Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 03:04, 22 December 2024

Part of a series on
Feminism
History Feminist history History of feminism Women's history American British Canadian German Waves First Second Third Fourth Timelines Women's suffrage Muslim countries US Other women's rights Women's suffrage by country Austria Australia Canada Colombia India Japan Kuwait Liechtenstein New Zealand Spain Second Republic Francoist Switzerland United Kingdom Cayman Islands Wales United States states
Intersectional variants Fat Lesbian Lesbian of color Radical lesbianism Separatist Sex-positive Transfeminism Postgenderism Vegetarian ecofeminism Socialist Anarchist Queer Jineology Marxist Critical theory Standpoint Materialist Ecofeminist Postcolonial Global Transnational Xenofeminism Multicultural Africana womanism Black Hip hop Lesbian Ratchet Chicana Lesbian Indigenous Native American Multiracial Romani Womanism
Other variants Anti-abortion Equity Femonationalism Maternal Postfeminism Reactionary State Carceral Imperial Embedded Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary Victim White
Religious variants Atheist Buddhist Christian Mormon New Womanist Asian Neopagan Dianic Wicca Reclaiming Ecofeminist Hindu Islamic Jewish Orthodox Sikh
Movements and ideologies 4B movement Analytical Anti-fascist Anti-pornography Cyberfeminism HCI Networked Difference Cultural Neo Ecofeminism Eugenic Individualist Lipstick Stiletto Liberal Equality Social Labor Libertarian Post-structural Postmodern Radical Political lesbianism Separatist Technofeminism Women's liberation
Concepts Antinaturalism Choice feminism Cognitive labor Complementarianism Literature Children's literature Diversity (politics) Diversity, equity, and inclusion Effects on society Equality Female education Female genital mutilation Femicide Femonationalism Feminism in culture Feminist movement African-American women's suffrage movement Art movement In hip hop Feminist stripper Formal equality Gender equality Gender quota Girl power Honor killing Ideal womanhood Invisible labor Internalized sexism International Girl's Day and Women's Day Language reform Feminist capitalism Gender-blind Likeability trap Male privilege Matriarchal religion Media Men in feminism Misogyny Trans Oedipus complex Opposition to feminism Pro-feminism Protofeminism Purplewashing Racism Reproductive justice Sex workers' rights Sexual harassment Sexual objectification Substantive equality Toxic masculinity Transmisogyny Triple oppression Violence against women War on women Women's empowerment Women-only space Women's health Women's rights Women in the workforce
Outlooks Bicycling and feminism Criticism of marriage Views on BDSM Views on pornography Views on prostitution Views on sexual orientation Views on sexuality Views on transgender topics SCUM Manifesto
Theory Feminist method Gender studies Gender mainstreaming Gynocentrism Kyriarchy Male gaze Matriarchy Women's studies Men's studies Patriarchy Écriture féminine Areas of study Anthropology Archaeology Architecture Art Art criticism Literary criticism Film theory Science fiction Biology Composition studies Criminology Pathways perspective Economics FDPA Geography International relations Constructivism Legal theory Pedagogy Philosophy Aesthetics Empiricism Epistemology Ethics Justice ethics Existentialism Metaphysics science Political ecology Political theory Pornography Psychology Therapy Revisionist mythology Sex wars Sexology Sociology Technoscience Theology womanist theology
By continent/country Africa Democratic Republic of the Congo Egypt Ethiopia Ghana Mali Nigeria Senegal South Africa Albania Australia Bangladesh Canada China Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Republic of Ireland Israel Italy Japan Latin America Argentina Brazil Chile Haiti Honduras Mexico Paraguay Trinidad and Tobago Lebanon Malaysia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Northern Cyprus Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Russia Saudi Arabia South Korea Sweden Syria Taiwan Thailand Turkey Vietnam Ukraine United Kingdom United States History of women
Lists and categories Lists Articles Feminists by nationality Literature American feminist literature Feminist comic books Feminist songs Conservative feminisms Ecofeminist authors Feminist art critics Feminist economists Feminist philosophers Feminist poets Feminist rhetoricians Jewish feminists Muslim feminists Feminist parties Suffragists and suffragettes Women's rights activists Women's studies journals Women's suffrage organizations Categories Women's rights by country Feminists by nationality
Feminism portal
v t e

