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{{Short description|1345 – July 1393 conflict between the Second Bulgarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire}}
{{about|the medieval wars|the wars of the early 20th century|Balkan Wars}} {{about|the medieval wars|the wars of the early 20th century|Balkan Wars}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict {{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars |conflict= Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars
|image= ] |image= BulgarianOttomanWars.jpg
|image_size= 275px
|caption= Clockwise from right: Emperor Ivan Alexander, the remains of the Shumen fortress, Sultan Bayazid I
|caption= Clockwise from right: Emperor Ivan Alexander, the remains of the Shumen fortress, Sultan Bayezid I
|date= <!-- war lasting from --> c.1340 - 1396
|date= 1345 – 1396<br>({{Age in months, weeks and days|year1=1345|year2=1396}})<ref>, Cambridge Concise Histories, R. J. Crampton, Cambridge University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0521616379}}, p. 28.</ref><ref>The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1994, {{ISBN|0472082604}}, pp. 423-425.</ref>
|place= ]
|place= ]
|territory= The Bulgarian Empire is conquered by the Ottoman Empire
|result= Ottoman victory, annexation of the territory of the Bulgarian Empire into the Ottoman Empire |result= Ottoman victory
|combatant1= ]] |territory=Ottomans annex the Bulgarian Empire
|combatant1={{flagicon|Second Bulgarian Empire|1325}} ]
|combatant2= ]]
]<br>]<br>]
|commander1= ] <br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]
|combatant2= {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire|1299}} ]
|commander2= ]<br>]<br>]
|commander1= ] <br>]{{KIA}}<br>]{{KIA}}<br>]{{KIA}}<br>]{{executed}}<br>]{{POW}}<br>]<br>]<br>]
|commander2= ]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]
|strength1= Unknown |strength1= Unknown
|strength2= Unknown |strength2= Unknown
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{{Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars}} {{Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars}}


The '''Bulgarian-Ottoman wars''' were fought between kingdoms emerging from the disintegrating ], and the new emerging ] power, the ] in the second half the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century. The war ended with the collapse and disintegration of the Bulgarian Empire, with the last remaining Kindgom, the ], being conquered in 1396. As a result of the wars the Ottoman Empire greatly expanded its territory on the Balkan peninsula, stretching from the river ] to the ]. The '''Bulgarian–Ottoman wars''' were fought between the kingdoms remaining from the disintegrating ], and the ], in the second half of the 14th century. The wars resulted in the collapse and subordination of the Bulgarian Empire, and effectively came to an end with the Ottoman conquest of ] in July 1393,<ref>{{cite book |last=Fine |first=John V. A. |title=The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-08260-5 |date=1994 |pages=422–3}}</ref> although other Bulgarian states held out slightly longer, such as the ] until 1396 and the ] until 1411.<ref>, Cambridge Concise Histories, R. J. Crampton, Cambridge University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0521616379}}, p. 28.</ref><ref>The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1994, {{ISBN|0472082604}}, pp. 423-425.</ref> As a result of the wars the Ottoman Empire greatly expanded its territory on the Balkan peninsula, stretching from the ] to the ].


== The situation in the Balkans on the eve of the Ottoman invasion == == Situation in the Balkans on the eve of the Ottoman invasion ==


From the 13th century, the two main Balkan powers ] and ] saw a process of decentralization, as local feudal lords grew stronger and more independent from the emperors in ] and ]. This weakened the military and economic power of the central rulers. The process grew even stronger in the 14th century, when numerous nobles came to be only nominally subordinated to the central government. In Bulgaria the powerful ] family ruled over the Vidin Province in the west, while in the east ] established a quasi-independent ]. From the 13th century, the two main Balkan powers ] and ] fell victims to a process of decentralization, as local feudal lords grew stronger and more independent from the emperors in ] and ]. This weakened the military and economic power of the central rulers. The process deteriorated central authority to an even larger extent in the 14th century, when numerous nobles came to be only nominally subordinated to the government. In Bulgaria the powerful ] ruled over the Vidin Province in the west, while in the east ] established a quasi-independent ].


While the two Empires were facing enormous internal difficulties, the ] took the favourable opportunity to expand their kingdom. During the civil war in Byzantium in 1320s and 1330s, they managed to conquer most of the Bulgarian-populated ] from the Byzantines. In 1330 the Serbs defeated the Bulgarian Emperor ] at ] and emerged as the most powerful state in the region, and in 1346 their king ] received the title of Emperor with the blessing of the Bulgarian Emperor ]. However, after his death in 1355, his large empire disintegrated into numerous completely independent states. In Bulgaria, during the same period, Ivan Sratsimir inherited Vidin from his father Ivan Alexander in 1356, while ] ] – nominally his subject – ruled ]. In 1341–1347 the Byzantine Empire was shaken in a bloody civil war between ] and ]. While the two Empires were facing enormous internal difficulties, the ] took the favorable opportunity to expand its domain. During the ] in 1320s and 1330s, the Serbs conquered most of the ] and ] populated ] from the Byzantines. In 1330 Serbian forces defeated Bulgarian ones, led by Emperor ] at ] effectively raising the country to the status of the most powerful state in the region. In 1346, Serbian king ] received the title of Emperor with the blessing of the Bulgarian Emperor ], although after his death in 1355, the large ] disintegrated into ]. In Bulgaria of the same period ] inherited Vidin from his father Ivan Alexander in 1356, while ] ] – nominally his subject – ruled Dobruja. Lack of stability was eminent in the southern Balkans as well: in 1341–1347 the Byzantine Empire was shaken by a ] between ] and ].


Towards the middle of the century the Balkans were tens of small states constantly in war or plotting against each other with not a single strong country with a large army. In addition to the mainly ] countries such as Bulgaria, Byzantium and Serbia, there were a number of ] possessions to the west and south held by ], ] and the ] as well as ] whose ] (closely related to the ]) was considered heretic by both Orthodox and Catholics. The religious diversity was another source for the constant tensions in the region. Circa mid 14th century the Balkans were politically disunited into a number of small states frequently in competition with each other and there was no single strong entity with a powerful enough army to withstand the Muslim invaders. In addition to the mainly ] countries such as Bulgaria, Byzantium and Serbia, there were a number of ] possessions to the west and south held by ], ] and the ] as well as ] whose ] (traditionally considered closely related to the ]) was considered heretic by both Orthodox and Catholics. Religious dissimilarity was thus also a source for constant political tensions in the region.


== Military actions during the reign of Ivan Alexander == == Military actions during the reign of Ivan Alexander ==
=== Conflicts with the Aydinids ===
During the civil war in Byzantium both ] and ] were trying to find external allies and used foreign mercenaries. The Bulgarian Emperor supported the first opponent whose stronghold was Constantinople. John Kantakouzenos on the other hand regularly hired Ottoman Turk mercenaries from ] who soon became a fixture on the battlefields in ]. The Byzantines often lost control over the Ottomans then as the latter regularly plundered villages in the Southern Balkans after the 1320s.


