being "the region from ] (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Oceania Bibliography |journal=Helictite: Journal of Australasian Cave Research |date=1987 |volume=25 |issue=1 |url=https://helictite.caves.org.au/pdf4/25.01.Issue.Print.pdf |access-date=16 March 2022 |quote=This paper covers the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galapagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east. |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322012745/https://helictite.caves.org.au/pdf4/25.01.Issue.Print.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1980 report on ]s in the South Pacific, the ''British Journal of Venereal Diseases'' categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia, but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the ], like other islands in the South Pacific.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://sti.bmj.com/content/sextrans/56/4/204.full.pdf |title=Venereal diseases in the islands of the South Pacific |last1=Willcox |first1=R. R. |journal=British Journal of Venereal Diseases |volume=56 |issue= 4|year=1980 |pages=204–209 |doi=10.1136/sti.56.4.204 |pmid=7427693 |pmc=1045778 |access-date=3 September 2022 }}</ref> The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the ''Pacific Affairs'' journal, author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope encompassed all non-self governing islands below the equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was included in the scope and then known as ]). Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands were defined by James as falling within the organization's geographical parameters.<ref>James, R.E., 1947. The South Pacific Commission. ''Pacific Affairs'', pp.193-198.</ref> The 2007 book ''Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West'', by New Zealand Pacific scholar ], defined the term "Pacific Islands" as being islands in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a definition "does not include Galápagos and other islands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a South American country and have almost no contact with other Pacific Islands." He adds, "Easter Island still participates in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Polynesian."<ref name="asianpacific"/>

]'s two volume 1971 book ''Linguistics in Oceania'' defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, ]'s ] and ]'s ] (all oceanic)<ref name="zug"/> as making up a ] segment of Oceania.<ref name="ling"/> Cocos Island and Malpelo Island are the only landmasses located on the ], which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed that a native Polynesian language was still understood on Easter Island, unlike with the other islands, which were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and mostly being used as prisons for convicts.<ref name="ling"/> Additionally, the book includes Taiwan and the entire Malay Archipelago as part of Oceania.<ref name="lingtai">{{cite book |last1=Bowen |first1=James Dean |title=Linguistics in Oceania, 2 |date=1971 |publisher=The University of Michigan |page= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYouAAAAMAAJ&q=taiwan+Linguistics+in+Oceania+(2+v. |access-date=2 February 2022 |chapter=Japanese in Taiwan |quote= |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064537/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Current_Trends_in_Linguistics_Linguistic/lYouAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=taiwan+Linguistics+in+Oceania+%282+v.&dq=taiwan+Linguistics+in+Oceania+%282+v.&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay Archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines share ]n ethnolinguistic origins with Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the book.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf |title=The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives |editor1=Peter Bellwood |editor2=James J. Fox |editor3=Darrell Tryon |publisher=Australian National University |location=Canberra |year=2006 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524202017/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lingtai"/> Hainan, which neighbours Taiwan, also has Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins, although it was not included in the book.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2374892 | year=2008 | last1=Li | first1=D. | last2=Li | first2=H. | last3=Ou | first3=C. | last4=Lu | first4=Y. | last5=Sun | first5=Y. | last6=Yang | first6=B. | last7=Qin | first7=Z. | last8=Zhou | first8=Z. | last9=Li | first9=S. | last10=Jin | first10=L. | title=Paternal Genetic Structure of Hainan Aborigines Isolated at the Entrance to East Asia | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=3 | issue=5 | pages=e2168 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002168 | pmid=18478090 | bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2168L | doi-access=free }}</ref> The book defined Oceania's major subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all areas associated with the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in ''The Journal of Pacific History'' that "a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douglas |first1=Bronwen |title='Terra Australis' to Oceania: Racial Geography in the "Fifth Part of the World" |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |date=2010 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=179–210 |doi=10.1080/00223344.2010.501696 |jstor=25764398 |pmid=20836257 |hdl=1885/52012 |s2cid=205438654 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the ] during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goal.com/en-au/news/chinese-taipei-india-intercontinental-cup-know-your-rivals/bugueu6dtcwd1u6nbyi6wmj90/match/4c8k8i08ssh8dc5lclsl4sxuy|title=Indian National Football Team: Know Your Rivals - Chinese Taipei|website=Goal.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Fossen |first1=Anthony |title=The Struggle for Recognition: Diplomatic Competition Between China and Taiwan in Oceania |journal=Journal of Chinese Political Science |date=August 2007 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/s11366-007-9008-0 |hdl=10072/18133 |s2cid=154652706 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Ian Todd's 1974 book ''Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama'' also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, and included the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and Salas y Gómez. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, despite being areas which would fall within this range. All other islands associated with Latin American countries were excluded, as they are continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific Plate) and the oceanic islands situated on the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate. Todd defined the oceanic Bonin Islands as making up a ] segment of Oceania, and excluded the main Japanese archipelago.<ref name="realm"/> Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain borders both the Pacific Plate and the ], and is geologically a partially submerged volcanic extension of the ] on the Alaskan mainland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hurtigruten.com/en-us/expeditions/stories/tectonics-of-the-east-pacific/|title=Tectonics of the East Pacific {{pipe}} Hurtigruten Expeditions|website=hurtigruten.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apiai.org/departments/cultural-heritage-department/culture-history/history/|title=History {{pipe}}|website=Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association}}</ref><ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Aleutian Islands|volume=1|pages=543–544}}</ref> He did not include the volcanic Kuril Islands and Ryukyu Islands, which similarly border both the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=BPSC General Studies Preliminary Guide 2022 |date=2021 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |isbn=978-9354880216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFFREAAAQBAJ&dq=volcanic+islands+ryuku+kuril&pg=RA1-PA12 |access-date=19 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.soundseismic.com/earthquake-resources/kuril-islands-earthquake-of-8-5-magnitude|title=1963 Kuril Islands earthquake of 8.5 magnitude &#124; Sound Seismic|website=soundseismic.com}}</ref> nor did he include the neighbouring Kodiak archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, which is firmly situated on the North American Plate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dggs.alaska.gov/popular-geology/earthquakes-tsunamis.html|title=Popular Geology - Earthquakes & Tsunamis|website=dggs.alaska.gov}}</ref> ''The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies'' stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble of various Pacific Islands, "particularly those in the central and south Pacific never those in the extreme north, for example the Aleutian chain."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies: Volumes 6-8 |date=1996 |publisher=Center for Pacific Asia Studies, University of Stockholm |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qP8uAQAAIAAJ&q=%22extreme+north%22+%22oceania%22+1996+%22aleutian%22 |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064537/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_Stockholm_Journal_of_East_Asian_Stud/qP8uAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22extreme+north%22+%22oceania%22+1996+%22aleutian%22&dq=%22extreme+north%22+%22oceania%22+1996+%22aleutian%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> In the ''Pacific Ocean Handbook'' (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears claimed, "it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific, the American coastal islands and the ]", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither ] has close ties with Asia."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mears |first1=Eliot Grinnell |title=Pacific Ocean Handbook |date=1945 |publisher=J. L. Delkin |pages=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ku04AAAAIAAJ&q=%22customary%22+%22exclude%22+%22north+pacific%22+%22aleutians%22 |access-date=27 July 2022}}</ref> In his 2002 book ''Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders'', Andrew Strathern excluded ] and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their ] "show many parallels with Pacific island societies."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strathern |first1=Andrew |title=Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders |year=2002 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |page=5 |isbn=978-0890894446 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AMAQAAMAAJ&q=okinawa+%22Pacific+island+societies.%22 |access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref>

In the 2006 book ''Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds'', American paleontologist ] wrote, "no place on earth is as perplexing as the 25,000 islands that make Oceania." Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (including Easter Island and Hawaii). He excluded from his definition the larger islands of New Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and other oceanic islands nearing the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations.<ref name="birds"/> In his 2018 book ''Regionalism in South Pacific'', Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some "stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand", adding that the term Oceania "promotes a broader concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Changsen |first1=Yu |title=Regionalism in South Pacific |date=2018 |publisher=] |isbn=978-7520133111 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmVmEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22room+for+australia%22+%22pacific%22+%22oceania%22&pg=PT8 |access-date=6 December 2022}}</ref>

American marine geologist Anthony A. P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book ''Encyclopedia of Islands'' that, "as a whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania, the tenth continent on earth. Inherent to their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique social, biological and geological characteristics." Koppers considered Oceania to encompass the entire 25,000 islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this book, he included the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clague |first1=David |last2=Gillespie |first2=Rosemary |title=Encyclopedia of Islands |date=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520256491 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C |access-date=5 December 2022}}</ref> all of these islands lie in or close to the Pacific ], as is the case with New Guinea and New Zealand, which were also included. In the 2013 book ''The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific'', Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of Oceania in ''Encyclopedia of Islands'', and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is "not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are." Bullen added that, "Asia, Europe and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The '] region' would comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it e.g., the Philippines."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bullen |first1=Paul |title=The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific |date=19 November 2013 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=9789814517997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ev3AwAAQBAJ&dq=%22vancouver+island%22+%22oceania%22+%22pacific+region%22&pg=PA134 |access-date=5 December 2022}}</ref> ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names'' (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that Oceania is "a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean" and that "it is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded."<ref name="ev">{{cite book |last1=Everett-Heath |first1=John |title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place Names |date=2017 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-255646-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgJCDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22generally+accepted%22+oceania+excluded+japan&pg=PT1171 |access-date=8 July 2022 |quote=It is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded}}</ref> In his 1993 book ''A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands'', New Guinea-born ] scholar ] wrote that, "Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania."<ref name="edu au" />

''The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania'' (2018) defined Oceania as only covering Austronesian-speaking islands in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, with this definition including New Guinea and New Zealand. Other Austronesian areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines were not included, due to their closer cultural proximity to mainland Asia. Australia was also not included, as it was settled several thousands of years before the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The book stated, "this definition of Oceania might seem too restrictive: Why not include Australia, for example, or even too broad, for what does ] have to do with Hawai'i?", further noting that, "a few other islands in the Pacific such as those of Japan or the Channel Islands off the southern California coast are not typically considered Oceania as the indigenous populations of these places do not share a common ancestry with Oceanic groups, except for a time far before humans sailed Pacific waters."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cochrane |first1=Ethan E. |last2=Hunt |first2=Terry L. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-992507-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZRODwAAQBAJ&dq=%22islands+in+the+pacific+such+as+those+of+japan%22&pg=PA1 |access-date=21 January 2023}}</ref> It has been theorized that the indigenous ] of the Japanese archipelago are related to Austronesians, along with the indigenous inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. Some also theorize that ]s are related to the ], who are the original inhabitants of Japan's ], the Kuril Islands and the southern part of Sakhalin.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moller Eric |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/ainu-spirit-northern-people |title=Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People |publisher=Cultural Survival |date= 18 July 2022|accessdate=2022-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110807554.195 |chapter=Dentition of the Ainu and the Australian Aborigines |title=Orofacial Growth and Development |year=1977 |last1=Hanihara |first1=Kazuro |pages=195–200 |isbn=978-90-279-7889-9 }}</ref> In their 2019 book ''Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus'', Kathleen Nadeau and Sangita Rayamajhi wrote: <blockquote>the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and most of Indonesia are not usually considered to be part of the region of Oceania as it is understood today. These regions are usually considered to be part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Although these regions, as well as the large East Asian islands of Taiwan, Hainan and the Japanese archipelago, have varying degrees of cultural connections.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Kathleen |last2=Rayamajhi |first2=Sangita |title=Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus |date=2023 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440862243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXe5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22hainan%22+%22varying+degrees+of+cultural%22&pg=PA231 |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref></blockquote>

In ''Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide'' (2013), George R. Zug claimed that "a standard definition of Oceania includes Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand and the oceanic islands of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia." He went on to write that his preferred definition of Oceania emphasis islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are, "islands with no past connections to a continental landmass" and that, "these boundaries encompass the Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the ] Islands in the west to the Galápagos Islands in the east."<ref name="zug">{{cite book |last1=R. Zug |first1=George |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide |date=2013 |publisher=University of California Press |page= |quote=}}</ref> Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and New Caledonia (which is geologically associated with New Zealand) were all excluded, as these areas are descendants of the ancient ] supercontinent, along with landmasses such as the Americas and ]. Volcanic islands which are geologically associated with continental landmasses, such as the Aleutian Islands, Japan's ], the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and most of the Solomon Islands, were also excluded from his definition. Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative proximity (situated 1,200 kilometres off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands nearing the Americas, having had almost no interaction with the continent throughout its history.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p241101/pdf/book.pdf |title=France in the South Pacific: Power and Politics |author=Denise Fisher |publisher=Australian National University |location=Canberra |year=2013 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326211929/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p241101/pdf/book.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pacific-studies.net/datadetails.php?place=4&type=Data&source=3|title=pacific-studies.eu: Clipperton Island (France) {{pipe}} The World Factbook|website=Pacific-studies.net|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-02-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204075635/https://www.pacific-studies.net/datadetails.php?place=4&type=Data&source=3|url-status=live}}</ref> From the early 20th century to 2007, the island was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until 1957.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/French-Polynesia|title=French Polynesia summary {{pipe}} Britannica|website=Britannica.com|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504205135/https://www.britannica.com/summary/French-Polynesia|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Clipperton-Island|title=Clipperton Island {{pipe}} island, Pacific Ocean {{pipe}} Britannica|website=Britannica.com|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504205134/https://www.britannica.com/place/Clipperton-Island|url-status=live}}</ref> In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are much farther removed from the Americas.<ref name="clipzoo">{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=D. Ross |last2=Allen |first2=Gerald R. |year=1996 |title=Zoogeography of the shorefish fauna of Clipperton Atoll |url=https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/19435 |publisher=Repository.si.edu |hdl=10088/19435 |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112172307/https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/19435 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.2839.1.1 |title=Sponges from Clipperton Island, East Pacific |journal=Zootaxa |publisher=Mapress.com |date= 29 April 2011 |volume=2839 |issue=1 |pages=1–46–1–46 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.2839.1.1 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227130813/https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.2839.1.1 |url-status=live |last1=Van Soest |first1=Rob W. M. |last2=Kaiser |first2=Kirstie L. |last3=Van Syoc |first3=Robert |citeseerx=10.1.1.296.6640 }}</ref> Scottish author ] considered Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907, while Ian Todd also included it in his definition of Oceania in ''Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moncrieff |first1=Robert Hope |title=The World of To-day A Survey of the Lands and Peoples of The Globe as Seen in Travel and Commerce: Volume 4 |date=1907 |publisher=Oxford University |page=222 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPVaAAAAQAAJ&q=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064635/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_World_of_To_day/VPVaAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22&dq=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania,<ref name="janick">{{Cite book |last=Janick |first=Jules |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrXCupIJVQMC&dq=%22galapagos%22+%22oceania%22+%22polynesia%22&pg=PA146 |title=Horticultural Reviews, Volume 36 |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley |page=146 |isbn=978-0470527221 |quote=Oceania is a broadly applied term for the thousands of islands in the Pacific Ocean. They range from extremely small, uninhabited islands, to large ones, including Australia, New Zealand and New Guinea. Oceania is further grouped into three regions, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. There a few other Pacific island groups that do not fit into these groupings, such as Galapagos. |access-date=1 February 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064634/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Horticultural_Reviews_Volume_36/DrXCupIJVQMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22galapagos%22+%22oceania%22+%22polynesia%22&pg=PA146&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> including the highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the ]).<ref name="stats"/> This is due to their location in the centre of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands, have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators.<ref name="realm"/><ref name="ling"/> Archaeological evidence suggests that ] may have lived on the Bonin Islands {{c.|2,000}} years ago, but they were uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century.<ref>{{citation |last=Welsch |first=Bernhard |date=June 2004 |contribution-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25169675 |contribution=Was Marcus Island Discovered by Bernardo de la Torre in 1543? |title=Journal of Pacific History |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=109–122 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Milton Park |doi=10.1080/00223340410001684886 |jstor=25169675 |s2cid=219627973 }}.</ref>