Third-wave feminism is a feminist movement that began in the early 1990s, prominent in the decades prior to the fourth wave. Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second wave, Gen X third-wave feminists born in the 1960s and 1970s embraced diversity and individualism in women, and sought to redefine what it meant to be a feminist. The third wave saw the emergence of new feminist currents and theories, such as intersectionality, sex positivity, vegetarian ecofeminism, transfeminism, and postmodern feminism. According to feminist scholar Elizabeth Evans, the "confusion surrounding what constitutes third-wave feminism is in some respects its defining feature."

The third wave is traced to Anita Hill's televised testimony in 1991 to an all-male all-white Senate Judiciary Committee that the judge Clarence Thomas had sexually harassed her. The term third wave is credited to Rebecca Walker, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in Ms. magazine, "Becoming the Third Wave" (1992). She wrote:

So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas' confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that the fight is far from over. Let this dismissal of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not vote for them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our lives. I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.

Walker sought to establish that third-wave feminism was not just a reaction but a movement in itself because the feminist cause had more work ahead. The term intersectionality to describe the idea that women experience "layers of oppression" caused, for example, by gender, race, and class had been introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, and it was during the third wave that the concept flourished.

In addition, third-wave feminism is traced to the emergence of the riot grrrl feminist punk subculture in Olympia, Washington, in the early 1990s. As feminists came online in the late 1990s and early 2000s and reached a global audience with blogs and e-zines, they broadened their goals, focusing on abolishing gender-role stereotypes and expanding feminism to include women with diverse racial and cultural identities.

History

The rights and programs gained by feminists of the second wave served as a foundation for the third wave. The gains included Title IX (equal access to education), public discussion about the abuse and rape of women, access to contraception and other reproductive services (including the legalization of abortion), the creation and enforcement of sexual-harassment policies for women in the workplace, the creation of domestic-abuse shelters for women and children, child-care services, educational funding for young women, and women's studies programs.

Feminists of color such as Gloria E. Anzaldúa, bell hooks, Cherríe Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, Leslie Marmon Silko and the members of the Combahee River Collective sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race. Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa had published the anthology This Bridge Called My Back (1981), which, along with All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave (1982), edited by Akasha (Gloria T.) Hull, Patricia Bell-Scott, and Barbara Smith, argued that second-wave feminism had focused primarily on the problems of white women. The emphasis on the intersection between race and gender became increasingly prominent. However, allowing third wave feminism to adopt the paradigm of intersectionality can erase the narrative of second-wave feminist of color who worked towards inclusion.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the feminist sex wars arose as a reaction against the radical feminism of the second wave and its views on sexuality, countering with a concept of "sex-positivity", and heralding the third wave.

Another crucial point for the start of the third wave is the publication in 1990 of Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity by Judith Butler, which soon became one of the most influential works of contemporary feminist theory. In it, Butler argued against homogenizing conceptions of "women", which had a normative and exclusionary effect not only in the social world more broadly but also within feminism. This was the case not only for racialized or working-class women, but also for masculine, lesbian, or non-binary women. They outlined their theory of gender as performativity, which posited that gender works by enforcing a series of repetitions of verbal and non-verbal acts that generate the "illusion" of a coherent and intelligible gender expression and identity, which would otherwise lack any essential property. Lastly, Butler developed the claim that there is no "natural" sex, but that what we call as such is always already culturally mediated, and therefore inseparable from gender. These views were foundational for the field of queer theory, and played a major role in the development of third-wave feminist theories and practices.