],896.]]
During the civil war in Byzantium both Palaiologos and Kantakouzenos were trying to find external allies and used foreign mercenaries. The Bulgarian Emperor supported the first opponent whose stronghold was Constantinople. John Kantakouzenos on the other hand regularly hired Ottoman Turk mercenaries from ] whose bands soon became a common thing in ]. Despite being their allies, the Byzantines could not fully control them and they brought the region into ruins and launched regular attacks on Bulgarian territory to plunder the villages.
In 1344, ], the independent Bulgarian ruler of the ] and ] regions, whose army grew to 2,000 men,<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.702</ref> took an important role in the Byzantine civil war. While at first he supported John Kantakouzenos, from the spring of 1344 Momchil reneged, provoked by the aggression of the Ottoman allies.<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.707</ref><ref>]. Historiarum... 2, p.16-19</ref> In June, he defeated the Aydinid fleet near Portogalos Bay.<ref name="Ioannes Cantacuzenus p.427">Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.427</ref> According to sources, at night the Bulgarian ruler sent boats to burn the anchored Aydinid ships and soon after he defeated the army of Kantakouzenos at ].<ref name="Ioannes Cantacuzenus p.427" />
]
]
In 1344 the independent Bulgarian ruler of the ] and ] regions ] whose army grew to 2,000 men<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.702</ref> took an important role in the Byzantine civil war. At first he supported John Kantakouzenos but from the spring of 1344 he reneged on him due to the atrocities of his Ottoman allies.<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.707</ref><ref>]. Historiarum... 2, p.16-19</ref> In June he defeated the Ottoman fleet near the ] bay.<ref name="Ioannes Cantacuzenus p.427">Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.427</ref> At night he sent boats which burned the anchored ships of the enemy. Soon after this success he defeated the army of Kantakouzenos at Mosinopol.<ref name="Ioannes Cantacuzenus p.427" />


He was among the first local rulers who realized the threat of the Ottomans. Momchil pleaded both the Emperors of Bulgaria and Byzantium for help but received none. Even though he continued the resistance in the eastern part of the Rhodope mountains. In May 1345 the Turks led by Uner beg marched from Asia Minor to the Balkan Peninsula and made a devastating raid on Bulgarian territory driving away many people and cattle.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.530</ref> Soon after that, on 7 July 1345 the Bulgarian forces were defeated in the ]<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.729</ref> near Momchil's seat ] by superior Ottoman forces under ] and Momchil perished in the battle.<ref>Lemerle, P. L'emirat d'Aydin..., p.210, 217</ref> Probably the first local ruler to become aware of the impending threat of Turks, Momchil unsuccessfully pleaded with the emperors of Bulgaria and Byzantium for help. Even though his troops continued the resistance in the Eastern ], in May 1345 the Turks led by ] marched from Asia Minor and devastated Bulgarian territories driving away people and livestock.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.530</ref> Soon after, on 7 July 1345, Aydinid forces under Umur Beg defeated Momchil's army in the ]<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.729</ref> near his capital ]. Sources attest that the independent ruler perished in the battle without leaving a successor, and with little political will or leadership left to counter the Ottoman invasion.<ref>Lemerle, P. L'emirat d'Aydin..., p.210, 217</ref>
=== First clashes with the Ottomans ===
]
During the Byzantine civil wars Ivan Alexander regained control over several towns in Thrace and the Rhodopes but his frequent interference in the internal affairs of Byzantium hampered any closer relations between the two counties despite the peace established in 1332. In 1352 Turkish forces invaded Bulgaria anew, raiding Thrace, particularly the vicinities of ], ], and ], and capturing rich spoils.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.250</ref> In the same year the Ottomans seized their first fortress on the Balkans, Tsimpe on the ], setting firm foot in Europe.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.278</ref> Until 1354 Ottoman forces again ravaged the lands around Yambol and Plovdiv as well as the lower valleys of the ] and ] rivers.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.279</ref>


In 1355 the Ottomans launched a campaign towards ], but were soon engaged by the army of Ivan Alexander's eldest son and heir ] close to ]. In the ] both sides suffered heavy casualties and, despite the death of young Michael Asen, the Turks were unable to reach Sofia.<ref>Дуйчев, Ив. Из старата българска книжнина. 2, с.267</ref>
During the civil wars in the Byzantine Empire Ivan Alexander regained the control of several towns in Thrace and the Rhodopes but his frequent interference in the internal affairs of Byzantium hampered any closer relations between the two counties although they were in peace from 1332. In 1352 new Turkish forces invaded Bulgaria, devastated its southern areas and returned with huge spoils.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.250</ref> ], Diampol and ] suffered most. In the same year the Ottomans seized their first fortress on the Balkans, Tsimpe in the ] peninsula and soon set firm foot in Europe.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.278</ref> Between 1352 and 1354 they ravaged the lands around ] and ] as well as the lower reaches of the ] and ] rivers.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.279</ref>


===Unsuccessful alliance===
In 1355 the Ottomans launched a campaign in the direction of ] and were engaged by a Bulgarian army under Ivan Alexander's eldest son and heir ] in the vicinity of the city, probably around ]. In the following battle the Turks prevailed. Both sides suffered heavy casualties including the young Micheal Asen but eventually the Turks did not reach Sofia.<ref>Дуйчев, Ив. Из старата българска книжнина. 2, с.267</ref>


The defeat raised serious alert not only in Tarnovo, but also in Constantinople, forcing John Kantakouzenos to abdicate and removing one of the main facilitators of the Ottoman invasion. Faced with threat, Bulgaria and Byzantium made an attempt for rapprochement. In 1355 a daughter of the Bulgarian Emperor, ], married ], the infant son of the new Byzantine Emperor ].<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 3, p.557</ref> Unfortunately, the new relations between the houses of Tarnovo and Constantinople did not live up to the expectations of mounting a more significant response to the invading Ottomans.
===The unexecuted alliance===


After the death of ] on 20 December 1355, the ] lost much of its hegemony in the Western Balkans and the large and ethnically diverse empire split into several successor states.<ref>Jиречек, К. Историја срба. 1, с.305</ref> The Bulgarian and Byzantine Empires of the period were once again the only remaining major political powers on the peninsula with the potential to stop the Ottoman expansion. Between 1354 and 1364 the Turks conquered ] as a number of important fortresses and towns, such as Plovdiv and ] fell under attack.<ref>Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.48</ref> From the end of the 1350s Ottoman military units even reached the surroundings of the capital as, according to sources, the Emperor took precautions to strengthen the city walls.<ref>Demetrius Cydones. Ad Romaeos deliberativa. - PGr, 104, p.981</ref> Ottoman chronicler ] suggests that Turkish advance between 1359 and 1364 involved destruction and depopulation of many areas: the towns ], ], and ] were devastated, and others such as Venets and Sotirgrad were completely destroyed.<ref>Angelov, D. Certains aspects de la conquete des peuples balkaniques par des turks - BSI, 1956, 162, p. 237</ref> Destruction was accompanied by slaughter and deportation of the local populace to Asia Minor.<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 87</ref>
The defeat raised serious alert not only in Tarnovo but also in Constantinople and John Kantakouzenos was forced to abdicate. Thus one of the main perpetrators of the Ottoman invasion was removed from the political scene. Faced with that threat, Bulgaria and Byzantium made an attempt for rapprochement. In 1355 the daughter of the Bulgarian Emperor, Keratsa married the son of the new Byzantine Emperor John V, the infant Andrinokos.<ref>Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 3, p.557</ref> The new relations between the houses of Tarnovo and Constantinople should have been harmful to the invaders but despite the anticipation the agreement did not pay off.
]
In that period the Bulgarian and Byzantine Empires were once again the major political power on the peninsula and the only countries which were able to stop the penetration of the Ottoman Turks and seriously resist them. After the death of Stefan Dushan on 20 December 1355 Serbia lost its political influence and his large but ethnically diverse country split into many states.<ref>Jиречек, К. Историjа срба. 1, с.305</ref> Between 1354 and 1364 the Turks became masters of ] and a number of important castles and towns fell under their attacks including Plovdiv and ].<ref>Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.48</ref> From the end of the 1350s some Ottoman companies even reached the surroundings of the capital and the Emperor took precautions to repair the decayed walls of the city.<ref>Demetrius Cydones. Ad Romaeos deliberativa. - PGr, 104, p.981</ref> It is known from the records of the Ottoman chronicler Seadeddin and other chronicles that the Ottoman advance between 1359 and 1364 involved enormous destruction and total depopulation of certain areas. Many cities were devastated (Plovdiv, Stara Zagora, ]) while others such as Venets and Sotirgrad disappeared forever.<ref>Angelov, D. Certains aspects de la conquete des peuples balkaniques par des turks - BSI, 1956, 162, p. 237</ref> The devastation was accompanied by mass slaughter or deportation of population to Asia Minor.<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 87</ref>


Not only was there a total lack of coordination between the two Empires but they also quarreled for the ] ports of ] and ] which the Bulgarians successfully defended in 1364. The war brought nothing to the two parties involved but completely ruined the relation between the two states.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.362</ref> Not only was there a total lack of coordination between the two Empires, but they also quarreled over the ] ports of ] and ]. Bulgaria successfully defended them in 1364, but the continuing conflict deepened the distrust and animosity between the two states despite the impending danger.<ref>Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.362</ref>


===The last years of Ivan Alexander=== ===Last years of Ivan Alexander===
Apart from the economic devastation and military threat from the south, Bulgaria had other problems: in 1365 the ] ] ], seizing the important Vidin fortress and capturing the eldest living son of the tsar, ].<ref name="ReferenceA">Иречек, К. История на българите, С., 1929, с. 248</ref> In his unsuccessful initial attempts to retake Vidin, Ivan Alexander even resorted to using Ottoman mercenaries.<ref>Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.105-107</ref> Eventually, in the summer of 1369, the Bulgarian Emperor restored his authority over the Vidin Province with the help of the ]n '']'' ],<ref>Иречек, К. История на българите, С., 1929, с. 244-245</ref> but that proved to be his last success.