====Boundaries between subregions====
Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dumas |first1=Michel |last2=Preux |first2=Pierre-Marie |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUuZDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22new+zealand%22+%22australasia+or+polynesia%22&pg=PA87 |title=Neuroepidemiology in Tropical Health |date=2017 |publisher=Academic Press |page=87 |access-date=6 February 2022 |chapter=Neurologic Diseases in Tropical Oceania |isbn=978-0128046258 |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304050555/https://books.google.com/books?id=KUuZDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22new+zealand%22+%22australasia+or+polynesia%22&pg=PA87 |url-status=live }}</ref> New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian ], and has long maintained a political influence over the subregion.<ref name="southsea">{{cite book |last1=Halter |first1=Nicholas |title=Australian Travellers in the South Seas |date=2021 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1760464158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAAbEAAAQBAJ |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206160214/https://books.google.com/books?id=dAAbEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lowy18">{{cite web |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/nz-and-australia-big-brothers-or-distant-cousins |title=NZ and Australia: Big Brothers or Distant Cousins? {{pipe}} The Interpreter |publisher=Lowyinstitute.org |date=9 July 2020 |access-date=6 February 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206160214/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/nz-and-australia-big-brothers-or-distant-cousins |url-status=live }}</ref> Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the largest population of Polynesians in the world,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whimp |first1=Graeme |chapter=Working in the Space Between: Pacific Artists in Aotearoa/New Zealand |date=2009 |hdl=10125/146805b24 |editor1-first=A. Marata |editor1-last=Tamaira |title=In The Space Between: Negotiating Culture, Place, and Identity in the Pacific |pages=9–23 }}</ref> while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population (consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to Melanesians,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Whole-Genome Genetic Diversity in a Sample of Australians with Deep Aboriginal Ancestry|last1=McEvoy|first1=B. P.|last2=Lind|first2=J. M.|last3=Wang|first3=E. T.|last4=Moyzis|first4=R. K.|last5=Visscher|first5=P. M.|last6=Van Holst Pellekaan|first6=S. M.|last7=Wilton|first7=A. N.|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|year=2010|volume=87|issue=2|pages=297–305|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.07.008|pmc=2917718|pmid=20691402}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malaspinas |first1=Anna-Sapfo |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael C. |last3=Muller |first3=Craig |last4=Sousa |first4=Vitor C. |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Alves |first6=Isabel |last7=Bergström |first7=Anders |last8=Athanasiadis |first8=Georgios |last9=Cheng |first9=Jade Y. |last10=Crawford |first10=Jacob E. |last11=Heupink |first11=Tim H. |last12=Macholdt |first12=Enrico |last13=Peischl |first13=Stephan |last14=Rasmussen |first14=Simon |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |last16=Subramanian |first16=Sankar |last17=Wright |first17=Joanne L. |last18=Albrechtsen |first18=Anders |last19=Barbieri |first19=Chiara |last20=Dupanloup |first20=Isabelle |last21=Eriksson |first21=Anders |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=Moltke |first23=Ida |last24=Pugach |first24=Irina |last25=Korneliussen |first25=Thorfinn S. |last26=Levkivskyi |first26=Ivan P. |last27=Moreno-Mayar |first27=J. Víctor |last28=Ni |first28=Shengyu |last29=Racimo |first29=Fernando |last30=Sikora |first30=Martin |last31=Xue |first31=Yali |last32=Aghakhanian |first32=Farhang A. |last33=Brucato |first33=Nicolas |last34=Brunak |first34=Søren |last35=Campos |first35=Paula F. |last36=Clark |first36=Warren |last37=Ellingvåg |first37=Sturla |last38=Fourmile |first38=Gudjugudju |last39=Gerbault |first39=Pascale |last40=Injie |first40=Darren |last41=Koki |first41=George |last42=Leavesley |first42=Matthew |last43=Logan |first43=Betty |last44=Lynch |first44=Aubrey |last45=Matisoo-Smith |first45=Elizabeth A. |last46=McAllister |first46=Peter J. |last47=Mentzer |first47=Alexander J. |last48=Metspalu |first48=Mait |last49=Migliano |first49=Andrea B. |last50=Murgha |first50=Les |last51=Phipps |first51=Maude E. |last52=Pomat |first52=William |last53=Reynolds |first53=Doc |last54=Ricaut |first54=Francois-Xavier |last55=Siba |first55=Peter |last56=Thomas |first56=Mark G. |last57=Wales |first57=Thomas |last58=Wall |first58=Colleen Ma'run |last59=Oppenheimer |first59=Stephen J. |last60=Tyler-Smith |first60=Chris |last61=Durbin |first61=Richard |last62=Dortch |first62=Joe |last63=Manica |first63=Andrea |last64=Schierup |first64=Mikkel H. |last65=Foley |first65=Robert A. |last66=Lahr |first66=Marta Mirazón |last67=Bowern |first67=Claire |last68=Wall |first68=Jeffrey D. |last69=Mailund |first69=Thomas |last70=Stoneking |first70=Mark |last71=Nielsen |first71=Rasmus |last72=Sandhu |first72=Manjinder S. |last73=Excoffier |first73=Laurent |last74=Lambert |first74=David M. |last75=Willerslev |first75=Eske |title=A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia |journal=Nature |date=13 October 2016 |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=207–214 |doi=10.1038/nature18299 |pmid=27654914 |pmc=7617037 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..207M |hdl=10754/622366 |s2cid=4471731 |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1516136/ |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia,<ref name="lowy18"/> which is mostly located on the same tectonic plate.<ref name="birds"/><ref name="plates"/> Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 40387356|last1 = Kirch|first1 = Patrick V.|title = Reviewed work: Archaeology of Oceania: Australia and the Pacific Islands, Ian Lilley|journal = Archaeology in Oceania|year = 2006|volume = 41|issue = 3|pages = 128–130|doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4453.2006.tb00623.x}}</ref><ref name="Codrington Melanesians Encyc">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Codrington|first=Robert|title=Melanesians|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|year=1915|publisher=T & T Clark|location=Edinburgh|pages=528–535}}</ref> As with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European population, numbering around 71,000.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.isee.nc/tec/popsociete/telechargements/4-population.pdf|title=ISEE - Salaires|website=Isee.nc|access-date=20 August 2017|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225164238/http://www.isee.nc/tec/popsociete/telechargements/4-population.pdf%20}}</ref> Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest of Melanesia, and their ]-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population.<ref name="autogenerated2"/><ref name="devchris">{{Cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=Manfred |last2=Anisi |first2=Anna |date=1 February 2016 |title=The Historical Development of Christianity in Oceania |url=https://www.academia.edu/33371338 |journal=Sanneh/Wiley |pages=588–604 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412012839/https://www.academia.edu/33371338 |url-status=live }}</ref> As such, it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia.<ref name="emb">{{cite web|url=https://noumea.embassy.gov.au/nmeafrench/media191.html|title=Australian Consulate-General in|first=corporateName= Department of Foreign Affairs and|last=Trade|website=Noumea.embassy.gov.au|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2022-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411100613/https://noumea.embassy.gov.au/nmeafrench/media191.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Some cultural and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare.<ref name=NZOD>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Australasia |encyclopedia=New Zealand Oxford Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0195584516 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001|editor1-last=Deverson |editor1-first=Tony |editor2-first=Graeme |editor2-last=Kennedy }}</ref> Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are more commonly grouped together as part of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/australasia-realm|title=Australasia realm|date=7 October 2019|website=Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064726/https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/australasia-realm|url-status=live}}</ref> Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected.<ref name="stats"/> Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of ] and ] are situated within the bounds of the Australian Plate and have been geographically associated with Southeast Asia, due to their proximity to western Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecat.ga.gov.au/geonetwork/srv/api/records/a05f7892-8f70-7506-e044-00144fdd4fa6|title=BMR Cruise 107: Seabed Morphology and Offshore Resources around Christmas Island, Indian Ocean|website=Product catalogue}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/scientific-publications/archive/conservation-christmas-cocos.pdf |title=Conservation values in Commonwealth waters of the Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Island remote Australian territories |publisher=CSIRO |date=August 2009 |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401084035/https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/scientific-publications/archive/conservation-christmas-cocos.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=M. Athyal |first1=Jesudas |title=Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=40 |isbn=978-1610692502 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RfYBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22christmas+island%22+%22in+southeast+asia%22&pg=PA40 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710222449/https://books.google.com/books?id=-RfYBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22christmas+island%22+%22in+southeast+asia%22&pg=PA40 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/christmas-island-australias-gem-in-the-indian-ocean/|title=Christmas Island – Australia's Gem In The Indian Ocean|website=Wildlifetourism.org.au|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064649/https://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/christmas-island-australias-gem-in-the-indian-ocean/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/pub/bird-brochure.pdf|title=Christmas & Cocos Keeling Islands Birding Guide|website=Parksaustralia.gov.au|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=6 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406033004/https://parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/pub/bird-brochure.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are ] mainlanders (with smaller numbers being ]), while the other half are immigrants from China or the nearby Malay Archipelago.<ref name=Census2016>{{cite web |publisher=Australian Government |department=] |title=2016 Census: Christmas Island |url=http://regional.gov.au/territories/Christmas/files/CI_2016_Census_Data_Fact_Sheet_Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111164850/http://regional.gov.au/territories/Christmas/files/CI_2016_Census_Data_Fact_Sheet_Final.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2018|access-date=3 May 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Egan |first1=Colleen |title=Bad tidings on Christmas |url=http://sievx.com/articles/psdp/19991211ColleenEgan.html |publisher=The Weekend Australian |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=11 December 1999 |archive-date=8 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608164850/http://sievx.com/articles/psdp/19991211ColleenEgan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia's Indian Ocean external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands lie on the ] and are also thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation.<ref name="geo">{{cite book |doi=10.1130/2007.2425(18) |chapter=The seismicity of the Antarctic plate |title=Continental Intraplate Earthquakes: Science, Hazard, and Policy Issues |year=2007 |last1=Reading |first1=Anya M. |isbn=978-0-8137-2425-6 }}</ref><ref name="stats"/> The World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cocos-keeling-islands/ |title=Cocos (Keeling) Islands - The World Factbook |website=Cia.gov |date=24 June 2022 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710181719/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cocos-keeling-islands/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/christmas-island/|title=Christmas Island|date=24 June 2022|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|website=Cia.gov|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032949/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/christmas-island/|url-status=live}}</ref>

], an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly European Australians, and the UN categorize it as being in the Australasia subregion.<ref name="stats"/> The 1982 edition of the ''South Pacific Handbook'', by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawai{{okina}}i together under an "Anglonesia" category. This is in spite of the geographical distance separating these areas from Hawai{{okina}}i, which technically lies in the North Pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=David |url={{Google books|lRV1FozOqQAC|page=502|plainurl=yes}} |title=South Pacific Handbook |date=1982 |publisher=Moon Publications |page=502 |isbn=978-0-9603322-3-6 }}</ref> The 1985 edition of the ''South Pacific Handbook'' also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the subregion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=David |url={{Google books|unz2v_HT5q0C|page=43||plainurl=yes}} |title=South Pacific Handbook |date=1985 |publisher=Moon Publications |page=43 |isbn=978-0-918373-29-8 }}</ref> The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never inhabited by Polynesians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinz |first1=Earl R. |title=Landfalls of Paradise: Cruising Guide to the Pacific Islands |date=1999 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2115-9 |edition=4th |url={{Google books|uK5-YO9J_GcC|page=337|plainurl=yes}} |page=337 }}</ref><ref name="veg"/>

The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are often grouped in with the subregion because of this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bluejapan.org/fr/geography/climate-and-season/|title=Climate And Seasons – Blue Japan en français|website=Bluejapan.org|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064648/https://bluejapan.org/fr/geography/climate-and-season/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="veg">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-8686-3 |title=Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands |series=Ecological Studies |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-387-98313-4 |s2cid=46366808 }}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Oceania|History of the Pacific Islands}}

===Colonisation of Oceania===

====Australia====
{{Main|Prehistory of Australia|History of Indigenous Australians}}
]

] are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from ] to ] {{circa}} 70,000 years ago<ref name="scimag" /> and arrived in Australia {{circa}} 50,000 years ago.<ref name="illumina.com" /> They are believed to be among the ].<ref name="BBSRC" /> Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia, they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population.<ref name="ourcount" /> There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day ] and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and ].<ref name="germs314" />

They reached ] {{circa}} 40,000 years ago by migrating across a ] from the mainland that existed during the last ].<ref name="prehis" /> It is believed that the first ] to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the ], connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge.<ref name="perspe81" /> The ] are indigenous to the ] Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of ] near ].<ref name="uow2004" /> The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of ], which have been dated at {{circa}} 40,000 years old.<ref name="pmid4570638" />

It is estimated that 4% to 6% of the genome in ] (e.g. Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) derives from the ], an ancient human species discovered in 2010, while no Eurasians or Africans displayed contributions of the Denisovan genes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reich|first=D.|author2=Green, R.E.|author3=Kircher, M.|author4=Krause, J.|author5=Patterson, N.|author6=Durand, E.Y.|title=Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia|journal=Nature|year=2010|volume=468|issue=7327|pages=1053–1060|doi=10.1038/nature09710|pmid=21179161|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2010Natur.468.1053R|pmc=4306417|url=http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/10230/25596/1/Marques_nat_gen.pdf|hdl=10230/25596|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517024908/https://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/25596/Marques_nat_gen.pdf;jsessionid=35CCDAE27CDE1B5CACE38275BC976DFA?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Melanesia====
{{Main|History of New Guinea}}
The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day ]-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the ], including ] and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.<ref name="struct2072" />

Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the ], who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.<ref name="malenes" />

====Micronesia====
{{See also|History of the Federated States of Micronesia}}
] in Micronesia (1880)]]
] across the Pacific (per Bellwood in Chambers, 2008)]]
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.<ref name="lapita" />

The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of ], dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the ] settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centred on ] and ].<ref name="USDOS" /> The prehistories of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.<ref name="books.google" />

The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from ]. They became known as the ]. Their ] was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including ]. The Refaluwasch or ] came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the ]. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the ]E, with inter-island navigation made possible using ].<ref name="races165" />

====Polynesia====
{{Main|History of Hawaii|History of New Zealand}}
{{Further|Discovery and settlement of Hawaii|Polynesian navigation}}
] at Ahu Tongariki on ]]]

The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating ] and tracing ] places their ] origins in the ], and ultimately, in ]. Between {{circa}} 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of ] began spreading from Taiwan into ],<ref name="matrilineality2003" /><ref name="Kayser, M. 2006" /><ref name="polyori8225" /> as tribes whose ] were thought to have arrived through South China {{circa}} 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia.

In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE,<ref name="wings" /> "] Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the ] of north-west Melanesia.<ref name="Leach & Green 1989"/><ref name="burley128" />

Easter Islanders claimed that a chief ]<ref name="vikings228" /> discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.<ref name="hawaii" /> They are believed to have been ]. Around 1200, ] explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on ] calculations and on three ] from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities.<ref name="failor89" /> Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200.<ref name="scimag23874" />

===European exploration===
{{See also|Magellan expedition|Spanish East Indies|History of Australia (1788–1850)|Colony of New Zealand}}
].]]

Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the ] (by ] and ] in 1512), ], the ] (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the ], some of the ] (by ] in 1525), and west ] (by ] in 1526). In 1519, a ] expedition led by ] sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the ] and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains ] and ], then sailed north and caught the ] which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by ] returned west across the Indian Ocean and ] went north in the hope of finding the ] and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The ] expedition achieved the first ] of the world and reached the ], the ], and other islands of Oceania.

From 1527 to 1595, a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in ] and ] in the North Pacific, as well as ], the ], the ], the ], and the ] in the South Pacific.<ref name="Fernandez-Armesto 2006 305–307" />

In the quest for ], Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator ], sailed to ] and ] archipelagos, and sailed the ] between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator ]. ], made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in ].<ref name="discos19" /> ] circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered ] (now ]), New Zealand in 1642, and ].<ref name="primary" /> He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.<ref name="tearag" />

On 23 April 1770, British explorer ] made his first recorded direct observation of ] at ] near ].<ref name="cook22470" /> On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the ]. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the ]. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia.<ref name="herald86292" />

====European settlement and colonisation====
{{See also|History of Australia (1788–1850)|History of New Zealand}}
] the north-eastern part, and Britain the south-eastern part.]]
In 1789, the ] against ] led to several of the mutineers escaping the ] and settling on ], which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and ] in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the ]. The ] (now known as ]) and the Ellice Islands (now known as ]) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.<ref name="TAHNPT" /><ref name="cinderella1" />

French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and ] were declared a ], to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed.<ref name="KMLA1889" /> On 24 September 1853, under orders from ], Admiral ] took formal possession of New Caledonia.<ref name="ped" />

The Spanish explorer ] landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by ], after English explorer ], who visited them together with ] in 1788, en route from ] to ] (two ships of the ]). In 1905, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over southeast New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "]"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and ] in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with ] and ] in 1857, and with Hawai{{okina}}i becoming a ] in 1898. Disagreements between the US, the UK, and Germany over Samoa led to the ].<ref name="amesagrey" />

===Modern history===
{{Main|Pacific War|Military history of Oceania|Military history of New Zealand|Military history of Australia during World War I|Military history of Australia during World War II|History of Guam|History of Australia (1901–1945)|Decolonisation of Oceania}}
], in ]]]

One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the ] in August 1914 by ]. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked ] in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.<ref name="awm.gov.au" />

The ] by the Japanese ],<ref name="pearl17ff" /><ref name="operat1315" /> was a surprise ] conducted by the ] against the United States ] at ], Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the ]. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the ] and the ] before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ].<ref name="decode32" /><ref name="reconcil7" /> The United States fought the ] from 21 July to 10 August 1944, to recapture the island from ] occupation.<ref name="nyt1997" />

Australia and New Zealand became ] in the 20th century, adopting the ] in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an ]; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to ''Polynésie Française'' (]). Hawaii became a ] in 1959. ] and ] became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the ], the United States recognised the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the government of the ]. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the ] in 2000.<ref name="awm.gov.au" />

==Geography==
{{anchor|Territories and regions}}
{{See also|List of Oceanian countries by population|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania}} {{See also|List of Oceanian countries by population|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania}}
], located on the ] of New Zealand]]
] / ''Carstensz Pyramid'', highest summit in Oceania]]
Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the ] in the northwest, the ] in the northeast, ] and ] in the east, and ] in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of ], the ], and the ], which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the ] and other Alaskan or Canadian islands.<ref name="nz"/><ref name="ev"/> In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl ] to the Bonin Islands in the ], and ] to Macquarie Island in the ].<ref name="race1750" />

Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, ]s, ]s and uplifted ]. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are ], Hawai{{okina}}i, and Solomon Islands.<ref name="GillespieClague2009" />

Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ]s, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are ], that part of western ] which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and ] which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – ] and ], for instance, are situated in the ] and ], respectively, and ] faces the Southern Ocean.<ref name="othero5" />
The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the ] off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include ] (formerly Ocean Island) and ] in the Tuamotu group of ].<ref name="britta" /><ref name="abcnet22613" />

]

===Regions===
], which lies north of the equator and west of the ], includes the ] in the northwest, the ] in the centre, the ] to the west and the islands of ] in the southeast.<ref name="AAE" /><ref name="LalFortune2000p63" />

], to the southwest, includes ], the world's second largest island after ] and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the ], the ], the ], ], ] and ].<ref name="West2009" />

], stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses ], ], ], ], and the ] to the west, the ], ] and ] in the centre, and the ], the ], ], and ] to the east.<ref name="DunfordRidgell1996" />

] comprises Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the ] with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the ] to the south.<ref name="voyage6" /><ref name="auxter" />

===Geology===
{{Main|Geography of Fiji|Geology of New Zealand|Geology of Australia|Geography of Samoa}}
] comprises most of Oceania, excluding ] and the western portion of ].|left]]
The ], which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic ] that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At {{convert|103|e6km2|sqmi}}, it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior ] forming the ].<ref name="tecto" /> It is almost entirely ].<ref name="platetec2010" /> The oldest member disappearing by way of the ] cycle is early-] (145 to 137 million years ago).<ref name="ageof" />

Australia became part of the ] 45 to 40 million years ago and this is in the process of separating again with the ] being relevant to Oceania.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keep |first1=Myra |last2=Schellart |first2=Wouter P. |title=Introduction to the thematic issue on the evolution and dynamics of the Indo-Australian plate |journal=] |year=2012 |volume=59, 2012 |issue=6: THEMATIC ISSUE — Evolution and dynamics of the Indo-Australian plate |pages=807–808 |doi=10.1080/08120099.2012.708360 |bibcode=2012AuJES..59..807K |s2cid=128996831 }}</ref> It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth<ref name="distinct227" /> and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as ] of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of ]. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years).<ref name="ag" />

The ] of New Zealand is noted for its ] activity, ]s, and ] ] because of its position on the boundary of the ] and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, ], India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of ] were nestled between Eastern Australia and ].<ref name="tearaz" />

The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the ] time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The ], and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the ] (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.

Most islands in the Pacific are ] (] islands), such as, ], ] and ], among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore.<ref name="Factbook-Fiji" /> The ] were formed {{circa}} 7 to 30 million years ago, as ]es over the same volcanic ] that formed the ] to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south.<ref name="geochr" /> Hawaii's tallest mountain ] is {{convert|13796|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} above mean sea level.<ref name="usgsgov" />

===Flora===
{{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of New Zealand|Flora of Australia|Flora of New Zealand|Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands|Domesticated plants of Austronesia}}
]
] (Ayers Rock) in ]]]

The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical ]s in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre.<ref name="envigov2012" /> ] or semi-arid land commonly known as the ] makes up by far the largest portion of land.<ref name="portrait" /> The ] and a ] lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.<ref name="drivers375" /> The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested ].<ref name="uplands" /><ref name="gdowns" /><ref name="mulgas" /><ref name="tempera" /><ref name="savanna" />

Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to ] and fire which include ] and ]. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families ] ('']''), ] ('']'' – gum trees), and ] ('']'' – wattle). The flora of Fiji, ], ], and ] is ], with ] that includes ], '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''.<ref name="mostvb" />

New Zealand's landscape ranges from the ]-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the ]. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800&nbsp;ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is ], at {{convert|3754|metre}}. Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year.<ref name="newzat" /> There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand.<ref name="vascplant" />

In Hawaii, one endemic plant, '']'', now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct.<ref name="plantprop" /> The two species of ''Brighamia''&nbsp;– ''B. rockii'' and ''B. insignis''&nbsp;– are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down {{convert|3000|foot|m|adj=on|order=flip}} cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.<ref name="forgotpol" />

===Fauna===
{{Main|Fauna of Australia|Birds of Australia|Birds of New Zealand|Fauna of New Zealand|Mammals of Australia|List of birds of Australia|List of birds of New Zealand|Domesticated animals of Austronesia}}
] inhabits the islands of the south western Pacific.<ref name="IUCN" />]]
The aptly named ] is found in the Pacific Islands,<ref name="handbirds" /> as is the ],<ref name="icunet22717" /> ],<ref name="hawaiibirds" /> ],<ref name="birdsback" /> ]<ref name="Turner" /> and the ], among others.<ref name="cardinal" /> Birds breeding on ] include the ], ], and ]. The ], endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the ] list in 2008.<ref name="icunred181023" />

Native to Hawaii is the ], which has been ] since 2002.<ref name="forestbirds" /> The ] is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands.<ref name="btsnakegov" /> Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are ], ]s, ], ], ]s, ]s, and ]s.<ref name="systax" /><ref name="Steadman 2006" />

A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native ] mammals, and dominance of the ]s – a group of mammals that raise their young in a ], including the ], ], and ]. The ]s of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include ]s, the ], ], ]s, ]s, ]s.<ref name="ioc" /> Predominant bird species in the country include the ], ], the ], ]s and the ].<ref name="encycwild" /> The ], ], ] and ] are ] of Australia,<ref name="CoatArms" /> and the ] is also one of the well-known animals in the country.<ref name="tassie" /> The ] is a ] lizard native to the ].<ref name="dangerc" />

The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of ] species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the ] was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the ] which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, ] parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighbouring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the ], ], ], Kākāpō, ], ], and the ].<ref name="assemb152" /> The ] is a notable ] endemic to New Zealand.<ref name="vicvag32" />


Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world's ] species, including half of all ] parrots, many of which are ] to the region.<ref name="Olah2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Olah |first1=George |last2=Theuerkauf |first2=Jörn |last3=Legault |first3=Andrew |last4=Gula |first4=Roman |last5=Stein |first5=John |last6=Butchart |first6=Stuart |last7=O’Brien |first7=Mark |last8=Heinsohn |first8=Robert |date=2018 |title=Parrots of Oceania – a comparative study of extinction risk |url=https://georgeolah.com/documents/olah_et_al_2018a_parrots_of_oceania.pdf |journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology |language=en |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=94–112 |doi=10.1080/01584197.2017.1410066 |bibcode=2018EmuAO.118...94O |s2cid=135275510 |issn=0158-4197}}</ref>
===Physiography===
{{Main|Geography of Oceania}}
Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the ] to the coast of the Americas. It comprised four regions: '']'', '']'', ''Malaysia'' (now called the ]), and '']'' (now called ]).<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = D'Urville
| first = Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont
| authorlink = Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont D'Urville
| coauthors = Isabel Ollivier, Antoine de Biran, and Geoffrey Clark
| title = On the Islands of the Great Ocean
| journal = The Journal of Pacific History
| volume = 38
| issue = 2
| pages =
| publisher = Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
| location =
| date =
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/25169637
| issn =
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = }}</ref> Included are parts of three geological continents, ], ], and ], as well the non-continental volcanic islands of the ], ], and the open Pacific. It extends to ] in the west, the ] in the northwest, the ] in the northeast, ] and ] in the east, and ] in the south, but excludes ], the ] (including the ]), and ] of the margins of Asia.<ref>MacKay (1864, 1885) ''Elements of Modern Geography'', p 283</ref><ref>Douglas & Ballard (2008) ''Foreign bodies: Oceania and the science of race 1750–1940''</ref>


===Climate===
The states that occupy Oceania that are not included in geopolitical Oceania are ], ] (through ]), ], the ], and ]. The islands of the geographic extremes are politically integral parts of Japan (Bonin), the United States (Hawaii), and Chile (Rapa Nui, formerly Easter Island). A smaller geographic definition also exists, which excludes the land on the ], but includes Indonesian New Guinea as part of the ].
{{Main|Climate of Australia|Climate of New Zealand|Climate of Hawaii}}
], ]]]
The Pacific Islands are ruled by a ] and ]. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the ] (ENSO) affects weather conditions.<ref name="noaagov" /> In the tropical western Pacific, the ] and the related ] during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass.<ref name="allenp2009" /> November is the only month in which all the ] are active.<ref name="AOML FAQ G1" />


To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or ], with the southern coastal corners having a ] climate, such as ] and ] climate in the east coast and ] in the west. The northern parts of the country have a ].<ref name="climatea" /> Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of ], ], ] and in the ].<ref name="precip376" />
===Biogeography===
Biogeographically, Oceania is used as a synonym for either the ] (] and ]) or the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia apart either from New Zealand<ref name="Udvardy 1975"/> or from mainland New Guinea<ref name="Steadman 2006"/>).


Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a ] (]: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the ] of the ] to almost ] in ] and ] in ].<ref name="enviclim" /><ref name="niwaco" /> Snow falls in New Zealand's ] and at higher altitudes in the ]. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.<ref name="tele141116" />
====Ecogeography====
Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ]s, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. The ] includes all of Micronesia, ], and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. New Zealand, New Guinea, Melanesia apart from Fiji, and Australia constitute the separate ]. The Malay Archipelago is part of the ]. Related to these concepts are ], that part of western ] which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and ], which is more recently settled.<ref>Ben Finney, The Other One-Third of the Globe, ], Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall, 1994.</ref>


Hawaii, although being in the ]s, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The ] for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as {{convert|4,028|sqmi|km2|abbr=on|order=flip}} according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April).<ref name="loveb20120703" /> A few islands in the northwest, such as ], are susceptible to ]s in the wet season.<ref name="pubaff042700" />
===Geopolitics===
]In the geopolitical conception used by the ], ], and many atlases, Oceania includes ] and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east, but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea.<ref name="unsd-m49">{{cite web|url=http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#oceania |title=United Nations Statistics Division&nbsp;– Countries of Oceania |publisher=Millenniumindicators.un.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref><ref name="Atlas of Canada Web Master">{{cite web|author=Atlas of Canada Web Master |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/international/world/referencemap_image_view |title=The Atlas of Canada&nbsp;– The World&nbsp;– Continents |publisher=Atlas.nrcan.gc.ca |date=2004-08-17 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref><ref name="Current IOC members">.</ref>


The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in ], South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached {{convert|50.7|C}}.<ref name="bomgovdai" /> The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was {{convert|-25.6|C|F}}, at ] in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of {{convert|-21.6|C|F}} recorded in 1995 in nearby ].<ref name="herald120611" /> ] of the ] in ] is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding {{convert|300|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on}} each year in certain mountainous locations.<ref name="werigu" /> ] on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average {{convert|10,271|mm|in|abbr=on}} each year.<ref name="matology105" />
===Other definitions===
* The term is often used to denote a ] comprising ] and proximate islands.<ref name="Encarta Mexico Oceanía"/><ref name="Lewis 1997 32"/>
* New Zealand forms the south-western corner of the ]. Its indigenous ] constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. It is also, however, considered part of Australasia.<ref name="unsd-m49" />
* The widest definition of Oceania includes the entire region between continental Asia and the Americas, thereby including islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Japanese Archipelago, Taiwan, and the Aleutian islands.<ref></ref>
<!-- blank space to create space between sentences and images -->


{{Gallery
{{Multiple image
|title= Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania
| align = center
| width = 400 |width=220
|height=200
| image1 = Oceania_satellite.jpg
|align=center
| caption1 = <center>Satellite image of Oceania</center>
|File:Australia Köppen.svg|Australia
| image2 = Pacific Culture Areas.jpg
|File:Hawaii Köppen.png|Hawaii
| caption2 = <center>Ethno-cultural definition of Oceania</center>
|File:New Zealand Köppen.png|New Zealand
}}{{clear}}
|File:New Guinea map of Köppen climate classification.svg|Papua New Guinea
|File:Oceania map of Köppen climate classification.svg|Australasia and adjacent islands}}


==Demographics== ==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Oceania}} {{Main|Demographics of Oceania}}
<div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 20em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; line-height: normal;"><!-- start of floated right section -->
<div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;"><!-- start of slate grey box -->
<big>'''Oceania'''</big>
<div align=center>
]<br>Wider Geographic Oceania. <br><small>Little of the South Pacific is apparent at this scale, though Hawaii is just visible near the eastern horizon.</small>
</div>
{| style="background:none; text-align:left; table-layout:auto; border-collapse:collapse; padding:0; font-size:100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Area
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | {{convert|10975600|km2|abbr=on}}
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Population
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | 378 million (2010)
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Time Zones
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | ] (]) to ] (])
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Largest Cities
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | ]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]
|}
</div>
<div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;"><!-- start of slate grey box -->
<div align=center>
]<br>Narrower Geographic Oceania. <br><small>], Micronesia, and Polynesia (apart from New Zealand)</small>
</div>
{| style="background:none; text-align:left; table-layout:auto; border-collapse:collapse; padding:0; font-size:100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Area
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | {{convert|183000|km2|abbr=on}}<!--includes 63~64,000 from island PNG and 1000 for the Chathams-->
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Population
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | 5.2 million (2008)<!--Date in that of Hawaii, the largest contributor. Includes 876,000 for island PNG from the 2000 census-->
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Time Zones
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | ] (]) to ] (])
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Largest Cities
| style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" | ]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]
|}
</div></div>
]


The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania.<ref name="unsd-m49"/> The countries and territories in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, of course, depending on the source and purpose of each description. The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px solid #aaa; font-size:90%;"
<!--NOTE: The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations (e.g., East Timor in South-eastern Asia), etc., and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated. If you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page and await until a consensus supports making proposed edits. Thank you!-->
|- style="background:#ececec;"|

! style="line-height:95%; width:4em" class="unsortable" | ]
<center>
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | Flag
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%;"
! Name of region, followed by countries<ref name="region"/>
|- bgcolor="#ECECEC"|
! data-sort-type="number" | ]<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! Name of region, followed by countries<br />and their ]s<ref name="region">Regions and constituents as per ] except ], 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 3, 5–7, 9) may be in ] Oceania and ] or ].<br /></ref>
! ]<br />(km²) ! data-sort-type="number" | ]<br />({{UN_Population|Year}}){{UN_Population|ref}}
! ] ! data-sort-type="number" | ]<br />(per km<sup>2</sup>)
! ]<br />(per km²)
! ] ! ]
! ] ! ]
|- |-
| colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" align="center"|''']'''<ref name="Australasia">The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand."</ref> | colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"|''']'''<ref name="Australasia" />
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| align="right" | 7,686,850
| align="right" | 22,028,000
| align="right" | 2.7
| ]
| AU
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}<ref name="nzpol">] is often considered part of ] rather than ].<br /></ref>
| align="right" | 268,680
| align="right" | 4,108,037
| align="right" | 14.5
| ]
| NZ
|-
|colspan=6|'''External territories of Australia''':
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| {{noflag|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Ashmore and Cartier Islands}}
| align="right" | 199
| ] (Australia)
| align="right" |
| align="right" | | style="text-align:right;"| 199
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| |
| |
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| {{flag|Christmas Island}}<ref name="ccau">] and ] are ] in the ] southwest of ].<br /></ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Australia}}
| align="right" | 135
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 1,493
| align="right" | 3.5 | style="text-align:right;"| 7,686,850
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Australia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.1
| ]
| AU
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Christmas Island}}
| ] (Australia)
| style="text-align:right;"| 135
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,692
| style="text-align:right;"| 12.5
| ] | ]
| CX | CX
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| {{flag|Cocos (Keeling) Islands}}<ref name="ccau" />
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cocos (Keeling) Islands}}
| align="right" | 14
| ] (Australia)
| align="right" | 628
| align="right" | 45.1 | style="text-align:right;"| 14
| style="text-align:right;"| 593
| style="text-align:right;"| 42.4
| ] | ]
| CC | CC
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Australia}}
| {{noflag|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Coral Sea Islands}}
| align="right" | 10
| ] (Australia)
| align="right" | 4
| align="right" | | style="text-align:right;"| 10
| style="text-align:right;"| 4
|
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.4
|
|
|
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|New Zealand}}
| {{noflag|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|New Zealand}}
| align="right" | 372
| ''']'''<ref name="nzpol"/>
| align="right" |
| align="right" | | style="text-align:right;"| 268,680
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|New Zealand}}
|
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.3
| HM
| ]
| NZ
|- |-
| {{flag|Norfolk Island}} | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Norfolk Island}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Norfolk Island}}
| align="right" | 35
| ] (Australia)
| align="right" | 2,114
| align="right" | 53.3 | style="text-align:right;"| 35
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,302
| style="text-align:right;"| 65.8
| ] | ]
| NF | NF
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| ''']'''<ref name="Melanesia">Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in ] (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.<br /></ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Australasia (total)
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,955,923
| style="text-align:right;"| 29,645,874
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.7
|
|
|-
| colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"| ''']'''<ref name="Melanesia"/>
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Fiji}}
| {{flag|Fiji}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Fiji}}
| align="right" | 18,270
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 856,346
| align="right" | 46.9 | style="text-align:right;"| 18,270
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Fiji}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 49.2
| ] | ]
| FJ | FJ
|- |-
| {{flag|New Caledonia}} (]) | style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|New Caledonia|}}
| align="right" | 19,060
| ] (France)
| align="right" | 240,390
| align="right" | 12.6 | style="text-align:right;"| 19,060
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|New Caledonia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 14.3
| ] | ]
| NC | NC
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|]}}
| {{flag|Papua New Guinea}}<ref name="pngaus">] is often considered part of ] and ]. It is sometimes included in the ] of ].<br /></ref>
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| align="right" | 462,840
| ] (Indonesia)
| align="right" | 5,172,033
| align="right" | 11.2 | style="text-align:right;" | 61,073
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,431,000
| style="text-align:right;" | 23
| Wanggar, ]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| ] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 51,213
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,430,500
| style="text-align:right;" | 28
| Walesi, ]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Papua|link=Papua (province)}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| ] (Indonesia)<ref name="note000" /><ref name="papauto" />
| style="text-align:right;" | 82,681
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,035,000
| style="text-align:right;" | 13
| ]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| ] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 117,849
| style="text-align:right;" | 522,200
| style="text-align:right;" | 4.4
| ], ]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| ] (Indonesia)
| style="text-align:right;" | 39,123
| style="text-align:right;" | 621,904
| style="text-align:right;" | 16
| ]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|West Papua|link=West Papua (province)}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Flagicon|Indonesia}}
| ] (Indonesia)<ref name="note111" /><ref name="rnzi07" />
| style="text-align:right;" | 60,275
| style="text-align:right;" | 561,403
| style="text-align:right;" | 9
| ]
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Papua New Guinea}}
| ''']'''<ref name="pngaus"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 462,840
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Papua New Guinea}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.5
| ] | ]
| PG | PG
|- |-
| {{flag|Solomon Islands}} | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Solomon Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Solomon Islands}}
| align="right" | 28,450
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 494,786
| align="right" | 17.4 | style="text-align:right;"| 28,450
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Solomon Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 21.1
| ] | ]
| SB | SB
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| {{flag|Vanuatu}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Vanuatu}}
| align="right" | 12,200
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 240,000
| align="right" | 19.7 | style="text-align:right;"| 12,200
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Vanuatu}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 22.2
| ] | ]
| VU | VU
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| {{flag|Timor Leste}}{{smallsup|3}}
| style="text-align:center;"|
| align="right" | 14,874
| Melanesia (total)
| align="right" | 1,187,000
| align="right" | 76.2 | style="text-align:right;"| 1,000,231
| style="text-align:right;"| 14,373,536
| ]
| style="text-align:right;"| 14.4
| TL
|
|
|- |-
| colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| ''']''' | colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"| ''']'''
|- |-
| {{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}} | style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Federated States of Micronesia}}
| align="right" | 702
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 135,869
| align="right" | 193.5 | style="text-align:right;"| 702
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Micronesia (Fed. States of)}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 149.5
| ] | ]
| FM | FM
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| {{flag|Guam}} (])
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Guam}}
| align="right" | 549
| ] (United States)
| align="right" | 160,796
| align="right" | 292.9 | style="text-align:right;"| 549
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Guam}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 296.7
| ] | ]
| GU | GU
|- |-
| {{flag|Kiribati}} | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Kiribati}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kiribati}}
| align="right" | 811
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 96,335
| align="right" | 118.8 | style="text-align:right;"| 811
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Kiribati}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 141.1
| ] | ]
| KI | KI
|- |-
| {{flag|Marshall Islands}} | style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Marshall Islands}}
| align="right" | 181
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 73,630
| align="right" | 406.8 | style="text-align:right;"| 181
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Marshall Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 293.2
| ] | ]
| MH | MH
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Nauru}}
| {{flag|Nauru}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Nauru}}
| align="right" | 21
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 12,329
| align="right" | 587.1 | style="text-align:right;"| 21
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Nauru}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 540.3
| ] <small>(''de facto'')</small> | ] <small>(''de facto'')</small>
| NR | NR
|- |-
| {{flag|Northern Mariana Islands}} (USA) | style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| align="right" | 477
| ] (United States)
| align="right" | 77,311
| align="right" | 162.1 | style="text-align:right;"| 477
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 115.4
| ] | ]
| MP | MP
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center| }}
| {{flag|Palau}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Palau}}
| align="right" | 458
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 19,409
| align="right" | 42.4 | style="text-align:right;"| 458
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Palau}}
| ]<ref name="Palau">On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of ] to Melekeok, located {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} northeast of Koror on ].<br /></ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 46.9
| ]<ref name="Palau"/>
| PW | PW
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|United States}}
| {{flagicon|Wake Island|local}} ] (USA)
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Wake Island|local}}
| align="right" | 2
| ] (United States)
| align="right" | 12
| align="right" | | style="text-align:right;"| 2
| style="text-align:right;"| 150
| style="text-align:right;"| 75
| ] | ]
| UM | UM
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"|
| colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| ''']'''
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Micronesia (total)
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,307
| style="text-align:right;"| 526,343
| style="text-align:right;"| 163.5
|
|
|-
| colspan="8" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"| ''']'''
|- |-
| {{flag|American Samoa}} (USA) | style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|American Samoa}}
| align="right" | 199
| ] (United States)
| align="right" | 68,688
| align="right" | 345.2 | style="text-align:right;"| 199
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|American Samoa}}
| ], ]<ref name="ASamoa">] is the seat of government of ].<br /></ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 279.4
| ], ]<ref name="ASamoa"/>
| AS | AS
|- |-
| {{flag|Cook Islands}} (NZ) | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Cook Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cook Islands}}
| align="right" | 240
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 20,811
| align="right" | 86.7 | style="text-align:right;"| 240
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Cook Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 72.4
| ] | ]
| CK | CK
|- |-
| {{flag|Easter Island}} (]) | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Easter Island}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Easter Island}}
| align="right" | 163.6
| ] (Chile)
| align="right" | 3,791
| align="right" | 23.1 | style="text-align:right;"| 164
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,761
| style="text-align:right;"| 35.1
| ] | ]
| CL | CL
|- |-
| {{flag|French Polynesia}} (France) | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|French Polynesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|French Polynesia}}
| align="right" | 4,167
| ] (France)
| align="right" | 257,847
| align="right" | 61.9 | style="text-align:right;"| 4,167
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|French Polynesia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 67.2
| ] | ]
| PF | PF
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Hawaii}}
| {{flag|Hawaii}} (USA)
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Hawaii}}
| align="right" | 16,636
| ] (United States)
| align="right" | 1,360,301
| align="right" | 81.8 | style="text-align:right;"| 16,636
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,360,301
| style="text-align:right;"| 81.8
| ] | ]
| US | US
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|United States}}
| {{flag|Niue}} (NZ)
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Johnston Atoll}}
| align="right" | 260
| ] (United States)
| align="right" | 2,134
| align="right" | 8.2 | style="text-align:right;"| 276.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| ]
| UM
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|United States}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Midway Atoll}}
| ] (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,355
| style="text-align:right;"| 39
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.37
| ]
| UM
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|New Zealand}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Niue}}
| ''']'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 260
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Niue}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.2
| ] | ]
| NU | NU
|- |-
| {{flag|Pitcairn Islands}} (]) | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Pitcairn Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Pitcairn Islands}}
| align="right" | 5
| ] (United Kingdom)
| align="right" | 47
| align="right" | 10 | style="text-align:right;"| 47
| style="text-align:right;"| 47
| style="text-align:right;"| 1
| ] | ]
| PN | PN
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Samoa}}
| {{flag|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Samoa}}
| align="right" | 2,944
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 179,000
| align="right" | 63.2 | style="text-align:right;"| 2,944
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 66.3
| ] | ]
| WS | WS
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{center|]}}
| {{flag|Tokelau}} (NZ)
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tokelau}}
| align="right" | 10
| ] (New Zealand)
| align="right" | 1,431
| align="right" | 143.1 | style="text-align:right;"| 10
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tokelau}}
| ]
| style="text-align:right;"| 128.2
| ] <small>(''de facto'')</small>
| TK | TK
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Tonga}}
| {{flag|Tonga}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tonga}}
| align="right" | 748
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 106,137
| align="right" | 141.9 | style="text-align:right;"| 748
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tonga}}
| ]
| style="text-align:right;"| 143.2
| ]
| TO | TO
|- |-
| {{flag|Tuvalu}} | style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|text=none|Tuvalu}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tuvalu}}
| align="right" | 26
| ''']'''
| align="right" | 11,146
| align="right" | 428.7 | style="text-align:right;"| 26
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tuvalu}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 426.8
| ] | ]
| TV | TV
|- |-
| style="text-align:center;"| ]
| {{flag|Wallis and Futuna|local}} (France)
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Wallis and Futuna|local}}
| align="right" | 274
| ] (France)
| align="right" | 15,585
| align="right" | 56.9 | style="text-align:right;"| 274
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Wallis and Futuna Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 43.4
| ] | ]
| WF | WF
|-
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Total
| style="text-align:center;"|
| align="right" | 8,536,716
| Polynesia (total)
| align="right" | 35,669,267
| align="right" | 4.2 | style="text-align:right;"| 25,715
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,047,444
| rowspan=2 colspan=2|
|- style="font-weight:bold;" | style="text-align:right;"| 79.6
|
| ''Total minus mainland Australia''
|
| align="right" | 849,866
|-
| align="right" | 13,641,267
| align="right" | 16.1 ! colspan="3" | Total
! style="text-align:right;" | 8,919,530
! style="text-align:right;" | {{formatnum:{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Oceania}}|R}} + 3486432 + 760855 + 1360301}}}}
! style="text-align:right;" | 5.1
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="3" | Total ''minus mainland Australia''
! style="text-align:right;" | 1,232,680
! style="text-align:right;" | {{formatnum:{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Oceania}}|R}} + 3486432 + 760855 + 1360301 - {{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Australia}}|R}}}}}}
! style="text-align:right;" | 16.6
|} |}
<br/>
{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="margin: 0.5em auto 0.5em auto"
|-
|<center>{{Oceania Labelled Map}}</center>
|- align=center
|<center>'''Map of Nations and territories of Oceania including Australia and New Zealand'''</center>
|}
</center>
</center>
==Religion==
The predominant religion in Oceania is ].<ref name="US Dept of State Background Notes">{{cite web|author=US Dept of State |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn |title=Background Notes Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Malaysia, Micronesia, New Zealand, Samoa |publisher=State.gov |date=2012-05-01 |accessdate=2012-07-14}}</ref> Traditional religions are often ] and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (''masalai'' in ]) representing natural forces.<ref name="Anthropology-Cowan-Messengers of the Gods">
{{cite book |title= Messengers of the Gods |last= Cowan |first= James G.
|year= 1993 |publisher= Bell Tower |location= New York, NY |isbn= 0-517-88078-4 }}</ref> In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "No religion" (which includes ], ], ], and ]). In ], everyday life is heavily influenced by ] traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The ] in Tiapapata, ] is one of seven designations administered in the ].