Early years

Anita Hill

In 1991, Anita Hill, when questioned, accused Clarence Thomas, an African-American judge who had been nominated to the United States Supreme Court, of sexual harassment. Thomas denied the accusations, calling them a "high-tech lynching". After extensive debate, the United States Senate voted 52–48 in favor of Thomas. In response, Ms. Magazine published an article by Rebecca Walker, entitled "Becoming the Third Wave", in which she stated: "I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the third wave." Many had argued that Thomas should be confirmed, despite Hill's accusations, because of his plans to create opportunities for people of color. When Walker asked her partner his opinion and he said the same thing, she asked: "When will progressive black men prioritize my rights and well-being?" She wanted racial equality but without dismissing women.

In 1992, dubbed the "Year of the Woman", four women entered the United States Senate to join the two already there. The following year, another woman, Kay Bailey Hutchison, won a special election, bringing the number to seven. The 1990s saw the US's first female Attorney General (Janet Reno) and Secretary of State (Madeleine Albright), as well as the second woman on the Supreme Court, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, and the first US First Lady, Hillary Clinton, to have had an independent political, legal and activist career.

Riot grrrl

The emergence of riot grrrl, the feminist punk subculture, in the early 1990s in Olympia, Washington, marked the beginning of third-wave feminism. The triple "r" in grrrl was intended to reclaim the word girl for women. Alison Piepmeier writes that riot grrrl and Sarah Dyer's Action Girl Newsletter formulated "a style, rhetoric, and iconography for grrrl zines" that came to define third-wave feminism, and that focused on the viewpoint of adolescent girls. Based on hard-core punk rock, the movement created zines and art, talked about rape, patriarchy, sexuality, and female empowerment, started chapters, and supported and organized women in music. An undated Bikini Kill tour flier asked "What is Riot grrrl?":

BECAUSE in every form of media I see us/myself slapped, decapitated, laughed at, objectified, raped, trivialized, pushed, ignored, stereotyped, kicked, scorned, molested, silenced, invalidated, knifed, shot, choked, and killed. ... BECAUSE a safe space needs to be created for girls where we can open our eyes and reach out to each other without being threatened by this sexist society and our day to day bullshit. ... BECAUSE we girls want to create mediums that speak to US. We are tired of boy band after boy band, boy zine after boy zine, boy punk after boy punk after boy. BECAUSE I am tired of these things happening to me; I'm not a fuck toy. I'm not a punching bag. I'm not a joke.

Riot grrrl was grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values, adopting an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance. Its emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appeared more closely allied with second-wave feminism. Bands associated with the movement included Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Jack Off Jill, Free Kitten, Heavens to Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, Fifth Column, and Team Dresch, and most prominently Bikini Kill.

Riot grrrl culture gave people the space to enact change on a macro, meso and micro scale. As Kevin Dunn explains:

Using the do-it-yourself ethos of punk to provide resources for individual empowerment, Riot Grrrl encouraged females to engage in multiple sites of resistance. At the macro-level, Riot Grrrls resist society's dominant constructions of femininity. At the meso-level, they resist stifling gender roles in punk. At the micro-level, they challenge gender constructions in their families and among their peers.

The demise of riot grrrl is linked to commodification and misrepresentation of its message, mainly through media coverage. Writing in Billboard magazine, Jennifer Keishin Armstrong states:

In the early 1990s, the women's movement seemed dead to the mainstream. Few pop cultural figures embraced the term "feminist." The underground punk movement known as "Riot Grrrl" scared anyone outside of it, while Alanis Morissette's breakthrough single "You Oughta Know" scared everyone else even more. Then, in the middle of the decade, the Spice Girls took all of that fear and made feminism – popularized as Girl Power – fun. Suddenly, regular girls far outside Women's Studies classrooms had at least an inkling of what would be known in wonky circles as Third Wave Feminism – led by Generation Xers pushing for sexual freedom and respect for traditionally "girly" pursuits like makeup and fashion, among many other issues.

El Hunt of NME states, "Riot grrrl bands in general were very focused on making space for women at gigs. They understood the importance of giving women a platform and voice to speak out against abusers. For a lot of young women and girls, who probably weren't following the Riot grrrl scene at all, The Spice Girls brought this spirit into the mainstream and made it accessible."