After Ivan Alexander's death on 17 February 1371, the lands populated by Bulgarians were divided into several independent states. Much of the former territory of the ] came under the rule of the tsar's third son ]; the ] were the dominance of the eldest son ], ] ] held ], and most of ] was divided into several feudal states controlled by Serbian nobles.
Apart from the threat from the south, Bulgaria had other problems: in 1365 the ] King ] invaded north-western Bulgaria, seized the large fortress Vidin and captured the eldest surviving son of the Emperor, ].<ref name="ReferenceA">Иречек, К. История на българите, С., 1929, с. 248</ref> In futile attempts to reconquer Vidin Ivan Alexander even used Ottoman mercenaries.<ref>Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.105-107</ref> However, in the summer of 1369 the Bulgarian Emperor restored his authorities over the Vidin Province with the help of the ] ''voivoda'' ]<ref>Иречек, К. История на българите, С., 1929, с. 244-245</ref> but that proved to be his last success - on 17 February 1371 he died.


== Battle of Chernomen and its consequences ==
After Ivan Alexander's death the Bulgarian lands were divided in several independent states. Most of the area with centre Tarnovo came under his third son ], in Vidin ruled his eldest son ], ] ] held ] and ] was divided in several feudal feudal states ruled by Serb nobles.
{{Main|Battle of Maritsa}}
]


In 1371 two feudal lords in Macedonia organised a campaign against the Turks. Serbian brothers ] and ], respectively the king of ] and the despot of ], gathered a numerous Christian army aiming to stop the Muslim invaders. Uglesha, whose lands bordered Ottoman territory to the east, realized the threat and unsuccessfully appealed to Serbian and Bulgarian states for help. Ruling over mixed Serbian-Greek-Bulgarian population, the two brothers set off to the east with 20 to 70,000 strong ethnically diverse army. Considerably less numerous troops led by ] attacked the united Balkan forces at night on 26 September as the latter camped by the village of ] in the lower ] valley. The entire army was pushed back and Vukashin and Uglesha perished along with much of their forces.<ref>Дуйчев, Ив. Българското средновековие. От Черномен до Косово поле, С., 1972, с.546</ref>
== The battle of Chernomen and consequences ==
{{POV|date=October 2008}}
{{Main|battle of Maritsa}}
]
In 1371 two feudal lords in Macedonia organised a campaign against the Turks. The Serbian king of ] ] and the despot of ] ] who were brothers gathered a large ] army to stop the Muslim invaders. Uglesha whose lands bordered with the Ottomans to the east had realized that if they were not stopped soon they would conquer the whole region and called rest of Serbia and some Bulgars for help but both states could not send troops. The army of the two brothers who were themselves Serbs but ruled over mixed Serbian-Greek-Bulgarian-populated lands set of to the east with 70,000 (according to other sources 20,000) Serbian-Bulgarian army. When they reached the village of Chernomen in the lower course of the ] river their camp was attacked at night on 26 September by a considerably smaller enemy force under ] and allies were routed. Valkashin and Uglesha along with most of the army perished.<ref>Дуйчев, Ив. Българското средновековие. От Черномен до Косово поле, С., 1972, с.546</ref>


Immediately after the battle the armies of ] headed towards Bulgaria and forced the young Emperor Ivan Shishman to pull back to the north of the ] and overran northern Thrace. Many castles fell after prolonged sieges. The town of Diampol fought against the hordes under Timurtash for months but after the shortage of food the population was forced to surrender.<ref name="Seadeddin 1649, p. 101">Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 101</ref> During the fights in the southern slopes of Stara Planina one of Ivan Shishman's ''voivods'', Shishkin perished. Soon the Ottomans seized the Rhodopes, ], ] and ], nearly reaching the ]. After a bloody siege they captured ] in the south-western Bulgarian lands.<ref name="Seadeddin 1649, p. 101"/> In 1373 Ivan Shishman had to negotiate for peace. The peace treaty was humiliating: the Bulgarian ruler became an Ottoman vassal and had to give his sister ] for Murad's wife. As a compensation, the Ottomans returned some of the conquered areas including Ihtiman and Samokov.<ref>Синодник царя Борила, с. 89</ref> Immediately after the battle, the armies of ] embarked on another campaign overrunning ] and forcing young Ivan Shishman to pull back north of the ]. A number of fortresses fell, through after prolonged and fierce sieges: the town of Diampol, for instance, fought against the forces of ] for months but was eventually forced to surrender because of food shortage.<ref name="Seadeddin 1649, p. 101">Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 101</ref> One of Ivan Shishman's '']s'', Shishkin, was killed in battle on the southern skirts of the Balkan Mountains further easing the Ottoman conquest of the Rhodopes, ], ], and ]. After a bloody siege they captured ] in the southwest and soon encroached on the ].<ref name="Seadeddin 1649, p. 101"/> In 1373 Ivan Shishman was forced to negotiate a humiliating peace treaty: he became an Ottoman vassal strengthening the union with a marriage between Murad and Shishman's sister ]. To compensate, the Ottomans returned some of the conquered lands, including Ihtiman and Samokov.<ref>Синодник царя Борила, с. 89</ref>


Between 1371 and 1373 the Ottomans emerged as a considerable power which every Balkan ruler had to take into an account. They ruled over the whole of Thrace and seized the lands of Uglesha in western Macedonia. The son of Valkashin ] and Ivan Shishman became their vassals. Between 1371 and 1373 the Ottomans emerged as a considerable power on the Balkans. They ruled over the entire Thrace and had seized the lands of Uglesha in Eastern Macedonia and managed to subordinate Vukashin's son ] and Ivan Shishman who became their vassals.