===Largest city for regions===
==Sport==
* ] (metro, urban or proper largest city: ])
===Pacific Games===
* ] (metro, urban or proper largest city: ])
The ] (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963.
* ] (metro, urban or proper largest city: ])
Australia and New Zealand do not compete at the Pacific Games.
* ] (metro, urban or proper largest city: ])

===Cities by metropolitan area===
{{Largest population centres
| country = Oceania
| stat_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2016|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3218.0Main+Features12016?OpenDocument|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=10 August 2017|language=en|date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/latestProducts/3218.0Media%20Release12016-17?OpenDocument|title=What's driving population growth in Australia's cities?|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref>{{NZ population data 2018|||y}} estimate ({{abbr|SSGA18|Statistical Standard for Geographic Areas 2018)}} boundaries){{NZ population data 2018||||y}} <ref name=USCB>{{Cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk |title=American FactFinder – Results |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=April 16, 2016 |df=mdy }}{{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011.</ref>
| list_by_pop = <!-- link to the list of cities in the given country, if possible sorted by population -->
| div_name = Country
| div_link = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania{{!}}Country
| city_1 = Sydney| div_1 = Australia| pop_1 = 5,131,326| img_1 = Sydney Opera house 3.jpg
| city_2 = Melbourne| div_2 = Australia| pop_2 = 5,031,195 | img_2 = Melbourne CBD and Ceremonial Avenue (in 2024) as seen from the rooftop of Shrine of Remembrance.jpg
| city_3 = Brisbane| div_3 = Australia| pop_3 = 2,408,223 | img_3 = River views of Brisbane CBD seen from the top of 135 Coronation Drive, in March 2019, 14.jpg
| city_4 = Perth| div_4 = Australia| pop_4 = 2,043,138| img_4 = Skyline of Perth seen from Perth Stadium, March 2021 02.jpg
| city_5 = Auckland| div_5 = New Zealand| pop_5 = {{NZ population data 2018|Auckland|y}}
| city_6 = Adelaide| div_6 = Australia| pop_6 = 1,333,927
| city_7 = Honolulu| div_7 = United States| pop_7 = 953,207
| city_8 = Gold Coast, Queensland| div_8 = Australia| pop_8 = 646,983
| city_9 = Wellington| div_9 = New Zealand| pop_9 = 497,200<ref>Includes ] statistical area</ref>
| city_10 = Newcastle, New South Wales| div_10 = Australia| pop_10 = 436,171
| city_11 = Canberra| div_11 = Australia| pop_11 = 435,019
| city_12 = Jayapura| div_12 = Indonesia| pop_12 = 410,852
| city_13 = Port Moresby| div_13 = Papua New Guinea| pop_13 = 402,000
| city_14 = Christchurch| div_14 = New Zealand| pop_14 = {{NZ population data 2018|Christchurch|y}}
| city_15 = Sunshine Coast, Queensland| div_15 = Australia| pop_15 = 317,404
| city_16 = Wollongong| div_16 = Australia| pop_16 = 295,669
| city_17 = Sorong| div_17 = Indonesia| pop_17 = 294,978
| city_18 = Hobart| div_18 = Australia| pop_18 = 224,462
| city_19 = Geelong| div_19 = Australia| pop_19 = 196,393
| city_20 = Hamilton, New Zealand| div_20 = New Zealand| pop_20 = {{NZ population data 2018|Hamilton|y}}
}}

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Oceania}}
]]]
] in ], ]. Especially British and American missionaries brought various Protestant denominations to Oceania.|thumb]]
] in ]]]
The predominant religion in Oceania is ] (73%).<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /><ref name="US Dept of State Background Notes" /> A 2011 survey found that 92% in ],<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /> 93% in ]<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /> and 96% in ] described themselves as ].<ref name="Christianity in Oceania" /> Traditional religions are often ], and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (''masalai'' in ]) representing natural forces.<ref name="Anthropology-Cowan-Messengers of the Gods" /> In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 48% declared no religion.<ref name="quickstats" /> In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion".<ref name="reflect" />

In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "]" (which includes ], ], ], and ]). In ], everyday life is heavily influenced by ] traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The ] mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia.<ref name="mosque2011" /> Another one in ] belongs to the same sect. The ] in Tiapapata, ], is one of seven designations administered in the ].

] is a minority faith in Oceania. ] has the highest percentage of Hindus in Oceania at 29.7% <ref>{{Cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report|url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/FIJI-2019-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf}}</ref> In absolute numbers, ] has the largest population of Hindus in Oceania constituting 2.7% of the country's population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-28 |title=2021 Census shows changes in Australia's religious diversity {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/2021-census-shows-changes-australias-religious-diversity |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=abs.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> In ], Hindus form 2.65% of the population of.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx|title=Table 26, 2018 Census Data – Tables}}</ref> ] also has a significant Hindu population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=God is inside, says Hindu |url=https://www.samoaobserver.ws/category/samoa/21867 |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=Samoa Observer |language=en}}</ref>

Other religions in the region include ] and ], which are prominent ]s in Australia and New Zealand. ], ] and ] are also present. Sir ] was the first Australian-born ] and was the first Jewish vice-regal representative in the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/first-australian-born-governor-general|title=First Australian-born governor-general |publisher=National Museum of Australia|date=11 March 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301202007/https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/first-australian-born-governor-general|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is followed around ] village on the southern island of ] in ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/apr/10/prince-philip-south-sea-island-god-duke-of-edinburgh |title=Prince Philip: the unlikely but willing Pacific deity {{pipe}} Prince Philip |work=The Guardian |date= 10 April 2021|access-date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411102321/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/apr/10/prince-philip-south-sea-island-god-duke-of-edinburgh |url-status=live |last1=Davies |first1=Caroline }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56713953 |title=Prince Philip: The Vanuatu tribes mourning the death of their "god" - BBC News |work=BBC News |date= 12 April 2021|access-date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530075046/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56713953 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Oceania}}
Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups:
* The large ] ], with such languages as ] (Indonesian), and ] such as ], ], ], and ]
* The ], including the large ] family
* The ] of ] and neighbouring islands, including the large ] family

Immigrants brought their own languages to the region.<ref name="absgov20120621" /> Common non-indigenous languages include ] in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories; ] in ], ], ]; Japanese in the ];<ref name="realm"/> and ] on ] and the ].<ref name="realm"/><ref name="ling">{{cite book |last1=Sebeok |first1=Thomas Albert |title=Current Trends in Linguistics: Linguistics in Oceania |date=1971 |publisher=the University of Michigan |page=950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYouAAAAMAAJ&q=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22 |access-date=2 February 2022 |quote=Most of this account of the influence of the Hispanic languages in Oceania has dealt with the Western Pacific, but the Eastern Pacific has not been without some share of the presence of the Portuguese and Spanish. The Eastern Pacific does not have the multitude of islands so characteristic of the Western regions of this great ocean, but there are some: Easter Island, 2000 miles off the Chilean coast, where a Polynesian tongue, Rapanui, is still spoken; the Juan Fernandez group, 400 miles west of Valparaiso; the Galapagos archipelago, 650 miles west of Ecuador; Malpelo and Cocos, 300 miles off the Colombian and Costa Rican coasts respectively; and others. Not many of these islands have extensive populations — some have been used effectively as prisons — but the official language on each is Spanish. |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065403/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Current_Trends_in_Linguistics_Linguistic/lYouAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22&dq=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Silva |first=Diego B. |date=2019 |title=Language policy in Oceania |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/alfa/a/YPntRnVWDW5F8P8PYfJGPKd/?lang=en |journal=Alfa - Revista de Linguística |volume=63-2 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331141629/https://www.scielo.br/j/alfa/a/YPntRnVWDW5F8P8PYfJGPKd/?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> There are also ] formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as ], ], ], various ], ], ], and ]. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as ].

===Immigration===
{{Main|Post-war immigration to Australia|Immigration to Australia|Immigration to New Zealand|Refugees in Australia|Refugees in New Zealand| Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)}}
] immigrants arriving in Melbourne, Australia in 1954]]
The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a ] of ], are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a ].<ref name="bureau181126" />

Sydney is the most ] city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40% of residents speaking a ] at home.<ref name="herald231114" /> Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been ], with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others.<ref name="TheAus" /><ref name="Population, dwellings, and ethnicity" /> ] is also fairly multicultural, having the largest ] population outside of Europe,<ref name="oecd5024" /> and the second largest ] population in Australia after Sydney.<ref name="indiandir" /><ref name="srilandir" /><ref name="yarra062408" />

European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the ] in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and Asia.<ref name="parlnz1840" /><ref name="immireg" /> ] is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its ]-born population, and 56 percent of its ] and African born population.<ref name="2013census" />
] immigrants in Hawaii were ] or ]n.]]
Hawaii is a ].<ref name="reuter013113" /> ] workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways.<ref name="Charles Williams" /> {{As of|2015}}, a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry&nbsp;– especially ], Japanese, ] and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 ] immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the ] plantations.<ref name="Hoffman" /> ] began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii.<ref name="ricandias" />

Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's ] policy transferred ] to several Pacific nations, including the ]. Australia, New Zealand, and other nations took part in the ] between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid.<ref name="bat" />

===Archaeogenetics===
] in the ], ]]]
], ], and existing ] indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of ] took place {{circa}} 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, ], colonised much of ]. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of ] speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising ].<ref name="doi10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014"/>

] (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the ] and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous ]s support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. ], a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.<ref name="doi10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014"/>

Large areas of ] are unexplored by scientists and ]s due to extensive ] and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in ] have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain ] and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The ]n provinces of ] and ] on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 ].<ref name="survival" />

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Oceania}}The linked map below shows the ]s (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale).<div class="center">{{Oceania Labelled Map}}</div>
===Australia===
{{Main|Economy of Australia}}
]]]
Australia and New Zealand are the only highly ] independent nations in the region, although the ] is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawai{{okina}}i, and French Polynesia are highly developed too but are not ] states. Australia's per-capita GDP is ] than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of ].<ref name="unstat228" /> New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade.<ref name="stand260511" /><ref name="guard150411" />

The ] in ] is the largest ].<ref name="if5com200514" /> In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by ] GDP.<ref name="rbagov200514" />

Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of ],<ref name="mercer.com" /> making it one of the ].<ref name="mercer2014" /> It is classified as an Alpha ] by ].<ref name="accgawc" /><ref name="urbanst" /> ] also ranked highly in the ] list,<ref name="melb181" /> and is a leading ] in the ] region.<ref name="longfi041213" /><ref name="citindex" />
] at night]]
The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and education sectors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industry sector of employment {{!}} Australia {{!}} Community profile |url=https://profile.id.com.au/australia/industries?BMID=50 |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=profile.id.com.au |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916114311/http://profile.id.com.au/australia/industries?BMID=50 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, ], electrical equipment, machinery and ].

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Economy of New Zealand}}
New Zealand's ] is the ]-largest in the world measured by ] (GDP) and ]-largest in the world measured by ] (PPP). A major economic and cultural powerhouse of the ], Auckland is ranked as a Beta+ world city by the ]. Auckland and ] are frequently ranked among the ], with Auckland being ranked ] according to the ].<ref name="businrank" /><ref name="mercer190214" />

] has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout the large island nation. The country has one of the most ] economies and depends greatly on international trade – mainly with ], ], ], the ], ], ], ] and the ]. New Zealand's 1983 ] agreement with Australia means that the economy aligns closely with ]. In 2005, the ] praised New Zealand as the most business-friendly country in the world.<ref name="SALE">{{cite news |last=McCarten |first=Matt |date=14 January 2007 |title=Foreign owners muscle in as New Zealand sells off all its assets |work=] |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=280&objectid=10419011 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210225528/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=280&objectid=10419011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="IHT">{{cite news |date=14 September 2005 |title=New Zealand rated most business-friendly |work=International Herald Tribune |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/13/business/biz.php |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=19 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219014600/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/13/business/biz.php |url-status=live }}</ref> The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange.<ref name="diversify">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Page 10 – External diversification after 1966 |encyclopedia=] |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-10 |access-date=9 December 2014 |archive-date=25 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025050720/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded currency in the world.<ref name="BIS">{{cite web |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey, April 2013 |url=http://bis.org/publ/rpfx13fx.pdf |access-date=25 March 2014 |work=Triennial Central Bank Survey |publisher=] |archive-date=27 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527135902/http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfx13fx.pdf |url-status=live }} </ref>

===Pacific Islands===
{{Main|Economy of Fiji|Economy of Samoa|Economy of Tonga}}
] viewed from ] crater]]
The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as ]. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of ] (APEC) and the ] (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS.

The main produce from the Pacific is ] or ], but ], ], ], ], ], and ] are also commonly grown across the ] of the Pacific. ] provides a major ] for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many ] areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. ], such as ], ], ], and ], are mined in Australia and ]. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the ].

], French Polynesia]]
Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, ] is one of the most developed of the Pacific island ], though it remains a ] with a large ] sector.<ref name="ciafacfj" /> Agriculture accounts for 18% of ], although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. ] exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. ]s, ], and ] are also significant.

The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; ],<ref name="hawahis" /> ],<ref name="whalinhawa" /> sugarcane, ], the military, tourism and education.<ref name="capitagdf" /> Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey.<ref name="hawabee" /> {{As of|2015}}, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S.<ref name="MercerSurvey2015" /><ref name="KITVSafestCity" />

===Tourism===
]]]
{{Further|Tourism in Australia|Tourism in New Zealand}}
Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. ] currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism industry.

Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for ]s wishing to explore ]s of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series '']'' was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled '']&nbsp;– Islands of Fire''. Two years later, Australia's '']'' was filmed at the same location used by the U.S. version.<ref name="uatustats" />
] in ] are popular among tourists.]]

] is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, ] represented 3% of ]'s ] contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy.<ref name="ABS1011" /> In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals.<ref name="touraus181029" /> Popular Australian destinations include the ] (], ], ], etc.), ] (] such as ], ] and ]), ] and ] in ], ] in ], the ] in ], ] in ], ] (Ayers Rock) and the ].<ref name="ausnatacc" />

] contributes ]7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's ] in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. ], the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide.<ref name="minisbusi" /> ] in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination.<ref name="SC" />

In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million ] with expenditures of over $10.6 billion.<ref name="DBEDT 2003" /> Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. In 2011, Hawai{{okina}}i saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010.<ref name="hawasafe" />

==Politics==
===Australia===
{{Main|Politics of Australia}}
] and King of five Oceanian countries: Australia, New Zealand, ], ] and ].]]
Australia is a ] ] ]<ref name="ausparliwork" /> with ] at its apex as the ], a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other ]s. The King is represented in Australia by the ] at the federal level and by the ] at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers.<ref name="Davison pp287–8" /><ref name="govgenaus" /> There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the ]<!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: The name of the party is spelt "Labor" (i.e., no "u") even though the usual Australian spelling is "labour". --> and the ] which is a formal grouping of the ] and its minor partner, the ].<ref name="glosselec" /><ref name="statepar" /> Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered ] and the Labor Party is considered ].<ref name="govpol2013" /> The ] is by far the largest military force in Oceania.<ref name="defenceann" />

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Politics of New Zealand}}
New Zealand is a ] with a ],<ref name="GG constitution" /> although ] is ].<ref name="Economist factsheet" /> ] is the ] and the ].<ref name="royalt1974" /> The King is represented by the ], whom he appoints on the ] of the ].<ref name="rolegg" /> The ] holds ] and consists of the King and the ].<ref name="parliament facts" /> A ] must be called no later than three years after the previous election.<ref name="eleccyc" /> New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states,<ref name="fragileind16" /><ref name="demoindex16" /> with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption.<ref name="transpint201116" />

===Pacific Islands===
{{Expand section|date=October 2018}}
] housing administrative ministerial offices]]
In ], the ] is the ]. The ], which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of ], modified to take account of Samoan customs. The national government (''malo'') generally controls the ].<ref name="backnotes" /> ] takes place in a framework of a ], whereby the ] is the ].

] has a multiparty system with the ] as head of government. The ] is exercised by the government. ] is vested in both the government and the ]. ]'s ] is the ]. He is elected by ] after nomination by the ] or the ], for a three-year term.

In the ] the ] is the head of government, and the head of state is ], represented by a ]. In ], a ], the ] is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system.

] remains an integral part of the ]. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are ]s and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the ] and two senators to the ].

] is dominated by the ]. As codified in the ], there are three ]: executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is elected statewide. The lieutenant governor acts as the ]. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the ].

==Culture==
===Australia===
{{Main|Culture of Australia|Cuisine of Australia}}
] ].<ref name="operawin" />]]
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been ] ], with some ] influences.<ref name="jupp769" /><ref name="twhite118" /> The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.<ref name="Davison pp98–9" /><ref name="twhite125" /> Since the mid-20th century, ] has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.<ref name="tw" /> Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.<ref name=tw/><ref name="jupp74" /> '']'' (1906), the world's first ] film, spurred a boom in ] during the ] era.<ref name="kellyg07" /><ref name="wavefilm" /> The ] in Sydney and the ] in Melbourne are the oldest and ] ]s in Oceania.<ref name="ausmuseum" /><ref name="VHR" /> The city's ] celebrations are the largest in Oceania.<ref name="auseve2013" />

Australia is also known for its ] and ] in ].<ref name="abcnet160511" /> Australia and ] were responsible for the ] coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple ] of native fauna and flora, otherwise called ].<ref name="bushtpb" /> The first settlers introduced ] to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the ].<ref name="food" /><ref name="f2" /> Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian ], and the influence of ] has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the ]-inspired ] and ].<ref name="kangcww1999" />
] in ], formerly the residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978.]]

===Hawaii===
{{Main|Culture of Hawaii|Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaiian religion}}
The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern ] and ]. Hawaii's musical contributions to the ] are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as ] are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of ] soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to ] with the introduction of the ].<ref name="Unterberger" /> The Hawaiian religion is ] and ], with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves, and the sky.<ref name="Chai" />

The ] is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and ], and ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] origins. Native Hawaiian musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist ], famous for his medley of "]", was named "The Voice of Hawaii" by ] in 2010 in its 50 great voices series.<ref name="npr101206" />

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Culture of New Zealand|Cuisine of New Zealand}}
], located near ], was used for ''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy.<ref name="hobbitset" />]]
New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous ] and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the ]. The Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration specifically from Oceania, Europe, and Asia.<ref name="natdays" /> New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, ] and ], and also celebrates many holidays such as the King's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions.<ref name="govnathol" /> The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.<ref name="music" /> Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of '']'' (song and dance) has made a resurgence.<ref name="create062010" /> The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,<ref name="nyt101028" /> have encouraged some ] to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''.<ref name="filmnz" />

The national cuisine has been described as ], incorporating the native ] and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia.<ref name="cuisine" /> New Zealand yields produce from land and sea&nbsp;– most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.<ref name="kaipakeha" /> Distinctive ingredients or dishes include ]; salmon; ] (crayfish);<ref name="encyclnzshell" /> ]; shellfish including ]s, ], mussels, scallops, ] and ];<ref name="ecyclnzshell222" /> ] (sweet potato); ]; ]; and ] (considered a national dish).<ref name="encyclnzcook" /><ref name="cuisine" /><!--Second source references ingredients-->


===Rugby League=== ===Samoa===
] on ]]]
] is a popular sport throughout Oceania, and is the national sport of Papua New Guinea<ref>{{cite web|url=http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us |title=MSN Groups Closure Notice |publisher=Groups.msn.com |date=2008-10-23 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> (the second most populous country in Oceania after Australia) and is very popular in Australia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ |title=Football in Australia&nbsp;– Australia's Culture Portal |publisher=Cultureandrecreation.gov.au |date=2008-03-28 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> and attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en |title=Rugby League Football&nbsp;– 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |publisher=Teara.govt.nz |date=1908-06-13 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>
{{Main|Culture of Samoa|Polynesian culture}}
The ], or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and ]. Cultural customs such as the ] are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of '']'' chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven '']''.