Purpose

Arguably the biggest challenge to third-wave feminism was that the gains of second-wave feminism were taken for granted, and the importance of feminism not understood. Baumgardner and Richards (2000) wrote: "or anyone born after the early 1960s, the presence of feminism in our lives is taken for granted. For our generation, feminism is like fluoride. We scarcely notice that we have it—it's simply in the water."

Essentially the claim was that gender equality had already been achieved, via the first two waves, and further attempts to push for women's rights were irrelevant and unnecessary, or perhaps even pushed the pendulum too far in women's favor. This issue manifested itself in the heated debates about whether affirmative action was creating gender equality or punishing white, middle-class males for the biological history that they had inherited. Third-wave feminism therefore focused on Consciousness raising—"one's ability to open their mind to the fact that male domination does affect the women of our generation, is what we need.

Third-wave feminists often engaged in "micro-politics", and challenged the second wave's paradigm as to what was good for women. Proponents of third-wave feminism said that it allowed women to define feminism for themselves. Describing third-wave feminism in Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism And The Future (2000), Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards suggested that feminism could change with every generation and individual:

The fact that feminism is no longer limited to arenas where we expect to see it—NOW, Ms., women's studies, and redsuited congresswomen—perhaps means that young women today have really reaped what feminism has sown. Raised after Title IX and William Wants a Doll [sic], young women emerged from college or high school or two years of marriage or their first job and began challenging some of the received wisdom of the past ten or twenty years of feminism. We're not doing feminism the same way that the seventies feminists did it; being liberated doesn't mean copying what came before but finding one's own way—a way that is genuine to one's own generation.

Third-wave feminists used personal narratives as a form of feminist theory. Expressing personal experiences gave women space to recognize that they were not alone in the oppression and discrimination they faced. Using these accounts has benefits because it records personal details that may not be available in traditional historical texts.

Third-wave ideology focused on a more post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality. Post-structuralist feminists saw binaries such as male–female as an artificial construct created to maintain the power of the dominant group. Joan W. Scott wrote in 1998 that "poststructuralists insist that words and texts have no fixed or intrinsic meanings, that there is no transparent or self-evident relationship between them and either ideas or things, no basic or ultimate correspondence between language and the world".

Relationship with second wave

The second wave of feminism is often accused of being elitist and ignoring groups such as women of colour and transgender women; instead, it focused on white, middle class, cisgender women. Third wave feminists questioned the beliefs of their predecessors and began to apply feminist theory to a wider variety of women, who had not been previously included in feminist activity.

Amy Richards defined the feminist culture for the third wave as "third wave because it's an expression of having grown up with feminism". Second-wave feminists grew up where the politics intertwined within the culture, such as "Kennedy, the Vietnam War, civil rights, and women's rights". In contrast, the third wave sprang from a culture of "punk-rock, hip-hop, 'zines, products, consumerism and the Internet". In an essay entitled "Generations, Academic Feminists in dialogue" Diane Elam wrote:

This problem manifests itself when senior feminists insist that junior feminists be good daughters, defending the same kind of feminism their mothers advocated. Questions and criticisms are allowed, but only if they proceed from the approved brand of feminism. Daughters are not allowed to invent new ways of thinking and doing feminism for themselves; feminists' politics should take the same shape that it has always assumed.

Rebecca Walker, in To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism (1995), wrote about her fear of rejection by her mother (Alice Walker) and her godmother (Gloria Steinem) for challenging their views:

Young Women feminists find themselves watching their speech and tone in their works so as not to upset their elder feminist mothers. There is a definite gap among feminists who consider themselves to be second-wave and those who would label themselves as third-wave. Although, the age criteria for second-wave feminists and third-wave feminists is murky, younger feminists definitely have a hard time proving themselves worthy as feminist scholars and activists.