===The fall of the Rhodopes=== ===Fall of the Rhodopes===
]
{{POV|date=October 2008}}
During the same period (1371–1373) the invaders took control of the Rhodopes, a mountain studded with strong and well-guarded fortresses, approaching from the north.<ref>Делчев, В. Миналото на Чепеларе. 1. С., 1928, с.15</ref> The Rakovitsa fortress (now in ruins) was besieged by Daud Pasha and fiercely defended by its ''voivoda'' Kurt; after futile attempts to capture it with force, the Turks agreed to negotiations and the Bulgarians surrendered keeping their property.<ref name="ReferenceA" />
]
During the same period (1371–1373) the invaders took control of the Rhodopes, a mountain studded with strong and well-guarded fortresses. The Turks rushed in from the northern slopes of the mountains.<ref>Делчев, В. Миналото на Чепеларе. 1. С., 1928, с.15</ref> After a fierce resistance fell the Rakovitsa fortress (now in ruins). It was besieged by the forces of Daud pasha and the defense was led by the ''voivoda'' Kurt. After futile attempts to capture the castle with force the Turk agreed to negotiations and the Bulgarians surrendered and kept their property.<ref name="ReferenceA" />


The Ottomans fought bloody battles to take over one of the major castles in the Rhodopes, ]. For 9 months its population repulsed the enemy attacks but eventually surrendered in return for their lives and property<ref>Захариев, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 66</ref> after the Turks under Daud pasha cut off the water-conduit.<ref>Шишков, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 64</ref> In the same manner was taken Stanimaka (]).<ref>Шишков, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 6</ref> After a bitter siege fell the fortress Batkun on the northern slopes of the Rhodopes. Its commander Georgi was killed along his men in the final assault.<ref>Захариев, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 74</ref> Similarly, the population of ], one of the strategic fortresses of the Rhodopes, resisted Ottoman attacks for nine months before surrendering in return for their lives and property<ref>Захариев, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 66</ref> after Daud Pasha cut off the water supplies.<ref>Шишков, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 64</ref> In the same way Stanimaka (])<ref>Шишков, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 6</ref> was taken and soon after fell the northern Rhodopes fortress of Batkun whose commander Georgi died in the final assault.<ref>Захариев, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 74</ref>


The Ottomans faced a stubborn resistance in the interior of the Rhodope massif. The central areas were invaded by two armies commanded by Dzhedit pasha and Ibrahim pasha. Dzhedit pasha advanced on the road Stanimaka - ] along the valley of the Chepelarska river, and Ibrahim pasha set off from Plovdiv via Parvenets and then through the valley of the ]. Fighting occurred at the fortified settlements or locations Zarenitsa, Zagrad, Gradishte, Chiltepe and Karakulas (location along the valley of the Vacha), Imaretdere and Momina Voda (heights close to ]) and others. Especially fierce was the engagement at Momina Voda where one of the prominent Ottoman leaders Sarǎ Baba was killed. A bloody battle also occurred at Karakulas where another Ottoman chief - Enihan Baba perished. The Ottomans faced a stubborn resistance in the Rhodopes interior: central areas were invaded by the armies of Dzhedit Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha. The former advanced through the road between Stanimaka and ] along the valley of Chepelarska river, while Ibrahim pasha set off from Plovdiv via Parvenets and then through the valley of ]. Fighting occurred at Zarenitsa, Zagrad, Gradishte, Chiltepe and Karakulas (along Vacha), Imaretdere and Momina Voda (heights close to ]) among others. Especially ferocious were the engagements at Momina Voda, where prominent Ottoman general Sarǎ Baba was killed, and Karakulas where Enihan Baba perished.{{Citation needed|date=July 2015}}


== Fall of Sofia == == Fall of Sofia ==
While Ivan Shishman was desperately trying to resist against the strong Ottoman pressure, his brother Ivan Sratsimir not only withheld help but tried to make use of the difficulties which his brother faced to expand his domains over certain areas of the Tarnovo Tsardom. As Shishman's attention was pointed to the south, Ivan Sratsimir took control of the important city of ]<ref>Kuzev, Al. Die Besiehungen der Königs von Vidin, Ivan Sracimir zu den osmanischen Herrschern. EB, 1971, No. 3, p.121-124</ref> which was disputed between the two brothers. However, by 1373 the city was again in the Tarnovo Tsardom and it is possible that there was an armed conflict between the two Bulgarian states.<ref>Петров, П. Търговски връзки между България и Дубровник през XIV в. - ИБИД, 25, 1967, с.110</ref> ] Dobrotitsa also did not give any support to the Emperor in Tarnovo. He was in conflict with ] and was involved in the internal affairs of the ] trying to put on its throne his son-in-law.<ref>Мутавчиев, П. Добруджа в миналото, c. 44</ref>


After the temporary quiet which followed after 1373, in 1380 the Ottomans again started hostilities. With a large army Sultan Murad moved towards the southwestern regions of the Tarnovo Tsardom with the main objective to seize its center Sofia. After a bloody clash in the ] valley<ref>Цветкова, Б. Героичната съпротива на българите срещу османските нашественици, ц. 39</ref> the Turks moved on to Sofia and besieged it. The city which was commanded by ban ] repulsed all the attacks of the superior Ottoman forces under ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Зафиров |first1=Димитър |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDQn3tJkyUcC&dq=%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%B2+%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F&pg=PA395 |title=История на българите |last2=Александров |first2=Емил |date=2009 |publisher=TRUD Publishers |isbn=978-954-528-752-7 |pages=182 |language=bg}}</ref> The later could not continue the siege and was forced to pull back to ] where he reported his failure to the Sultan.<ref name=":0" /> While he was absent the Turks managed to infiltrate Sofia and one Muslim Bulgarian captured ban Yanuke while hunting and sent him to Lala Şahin who was in Plovdiv at that time. From there the Bulgarian commander was sent back to Sofia and when the defenders saw their captured leader they ] to the Ottomans (1382).<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 122 sq</ref>
While Ivan Shishman was desperately trying to resist against the strong Ottoman pressure, his brother Ivan Sratsimir not only withheld reinforcements or help but tried to make use of the difficulties which his brother faced to expand his domains over certain areas of the Tarnovo Tsardom. As Shishman's attention was pointed to the south, Ivan Sratsimir took control of the important city of ]<ref>Kuzev, Al. Die Besiehungen der Königs von Vidin, Ivan Sracimir zu den osmanischen Herrschern. EB, 1971, No. 3, p.121-124</ref> which was disputed between the two brothers. However by 1373 the city was again in the Tarnovo Tsardom and it is possible that there might have been armed conflict between the two Bulgarian states.<ref>Петров, П. Търговски връзки между България и Дубровник през XIV в. - ИБИД, 25, 1967, с.110</ref> ] Dobrotitsa also did not give any support to the Emperor in Tarnovo. He was in conflict with ] and was involved in the internal affairs of the ] trying to put on its throne his son-in-law.<ref>Мутавчиев, П. Добруджа в миналото, c. 44</ref>


The Ottomans installed a strong garrison and brought Muslim settlers from Asia Minor.<ref>Laonicus Chalcocondylas. Historiarum demonstrationes. 1., p. 94</ref> On the following year fell ]<ref>] La prise de Serres par les Turcs - Byz, 35, 1965, p. 302 sq</ref> The new Ottoman success did not bring together Ivan Shishman and Ivan Sratsimir. Between 1384 and 1386 a war broke out between Bulgaria and ], and the ] seized several settlements along the ] but were later defeated and their '']'' ] was killed.<ref>Istoria României. 2, p. 253</ref> Ivan Sratsimir took part in the action as an ally of the Vlachs<ref>Иречек, К. История на българите, с. 262</ref> which deepened the mistrust between the two brothers.
After the temporary hush which followed after 1373, in 1380 the Ottomans again started hostilities. With a large army Sultan Murad headed towards the south-western regions of the Tarnovo Tsardom which main objective to seize its center Sofia. After a bloody clashes in the ] valley<ref>Цветкова, Б. Героичната съпротива на българите срещу османските нашественици, ц. 39</ref> the Turks moved on to Sofia and besieged it. The city which was commanded by ban ] repulsed all the attacks of the superior Ottoman forces under ]. The later could not continue the siege and was forced to pull back to ] where he reported his failure to the Sultan. While he was absent the Turks managed to infiltrate Sofia and one Muslim Bulgarian captured ban Yanuke while hunting and sent him to Lala Shahin who was in Plovdiv at that time. From there the Bulgarian commander was sent back to Sofia and when the defenders saw their captured leader they ] to the Ottomans (1382).<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 122 sq</ref>


After the Ottomans secured the possession of the area around Sofia, they continued their march to the northwest. The main objective of Murad was to break the ties between Bulgaria and Serbia because despite the fact that Ivan Shishman was his vassal, Murad did not trust him and knew that the Bulgarian ruler was waiting for an appropriate opportunity to renege. After bitter fighting, in 1386 the Turks seized ] and ], killing and enslaving many Bulgarians.<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 124 sq</ref>
The Ottomans installed a strong garrison and brought Muslim settlers from Asia Minor.<ref>Laonicus Chalcocondylas. Historiarum demonstrationes. 1., p. 94</ref> On the following year fell ]<ref>] La prise de Serres par les Turcs - Byz, 35, 1965, p. 302 sq</ref> The new Ottoman success did not bring together Ivan Shishman and Ivan Sratsimir. Between 1384 and 1386 waged a war between Bulgaria and ], the ] seized several settlements along the ] but were later defeated and their '']'' ] was killed.<ref>Istoria României. 2, p. 253</ref> Ivan Sratsimir took part in the actions as an ally of the Vlachs<ref>Иречек, К. История на българите, с. 262</ref> which proved the total lack of coordination between the Bulgarian states and deepened the mistrust between the two brothers.