The Samoan word for dance is '']'', which consists of unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male dances can be more snappy.<ref name="dancesiva" /> The '']'' is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid ] movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums ''(])'' or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the '']'' or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures (], ] and ]) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos.<ref name="wwpride" />
] and ] are two of the most successful sides in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand |title=southern hemisphere sides are a class apart |publisher=guardian.co.uk |date=2009-11-05 |accessdate=2010-06-17 | location=London | first=Andy | last=Wilson}}</ref> Australia has won the ] a record nine times while New Zealand won their first World Cup in ]. Australia hosted the second tournament in ]. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted it in ] and ]. New Zealand hosted the final for the first time in ] tournament and Australia hosted the last tournament in ].


===Rugby Union=== ===Arts===
{{Main|Oceanian art|Samoan art|Hawaiian art|Māori art|Indigenous Australian art}}
]]]
] found in the north-west ]]]
] is one of the region's most prominent sports,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html |title=Oceania Rugby Vacations |publisher=Real Travel |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> and is the national sport of New Zealand,<ref name="wiki.answers.com">{{cite web|url=http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_national_sports_are_there |title=How many national sports are there |publisher=WikiAnswers |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> Samoa,<ref name="wiki.answers.com"/> Fiji and Tonga.<ref name="wiki.answers.com"/> ] is one of the most successful in the world, as is ].
The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural. ], ], painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work are other common art forms.<ref name="artino" /> Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands.<ref name="oce" /> These early peoples lacked a ], and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time.<ref name="mettime" />


Indigenous Australian ] is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites.<ref name="rockart531" /><ref name="nyt051106" /> These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were simply for amusement.<ref name="mettime4" /> Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to {{circa}} 1500 BCE.<ref name="mettime444" />
New Zealand and Australia have won the ] a record two times (tied with ] who have also won it two times). New Zealand won the inaugural World Cup in 1987. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the World Cup in 1987. Australia hosted it in 2003 and New Zealand hosted it in 2011, which they then went on to win.


By 1500 BCE the ], descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning {{circa}} 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 ] (large stone statues). At {{circa}} 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction, building ], a city of artificial islands and a system of canals.<ref name="mettime 453" /> Hawaiian art includes ]s, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called ] in Hawaiian and ] elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth.<ref name="mettime3456" />
===Cricket===
]]]
] is a popular summer sport in Australia and New Zealand. Australia had ruled International cricket as the number one team for more than a decade, and have won four ]s and have been runner-up for two times, making them the most successful cricket team. New Zealand is also considered a strong competitor in the sport, with the ], also called the Black Caps, enjoying success in many competitions. Both Australia and New Zealand are ] of the ]. Fiji, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea are some of the ] from Oceania that are governed by ]. ], a greatly simplified variant of cricket played on a sand beach, is also a popular recreational sport in Australia.


===Sport===
Cricket is culturally a significant sport for summer in Oceania. The ] is very popular in Australia, conducted every year on 26 December at the ], Melbourne.
{{See also|Sport in Oceania}}
] at ]]]
] is one of the region's most prominent sports,<ref name="ocerugb" /> and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is ], with their ] having won the ] a record five times.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=ICC Cricket World Cup facts with list of winners and host countries |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/icc-cricket-world-cup-facts-with-list-of-winners-and-host-countries-1869701-2021-10-26 |publisher=Indiatoday.in |access-date=26 July 2022 |archive-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726040915/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/icc-cricket-world-cup-facts-with-list-of-winners-and-host-countries-1869701-2021-10-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> The most popular sport among Australian women is ], while ] garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television ratings.<ref name="ausrulebrit" /><ref name="aust54" /><ref name="planetsp85" /><ref name="aust101" /> Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders,<ref name="newzea76" /> and they are tied with ] for the most ] titles, having won the tournament three times.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 November 2019 |title=Rugby World Cup final: South Africa break records and beat All Blacks to milestones |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/rugby-world-cup/rwc-2019-japan/117131319/rugby-world-cup-final-south-africa-break-records-and-beat-all-blacks-to-milestones |website=Stuff |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=3 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103115213/https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/rugby-world-cup/rwc-2019-japan/117131319/rugby-world-cup-final-south-africa-break-records-and-beat-all-blacks-to-milestones |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia's team ] have won the World Cup twice, despite Rugby union being less popular among Australians.<ref>{{cite web |last=Price |first=Graham |date=3 November 2019 |title=Warren Gatland failed to learn lessons of 2015 {{pipe}} Graham Price |url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-news/warren-gatland-six-nations-hit-17190027 |website=WalesOnline |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065406/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-news/warren-gatland-failed-learn-lessons-17190027 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is ].<ref name="rl" /><ref name="rugby66" /> ] is one of the most successful in the world, as is ].<ref name="southemiclass" />


Australian rules football is the national sport in ].<ref name="naurafl" /> It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League.<ref name="miningpapua" /><ref name="msnclosure" /><ref name="footinaus" /> Additionally, it attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the ]. The highest level of the sport is the ] (AFL), which was the fourth best attended sporting league in the world during the 2010s.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 May 2015 |title=AFL still fourth-best attended sporting competition in the world |url=https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/afl-still-fourthbest-attended-sporting-competition-in-the-world-20150520-gh5oya.html |publisher=Theage.com.au |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183052/https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/afl-still-fourthbest-attended-sporting-competition-in-the-world-20150520-gh5oya.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Australian rules football===
{{Main|Australian rules football in Oceania}}
] is the national sport in Nauru<ref>{{cite web|url=http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 |title=Nauru AFL team to play in International Cup |publisher=solomonstarnews.com |date=2008-04-16 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> and is the most popular football code in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football |title=Australian rules football (sport)&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> It is also popular in Papua New Guinea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afl-png.com/aboutus.html |title=pure AFL ... purely Papua New Guinea |publisher=Afl Png |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>


] is the only country in Oceania to call ] its national sport. However, it is also the most popular sport in ], ] and ], and has a significant (and growing) popularity in ]. In 2006 Australia left the ] (OFC) for the ] (AFC), and their men's team ] have qualified for every subsequent ] as an Asian entrant.<ref name="fifa2010" /> The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although they are not recognised by ] like the other OFC members. ], Marshall Islands, Nauru and ] all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to Micronesia's remoteness.<ref>{{cite web |title=Meet Pohnpei: the Pacific islanders battling to become FIFA's 212th member |date=3 September 2017 |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2017/09/04/meet-pohnpei-the-pacific-islanders-battling-to-become-fifas-212th-member/ |publisher=Thesefootballtimes.co |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182659/https://thesefootballtimes.co/2017/09/04/meet-pohnpei-the-pacific-islanders-battling-to-become-fifas-212th-member/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Associate Members of OFC">{{cite web |last=Düerkop |first=Sascha |title=The Associate Members of OFC – 0:3 for football |date=5 January 2020 |url=https://footballoceania.com/2020/01/05/the-associate-members-of-ofc-03-for-football/ |access-date=30 July 2021 |publisher=Football in Oceania |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621161916/https://footballoceania.com/2020/01/05/the-associate-members-of-ofc-03-for-football/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 November 2021 |title=The Marshall Islands: The last country on Earth without a football team|url=https://theathletic.com/2935126/2021/11/13/the-marshall-islands-the-last-country-on-earth-without-a-football-team/ |publisher=Theathletic.com |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183005/https://theathletic.com/2935126/2021/11/13/the-marshall-islands-the-last-country-on-earth-without-a-football-team/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of ] and ] currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://guamfa.com/contact-us/history-of-gfa/|title=Guam Football Association {{pipe}} History of GFA|website=Guamfa.com|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=15 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415204416/https://guamfa.com/contact-us/history-of-gfa/|url-status=live}}</ref> The OFC was dominated by Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results.<ref name="wsc">{{cite web |last=Hall |first=Matthew |title=Australia – World Cup is a long way away |url=https://www.wsc.co.uk/the-archive/18-letter-from/2421-australia--world-cup-is-a-long-way-away |website=When Saturday Comes |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714234044/https://www.wsc.co.uk/the-archive/18-letter-from/2421-australia--world-cup-is-a-long-way-away |url-status=live }}</ref> These included a ] of ] by Australia in 2001, which remains the biggest international victory in the history of the sport.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Samoa finally get 17-year monkey off their back |url=https://www.independent.ie/sport/soccer/american-samoa-finally-get-17-year-monkey-off-their-back-26795800.html |website=independent |date=26 November 2011 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511110002/https://www.independent.ie/sport/soccer/american-samoa-finally-get-17-year-monkey-off-their-back-26795800.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Association football (soccer)===
The ] (OFC) is one of six ] confederations<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/confederations/index.html |title=''FIFA confederations'' |publisher=Fifa.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> under the auspices of ], the international governing body of the sport. The OFC is the only confederation without an automatic qualification to the ]. Currently the winner of the OFC qualification tournament must play off against an ] side to qualify for the World Cup.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html |title=''FIFA world cup 2010&nbsp;– qualifying rounds and places available by confederation'' |publisher=Fifa.com |date=2009-04-03 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>


Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the international stage, despite having a relatively small population.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Sporting Agenda Announcement {{pipe}} Commonwealth Games Australia |date=31 July 2018 |url=https://commonwealthgames.com.au/national-sporting-agenda-announcement/ |publisher=Commonwealthgames.com.au |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112172302/https://commonwealthgames.com.au/national-sporting-agenda-announcement/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They have hosted two Summer Olympics: ] and ], and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the ].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=Brisbane2032 {{pipe}} About Queensland and its government {{pipe}} Queensland Government |url=https://www.qld.gov.au/about/Brisbane2032 |publisher=Qld.gov.au |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111154204/https://www.qld.gov.au/about/Brisbane2032 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia has hosted five editions of the ] and New Zealand three times. The ] (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific; Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015.<ref name="abc20140703" />
Currently, Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call football (soccer) its national sport.


Melbourne hosts the ] every year, considered one of the four major ] tournaments in ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Australian Open {{pipe}} tennis tournament {{pipe}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/Australian-Open |website=Britannica.com |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2022-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712125009/https://www.britannica.com/sports/Australian-Open |url-status=live }}</ref>
Oceania has been represented at four World Cup finals tournaments&nbsp;— ] in ], ] and ], and ] in ] and ]. In 2006, Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010 World cup as an Asian entrant. New Zealand qualified through the Oceania Confederation, winning its playoff against Bahrain. 2010 was the first time two countries from Oceania had qualified at the same time, albeit through different confederations.


==See also== ==See also==
{{portal|Geography|Oceania}} {{Portal|Oceania}}
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==Notes== ==References==
<!-- 159 -->
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="pronun">{{Citation |last=Wells |first=John C. |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |year=2008 |edition=3rd |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-1405881180}}</ref>

<ref name="worlda">{{cite web |title=Australia: World Audit Democracy Profile |url=http://www.worldaudit.org/countries/australia.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032213/http://www.worldaudit.org/countries/australia.htm |archive-date=13 December 2007 |access-date=5 January 2008 |website=WorldAudit.org}}</ref>

<ref name="herita">{{cite web |date=2016 |title=Rankings on Economic Freedom |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |access-date=30 November 2016 |publisher=] |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916153902/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="imforg">{{cite web |date=24 May 2011 |title=Kiribati: 2011 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report, Informational Annexes, Debt Sustainability Analysis, Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion, and Statement by the Executive Director for Kiribati |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 |access-date=10 September 2011 |publisher=International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 11/113 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224064230/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="dfatgov">{{cite web |title=Fast facts about Australia |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030820155859/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |archive-date=20 August 2003 |access-date=30 August 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="foundi">{{cite web |title=Secret Instructions to Captain Cook, 30 June 1768 |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf |access-date=3 September 2011 |publisher=] |archive-date=15 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815042109/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="oceanart">"Oceanic art", The ], Sixth Edition 2006.</ref>

<ref name="modern283">MacKay (1864, 1885) ''Elements of Modern Geography'', p. 283</ref>

<ref name="newpol162">{{Cite book |last=Drage |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC |title=New Politics in the South pacific |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific |year=1994 |isbn=978-982-02-0115-6 |page=162 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2020-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032044/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="OED">{{OED|Oceania}}</ref>

<ref name="Lewis 1997 32">{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi |title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography |last2=Kären E. Wigen |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-520-20742-4 |location=Berkeley |page= |quote=Interestingly enough, the answer conformed almost precisely to the conventional list: North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania (Australia plus New Zealand), Africa, and Antarctica. |url-access=limited}}</ref>

<ref name="scimag">{{Cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Morten |last2=Guo |first2=Xiaosen |last3=Wang |first3=Yong |last4=Lohmueller |first4=Kirk E. |last5=Rasmussen |first5=Simon |last6=Albrechtsen |first6=Anders |last7=Skotte |first7=Line |last8=Lindgreen |first8=Stinus |last9=Metspalu |first9=Mait |last10=Jombart |first10=Thibaut |last11=Kivisild |first11=Toomas |date=7 October 2011 |title=An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia |journal=Science |volume=334 |issue=6052 |pages=94–98 |bibcode=2011Sci...334...94R |doi=10.1126/science.1211177 |pmc=3991479 |pmid=21940856 |first12=Weiwei |last12=Zhai |first13=Anders |last13=Eriksson |first14=Andrea |last14=Manica |first15=Ludovic |last15=Orlando |first16=Francisco M. De La |last16=Vega |first17=Silvana |last17=Tridico |first18=Ene |last18=Metspalu |first19=Kasper |last19=Nielsen |first20=María C. |last20=Ávila-Arcos |first21=J. Víctor |last21=Moreno-Mayar |first22=Craig |last22=Muller |first23=Joe |last23=Dortch |first24=M. Thomas P. |last24=Gilbert |first25=Ole |last25=Lund |first26=Agata |last26=Wesolowska |first27=Monika |last27=Karmin |first28=Lucy A. |last28=Weinert |first29=Bo |last29=Wang |first30=Jun |last30=Li |first31=Shuaishuai |last31=Tai |first32=Fei |last32=Xiao |first33=Tsunehiko |last33=Hanihara |first34=George van |last34=Driem |first35=Aashish R. |last35=Jha |first36=François-Xavier |last36=Ricaut |first37=Peter de |last37=Knijff |first38=Andrea B. |last38=Migliano |first39=Irene Gallego |last39=Romero |first40=Karsten |last40=Kristiansen |first41=David M. |last41=Lambert |first42=Søren |last42=Brunak |first43=Peter |last43=Forster |first44=Bernd |last44=Brinkmann |first45=Olaf |last45=Nehlich |first46=Michael |last46=Bunce |first47=Michael |last47=Richards |first48=Ramneek |last48=Gupta |first49=Carlos D. |last49=Bustamante |first50=Anders |last50=Krogh |first51=Robert A. |last51=Foley |first52=Marta M. |last52=Lahr |author-link53=Francois Balloux |first53=Francois |last53=Balloux |first54=Thomas |last54=Sicheritz-Pontén |first55=Richard |last55=Villems |first56=Rasmus |last56=Nielsen |first57=Jun |last57=Wang |first58=Eske |last58=Willerslev}}</ref>

<ref name="illumina.com">{{cite web |title=Sequencing Uncovers a 9,000 Mile Walkabout |url=https://www.illumina.com/documents/icommunity/article_2012_04_Aboriginal_Genome.pdf |website=illumina.com |quote=A lock of hair and the HiSeq 2000 system identify a human migration wave that took more than 3,000 generations and 10,000 years to complete. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2020-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430044039/https://www.illumina.com/documents/icommunity/article_2012_04_Aboriginal_Genome.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="BBSRC"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103055/http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_23-9-2011-10-41-8 |date=2014-10-06 }}, ''Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)''.</ref>

<ref name="ourcount">{{cite web |title=About Australia: Our Country |url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country |publisher=Australian Government |quote=Australia's first inhabitants, the Aboriginal people, are believed to have migrated from some unknown point in Asia to Australia between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2012-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227080043/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="germs314">]. (1997). '']''. Random House. London. pp. 314–316</ref>

<ref name="prehis">Mulvaney, J. and Kamminga, J., (1999), ''Prehistory of Australia''. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.</ref>

<ref name="perspe81">{{cite book |last1=Lourandos |first1=Harry |title=Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35946-7 |page=81 |url={{Google books|tTy-I8no1MwC|page=81|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref>

<ref name="uow2004"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329145442/http://media.uow.edu.au/news/2004/0917a/index.html |date=2012-03-29 }}, ''University of Wollongong'', 2004. Retrieved 6 June 2008.</ref>

<ref name="pmid4570638">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Barbetti M, Allen H |year=1972 |title=Prehistoric man at Lake Mungo, Australia, by 32,000 years BP |journal=Nature |volume=240 |issue=5375 |pages=46–48 |bibcode=1972Natur.240...46B |doi=10.1038/240046a0 |pmid=4570638 |s2cid=4298103}}</ref>

<ref name="struct2072">{{Cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Michael |last2=Terrill |first2=Angela |last3=Reesink |first3=Ger |last4=Foley |first4=Robert A. |last5=Levinson |first5=Stephen C. |date=23 September 2005 |title=Structural phylogenetics and the reconstruction of ancient language history |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5743 |pages=2072–2075 |bibcode=2005Sci...309.2072D |doi=10.1126/science.1114615 |pmid=16179483 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1B84-E |s2cid=2963726}}</ref>

<ref name="malenes">{{Cite book |last=Spriggs, Matthew |title=The Island Melanesians |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-631-16727-3}}</ref>

<ref name="matrilineality2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Hage |first1=P. |last2=Marck |first2=J. |year=2003 |title=Matrilineality and Melanesian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=44 |issue=S5 |pages=S121 |doi=10.1086/379272|s2cid=224791767 }}</ref>

<ref name="Kayser, M. 2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Kayser |first1=M. |last2=Brauer |first2=S. |last3=Cordaux |first3=R. |last4=Casto |first4=A. |last5=Lao |first5=O. |last6=Zhivotovsky |first6=L.A. |last7=Moyse-Faurie |first7=C. |last8=Rutledge |first8=R.B. |last9=Schiefenhoevel |first9=W. |last10=Gil |first10=D |last11=Lin |first11=A.A. |display-authors=8 |year=2006 |title=Melanesian and Asian origins of Polynesians: mtDNA and Y chromosome gradients across the Pacific |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=2234–2244 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msl093 |pmid=16923821 |doi-access=free |last12=Underhill |first12=P.A. |last13=Oefner |first13=P.J. |last14=Trent |first14=R.J. |last15=Stoneking |first15=M|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0010-0145-0 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="polyori8225">{{Cite journal |last1=Su |first1=B. |last2=Underhill |first2=P. |last3=Martinson |first3=J. |last4=Saha |first4=N. |last5=McGarvey |first5=S.T. |last6=Shriver |first6=M.D. |last7=Chu |first7=J. |last8=Oefner |first8=P. |last9=Chakraborty |first9=R. |last10=Chakraborty |first10=R. |last11=Deka |first11=R. |year=2000 |title=Polynesian origins: Insights from the Y chromosome |journal=] |volume=97 |issue=15 |pages=8225–8228 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.8225S |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.15.8225 |pmc=26928 |pmid=10899994 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="wings">{{Cite book |last=Kirch |first=P.V. |title=On the road of the wings: an archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-23461-1 |location=London}} Quoted in Kayser, M.; ''et al.'' (2006).</ref>

<ref name="Leach & Green 1989">{{cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=Helen M. |last2=Green |first2=Roger C. |title=New information for the Ferry Berth site, Mulifanua, western Samoa |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |date=1989 |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=319–329 |jstor=20706295 }}</ref>

<ref name="burley128">{{Cite journal |last1=Burley |first1=David V. |last2=Barton |first2=Andrew |last3=Dickinson |first3=William R. |last4=Connaughton |first4=Sean P. |last5=Taché |first5=Karine |year=2010 |title=Nukuleka as a Founder Colony for West Polynesian Settlement: New Insights from Recent Excavations |journal=Journal of Pacific Archaeology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=128–144|doi=((10.70460/jpa.v1i2.26)) }}</ref>

<ref name="vikings228">Resemblance of the name to an early ]n founder god ''Atu Motua'' ("Father Lord") has made some historians suspect that Hotu Matua was added to Easter Island mythology only in the 1860s, along with adopting the Mangarevan language. The "real" founder would have been ''Tu'u ko Iho'', who became just a supporting character in Hotu Matu{{okina}}a centric legends. See Steven Fischer (1994). ''Rapanui's Tu'u ko Iho Versus Mangareva's 'Atu Motua. Evidence for Multiple Reanalysis and Replacement in Rapanui Settlement Traditions, Easter Island''. The Journal of Pacific History, 29(1), 3–18. See also ''Rapa Nui / Geography, History and Religion''. Peter H. Buck, Vikings of the Pacific, University of Chicago Press, 1938. pp. 228–236. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050523092130/http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/rapa1.html |date=2005-05-23 }}</ref>