Issues

Violence against women

Violence against women, including rape, domestic violence, and sexual harassment, became a central issue. Organizations such as V-Day formed with the goal of ending gender violence, and artistic expressions, such as The Vagina Monologues, generated awareness. Third-wave feminists wanted to transform traditional notions of sexuality and embrace "an exploration of women's feelings about sexuality that included vagina-centred topics as diverse as orgasm, birth, and rape".

Reproductive rights

One of third-wave feminism's primary goals was to demonstrate that access to contraception and abortion are women's reproductive rights. According to Baumgardner and Richards, "It is not feminism's goal to control any woman's fertility, only to free each woman to control her own." South Dakota's 2006 attempt to ban abortion in all cases, except when necessary to protect the mother's life, and the US Supreme Court's vote to uphold the partial birth abortion ban were viewed as restrictions on women's civil and reproductive rights. Restrictions on abortion in the US, which was mostly legalized by the 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade, were becoming more common in states around the country. These included mandatory waiting periods, parental-consent laws, and spousal-consent laws.

Reclaiming derogatory terms

English speakers continued to use words such as spinster, bitch, whore, and cunt to refer to women in derogatory ways. Inga Muscio wrote, "I posit that we're free to seize a word that was kidnapped and co-opted in a pain-filled, distant past, with a ransom that cost our grandmothers' freedom, children, traditions, pride and land." Taking back the word bitch was fueled by the single "All Women Are Bitches" (1994) by the all-woman band Fifth Column, and by the book Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women (1999) by Elizabeth Wurtzel.

The utility of the reclamation strategy became a hot topic with the introduction of SlutWalks in 2011. The first took place in Toronto on 3 April that year in response to a Toronto police officer's remark that "women should avoid dressing like sluts in order not to be victimized." Additional SlutWalks sprang up internationally, including in Berlin, London, New York City, Seattle, and West Hollywood. Several feminist bloggers criticized the campaign; reclamation of the word slut was questioned.

Sexual liberation

Third-wave feminists expanded the second-wave feminist's definition of sexual liberation to "mean a process of first becoming conscious of the ways one's gender identity and sexuality have been shaped by society and then intentionally constructing (and becoming free to express) one's authentic gender identity". Since third-wave feminism relied on different personal definitions to explain feminism, there is controversy surrounding what sexual liberation really entails. Many third-wave feminists supported the idea that women should embrace their sexuality as a way to take back their power.

Other issues

Third-wave feminism regarded race, social class, and transgender rights as central issues. It also paid attention to workplace matters such as the glass ceiling, unfair maternity-leave policies, motherhood support for single mothers by means of welfare and child care, respect for working mothers, and the rights of mothers who decide to leave their careers to raise their children full-time.

Criticism

Lack of cohesion

One issue raised by critics was a lack of cohesion because of the absence of a single cause for third-wave feminism. The first wave fought for and gained the right for women to vote. The second wave fought for the right for women to have access to an equal opportunity in the workforce, as well as the end of legal sex discrimination. The third wave allegedly lacked a cohesive goal and was often seen as an extension of the second wave. Some argued that the third wave could be dubbed the "Second Wave, Part Two" when it came to the politics of feminism and that "only young feminist culture" was "truly third wave". One argument ran that the equation of third-wave feminism with individualism prevented the movement from growing and moving towards political goals. Kathleen P. Iannello wrote:

The conceptual and real-world 'trap' of choice feminism (between work and home) has led women to challenge each other rather than the patriarchy. Individualism conceived of as 'choice' does not empower women; it silences them and prevents feminism from becoming a political movement and addressing the real issues of distribution of resources.

Objection to "wave construct"

Feminist scholars such as Shira Tarrant objected to the "wave construct" because it ignored important progress between the periods. Furthermore, if feminism is a global movement, she argued, the fact that the "first-, second-, and third waves time periods correspond most closely to American feminist developments" raises serious problems about how feminism fails to recognize the history of political issues around the world. The "wave construct", critics argued, also focused on white women's suffrage and continued to marginalize the issues of women of color and lower-class women.