== Campaign of 1388 ==
After they secured the possession of the area around Sofia, the Ottomans continued their march to the north-west. The main objective of Murad was to break the ties between Bulgaria and Serbia because despite Ivan Shishman was his vassal, Murad did not trust him and knew that the Bulgarian ruler was waiting for an appropriate opportunity to renege. In 1386 the Turks seized ] and ] after bitter fights killing and enslaving many Bulgarians.<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 124 sq</ref>


The advance of the Ottomans in the central parts of the Balkan peninsula caused serious anxiety not only for Ivan Shishman but also in Serbia and ]. The ]n Prince ] and the Bosnian King ] organized an anti-Ottoman coalition and the Bulgarian Emperor joined them but was unable to send troops. In 1387 the united forces of ] and ] defeated the Ottomans in the ].
== The campaign of 1388 ==


However, while the Christian states did not make any attempt to exploit the victory, the Turks' reaction was swift. In 1388 a 30,000 strong army commanded by ] passed through the eastern ] and struck deep into Bulgaria's north. The Bulgarians were completely surprised and the invaders seized ], ], ] and other towns.<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 137 sq</ref> Due to the surprise campaign at first the towns and the castles were unable to organize proper defence but after the initial shock the Bulgarians took precautions. When the army of Ali Pasha besieged ], the defenders stiffly resisted and the Turks were forced to abandon the siege and march northwards.<ref>Lennciavius. Historiae musulmane turcorum de monumentis ipsorum sxcerptae. Libri XIII, Frankfurt, 1501, p. 272</ref>
The advance of the Ottomans in the central parts of the Balkan peninsula caused serious anxiety not only for Ivan Shishman but also in Serbia and ]. The ]n Prince ] and the Bosnian King ] organized an anti-Ottoman coalition and the Bulgarian Emperor joined them but was unable to send troops. In 1387 the united forces of ] and ] defeated the Turk in the ].


In ] the citizens allowed the Turks to install a small garrison but then they killed the Turkish soldiers and prepared for siege. Ali Pasha immediately burned the surrounding fields and soon the starving town had to surrender.<ref>Lennciavius. Historiae musulmane turcorum de monumentis ipsorum sxcerptae. Libri XIII, Frankfurt, 1501, p. 274</ref> After this success they advanced to the west towards ], one of the strongest Bulgarian fortresses along the ]. The defence was organized by Ivan Shishman who was currently in the town. Although the Ottomans had nearly 30,000 men they could not take it and Ali Pasha had to seek reinforcements from Murad himself. According to Seadeddin the Sultan marched to Nikopol with an enormous army firmly decided to seize the town at all costs. When Ivan Shishman faced the new enemy he sought a truce. Murad agreed and the Bulgarians saved Nikopol but were forced to cede another key Danubian fortress, ]. However, when Ali Pasha reached Silistra, the Bulgarians refused to surrender the town. Murad besieged Nikopol for a second time and this time Ivan Shishman agreed to the Ottoman conditions and a Turkish garrison was installed in Silistra.
However, while the Christian states did not make any attempt to exploit the victory, the Turks' reaction was swift. In 1388 a 30,000 strong army commanded by ] passed through the eastern ] and struck deep into Bulgaria's north. The Bulgarians were completely surprised and the invaders seized ], ], ] and other towns.<ref>Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 137 sq</ref> Due to the surprise campaign at first the towns and the castles were unable to organize proper defence but after the initial shock the Bulgarians took precautions. When the army of Ali Pasha besieged ], the defenders stiffly resisted and the Turks were forced to abandon the siege and march northwards.<ref>Lennciavius. Historiae musulmane turcorum de monumentis ipsorum sxcerptae. Libri XIII, Frankfurt, 1501, p. 272</ref>


As a result of the campaign the Turks took most of eastern Bulgaria including several key towns. Now the authority of Ivan Shishman was reduced to the lands to the west of the capital Tarnovo and several castles along the Danube. To the east the Bulgarians kept Varna and the capital of the ], ]. Probably at that time Ivan Sratsimir became an Ottoman vassal.<ref>Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.98</ref>
In ] the citizens allowed the Turks to install a small garrison but then they killed the Turkish soldiers and prepared for siege. Ali Pasha immediately burned the surrounding fields and soon the starving town had to surrender.<ref>Lennciavius. Historiae musulmane turcorum de monumentis ipsorum sxcerptae. Libri XIII, Frankfurt, 1501, p. 274</ref> After this success they advanced to the west towards ], one of the strongest Bulgarian fortresses along the ]. The defence was organized by Ivan Shishman who was currently in the town. Although the Ottomans had nearly 30,000 men they could not take it and Ali Pasha had to seek reinforcements from Murad himself. According to Seadeddin the Sultan marched to Nikopol with an enormous army firmly decided to seize the town at all costs. When Ivan Shishman faced the new enemy he sought a truce. Murad agreed and the Bulgarians saved Nikopol but were forced to cede another key Danubian fortress, ]. However, when Ali Pasha reached Silistra, the Bulgarians refused to surrender the town. Murad besieged Nikopol for a second time and this time Ivan Shishman agreed to the Ottoman conditions and a Turkish garrison was installed in Silistra.
== List of battles ==
===Bulgarian–Ottoman battles===


{| style="width:76%;" class="wikitable"
As a result of the campaign the Turks took most of eastern Bulgaria including several key towns. Now the authority of Ivan Shishman reduced to the lands to the west of the capital Tarnovo and several castles along the Danube. To the east the Bulgarians kept Varna and the capital of the ], ]. Probably at that time ] became an Ottoman vassal.<ref>Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.98</ref>
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Battle
! style="width:8%;"| Date
! style="width:10%;"| ] Bulgarian Commander
! style="width:10%;"| ] Ottoman Commander
! style="width:10%;"| Result
|- style=
|align="left"| ] || style="text-align:center;"| ]|| style="text-align:center;" | ] || style="text-align:center;"| Unknown || style="text-align:center;"| Indecisive
|-
|Siege of Plovdiv and Stara Zagora
|]
|Unknown
|Unknown
|Ottoman victory
|-
|]
|]
|]
|]
|Ottoman victory
|-
|Battle of Sofia<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ovcharov |first=Nikolai |title=Великите владетели на Второто българско царство |publisher=Ciela |year=2024 |isbn=978-954-28-4614-7 |location=Sofia |pages=559 |language=Bulgarian |trans-title=The great rulers of the Second Bulgarian empire}}</ref>
|]
|Unknown
|]
|Ottoman retreat<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Iordanov |first=Nikolai |title=Tsar Ivan Shishman through the Ottoman's eyes |url=https://bulgarianhistory.org/ivan-shishman-prez-pogleda-na-osmancite/ |journal=Bulgarian History|date=19 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ovcharov |first=Nikolai |title=Крепостта Урвич и късносредновековният манастир в нея |publisher=Unicart |year=2020 |isbn=978-954-2953-99-9 |pages=36 |language=Bulgarian |trans-title=The Urvich fortress and the late middle aged monastery in it}}</ref>
|-
|Siege of Sofia<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cholpanov |first=Boris |title=История на България (военна история) |publisher=Trud |year=2007 |isbn=978-954-621-235-1 |location=Sofia |pages=182 |language=Bulgarian |trans-title=History of Bulgaria (military history)}}</ref>
|]
|]
|]
|Bulgarian victory
|-
|]
|]
|]
|]
|Ottoman victory
|-
|Campaign of 1388
|]
|]
|]
|Ottoman victory
|-
|Siege of Varna
|]
|]
|]
|Bulgarian victory
|- style=
| align="left" | ] || style="text-align:center;" | ] || style="text-align:center;" | ] || style="text-align:center;" | ]|| style="text-align:center;" | Ottoman victory
|-
|]
|]
|]
|]
|Ottoman victory
|}