<ref name="hawaii">{{cite web|url=https://archive.hokulea.com/rapanui/hotu.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928070714/http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/hotu.html|url-status=dead|title=The Hotu Matua|archivedate=28 September 2004|website=archive.hokulea.com}}</ref>

<ref name="failor89">]. '']''. Penguin Books: 2005. {{ISBN|0-14-303655-6}}. Chapter 2: Twilight at Easter pp. 79–119. p. 89.</ref>

<ref name="scimag23874">{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Terry L. |last2=Lipo |first2=Carl P. |title=Late Colonization of Easter Island |journal=Science |date=17 March 2006 |volume=311 |issue=5767 |pages=1603–1606 |doi=10.1126/science.1121879 |pmid=16527931 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1603H |s2cid=41685107 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="lapita">{{cite book |last1=Kirch |first1=Patrick Vinton |title=The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-57718-036-4 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="USDOS">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Micronesia |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm |access-date=6 January 2012 |publisher=United States Department of State |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604190535/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=William N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC |title=Prehistoric Architecture in Micronesia |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-292-78621-9 |page=30 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2013-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616140015/http://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="races165"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927110432/http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/orientation.htm |date=27 September 2013 }} by Professor Friedrich Ratzel, Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania p. 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.</ref>

<ref name="Fernandez-Armesto 2006 305–307">{{Cite book |last=Fernandez-Armesto |first=Felipe |url=https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305 |title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration |date=2006 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06259-5 |pages=}}</ref>

<ref name="discos19">J.P. Sigmond and L.H. Zuiderbaan (1979) ''Dutch Discoveries of Australia''. Rigby Ltd, Australia. pp. 19–30 {{ISBN|0-7270-0800-5}}</ref>

<ref name="primary">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6 |title=Primary Australian History: Book F Ages 10–11 |date=2008 |publisher=R.I.C. Publications |isbn=978-1-74126-688-7 |page=6 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420234832/https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="tearag">{{cite web |date=4 March 2009 |title=European discovery of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110165647/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2 |archive-date=10 November 2010 |access-date=9 December 2010 |publisher=Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}</ref>

<ref name="cook22470">{{cite web |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 22 April 1770 |url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html |access-date=21 September 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927080037/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="herald86292">{{cite news |title=Once were warriors |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/once-were-warriors-20021111-gdft6f.html |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=11 November 2002 }}</ref>

<ref name="TAHNPT">{{Cite book |last=Simati Faaniu |title=Tuvalu: a history |date=1983 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies and Extension Services, University of the South Pacific |editor-last=Hugh Laracy |pages=127–139 |chapter=Chapter 17, Colonial Rule |oclc=20637433}}</ref>

<ref name="cinderella1">Macdonald, Barrie (2001) ''Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu'', Institute of Pacific Studies, ], Suva, Fiji, {{ISBN|982-02-0335-X}}, p. 1</ref>

<ref name="KMLA1889">{{cite web |last=Ganse |first=Alexander |title=History of French Polynesia, 1797 to 1889 |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230062212/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html |archive-date=30 December 2007 |access-date=20 October 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="ped">{{cite web |title=Rapport annuel 2010 |url=http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |access-date=30 January 2013 |publisher=IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075134/https://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="amesagrey">Gray, J.A.C. Amerika Samoa, ''A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute''. 1960.</ref>

<ref name="awm.gov.au">{{Cite book |last=Jose |first=Arthur Wilberforce |title=Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918: Volume IX – The Royal Australian Navy: 1914–1918 |publisher=Angus and Robertson |year=1941 |editor-last=Bean |editor-first=Charles Edwin Woodrow |editor-link=Charles Bean |edition=9th |series=Official Histories, Australian War Memorial |location=Sydney, Australia |chapter=Chapter V – Affairs in the Western Pacific |chapter-url=http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203074454/http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF |archive-date=3 February 2014 |orig-date=1928}}</ref>

<ref name="pearl17ff">Prange, Gordon W., Goldstein, Donald, & Dillon, Katherine. ''The Pearl Harbor Papers'' (Brassey's, 2000), pp. 17ff; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032058/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&pg=PA1 |date=2020-07-28 }} on Prange ''et al''.</ref>

<ref name="operat1315">Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, ''Proceedings'', 81 (December 1955), pp. 1315–1331</ref>

<ref name="decode32">For the Japanese designator of Oahu. Wilford, Timothy. "Decoding Pearl Harbor", in ''The Northern Mariner'', XII, #1 (January 2002), p. 32 fn 81.</ref>

<ref name="reconcil7">{{Cite book |last1=Braithwaite |first1=John |title=Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing peace in Bougainville |last2=Charlesworth |first2=Hilary |last3=Reddy |first3=Peter |last4=Dunn |first4=Leah |publisher=ANU E Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-921666-68-1 |chapter=Chapter 7: The cost of the conflict |chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml |name-list-style=amp |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221445/http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="nyt1997">{{Cite news |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=26 September 1997 |title=Shoichi Yokoi, 82, Is Dead; Japan Soldier Hid 27 Years |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201172619/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="race1750">{{cite book |last1=Douglas |first1=Bronwen |last2=Ballard |first2=Chris |title=Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750–1940 |date=2008 |publisher=ANU E Press |isbn=978-1-921536-00-7 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="GillespieClague2009">{{Cite book |last1=Gillespie |first1=Rosemary G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706 |title=Encyclopedia of Islands |last2=Clague |first2=David A. |date=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25649-1 |page=706 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420214345/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="othero5">Ben Finney, The Other One-Third of the Globe, ], Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall, 1994.</ref>

<ref name="britta"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427013344/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137072/coral-island |date=2015-04-27 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 22 June 2013.</ref>

<ref name="abcnet22613"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518100704/http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/nauru.htm |date=2013-05-18 }}, Charting the Pacific. Retrieved 22 June 2013.</ref>

<ref name="AAE">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ |title=Academic American encyclopedia |date=1997 |publisher=Grolier Incorporated |isbn=978-0-7172-2068-7 |page=8 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421165702/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="LalFortune2000p63">{{Cite book |last1=Lal |first1=Brij Vilash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63 |title=The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia |last2=Fortune |first2=Kate |date=2000 |publisher=University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2265-1 |page=63 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421164832/https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="West2009">{{Cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=521 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421021635/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="DunfordRidgell1996">{{Cite book |last1=Dunford |first1=Betty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC |title=Pacific Neighbors: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia |last2=Ridgell |first2=Reilly |date=1996 |publisher=Bess Press |isbn=978-1-57306-022-6 |page=125 |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420224420/https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="voyage6">{{Cite book |last=Douglas |first=Bronwen |title=Science, Voyages, and Encounters in Oceania, 1511–1850 |date=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=6}}</ref>

<ref name="auxter">{{Cite book |last=de Brosses |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3x_MaYZVJQC |title=Histoire des navigations aux terres Australes. Contenant ce que l'on sçait des moeurs & des productions des contrées découvertes jusqu'à ce jour; & où il est traité de l'utilité d'y faire de plus amples découvertes, & des moyens d'y former un établissement |publisher=Durand |year=1756 |location=Paris |publication-date=1756 |language=fr |trans-title=History of voyages to the Southern Lands. Containing what is known concerning the customes and products of the countries so far discovered; and treating of the usefulness of making broader discoveries there, and of the means of setting up an establishment there |author-link=Charles de Brosses |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726130911/https://books.google.com/books?id=o3x_MaYZVJQC |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="tecto">{{cite web |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |url=http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217002443/http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |archive-date=17 February 2013 |access-date=27 February 2013 |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="platetec2010">{{Citation |last1=Frisch |first1=Wolfgang |title=Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx1oiTMOTRcC&pg=PA11 |pages=11–12 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-76504-2 |last2=Meschede |first2=Martin |last3=Blakey |first3=Ronald C.}}</ref>

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<ref name="AOML FAQ G1">{{cite web |last=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory – Hurricane Research Division |author-link=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory |title=Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season? |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html |access-date=25 July 2006 |publisher=] |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174608/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="matology105">{{cite report |last1=Longman |first1=Ryan J. |last2=Giambelluca |first2=Thomas W. |last3=Nullet |first3=Michael A. |last4=Loope |first4=Lloyd L. |title=Climatology of Haleakalā |date=July 2015 |hdl=10125/36675 |pages=105–106 }}</ref>

<ref name="region">Regions and constituents as per ] except ], 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 3, 5–7, 9) may be in ] Oceania and Asia or North America.<br /></ref>

<ref name="Australasia">The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand".</ref>

<ref name="nzpol">New Zealand is often considered part of Polynesia rather than ].<br /></ref>

<ref name="Melanesia">Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in ] (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.<br /></ref>

<ref name="papauto">{{cite web |date=12 July 2017 |title=UNDANG-UNDANG REPUBLIK INDONESIA NOMOR 21 TAHUN 2001 TENTANG OTONOMI KHUSUS BAGI PROVINSI PAPUA |url=http://www.kinerja.or.id/pdf/8bbcd469-bc2c-4d89-bf63-c2d81804ae27.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712195402/http://www.kinerja.or.id/pdf/8bbcd469-bc2c-4d89-bf63-c2d81804ae27.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2017 |access-date=16 March 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="rnzi07">{{cite web |date=7 February 2007 |title=Papuan province changes name from West Irian Jaya to West Papua |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=29965 |access-date=27 December 2008 |publisher=Radio New Zealand International |archive-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217013012/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=29965 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="pngaus">] is often considered part of ] and ]. It is sometimes included in the ] of ].<br /></ref>

<ref name="Palau">On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of ] to ] in the state of ], located {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} northeast of Koror on ].<br /></ref>

<ref name="ASamoa">] is the seat of government of ].<br /></ref>

<ref name="Christianity in Oceania">, Center for the Study of Global Christianity</ref>

<ref name="US Dept of State Background Notes">{{cite web |last=US Dept of State |date=1 May 2012 |title=Background Notes Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Malaysia, Micronesia, New Zealand, Samoa |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn |access-date=14 July 2012 |publisher=State.gov |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121012610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

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<ref name="twhite125">{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pages=125–127}}.</ref>

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<ref name="VHR">National Gallery of Victoria – Victorian Heritage Register</ref>

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<ref name="Unterberger">Unterberger, pp. 465–473</ref>

<ref name="Chai">Chai, Makana Risser. "Huna, Max Freedom Long, and the Idealization of William Brigham", ''The Hawaiian Journal of History'', Vol. 45 (2011) pp. 101–121</ref>

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<ref name="encyclnzshell">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mātaitai – shellfish gathering |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 |access-date=27 June 2017 |date=June 2006 |last1=Whaanga |first1=Mere |archive-date=11 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611193911/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ecyclnzshell222">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Story: Shellfish |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish |access-date=29 August 2016 |archive-date=8 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908224002/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="encyclnzcook">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Cooking – Cooking methods |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 |access-date=11 December 2016 |date=September 2013 |language=en |last1=Burton |first1=David |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220093052/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="dancesiva">{{Cite news |title=Dance: Siva |work=Samoa.co.uk |url=http://www.samoa.co.uk/dance.html |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2018-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925092515/http://www.samoa.co.uk/dance.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="wwpride">{{Cite news |title=Worn With Pride – Tatau (Tatoo) |work=Oceanside Museum of Art |url=http://www.oma-online.org/worn_with_pride_04.html |access-date=26 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330024149/http://www.oma-online.org/worn_with_pride_04.html |archive-date=30 March 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="artino">{{Cite book |last=Brunt |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/artinoceanianewh0000unse/page/410 |title=Art in Oceania: A New History |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-19028-1 |location=New Haven and London |pages=}}</ref>

<ref name="oce">]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515024646/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0039821.html |date=15 May 2006 }}. Retrieved on 23 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime">Met Timeline of Art History, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614002850/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/oc/ht02oc.htm |date=2021-06-14 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="rockart531">Taçon, Paul S.C. (2001). "Australia". In Whitely, David S.. ''Handbook of Rock Art Research''. ]. pp. 531–575. {{ISBN|978-0-7425-0256-7}}</ref>

<ref name="nyt051106">{{Cite news |last=Henly |first=Susan Gough |date=6 November 2005 |title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625060911/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html?_r=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="mettime4">Met Timeline of Art History {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019185309/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ubir/hd_ubir.htm |date=2021-10-19 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime444">Met Timeline of Art History, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328181919/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lapi/hd_lapi.htm |date=2022-03-28 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime 453">Met Timeline of Art History, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614003752/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/07/oc/ht07oc.htm |date=2021-06-14 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="mettime3456">Met Timeline of Art History, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613230433/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/oc/ht08oc.htm |date=2021-06-13 }}. Retrieved on 22 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="ocerugb">{{cite web |title=Oceania Rugby Vacations |url=http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028080851/http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html |archive-date=28 October 2010 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Real Travel}}</ref>

<ref name="aust54">Australia – p. 54, Tracey Boraas – 2002</ref>

<ref name="planetsp85">Planet Sport – p. 85, Kath Woodward – 2012</ref>

<ref name="aust101">Australia – p. 101, Sundran Rajendra – 2002</ref>

<ref name="newzea76">New Zealand – p. 76, Rebecca Hirsch – 2013</ref>

<ref name="rl">{{Cite news |date=15 October 2008 |title=PNG vow to upset World Cup odds |work=Rugby League |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm |access-date=3 July 2009 |quote=But it would still be one of the biggest shocks in ] if Papua New Guinea – ''the only country to have Rugby League as its national Sport'' – were to qualify for the last 4. |archive-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515044325/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="naurafl">{{cite web |date=16 April 2008 |title=Nauru AFL team to play in International Cup |url=http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 |access-date=17 April 2009 |website=Solomonstarnews.com |archive-date=16 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116034134/http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="ausrulebrit">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Australian rules football (sport) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football |access-date=17 April 2009 |archive-date=26 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726103553/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="miningpapua">{{cite web |title=Papua New Guinea |url=http://www.miningfm.com.au/mining-towns/overseas/papua-new-guinea.html |website=Miningfm.com.au |access-date=2022-07-30 |archive-date=2013-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130802055323/http://www.miningfm.com.au/mining-towns/overseas/papua-new-guinea.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="msnclosure">{{cite web |date=23 October 2008 |title=MSN Groups Closure Notice |url=http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417041646/http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us |archive-date=17 April 2008 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Groups.msn.com |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="footinaus">{{cite web |date=28 March 2008 |title=Football in Australia – Australia's Culture Portal |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515034759/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ |archive-date=15 May 2009 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Cultureandrecreation.gov.au}}</ref>

<ref name="rugby66">{{cite web |date=13 June 1908 |title=Rugby League Football – 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Teara.govt.nz |archive-date=23 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523192431/http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="southemiclass">{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Andy |date=5 November 2009 |title=southern hemisphere sides are a class apart |work=guardian.co.uk |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand |access-date=17 June 2010 |archive-date=27 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227085649/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="fifa2010">{{cite web |date=3 April 2009 |title=''FIFA world cup 2010 – qualifying rounds and places available by confederation'' |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228220920/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |access-date=17 April 2009 |publisher=Fifa.com}}</ref>

<ref name="note000">According to the Act of Papua Autonomy (Undang-Undang Otonomi Khusus bagi Provinsi Papua) section 2 verse 2, the province itself has its own flag and arms, similar to other provinces. However, the flag and arms are not representations of sovereignty over the Republic of Indonesia.</ref>

<ref name="note111">West Papua was split from Papua province in 2003 but still retain autonomous status</ref>

<ref name="abc20140703">{{Cite news |date=3 July 2014 |title=Australia and New Zealand to compete in Pacific Games |publisher=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-03/australia-and-new-zealand-to-compete-in-pacific-games/5568956 |access-date=9 July 2015 |archive-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423003643/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-03/australia-and-new-zealand-to-compete-in-pacific-games/5568956 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="quickstats">{{cite web |title=2018 Census totals by topic national highlights |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |access-date=29 May 2020 |publisher=] |at=Table 26 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185957/https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}

===Sources===
* {{Cite book |last1=Davison |first1=Graeme |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian History |last2=Hirst |first2=John |last3=Macintyre |first3=Stuart |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-553597-9 |location=Melbourne |author-link2=John Hirst (historian) |author-link3=Stuart Macintyre}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jupp |first=James |title=The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-80789-0 |ref=CITEREFJupp}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2as0sWxFBAC |title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-520-20743-1 |location=Berkeley |ref={{sfnref|Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents|1997}} |author-link2=Kären Wigen}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Teo| first1=Hsu-Ming |title=Cultural history in Australia |last2=White |first2=Richard |publisher=University of New South Wales Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-86840-589-6 }}
==Further reading==

* Lawson, Stephanie. ''Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century'' (Cambridge UP, 2024), encyclopedic coverage;


==External links== ==External links==
{{sister project links|voy=Oceania|d=y}}
{{sisterlinks}}
* from
* {{dmoz|Regional/Oceania|Oceania}}
* photographs, recordings, and digital objects drawn primarily from the Tuzin Archive for Melanesian Anthropology at the UC San Diego Library.
* from


{{Oceania topics}}
{{Navboxes {{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to Oceania |title = Articles related to Oceania
|list = |list =
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}} {{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
{{Regions of Oceania}}
{{List of Oceanian capitals by region}} {{List of Oceanian capitals by region}}
{{Culture of Oceania}}
{{Regions of the world}} {{Regions of the world}}
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Latest revision as of 01:51, 26 December 2024

Geographical region in the Pacific Ocean This article is about the geographical region. For the continent, see Australia (continent). For the continental mainland, see Mainland Australia. For other uses, see Oceania (disambiguation). "South West Pacific" redirects here. For the 1943 Australian film, see South West Pacific (film). For the World War II military command, see South West Pacific Area.

This article contains too many or overly lengthy quotations. Please help summarize the quotations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource. (August 2024)
Oceania
An orthographic projection of Oceania
Area9,000,000 km (3,500,000 sq mi) (7th)
Population44,491,724 (2021, 6th)
Population density4.94/km (12.8/sq mi)
GDP (nominal)$1.630 trillion (2018, 6th)
GDP per capita$62,316 (2023, 1st)
Religions
DemonymOceanian
Countries UN members (14) Associated (2)
Dependencies External (23)
Internal (11)
Languages Official (30)
Time zonesUTC+9 (Papua, Palau) to UTC–6 (Easter Island)
(west to east)
Largest cities 10 largest cities in Oceania
UN M49 code009 – Oceania
001 – World

Oceania (UK: /ˌoʊsiˈɑːniə, ˌoʊʃi-, -ˈeɪn-/ OH-s(h)ee-AH-nee-ə, -⁠AY-, US: /ˌoʊʃiˈæniə, -ˈɑːn-/ OH-shee-A(H)N-ee-ə) is a geographical region including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered a continent, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its continental landmass. Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, at the centre of the water hemisphere, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of about 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) and a population of around 44.4 million as of 2022. Oceania is the smallest continent in land area and the second-least populated after Antarctica.

Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and globally competitive financial markets of Australia, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, which rank high in quality of life and Human Development Index, to the much less developed economies of Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western New Guinea. The largest and most populous country in Oceania is Australia, and the largest city is Sydney. Puncak Jaya in Indonesia is the highest peak in Oceania at 4,884 m (16,024 ft).

The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago. Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands and west New Guinea. Spanish and Dutch explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the 18th century, James Cook, who later arrived at the highly developed Hawaiian Islands, went to Tahiti and followed the east coast of Australia for the first time. The arrival of European settlers in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The Pacific theatre saw major action during the First and Second World Wars.

The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world. Most Oceanian countries are parliamentary democracies, with tourism serving as a large source of income for the Pacific island nations.

Definitions and extent

Characteristics

Oceania with its sovereign states and dependent territories within the subregions Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia

Definitions of Oceania vary. The broadest definition encompasses the many islands between mainland Asia and the Americas. The island nation of Australia is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent. The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and pre-Columbian America. Before Europeans arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands. The islands of the Malay Archipelago, north of Australia, mainly lie on the continental shelf of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity.