Relationship with women of color

Third-wave feminists proclaim themselves as the most inclusive wave of feminism. Critics have noted that while progressive, there is still exclusion of women of color. Black feminists argue that "the women rights movements were not uniquely for the liberation of Blacks or Black Women. Rather, efforts such as women's suffrage and abolition of slavery ultimately uplifted, strengthened, and benefited White society and White women".

"Girly" feminism

Third-wave feminism was often associated, primarily by its critics, with the emergence of so-called "lipstick" or "girly" feminists and the rise of "raunch culture". This was because these new feminists advocated "expressions of femininity and female sexuality as a challenge to objectification". Accordingly, this included the dismissal of any restriction, whether deemed patriarchal or feminist, to define or control how women or girls should dress, act, or generally express themselves. These emerging positions stood in stark contrast with the anti-pornography strains of feminism prevalent in the 1980s. Second-wave feminism viewed pornography as encouraging violence towards women. The new feminists posited that the ability to make autonomous choices about self-expression could be an empowering act of resistance, not simply internalized oppression.

Such views were critiqued because of the subjective nature of empowerment and autonomy. Scholars were unsure whether empowerment was best measured as an "internal feeling of power and agency" or as an external "measure of power and control". Moreover they critiqued an over-investment in "a model of free will and choice" in the marketplace of identities and ideas. Regardless, the "girly" feminists attempted to be open to all different selves while maintaining a dialogue about the meaning of identity and femininity in the contemporary world.

Third-wave feminists said that these viewpoints should not be limited by the label "girly" feminism or regarded as simply advocating "raunch culture". Rather, they sought to be inclusive of the many diverse roles women fulfill. Gender scholars Linda Duits [nl] and Liesbet van Zoonen highlighted this inclusivity by looking at the politicization of women's clothing choices and how the "controversial sartorial choices of girls" and women are constituted in public discourse as "a locus of necessary regulation". Thus the "hijab" and the "belly shirt", as dress choices, were both identified as requiring regulation but for different reasons. Both caused controversy, while appearing to be opposing forms of self-expression. Through the lens of "girly" feminists, one can view both as symbolic of "political agency and resistance to objectification". The "hijab" could be seen as an act of resistance against Western ambivalence towards Islamic identity, and the "belly shirt" an act of resistance against patriarchal society's narrow views of female sexuality. Both were regarded as valid forms of self-expression.

Timeline

1990s

2000s

Notes

1. Steve Feliciano (New York Public Library, 2013): "The emergence of the Riot Grrrl movement began in the early 1990s, when a group of women in Olympia, Washington, held a meeting to discuss how to address sexism in the punk scene. The women decided they wanted to start a 'girl riot' against a society they felt offered no validation of women's experiences. And thus the Riot Grrrl movement was born."
2. Amber Lynn Zimmerman, M. Joan McDermott, and Christina M. Gould wrote in 2009 that third-wave feminism offered five primary focuses: (1) Responsible choice grounded in dialogue; (2) respect and appreciation for experiences and dynamic knowledge; (3) an understanding of "the personal is political" that incorporates both the idea that personal experiences have roots in structural problems and the idea that responsible, individuated personal action has social consequences; (4) use of personal narratives in both theorizing and political activism; (5) political activism as local, with global connections and consequences.