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist|2}}


== References == == References ==

*Васил Н. Златарски, ''История на българската държава през средните векове, Част I, II изд.'', Наука и изкуство, София 1970. *Васил Н. Златарски, ''История на българската държава през средните векове, Част I, II изд.'', Наука и изкуство, София 1970.
*Атанас Пейчев и колектив, ''1300 години на стража'', Военно издателство, София 1984. *Атанас Пейчев и колектив, ''1300 години на стража'', Военно издателство, София 1984.
*Йордан Андреев, Милчо Лалков, ''Българските ханове и царе'', Велико Търново, 1996. *Йордан Андреев, Милчо Лалков, ''Българските ханове и царе'', Велико Търново, 1996.

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist|2}}


{{Bulgarian Empire}} {{Bulgarian Empire}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars}}
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Latest revision as of 03:38, 19 December 2024

1345 – July 1393 conflict between the Second Bulgarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire This article is about the medieval wars. For the wars of the early 20th century, see Balkan Wars.
Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars

Clockwise from right: Emperor Ivan Alexander, the remains of the Shumen fortress, Sultan Bayezid I
Date1345 – 1396
(51 years)
LocationBalkans
Result Ottoman victory
Territorial
changes		 Ottomans annex the Bulgarian Empire
Belligerents

Second Bulgarian Empire Bulgarian Empire

Tsardom of Vidin
Despotate of Dobruja
Despotate of Lovech		 Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
Ivan Alexander
Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria †
Ivan Asen IV †
Ivan Asen V †
Ivan Shishman Executed
Ivan Sratsimir (POW)
Dobrotitsa
Fruzhin
Constantine II of Bulgaria		 Murad I
Bayezid I
Lala Şahin Pasha
Çandarli Ali Pasha
Mehmed Çelebi
Musa Çelebi
Strength
Unknown Unknown
Casualties and losses
Heavy Heavy
Bulgarian–Ottoman conflicts

The Bulgarian–Ottoman wars were fought between the kingdoms remaining from the disintegrating Second Bulgarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire, in the second half of the 14th century. The wars resulted in the collapse and subordination of the Bulgarian Empire, and effectively came to an end with the Ottoman conquest of Tarnovo in July 1393, although other Bulgarian states held out slightly longer, such as the Tsardom of Vidin until 1396 and the Despotate of Dobruja until 1411. As a result of the wars the Ottoman Empire greatly expanded its territory on the Balkan peninsula, stretching from the Danube to the Aegean Sea.

Situation in the Balkans on the eve of the Ottoman invasion

From the 13th century, the two main Balkan powers Byzantium and Bulgaria fell victims to a process of decentralization, as local feudal lords grew stronger and more independent from the emperors in Constantinople and Tarnovo. This weakened the military and economic power of the central rulers. The process deteriorated central authority to an even larger extent in the 14th century, when numerous nobles came to be only nominally subordinated to the government. In Bulgaria the powerful House of Shishman ruled over the Vidin Province in the west, while in the east Balik established a quasi-independent Despotate of Dobruja.

While the two Empires were facing enormous internal difficulties, the Serbs took the favorable opportunity to expand its domain. During the civil war in Byzantium in 1320s and 1330s, the Serbs conquered most of the Bulgarian and Aromanian populated Macedonia from the Byzantines. In 1330 Serbian forces defeated Bulgarian ones, led by Emperor Michail Shishman at Velbazhd effectively raising the country to the status of the most powerful state in the region. In 1346, Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan received the title of Emperor with the blessing of the Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Alexander, although after his death in 1355, the large Serbian Empire disintegrated into a few independent states. In Bulgaria of the same period Ivan Sratsimir inherited Vidin from his father Ivan Alexander in 1356, while despot Dobrotitsa – nominally his subject – ruled Dobruja. Lack of stability was eminent in the southern Balkans as well: in 1341–1347 the Byzantine Empire was shaken by a bloody civil war between John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos.

Circa mid 14th century the Balkans were politically disunited into a number of small states frequently in competition with each other and there was no single strong entity with a powerful enough army to withstand the Muslim invaders. In addition to the mainly Orthodox countries such as Bulgaria, Byzantium and Serbia, there were a number of Catholic possessions to the west and south held by Venice, Genoa and the Kingdom of Hungary as well as Kingdom of Bosnia whose Bosnian Church (traditionally considered closely related to the Bogomils) was considered heretic by both Orthodox and Catholics. Religious dissimilarity was thus also a source for constant political tensions in the region.

Military actions during the reign of Ivan Alexander

Conflicts with the Aydinids

During the civil war in Byzantium both Palaiologos and Kantakouzenos were trying to find external allies and used foreign mercenaries. The Bulgarian Emperor supported the first opponent whose stronghold was Constantinople. John Kantakouzenos on the other hand regularly hired Ottoman Turk mercenaries from Asia Minor who soon became a fixture on the battlefields in Thrace. The Byzantines often lost control over the Ottomans then as the latter regularly plundered villages in the Southern Balkans after the 1320s.

Battle of Boulgarophygon,896.

In 1344, Momchil, the independent Bulgarian ruler of the Rhodope and Aegean regions, whose army grew to 2,000 men, took an important role in the Byzantine civil war. While at first he supported John Kantakouzenos, from the spring of 1344 Momchil reneged, provoked by the aggression of the Ottoman allies. In June, he defeated the Aydinid fleet near Portogalos Bay. According to sources, at night the Bulgarian ruler sent boats to burn the anchored Aydinid ships and soon after he defeated the army of Kantakouzenos at Mosynopolis.

Probably the first local ruler to become aware of the impending threat of Turks, Momchil unsuccessfully pleaded with the emperors of Bulgaria and Byzantium for help. Even though his troops continued the resistance in the Eastern Rhodopes, in May 1345 the Turks led by Umur Beg marched from Asia Minor and devastated Bulgarian territories driving away people and livestock. Soon after, on 7 July 1345, Aydinid forces under Umur Beg defeated Momchil's army in the Battle of Peritor near his capital Xanthi. Sources attest that the independent ruler perished in the battle without leaving a successor, and with little political will or leadership left to counter the Ottoman invasion.

First clashes with the Ottomans

Emperor Ivan Alexander

During the Byzantine civil wars Ivan Alexander regained control over several towns in Thrace and the Rhodopes but his frequent interference in the internal affairs of Byzantium hampered any closer relations between the two counties despite the peace established in 1332. In 1352 Turkish forces invaded Bulgaria anew, raiding Thrace, particularly the vicinities of Aitos, Yambol, and Plovdiv, and capturing rich spoils. In the same year the Ottomans seized their first fortress on the Balkans, Tsimpe on the Gallipoli peninsula, setting firm foot in Europe. Until 1354 Ottoman forces again ravaged the lands around Yambol and Plovdiv as well as the lower valleys of the Maritsa and Tundzha rivers.

In 1355 the Ottomans launched a campaign towards Sofia, but were soon engaged by the army of Ivan Alexander's eldest son and heir Michael Asen close to Ihtiman. In the following battle both sides suffered heavy casualties and, despite the death of young Michael Asen, the Turks were unable to reach Sofia.