Mercator Planisphere by A.-H. Brué (1816), showing Océanie, the Grand Océan and Polynésie including all the islands of the Pacific Ocean

The geographer Conrad Malte-Brun coined the French expression Terres océaniques (Oceanic lands) c. 1804. In 1814 another French cartographer, Adrien-Hubert Brué, coined from this expression the shorter "Océanie", which derives from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek word ὠκεανός (ōkeanós), "ocean". The term Oceania is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together. John Eperjesi's 2005 book The Imperialist Imaginary says that it has "been used by Western cartographers since the mid-19th century to give order to the complexities of the Pacific area."

1852 map by Jean-Denis Barbié du Bocage. Includes regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia and Malesia

In the 19th century, many geographers divided Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions: Australasia, Malesia (encompassing the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The 2011 book Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, by Richard W. Casteel and Jean-Claude Passeron, states that, "for the purpose of anthropology, Oceania has long been a continent like Africa, Asia and America." Scottish geographer John Bartholomew wrote in 1873 that, "the New World consists of North America, and the peninsula of South America attached to it. These divisions generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the Ocean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Oceania." American author Samuel Griswold Goodrich wrote in his 1854 book History of All Nations that, "geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania." In this book, the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (the Americas) and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia). In his 1879 book Australasia, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most important feature." He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. The Oxford Handbook of World History (2011) describes the areas encompassed in Oceania as being "afterthoughts in world history texts, lumped together and included at the end of global surveys as areas largely marginal to the main events of world history".

In most non-English-speaking countries Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other non-English-speaking countries Australia and Eurasia are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe, and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the world". Nevertheless, various writers from English-speaking countries have described Oceania as a continent over the years. Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of plate tectonics, Antarctica, Australia, and Greenland were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in the English-speaking countries. In his 1961 book The United States and the Southwest Pacific, American author Clinton Hartley Grattan commented that, "the use of the word Oceania to cover Australia, New Zealand, and the islands now has a slightly old-fashioned flavor." Australia is a founding member of the Pacific Islands Forum in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific island. Some geographers group the Australian tectonic plate with others in the Pacific to form a geological continent. National Geographic states that the term Oceania "establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining characteristic of the continent." Others have labelled it as the "liquid continent". The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a "continent of islands", and contains approximately 25,000, which is more than all the other major oceans combined. In a 1991 article, American archeologist Toni L. Carrell wrote, "the immensity of and great distances within the Pacific Basin often make it difficult to conceptualize the basin as a single earth feature." Oceania's subregions of Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia cover two major plates; the Australian Plate (also known as the Indo-Australian Plate) and the Pacific Plate, in addition to two minor plates; the Nazca Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. The Australian Plate includes Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, and parts of New Zealand. The Pacific Plate covers the Solomon Islands and parts of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Island). The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island, neighbours the South American Plate, and is still considered to be a separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of islands.
Map displaying parts of Near Oceania and Remote Oceania with a focus on Efate

The new terms Near Oceania and Remote Oceania were proposed in 1973 by anthropologists Roger Green and Andrew Pawley. By their definition, Near Oceania consists of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands, with the exception of the Santa Cruz Islands. They are designed to dispel the outdated categories of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; many scholars now replace those categories with Green's terms since the early 1990s, but the old categories are still used in science, popular culture and general usage.

Boundaries

Further information on Oceania borders: Boundaries between the continents of Earth and List of transcontinental countries

Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the Bonin Islands, a politically integral part of Japan; Hawaii, a state of the United States; Clipperton Island, a possession of France; the Juan Fernández Islands, belonging to Chile; and Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia.

United Nations interpretation

Main article: United Nations geoscheme for Oceania
Oceania and its four subregions

The United Nations (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century: Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities, and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island — which was annexed by Chile in 1888. It is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases. The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. Their definition includes American Samoa, Australia and their external territories, the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island). The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still colonies at that point. Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original UN definition of Oceania. The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of Hong Kong and Malaysia, located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as are Brunei, East Timor and Indonesian New Guinea/Western New Guinea. The CIA World Factbook also categorizes Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name "Australia and Oceania" is used. Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's definition, and is also used for statistical purposes. The Pacific Islands Forum expanded during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French Polynesia, gained membership.

Early interpretations

A German map of Oceania from 1884, showing the region to encompass Australia and all islands between Asia and Latin America

French writer Gustave d'Eichthal remarked in 1844 that, "the boundaries of Oceania are in reality those of the great ocean itself." Conrad Malte-Brun in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the islands of Polynesia (which then included all the Pacific islands) and the Malay Archipelago. American lexicographer Joseph Emerson Worcester wrote in 1840 that Oceania is "a term applied to a vast number of islands which are widely dispersed in the Pacific Ocean they are considered as forming a fifth grand division of the world." He also viewed Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. In 1887, the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland referred to Australia as the area's westernmost land, while in 1870, British Reverend Alexander Mackay identified the Bonin Islands as its northernmost point, and Macquarie Island as its southernmost point. The Bonin Islands at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie Island, to the south of Tasmania, is a subantarctic island in the Pacific. It was politically associated with Australia and Tasmania by 1870.

Alfred Russel Wallace believed in 1879 that Oceania extended to the Aleutian Islands, which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific. The islands, now politically associated with Alaska, have historically had inhabitants that were related to Indigenous Americans, in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and Siberia. Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and Europe combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe. American geographer Sophia S. Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857. She stated that Oceania was divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand, and the Melanesian islands), Malesia (which included all present-day countries within the Malay Archipelago, not the modern country of Malaysia) and Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition). Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were Borneo, Hawaii, Indonesia's Java and Sumatra, New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's Society Islands, Tasmania, and Tonga.

American geographer Jesse Olney's 1845 book A Practical System of Modern Geography stated that it "comprises the numerous isles of the Pacific, lying south east of Asia." Olney divided up Oceania into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand), Malesia and Polynesia (which included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia in his definition). Publication Missionary Review of the World claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided up into five groups; Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, "isolated groups and islands, such as the Hawaiian and Galápagos." In 1876, French geographer Élisée Reclus labelled Australia's flora as "one of the most characteristic on the globe", adding that "the Hawaiian archipelago also constitutes a separate vegetation zone; of all tropical insular groups it possesses the relatively largest number of endemic plants. In the Galápagos group also more than half of the species are of local origin." Rand McNally & Company, an American publisher of maps and atlases, claimed in 1892 that, "Oceania comprises the large island of Australia and the innumerable islands of the Pacific Ocean" and also that the islands of the Malay Archipelago "should be grouped in with Asia." British linguist Robert Needham Cust argued in 1887 that the Malay Archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian civilization. Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. New Zealand was categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his definition of Australasia was Australia. His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii, which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States.

The Journal of the Royal Statistical Society stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania rather than a small continent. It additionally commented:

it is certainly not necessary to consider the Hawaiian Islands and Australia as being in the same part of the world, it is however permissible to unite in one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the Malay Archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished in order to increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent.

Regarding Australia and the Pacific, Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia observed in 1885 that, "the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malesia." It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, "scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject". British physician and ethnologist James Cowles Prichard claimed in 1847 that the Aleutian Islands and the Kuril Islands form "the northern boundary of this fifth region of the world, and with the coasts of Asia and America completing its literal termination." However, he wrote that these islands "are not usually reckoned as belonging to it, because they are known to be inhabited by races of people who came immediately from the adjacent continents and are unconnected with those tribes of the human race who peopled the remote islands of this great ocean." He added that Hawaii was the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania.

The 1926 book Modern World History, 1776–1926, by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and associated the term with the Malay Archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan and the Kuril Islands. He further included in his definition Sakhalin, an island which is geologically part of the Japanese Archipelago, but that has been administered by Russia since World War II. Hong Kong, partly located in another marginal sea of the Pacific (the South China Sea) was also included in his definition. Australia and New Zealand were grouped together by Flick as Australasia, and categorized as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick estimated this definition of Oceania had a population of 70,000,000, and commented that, "brown and yellow races constitute the vast majority" and that the minority of whites were mainly "owners and rulers". Hutton Webster's 1919 book Medieval and Modern History also considered Oceania to encompass all islands in the Pacific, stating that, "the term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific Islands." Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions; the continental group, which included Australia, the Japanese archipelago, the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.

Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book The Island World of the Pacific Ocean considered Oceania to ethnographically encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Archipelago, and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, California's Channel Islands and Farallon Islands, Canada's Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Islands (now known as Haida Gwaii), Chile's Chiloé Island, Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's Guadalupe Island, Revillagigedo Islands, San Benito Islands and Tres Marías Islands, and Peru's Chincha Islands. Islands in marginal seas of the Pacific were also covered in the book, including Alaska's Pribilof Islands and China's Hainan. Tyler additionally profiled the Anson Archipelago, which during the 19th century was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included phantom islands such as Ganges Island and Los Jardines which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island. Tyler described Australia as "the leviathan of the island groups of the world". In his 1857 book A Treatise on Physical Geography, Francis B. Fogg commented that "the Pacific and its dependencies may be said to contain that portion of the globe termed Oceanica or 'the Maritime World', which is divided into Australasia, Malesia and Polynesia." Fogg defined Polynesia as covering the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as the Ryukyu Islands. He added that, "besides the proceeding, the Pacific contains many other islands, of which the most important are Hainan and Formosa, on the coast of China, the Japan isles, the Kuriles, the Aleutian Islands (stretching from the New World to the Old), Vancouver Island, the Galápagos, Juan Fernández and Chiloé." Scottish academic John Merry Ross in 1879 considered Polynesia to cover the entire South and Central Pacific area, not just islands ethnographically within Polynesia. He wrote in The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information that, "literally interpreted, the name would include all the groups from Sumatra to the Galápagos, together with Australia." Ross further wrote, "and to this vast region the term Oceania has been applied. It is more usual at the present time, however, to exclude the archipelago."

Historical and contemporary interpretations

In a 1972 article for the Music Educators Journal titled Musics of Oceania, author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote:

many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, and other islands closely related to the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus, Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific.

Kennedy defined Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The U.S. Government Publishing Office's Area Handbook for Oceania from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large sovereignties of the area. It further states:

In its broadest definition Oceania embraces all islands and island groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage, however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the Aleutians and the Kuriles, usually are excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) are not ordinarily considered to be part of the area.

In 1948, American military journal Armed Forces Talk broke the islands of the Pacific up into five major subdivisions; Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the non-tropical Islands. The Indonesia subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were categorized as being North Pacific islands such as Alaska's Kodiak archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be subtropical islands, with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical. The journal associated the term Oceania with the Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical subdivisions. The Pacific Islands Handbook (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, "Pacific Islands generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance." He noted the political significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and categorized New Zealand's Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Islands, Chatham Island and Kermadec Islands as being non-tropical islands of the South Pacific, along with Australia's Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. The Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island are also considered to be subtropical islands. Other non-tropical areas below the equator, such as Chiloé Island, Macquarie Island, Tasmania, and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not included in this category.

According to the 1998 book Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences, Oceania refers to Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes that, "the term also come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether or not Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan should be included in Oceania." The Japanese Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan and other islands near China are often deemed as a geological extension of Asia, since they do not have oceanic geology, instead being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that were once physiographically connected. Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not geologically associated with Asia. The book The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania (1966) asserts that, "Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia the Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the Far East Asian mainland are excluded from Oceania", and that "all the islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania." Furthermore, the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the Pacific Ocean "gives unity to the whole" since "all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the Pacific."

The 1876 book The Countries of the World, by British scientist and explorer Robert Brown, labelled the Malay Archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the Asian continent. They are now often referred to as Maritime Southeast Asia, with Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore being founding members of the ASEAN regional organization for Southeast Asia in 1967 (Brunei and East Timor did not exist as independent nations at that point). Brown also categorized Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from The Countries of the World: Volume 5, which covered mainland Asia and Hong Kong. However, Brown did not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania. He divided Oceania into two subregions: Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and Southwestern Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand. The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote, "they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia, and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and interesting." Brown went on to add, "the small islands lying off the continent, like the Queen Charlotte's in the North Pacific, the Farallones off California, and the Chinchas off Peru are—to all intents and purposes, only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different." The Juan Fernández Islands and the neighbouring Desventuradas Islands are today seen as the easternmost extension of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south central Pacific component to their marine fauna. According to scientific journal PLOS One, the Humboldt Current helps create a biogeographic barrier between the marine fauna of these islands and South America. Chile's government have occasionally considered them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island. Chile's government also categorize Easter Island, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled Insular Chile. They further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. PLOS One describe Insular Chile as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."

A map of member states for the Pacific Islands Forum, the member states are depicted in blue. The PIF is a governing organization for the Pacific, and all of its members are seen as being politically within Oceania. Territories ethnographically associated with Oceania, but not politically associated with Oceania, such as Easter Island, Hawaii, and Western New Guinea, have considered gaining representation in the PIF. The Pacific island nations of Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan are dialogue partners, but none have full membership. East Timor, located in marginal seas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, also have observer status.
An exclusive economic zone map of the Pacific which includes areas not politically associated with Oceania, that may be considered geographically or geologically within Oceania

In her 1997 book Australia and Oceania, Australian historian Kate Darian-Smith defined the area as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. She excluded Hawaii from her definition, but not Easter Island. The International Union for Conservation of Nature stated in a 1986 report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania "on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart", further noting that other oceanic islands administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania. In 1987, The Journal of Australasian Cave Research described Oceania as being "the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east." In a 1980 report on venereal diseases in the South Pacific, the British Journal of Venereal Diseases categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia, but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the South Pacific Commission, like other islands in the South Pacific. The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the Pacific Affairs journal, author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope encompassed all non-self governing islands below the equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was included in the scope and then known as Dutch New Guinea). Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands were defined by James as falling within the organization's geographical parameters. The 2007 book Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West, by New Zealand Pacific scholar Ron Crocombe, defined the term "Pacific Islands" as being islands in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a definition "does not include Galápagos and other islands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a South American country and have almost no contact with other Pacific Islands." He adds, "Easter Island still participates in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Polynesian."

Thomas Sebeok's two volume 1971 book Linguistics in Oceania defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, Costa Rica's Cocos Island and Colombia's Malpelo Island (all oceanic) as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island are the only landmasses located on the Cocos Plate, which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed that a native Polynesian language was still understood on Easter Island, unlike with the other islands, which were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and mostly being used as prisons for convicts. Additionally, the book includes Taiwan and the entire Malay Archipelago as part of Oceania. While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay Archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines share Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins with Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the book. Hainan, which neighbours Taiwan, also has Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins, although it was not included in the book. The book defined Oceania's major subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all areas associated with the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in The Journal of Pacific History that "a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago." For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the Oceania Football Confederation during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the Asian Football Confederation.

Ian Todd's 1974 book Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, and included the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and Salas y Gómez. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, despite being areas which would fall within this range. All other islands associated with Latin American countries were excluded, as they are continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific Plate) and the oceanic islands situated on the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate. Todd defined the oceanic Bonin Islands as making up a Japanese language segment of Oceania, and excluded the main Japanese archipelago. Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain borders both the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and is geologically a partially submerged volcanic extension of the Aleutian Range on the Alaskan mainland. He did not include the volcanic Kuril Islands and Ryukyu Islands, which similarly border both the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate, nor did he include the neighbouring Kodiak archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, which is firmly situated on the North American Plate. The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble of various Pacific Islands, "particularly those in the central and south Pacific never those in the extreme north, for example the Aleutian chain." In the Pacific Ocean Handbook (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears claimed, "it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific, the American coastal islands and the Netherlands East Indies", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither Commonwealth realm has close ties with Asia." In his 2002 book Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders, Andrew Strathern excluded Okinawa and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their indigenous inhabitants "show many parallels with Pacific island societies."

In the 2006 book Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds, American paleontologist David Steadman wrote, "no place on earth is as perplexing as the 25,000 islands that make Oceania." Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (including Easter Island and Hawaii). He excluded from his definition the larger islands of New Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and other oceanic islands nearing the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations. In his 2018 book Regionalism in South Pacific, Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some "stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand", adding that the term Oceania "promotes a broader concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand."

American marine geologist Anthony A. P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book Encyclopedia of Islands that, "as a whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania, the tenth continent on earth. Inherent to their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique social, biological and geological characteristics." Koppers considered Oceania to encompass the entire 25,000 islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this book, he included the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island; all of these islands lie in or close to the Pacific Ring of Fire, as is the case with New Guinea and New Zealand, which were also included. In the 2013 book The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of Oceania in Encyclopedia of Islands, and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is "not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are." Bullen added that, "Asia, Europe and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The 'Asia–Pacific region' would comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it e.g., the Philippines." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that Oceania is "a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean" and that "it is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded." In his 1993 book A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands, New Guinea-born Fijian scholar Epeli Hauʻofa wrote that, "Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania."

The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania (2018) defined Oceania as only covering Austronesian-speaking islands in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, with this definition including New Guinea and New Zealand. Other Austronesian areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines were not included, due to their closer cultural proximity to mainland Asia. Australia was also not included, as it was settled several thousands of years before the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The book stated, "this definition of Oceania might seem too restrictive: Why not include Australia, for example, or even too broad, for what does Highland New Guinea have to do with Hawai'i?", further noting that, "a few other islands in the Pacific such as those of Japan or the Channel Islands off the southern California coast are not typically considered Oceania as the indigenous populations of these places do not share a common ancestry with Oceanic groups, except for a time far before humans sailed Pacific waters." It has been theorized that the indigenous Jōmon people of the Japanese archipelago are related to Austronesians, along with the indigenous inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. Some also theorize that Indigenous Australians are related to the Ainu people, who are the original inhabitants of Japan's Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands and the southern part of Sakhalin. In their 2019 book Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus, Kathleen Nadeau and Sangita Rayamajhi wrote:

the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and most of Indonesia are not usually considered to be part of the region of Oceania as it is understood today. These regions are usually considered to be part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Although these regions, as well as the large East Asian islands of Taiwan, Hainan and the Japanese archipelago, have varying degrees of cultural connections.

In Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide (2013), George R. Zug claimed that "a standard definition of Oceania includes Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand and the oceanic islands of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia." He went on to write that his preferred definition of Oceania emphasis islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are, "islands with no past connections to a continental landmass" and that, "these boundaries encompass the Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the Palau Islands in the west to the Galápagos Islands in the east." Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and New Caledonia (which is geologically associated with New Zealand) were all excluded, as these areas are descendants of the ancient Pangaea supercontinent, along with landmasses such as the Americas and Afro-Eurasia. Volcanic islands which are geologically associated with continental landmasses, such as the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Izu Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and most of the Solomon Islands, were also excluded from his definition. Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative proximity (situated 1,200 kilometres off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands nearing the Americas, having had almost no interaction with the continent throughout its history. From the early 20th century to 2007, the island was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until 1957. In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are much farther removed from the Americas. Scottish author Robert Hope Moncrieff considered Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907, while Ian Todd also included it in his definition of Oceania in Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama.

Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania, including the highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the U.S. military). This is due to their location in the centre of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands, have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators. Archaeological evidence suggests that Micronesians may have lived on the Bonin Islands c. 2,000 years ago, but they were uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century.

Boundaries between subregions

Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia. New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian Māori, and has long maintained a political influence over the subregion. Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the largest population of Polynesians in the world, while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population (consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to Melanesians, and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia, which is mostly located on the same tectonic plate. Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion. As with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European population, numbering around 71,000. Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest of Melanesia, and their French-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population. As such, it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia. Some cultural and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare. Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are more commonly grouped together as part of the Australasian biogeographical realm. Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected. Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands are situated within the bounds of the Australian Plate and have been geographically associated with Southeast Asia, due to their proximity to western Indonesia. Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are European Australian mainlanders (with smaller numbers being European New Zealanders), while the other half are immigrants from China or the nearby Malay Archipelago. Australia's Indian Ocean external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands lie on the Antarctic Plate and are also thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation. The World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania.

Norfolk Island, an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly European Australians, and the UN categorize it as being in the Australasia subregion. The 1982 edition of the South Pacific Handbook, by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawaiʻi together under an "Anglonesia" category. This is in spite of the geographical distance separating these areas from Hawaiʻi, which technically lies in the North Pacific. The 1985 edition of the South Pacific Handbook also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the subregion. The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never inhabited by Polynesians.

The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are often grouped in with the subregion because of this.

History

Main articles: History of Oceania and History of the Pacific Islands

Colonisation of Oceania

Australia

Main articles: Prehistory of Australia and History of Indigenous Australians
A 19th-century engraving of an Aboriginal Australian encampment

Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from Africa to Asia c. 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia c. 50,000 years ago. They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia, they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage.

They reached Tasmania c. 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last ice age. It is believed that the first early human migration to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the Sahul continent, connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge. The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea. The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at c. 40,000 years old.

It is estimated that 4% to 6% of the genome in Melanesians (e.g. Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) derives from the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, while no Eurasians or Africans displayed contributions of the Denisovan genes.

Melanesia

Main article: History of New Guinea

The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.

Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.

Micronesia

See also: History of the Federated States of Micronesia
Stone money transport to Yap Island in Micronesia (1880)
Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific (per Bellwood in Chambers, 2008)

Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.

The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centred on Yap and Pohnpei. The prehistories of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.

The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from Southeast Asia. They became known as the Chamorros. Their language was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts.

Polynesia

Main articles: History of Hawaii and History of New Zealand Further information: Discovery and settlement of Hawaii and Polynesian navigation
Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between c. 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China c. 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia.

In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE, "Lapita Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west Melanesia.

Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matuꞌa discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family. They are believed to have been Polynesian. Around 1200, Tahitian explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities. Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200.

European exploration

See also: Magellan expedition, Spanish East Indies, History of Australia (1788–1850), and Colony of New Zealand
1852 map of Oceania by J. G. Barbié du Bocage. Includes regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Malesia.

Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Maluku Islands (by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by Jorge de Menezes in 1526). In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, and other islands of Oceania.

From 1527 to 1595, a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas Islands, the Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.

In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailed to Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula. Abel Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.

On 23 April 1770, British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia.

European settlement and colonisation

See also: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand
New Guinea from 1884 to 1919. The Netherlands controlled the western half of New Guinea, Germany the north-eastern part, and Britain the south-eastern part.

In 1789, the mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire. The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.

French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia.

The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). In 1905, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over southeast New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaiʻi becoming a US territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, the UK, and Germany over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.

Modern history

Main articles: Pacific War, Military history of Oceania, Military history of New Zealand, Military history of Australia during World War I, Military history of Australia during World War II, History of Guam, History of Australia (1901–1945), and Decolonisation of Oceania
New Zealand troops land on Vella Lavella, in Solomon Islands

One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.

The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Battle of Bita Paka, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokoda Track, and the Borneo campaign. The United States fought the Battle of Guam from 21 July to 10 August 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation.

Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognised the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000.

Geography

See also: List of Oceanian countries by population and List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania
Aoraki / Mount Cook, located on the South Island of New Zealand
Puncak Jaya / Carstensz Pyramid, highest summit in Oceania

Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the Aleutian Islands and other Alaskan or Canadian islands. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the Northern Hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the Southern Hemisphere.

Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaiʻi, and Solomon Islands.

Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.

A map of Oceania from the CIA World Factbook

Regions

Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the centre, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast.

Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia.

Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga, and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the centre, and the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east.

Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south.

Geology

Main articles: Geography of Fiji, Geology of New Zealand, Geology of Australia, and Geography of Samoa
The Pacific Plate comprises most of Oceania, excluding Australasia and the western portion of Melanesia.

The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres (40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. It is almost entirely oceanic crust. The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).

Australia became part of the Indo-Australian Plate 45 to 40 million years ago and this is in the process of separating again with the Australian Plate being relevant to Oceania. It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years).

The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes, and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica.

The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.

Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as, Easter Island, American Samoa and Fiji, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were formed c. 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above mean sea level.

Flora

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Environment of New Zealand, Flora of Australia, Flora of New Zealand, Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands, and Domesticated plants of Austronesia
New Zealand countryside
Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia

The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula.

Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). The flora of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest, with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, Premna protrusa, Psydrax odorata, Gyrocarpus americanus, and Derris trifoliata.

New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand.

In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia – B. rockii and B. insignis – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down 910-metre (3,000 ft) cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.

Fauna

Main articles: Fauna of Australia, Birds of Australia, Birds of New Zealand, Fauna of New Zealand, Mammals of Australia, List of birds of Australia, List of birds of New Zealand, and Domesticated animals of Austronesia
The Pacific robin inhabits the islands of the south western Pacific.

The aptly named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands, as is the Red-vented bulbul, Polynesian starling, Brown goshawk, Pacific Swallow and the Cardinal myzomela, among others. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the fairy tern, common noddy, and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008.

Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds, and bowerbirds.

A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums, and dasyuromorphs. The passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens, the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds. Predominant bird species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland.

The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighbouring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahē, Kākāpō, mohua, tūī, and the bellbird. The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to New Zealand.

Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world's parrot species, including half of all Critically Endangered parrots, many of which are endemic to the region.

Climate

Main articles: Climate of Australia, Climate of New Zealand, and Climate of Hawaii
August 2011 winter's snowfall in Dunedin, Otago

The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active.

To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory.

Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland. Snow falls in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.

Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as 10,430 km (4,028 sq mi) according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). A few islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season.

The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached 50.7 °C (123.3 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was −25.6 °C (−14.1 °F), at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir. Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 mm (300 in) each year in certain mountainous locations. The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average 10,271 mm (404.4 in) each year.

Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania
  • Australia Australia
  • Hawaii Hawaii
  • New Zealand New Zealand
  • Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea
  • Australasia and adjacent islands Australasia and adjacent islands

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Oceania

The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description.

Arms Flag Name of region, followed by countries Area
(km) 		Population
(2021) 		Population density
(per km) 		Capital ISO 3166-1
Australasia
Australia Ashmore and Cartier Islands Ashmore and Cartier Islands (Australia) 199 0 0
Australia Australia Australia 7,686,850 25,921,089 3.1 Canberra AU
Australia Christmas Island Christmas Island (Australia) 135 1,692 12.5 Flying Fish Cove CX
Australia Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) 14 593 42.4 West Island CC
Australia Coral Sea Islands Coral Sea Islands (Australia) 10 4 0.4
New Zealand New Zealand New Zealand 268,680 5,129,727 17.3 Wellington NZ
Norfolk Island Norfolk Island Norfolk Island (Australia) 35 2,302 65.8 Kingston NF
Australasia (total) 7,955,923 29,645,874 3.7
Melanesia
Fiji Fiji Fiji 18,270 924,610 49.2 Suva FJ
New Caledonia New Caledonia (France) 19,060 287,800 14.3 Nouméa NC
Indonesia Central Papua (Indonesia) 61,073 1,431,000 23 Wanggar, Nabire Regency
Indonesia Highland Papua (Indonesia) 51,213 1,430,500 28 Walesi, Jayawijaya Regency
Papua (province) Indonesia Papua (Indonesia) 82,681 1,035,000 13 Jayapura
Indonesia South Papua (Indonesia) 117,849 522,200 4.4 Salor, Merauke Regency
Indonesia Southwest Papua (Indonesia) 39,123 621,904 16 Sorong
West Papua (province) Indonesia West Papua (Indonesia) 60,275 561,403 9 Manokwari
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea 462,840 9,949,437 17.5 Port Moresby PG
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands Solomon Islands 28,450 707,851 21.1 Honiara SB
Vanuatu Vanuatu 12,200 319,137 22.2 Port Vila VU
Melanesia (total) 1,000,231 14,373,536 14.4
Micronesia
Federated States of Micronesia Federated States of Micronesia 702 113,131 149.5 Palikir FM
Guam Guam (United States) 549 170,534 296.7 Hagåtña GU
Kiribati Kiribati Kiribati 811 128,874 141.1 South Tarawa KI
Marshall Islands Marshall Islands 181 42,050 293.2 Majuro MH
Nauru Nauru Nauru 21 12,511 540.3 Yaren (de facto) NR
Northern Mariana Islands Northern Mariana Islands (United States) 477 49,481 115.4 Saipan MP
Palau Palau 458 18,024 46.9 Ngerulmud PW
United States Wake Island Wake Island (United States) 2 150 75 Wake Island UM
Micronesia (total) 3,307 526,343 163.5
Polynesia
American Samoa American Samoa (United States) 199 45,035 279.4 Pago Pago, Fagatogo AS
Cook Islands Cook Islands Cook Islands 240 17,003 72.4 Avarua CK
Easter Island Easter Island Easter Island (Chile) 164 5,761 35.1 Hanga Roa CL
French Polynesia French Polynesia French Polynesia (France) 4,167 304,032 67.2 Papeete PF
Hawaii Hawaii Hawaii (United States) 16,636 1,360,301 81.8 Honolulu US
United States Johnston Atoll Johnston Atoll (United States) 276.6 0 0 Johnston Atoll UM
United States Midway Atoll Midway Atoll (United States) 2,355 39 6.37 Midway Atoll UM
New Zealand Niue Niue 260 1,937 6.2 Alofi NU
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands (United Kingdom) 47 47 1 Adamstown PN
Samoa Samoa Samoa 2,944 218,764 66.3 Apia WS
Tokelau Tokelau (New Zealand) 10 1,849 128.2 Atafu (de facto) TK
Tonga Tonga Tonga 748 106,017 143.2 Nukuʻalofa TO
Tuvalu Tuvalu Tuvalu 26 11,204 426.8 Funafuti TV
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (France) 274 11,627 43.4 Mata-Utu WF
Polynesia (total) 25,715 2,047,444 79.6
Total 8,919,530 50,099,312 5.1
Total minus mainland Australia 1,232,680 24,178,223 16.6

Largest city for regions

Cities by metropolitan area

  Largest population centres of Oceania
June 2024 estimate (SSGA18 boundaries)
Rank City name Country Pop. Rank City name Country Pop.

Sydney


Melbourne

1 Sydney Australia 5,131,326 11 Canberra Australia 435,019
Brisbane


Perth

2 Melbourne Australia 5,031,195 12 Jayapura Indonesia 410,852
3 Brisbane Australia 2,408,223 13 Port Moresby Papua New Guinea 402,000
4 Perth Australia 2,043,138 14 Christchurch New Zealand 403,300
5 Auckland New Zealand 1,531,400 15 Sunshine Coast, Queensland Australia 317,404
6 Adelaide Australia 1,333,927 16 Wollongong Australia 295,669
7 Honolulu United States 953,207 17 Sorong Indonesia 294,978
8 Gold Coast, Queensland Australia 646,983 18 Hobart Australia 224,462
9 Wellington New Zealand 497,200 19 Geelong Australia 196,393
10 Newcastle, New South Wales Australia 436,171 20 Hamilton, New Zealand New Zealand 192,000

Religion

Main article: Religion in Oceania
Holy's Innocent Anglican Church in Amberley, New Zealand
Saione, the church of the King, a Free Wesleyan Church in Kolomotuʻa, Tonga. Especially British and American missionaries brought various Protestant denominations to Oceania.
Sri Siva Subramaniya temple in Fiji

The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity (73%). A 2011 survey found that 92% in Melanesia, 93% in Micronesia and 96% in Polynesia described themselves as Christians. Traditional religions are often animist, and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces. In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 48% declared no religion. In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion".

In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "no religion" (which includes atheism, agnosticism, deism, and secular humanism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia. Another one in Tuvalu belongs to the same sect. The Baháʼí House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa, is one of seven designations administered in the Baháʼí Faith.

Hinduism is a minority faith in Oceania. Fiji has the highest percentage of Hindus in Oceania at 29.7% In absolute numbers, Australia has the largest population of Hindus in Oceania constituting 2.7% of the country's population. In New Zealand, Hindus form 2.65% of the population of. Samoa also has a significant Hindu population.

Other religions in the region include Islam and Buddhism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia and New Zealand. Judaism, Sikhism and Jainism are also present. Sir Isaac Isaacs was the first Australian-born Governor General of Australia and was the first Jewish vice-regal representative in the British Empire. Prince Philip Movement is followed around Yaohnanen village on the southern island of Tanna in Vanuatu.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Oceania

Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups:

Immigrants brought their own languages to the region. Common non-indigenous languages include English in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories; French in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna; Japanese in the Bonin Islands; and Spanish on Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands. There are also Creoles formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as Tok Pisin, Bislama, Chavacano, various Malay trade and creole languages, Hawaiian Pidgin, Norfuk, and Pitkern. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin.

Immigration

Main articles: Post-war immigration to Australia, Immigration to Australia, Immigration to New Zealand, Refugees in Australia, Refugees in New Zealand, and Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
Dutch immigrants arriving in Melbourne, Australia in 1954

The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of immigration, are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country.

Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40% of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney.

European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and Asia. Auckland is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its Asian-born population, and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African born population.

Many Portuguese immigrants in Hawaii were Azorean or Madeiran.

Hawaii is a majority-minority state. Chinese workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. As of 2015, a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry – especially Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations. Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii.

Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre. Australia, New Zealand, and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid.

Archaeogenetics

Yali in the Yahukimo Regency, Highland Papua

Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of Australo-Melanesians took place c. 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, Papuans, colonised much of Near Oceania. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising Remote Oceania.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the Austronesian expansion and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.

Large areas of New Guinea are unexplored by scientists and anthropologists due to extensive forestation and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in Papua New Guinea have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Oceania

The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale).

Australia New
Zealand Chatham Hawaii Wake Federated States
of Micronesia Palau Papua New
Guinea Easter
Island French
Polynesia Cook
Islands New
Caledonia Fiji Tuvalu Kiribati Phoenix Line Solomon
Islands Tokelau Marshall
Islands Nauru Vanuatu Tonga Pitcairn Guam Norfolk Northern
Marianas Samoa AS WF Niue Cocos Christmas Ryukyu
Islands Izu Bonin Volcano Okinotori
shima Minamitori
shima Midway Johnston Clipperton Socorro Howland Baker Kingman Palmyra Jarvis Coral Sea Lord
Howe Kermadec Bounties Three Kings Antipodes Aucklands Solander Snares Campbell Ashmore
& Cartier Macquarie Indonesia Philippines Sarawak BN Sabah Maluku Papua East
Timor Paracels Spratlys This template:

Australia

Main article: Economy of Australia
The skyline of Sydney

Australia and New Zealand are the only highly developed independent nations in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawaiʻi, and French Polynesia are highly developed too but are not sovereign states. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade.

The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP.

Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living, making it one of the most livable cities. It is classified as an Alpha World City by GaWC. Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the Asia–acific region.

Auckland's central business district at night

The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and education sectors. Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, producing cars, electrical equipment, machinery and clothes.

New Zealand

Main article: Economy of New Zealand

New Zealand's economy is the 53rd-largest in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 68th-largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). A major economic and cultural powerhouse of the Southern Hemisphere, Auckland is ranked as a Beta+ world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Auckland and Wellington are frequently ranked among the world's most liveable cities, with Auckland being ranked first in the world according to the Global Liveability Ranking.

New Zealand has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout the large island nation. The country has one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade – mainly with Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and the United States. New Zealand's 1983 Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia means that the economy aligns closely with that of Australia. In 2005, the World Bank praised New Zealand as the most business-friendly country in the world. The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange. The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded currency in the world.

Pacific Islands

Main articles: Economy of Fiji, Economy of Samoa, and Economy of Tonga
Honolulu viewed from Diamond Head crater

The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS.

The main produce from the Pacific is copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, cocoa, sugar, and ginger are also commonly grown across the tropics of the Pacific. Fishing provides a major industry for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. Natural Resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold, are mined in Australia and Solomon Islands. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the European Union.

Aerial view of Bora Bora, French Polynesia

Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though it remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for 18% of gross domestic product, although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. Sugar exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Coconuts, ginger, and copra are also significant.

The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, the military, tourism and education. Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey. As of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S.

Tourism

Shangri-La's Fijian Resort
Further information: Tourism in Australia and Tourism in New Zealand

Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Fiji currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism industry.

Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series Survivor was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled Survivor: Vanuatu – Islands of Fire. Two years later, Australia's Celebrity Survivor was filmed at the same location used by the U.S. version.

Dandenong Ranges in Victoria are popular among tourists.

Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals. Popular Australian destinations include the Sydney Harbour (Sydney Opera House, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Royal Botanic Garden, etc.), Gold Coast (theme parks such as Warner Bros. Movie World, Dreamworld and Sea World), Walls of Jerusalem National Park and Mount Field National Park in Tasmania, Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne, the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, The Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Uluru (Ayers Rock) and the Australian outback.

Tourism in New Zealand contributes NZ$7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's GDP in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. Tourism New Zealand, the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide. Milford Sound in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination.

In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10.6 billion. Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. In 2011, Hawaiʻi saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010.

Politics

Australia

Main article: Politics of Australia
Charles is Head of the Commonwealth and King of five Oceanian countries: Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.

Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III at its apex as the King of Australia, a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. The Australian Defence Force is by far the largest military force in Oceania.

New Zealand

Main article: Politics of New Zealand

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified. Charles III is the King of New Zealand and the head of state. The King is represented by the Governor-General, whom he appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the King and the House of Representatives. A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states, with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption.

Pacific Islands

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)
Government building in the Samoan capital Apia housing administrative ministerial offices

In Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of government. The 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs. The national government (malo) generally controls the legislative assembly. Politics of Tonga takes place in a framework of a constitutional monarchy, whereby the King of Tonga is the Head of State.

Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of government. The executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji. Fiji's Head of State is the President. He is elected by Parliament of Fiji after nomination by the Prime Minister or the Leader of the Opposition, for a three-year term.

In the politics of Papua New Guinea the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General. In Kiribati, a Parliamentary regime, the President of Kiribati is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system.

New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate.

Hawaii is dominated by the Democratic Party. As codified in the Hawaiian Constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is elected statewide. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol.

Culture

Australia

Main articles: Culture of Australia and Cuisine of Australia
On 28 June 2007, the Sydney Opera House became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature length film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in Oceania. The city's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in Oceania.

Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres. Australia and New Zealand were responsible for the flat white coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast. Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll.

The ʻIolani Palace in Honolulu, formerly the residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978.

Hawaii

Main articles: Culture of Hawaii, Cuisine of Hawaii, and Hawaiian religion

The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar. The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves, and the sky.

The cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and native Hawaiians, and American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian, and Portuguese origins. Native Hawaiian musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist Israel Kamakawiwoʻole, famous for his medley of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World", was named "The Voice of Hawaii" by NPR in 2010 in its 50 great voices series.

New Zealand

Main articles: Culture of New Zealand and Cuisine of New Zealand
Hills with inset, round doors. Reflected in water.
The Hobbiton Movie Set, located near Matamata, was used for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy.

New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous Māori and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the British colonisation of New Zealand. The Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration specifically from Oceania, Europe, and Asia. New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates many holidays such as the King's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The Last Samurai.

The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia. New Zealand yields produce from land and sea – most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers. Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb; salmon; koura (crayfish); whitebait; shellfish including dredge oysters, pāua, mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua; kumara (sweet potato); kiwifruit; tamarillo; and pavlova (considered a national dish).

Samoa

A fale on Manono Island
Main articles: Culture of Samoa and Polynesian culture

The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of matai chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga.

The Samoan word for dance is siva, which consists of unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male dances can be more snappy. The sasa is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums (pate) or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos.

Arts

Main articles: Oceanian art, Samoan art, Hawaiian art, Māori art, and Indigenous Australian art
Gwion Gwion rock paintings found in the north-west Kimberley region of Western Australia

The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural. Petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work are other common art forms. Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands. These early peoples lacked a writing system, and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time.

Indigenous Australian rock art is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites. These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were simply for amusement. Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to c. 1500 BCE.

By 1500 BCE the Lapita culture, descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning c. 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). At c. 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of canals. Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth.

Sport

See also: Sport in Oceania
Fiji playing Wales at seven-a-side rugby

Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports, and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is cricket, with their national team having won the Cricket World Cup a record five times. The most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television ratings. Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders, and they are tied with South Africa for the most Rugby World Cup titles, having won the tournament three times. Australia's team the Wallabies have won the World Cup twice, despite Rugby union being less popular among Australians. In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is Rugby league. Fiji's sevens team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's.

Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru. It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League. Additionally, it attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. The highest level of the sport is the Australian Football League (AFL), which was the fourth best attended sporting league in the world during the 2010s.

Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call association football its national sport. However, it is also the most popular sport in Kiribati, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, and has a significant (and growing) popularity in Australia. In 2006 Australia left the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) for the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), and their men's team the Socceroos have qualified for every subsequent FIFA World Cup as an Asian entrant. The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although they are not recognised by FIFA like the other OFC members. Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru and Palau all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to Micronesia's remoteness. Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC. The OFC was dominated by Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results. These included a 31–0 defeat of American Samoa by Australia in 2001, which remains the biggest international victory in the history of the sport.

Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the international stage, despite having a relatively small population. They have hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000, and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the 2032 edition. Australia has hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games and New Zealand three times. The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific; Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015.

Melbourne hosts the Australian Open every year, considered one of the four major Grand Slam tournaments in tennis.

See also

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Sources

Further reading

  • Lawson, Stephanie. Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century (Cambridge UP, 2024), encyclopedic coverage; online review of this book

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