Unsuccessful alliance

The defeat raised serious alert not only in Tarnovo, but also in Constantinople, forcing John Kantakouzenos to abdicate and removing one of the main facilitators of the Ottoman invasion. Faced with threat, Bulgaria and Byzantium made an attempt for rapprochement. In 1355 a daughter of the Bulgarian Emperor, Keratsa, married Andronikos, the infant son of the new Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos. Unfortunately, the new relations between the houses of Tarnovo and Constantinople did not live up to the expectations of mounting a more significant response to the invading Ottomans.

After the death of Stefan Dušan on 20 December 1355, the Serbian Empire lost much of its hegemony in the Western Balkans and the large and ethnically diverse empire split into several successor states. The Bulgarian and Byzantine Empires of the period were once again the only remaining major political powers on the peninsula with the potential to stop the Ottoman expansion. Between 1354 and 1364 the Turks conquered Thrace as a number of important fortresses and towns, such as Plovdiv and Stara Zagora fell under attack. From the end of the 1350s Ottoman military units even reached the surroundings of the capital as, according to sources, the Emperor took precautions to strengthen the city walls. Ottoman chronicler Hoca Sadeddin Efendi suggests that Turkish advance between 1359 and 1364 involved destruction and depopulation of many areas: the towns Plovdiv, Stara Zagora, and Sliven were devastated, and others such as Venets and Sotirgrad were completely destroyed. Destruction was accompanied by slaughter and deportation of the local populace to Asia Minor.

Not only was there a total lack of coordination between the two Empires, but they also quarreled over the Black Sea ports of Mesembria and Anchialos. Bulgaria successfully defended them in 1364, but the continuing conflict deepened the distrust and animosity between the two states despite the impending danger.

Last years of Ivan Alexander

Apart from the economic devastation and military threat from the south, Bulgaria had other problems: in 1365 the Hungarian King Louis I invaded northwestern Bulgaria, seizing the important Vidin fortress and capturing the eldest living son of the tsar, Ivan Sratsimir. In his unsuccessful initial attempts to retake Vidin, Ivan Alexander even resorted to using Ottoman mercenaries. Eventually, in the summer of 1369, the Bulgarian Emperor restored his authority over the Vidin Province with the help of the Wallachian voivode Vladislav I, but that proved to be his last success.

After Ivan Alexander's death on 17 February 1371, the lands populated by Bulgarians were divided into several independent states. Much of the former territory of the Second Bulgarian Empire came under the rule of the tsar's third son Ivan Shishman; the northwestern areas were the dominance of the eldest son Ivan Sratsimir, despot Dobrotitsa held Dobruja, and most of Macedonia was divided into several feudal states controlled by Serbian nobles.

Battle of Chernomen and its consequences

Main article: Battle of Maritsa
Sultan Murad I

In 1371 two feudal lords in Macedonia organised a campaign against the Turks. Serbian brothers Vukashin and Uglesha, respectively the king of Prilep and the despot of Ser, gathered a numerous Christian army aiming to stop the Muslim invaders. Uglesha, whose lands bordered Ottoman territory to the east, realized the threat and unsuccessfully appealed to Serbian and Bulgarian states for help. Ruling over mixed Serbian-Greek-Bulgarian population, the two brothers set off to the east with 20 to 70,000 strong ethnically diverse army. Considerably less numerous troops led by Lala Şahin Pasha attacked the united Balkan forces at night on 26 September as the latter camped by the village of Chernomen in the lower Maritsa valley. The entire army was pushed back and Vukashin and Uglesha perished along with much of their forces.

Immediately after the battle, the armies of Murad I embarked on another campaign overrunning Northern Thrace and forcing young Ivan Shishman to pull back north of the Balkan Mountains. A number of fortresses fell, through after prolonged and fierce sieges: the town of Diampol, for instance, fought against the forces of Timurtash for months but was eventually forced to surrender because of food shortage. One of Ivan Shishman's voivodes, Shishkin, was killed in battle on the southern skirts of the Balkan Mountains further easing the Ottoman conquest of the Rhodopes, Kostenets, Ihtiman, and Samokov. After a bloody siege they captured Bitola in the southwest and soon encroached on the Sofia Valley. In 1373 Ivan Shishman was forced to negotiate a humiliating peace treaty: he became an Ottoman vassal strengthening the union with a marriage between Murad and Shishman's sister Kera Tamara. To compensate, the Ottomans returned some of the conquered lands, including Ihtiman and Samokov.

Between 1371 and 1373 the Ottomans emerged as a considerable power on the Balkans. They ruled over the entire Thrace and had seized the lands of Uglesha in Eastern Macedonia and managed to subordinate Vukashin's son Marko and Ivan Shishman who became their vassals.

Fall of the Rhodopes

The Ottoman advance after the battle of Chernomen.

During the same period (1371–1373) the invaders took control of the Rhodopes, a mountain studded with strong and well-guarded fortresses, approaching from the north. The Rakovitsa fortress (now in ruins) was besieged by Daud Pasha and fiercely defended by its voivoda Kurt; after futile attempts to capture it with force, the Turks agreed to negotiations and the Bulgarians surrendered keeping their property.

Similarly, the population of Tsepina, one of the strategic fortresses of the Rhodopes, resisted Ottoman attacks for nine months before surrendering in return for their lives and property after Daud Pasha cut off the water supplies. In the same way Stanimaka (Asenovgrad) was taken and soon after fell the northern Rhodopes fortress of Batkun whose commander Georgi died in the final assault.

The Ottomans faced a stubborn resistance in the Rhodopes interior: central areas were invaded by the armies of Dzhedit Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha. The former advanced through the road between Stanimaka and Bachkovo Monastery along the valley of Chepelarska river, while Ibrahim pasha set off from Plovdiv via Parvenets and then through the valley of Vacha River. Fighting occurred at Zarenitsa, Zagrad, Gradishte, Chiltepe and Karakulas (along Vacha), Imaretdere and Momina Voda (heights close to Ardino) among others. Especially ferocious were the engagements at Momina Voda, where prominent Ottoman general Sarǎ Baba was killed, and Karakulas where Enihan Baba perished.

Fall of Sofia

While Ivan Shishman was desperately trying to resist against the strong Ottoman pressure, his brother Ivan Sratsimir not only withheld help but tried to make use of the difficulties which his brother faced to expand his domains over certain areas of the Tarnovo Tsardom. As Shishman's attention was pointed to the south, Ivan Sratsimir took control of the important city of Sofia which was disputed between the two brothers. However, by 1373 the city was again in the Tarnovo Tsardom and it is possible that there was an armed conflict between the two Bulgarian states. Despot Dobrotitsa also did not give any support to the Emperor in Tarnovo. He was in conflict with Genova and was involved in the internal affairs of the Empire of Trebizond trying to put on its throne his son-in-law.

After the temporary quiet which followed after 1373, in 1380 the Ottomans again started hostilities. With a large army Sultan Murad moved towards the southwestern regions of the Tarnovo Tsardom with the main objective to seize its center Sofia. After a bloody clash in the Zlatitsa valley the Turks moved on to Sofia and besieged it. The city which was commanded by ban Yanuka repulsed all the attacks of the superior Ottoman forces under Lala Şahin. The later could not continue the siege and was forced to pull back to Odrin where he reported his failure to the Sultan. While he was absent the Turks managed to infiltrate Sofia and one Muslim Bulgarian captured ban Yanuke while hunting and sent him to Lala Şahin who was in Plovdiv at that time. From there the Bulgarian commander was sent back to Sofia and when the defenders saw their captured leader they surrendered the city to the Ottomans (1382).

The Ottomans installed a strong garrison and brought Muslim settlers from Asia Minor. On the following year fell Serres The new Ottoman success did not bring together Ivan Shishman and Ivan Sratsimir. Between 1384 and 1386 a war broke out between Bulgaria and Wallachia, and the Vlachs seized several settlements along the Danube but were later defeated and their voivoda Dan I was killed. Ivan Sratsimir took part in the action as an ally of the Vlachs which deepened the mistrust between the two brothers.

After the Ottomans secured the possession of the area around Sofia, they continued their march to the northwest. The main objective of Murad was to break the ties between Bulgaria and Serbia because despite the fact that Ivan Shishman was his vassal, Murad did not trust him and knew that the Bulgarian ruler was waiting for an appropriate opportunity to renege. After bitter fighting, in 1386 the Turks seized Pirot and Naissus, killing and enslaving many Bulgarians.

Campaign of 1388

The advance of the Ottomans in the central parts of the Balkan peninsula caused serious anxiety not only for Ivan Shishman but also in Serbia and Bosnia. The Serbian Prince Lazar and the Bosnian King Tvrtko I organized an anti-Ottoman coalition and the Bulgarian Emperor joined them but was unable to send troops. In 1387 the united forces of Bosnians and Serbs defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of Pločnik.

However, while the Christian states did not make any attempt to exploit the victory, the Turks' reaction was swift. In 1388 a 30,000 strong army commanded by Ali Pasha passed through the eastern Balkan Mountains and struck deep into Bulgaria's north. The Bulgarians were completely surprised and the invaders seized Ovech, Shumen, Madara and other towns. Due to the surprise campaign at first the towns and the castles were unable to organize proper defence but after the initial shock the Bulgarians took precautions. When the army of Ali Pasha besieged Varna, the defenders stiffly resisted and the Turks were forced to abandon the siege and march northwards.

In Tutrakan the citizens allowed the Turks to install a small garrison but then they killed the Turkish soldiers and prepared for siege. Ali Pasha immediately burned the surrounding fields and soon the starving town had to surrender. After this success they advanced to the west towards Nicopolis, one of the strongest Bulgarian fortresses along the Danube. The defence was organized by Ivan Shishman who was currently in the town. Although the Ottomans had nearly 30,000 men they could not take it and Ali Pasha had to seek reinforcements from Murad himself. According to Seadeddin the Sultan marched to Nikopol with an enormous army firmly decided to seize the town at all costs. When Ivan Shishman faced the new enemy he sought a truce. Murad agreed and the Bulgarians saved Nikopol but were forced to cede another key Danubian fortress, Dorostolon. However, when Ali Pasha reached Silistra, the Bulgarians refused to surrender the town. Murad besieged Nikopol for a second time and this time Ivan Shishman agreed to the Ottoman conditions and a Turkish garrison was installed in Silistra.

As a result of the campaign the Turks took most of eastern Bulgaria including several key towns. Now the authority of Ivan Shishman was reduced to the lands to the west of the capital Tarnovo and several castles along the Danube. To the east the Bulgarians kept Varna and the capital of the Principality of Karvuna, Kaliakra. Probably at that time Ivan Sratsimir became an Ottoman vassal.

List of battles

Bulgarian–Ottoman battles

Battle Date Bulgarian Commander Ottoman Commander Result
Battle of Ihtiman 1355 Michael Asen Unknown Indecisive
Siege of Plovdiv and Stara Zagora 1369 Unknown Unknown Ottoman victory
Battle of Samokov 1371 Ivan Shishman Lala Şahin Ottoman victory
Battle of Sofia 1372 Unknown Lala Şahin Ottoman retreat
Siege of Sofia 1380 Ban Yanuka Lala Şahin Bulgarian victory
Second siege of Sofia 1382 Ban Yanuka Lala Şahin Ottoman victory
Campaign of 1388 1388 Ivan Shishman Çandarli Ali Pasha Ottoman victory
Siege of Varna 1388 Ivanko Çandarli Ali Pasha Bulgarian victory
Siege of Tarnovo 1393 Evtimiy Bayezid I Ottoman victory
Battle of Nicopolis 1396 Ivan Sratsimir Bayezid I Ottoman victory

Footnotes

  1. A Concise History Of Bulgaria, Cambridge Concise Histories, R. J. Crampton, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521616379, p. 28.
  2. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1994, ISBN 0472082604, pp. 423-425.
  3. Fine, John V. A. (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. pp. 422–3. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
  4. A Concise History Of Bulgaria, Cambridge Concise Histories, R. J. Crampton, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521616379, p. 28.
  5. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1994, ISBN 0472082604, pp. 423-425.
  6. Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.702
  7. Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.707
  8. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.16-19
  9. ^ Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.427
  10. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.530
  11. Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.729
  12. Lemerle, P. L'emirat d'Aydin..., p.210, 217
  13. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.250
  14. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.278
  15. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.279
  16. Дуйчев, Ив. Из старата българска книжнина. 2, с.267
  17. Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 3, p.557
  18. Jиречек, К. Историја срба. 1, с.305
  19. Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.48
  20. Demetrius Cydones. Ad Romaeos deliberativa. - PGr, 104, p.981
  21. Angelov, D. Certains aspects de la conquete des peuples balkaniques par des turks - BSI, 1956, 162, p. 237
  22. Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 87
  23. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 3, p.362
  24. ^ Иречек, К. История на българите, С., 1929, с. 248
  25. Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.105-107
  26. Иречек, К. История на българите, С., 1929, с. 244-245
  27. Дуйчев, Ив. Българското средновековие. От Черномен до Косово поле, С., 1972, с.546
  28. ^ Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 101
  29. Синодник царя Борила, с. 89
  30. Делчев, В. Миналото на Чепеларе. 1. С., 1928, с.15
  31. Захариев, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 66
  32. Шишков, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 64
  33. Шишков, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 6
  34. Захариев, Ст. Цит. съч., с. 74
  35. Kuzev, Al. Die Besiehungen der Königs von Vidin, Ivan Sracimir zu den osmanischen Herrschern. EB, 1971, No. 3, p.121-124
  36. Петров, П. Търговски връзки между България и Дубровник през XIV в. - ИБИД, 25, 1967, с.110
  37. Мутавчиев, П. Добруджа в миналото, c. 44
  38. Цветкова, Б. Героичната съпротива на българите срещу османските нашественици, ц. 39
  39. ^ Зафиров, Димитър; Александров, Емил (2009). История на българите (in Bulgarian). TRUD Publishers. p. 182. ISBN 978-954-528-752-7.
  40. Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 122 sq
  41. Laonicus Chalcocondylas. Historiarum demonstrationes. 1., p. 94
  42. Ostrogorsky, G. La prise de Serres par les Turcs - Byz, 35, 1965, p. 302 sq
  43. Istoria României. 2, p. 253
  44. Иречек, К. История на българите, с. 262
  45. Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 124 sq
  46. Seadeddin, Chronica dell' origine e progresse della casa ottomana. Vienna, 1649, p. 137 sq
  47. Lennciavius. Historiae musulmane turcorum de monumentis ipsorum sxcerptae. Libri XIII, Frankfurt, 1501, p. 272
  48. Lennciavius. Historiae musulmane turcorum de monumentis ipsorum sxcerptae. Libri XIII, Frankfurt, 1501, p. 274
  49. Ников, П. Турското завладяване на България и съдбата на последните Шишмановци-ИИД, 7-8, 1928, с.98
  50. Ovcharov, Nikolai (2024). Великите владетели на Второто българско царство [The great rulers of the Second Bulgarian empire] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Ciela. p. 559. ISBN 978-954-28-4614-7.
  51. Iordanov, Nikolai (19 July 2017). "Tsar Ivan Shishman through the Ottoman's eyes". Bulgarian History.
  52. Ovcharov, Nikolai (2020). Крепостта Урвич и късносредновековният манастир в нея [The Urvich fortress and the late middle aged monastery in it] (in Bulgarian). Unicart. p. 36. ISBN 978-954-2953-99-9.
  53. Cholpanov, Boris (2007). История на България (военна история) [History of Bulgaria (military history)] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Trud. p. 182. ISBN 978-954-621-235-1.

References

  • Васил Н. Златарски, История на българската държава през средните векове, Част I, II изд., Наука и изкуство, София 1970.
  • Атанас Пейчев и колектив, 1300 години на стража, Военно издателство, София 1984.
  • Йордан Андреев, Милчо Лалков, Българските ханове и царе, Велико Търново, 1996.
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