References

1. ^ Walker, Rebecca (January 1992). "Becoming the Third Wave" (PDF). Ms.: 39–41. ISSN 0047-8318. OCLC 194419734. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-15. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
2. ^ Evans 2015, 22.
3. Rivers, Nicola (2017). Postfeminism(s) and the Arrival of the Fourth Wave. Palgrave Macmillan. 8.
4. Cochrane, Kira (10 December 2013). "The Fourth Wave of Feminism: Meet the Rebel Women". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 March 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
5. "The Third Wave of Feminism" Archived 2019-05-28 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
6. ^ Baumgardner & Richards 2000, p. 77
7. Evans 2015, 49.
8. "Becoming the Third Wave" by Rebecca Walker
9. "Becoming the Third Wave" by Rebecca Walker
10. Evans 2015, 19.
11. Feliciano, Steve (19 June 2013). "The Riot Grrrl Movement". New York Public Library. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
12. ^ Brunell, Laura (2008). "Feminism Re-Imagined: The Third Wave" Archived 2018-09-22 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica Book of the Year. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
13. Tong, Rosemarie (2009). Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction (Third ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. pp. 284–285, 289. ISBN 978-0-8133-4375-4. OCLC 156811918.
14. ^ Gillis, Howie & Munford 2007
15. ^ Heywood, Leslie; Drake, Jennifer, eds. (1997). Third Wave Agenda: Being Feminist, Doing Feminism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3005-9. OCLC 36876149.
16. Hewitt, Nancy A., ed. (2010). No permanent waves: recasting histories of U.S. feminism. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4724-4. OCLC 344074469.
17. As noted in:
    • Duggan, Lisa; Hunter, Nan D. (1995). Sex wars: sexual dissent and political culture. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91036-1.
    • Hansen, Karen Tranberg; Philipson, Ilene J. (1990). Women, class, and the feminist imagination: a socialist-feminist reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-0-87722-630-7.
    • Gerhard, Jane F. (2001). Desiring revolution: second-wave feminism and the rewriting of American sexual thought, 1920 to 1982. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11204-8.
    • Leidholdt, Dorchen; Raymond, Janice G (1990). The Sexual liberals and the attack on feminism. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-037457-4.
    • Vance, Carole S (1989). Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality. Thorsons Publishers. ISBN 978-0-04-440593-1.
18. Butler, Judith (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 160, 9.
19. Mikkola, Mari (18 January 2022). "Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
20. Butler, Judith (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London: Routledge. p. 12.
21. Rottenberg, Catherine (27 August 2003). "Judith Butler". The Literary Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
22. ^ Walker, Rebecca (1995). To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-47262-3. OCLC 32274323.
23. ^ Piepmeier, Alison (2009). Girl Zines: Making Media, Doing Feminism. New York: New York University Press. p. 45.
24. ^ Rowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin (2004). The F Word: Feminism in Jeopardy. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-58005-114-9.
25. Starr, Chelsea (2000). "Adolescent girls and feminism", in Code, Lorraine (ed.). Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. London and New York: Routledge, p. 3. ISBN 0-415-30885-2.
26. ^ Schilt, Kristen (2003). "'A Little Too Ironic': The Appropriation and Packaging of Riot Grrrl Politics by Mainstream Female Musicians", in Popular Music and Society, 26.
27. Darms, Lisa, ed. (2013). The Riot Grrrl Collection. The Feminist Press at the City University of New York. 168. ISBN 978-1558618220.
28. Rosenberg, Jessica and Gitana, Garofalo (Spring 1998). "Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from within", Signs, 23(3). JSTOR 3175311
29. Marcu, Sara (2010). Girls To The Front: The True Story of the Riot Grrrl Revolution. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN 978-0-06-180636-0. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
30. ^ Dunn, Kevin C. (2014-04-03). "Pussy Rioting". International Feminist Journal of Politics. 16 (2): 317–334. doi:10.1080/14616742.2014.919103. ISSN 1461-6742. S2CID 146989637.
31. "Spice Girls' 'Wannabe': How 'Girl Power' Reinvigorated Mainstream Feminism in the '90s". Billboard. Archived from the original on March 23, 2019. Retrieved March 21, 2019.
32. "Spice Girls: What happened to Girl Power?". BBC. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
33. Newman & White 2012, p. 14–15.
34. MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1989). Toward A Feminist Theory of the State. Harvard University Press. p. 83. ISBN 9780674896451.
35. Freedman, Estelle B. (2002). No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. London: Ballantine Books. ISBN 9780345450531. OCLC 49193867.
36. Henry 2004.
37. Faludi, Susan (1991). Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women. New York: Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-517-57698-4. OCLC 23016353.
38. YU, SU-LIN (October 2011). "Reclaiming the Personal: Personal Narratives of Third-Wave Feminists". Women's Studies. 40 (7): 873–889. doi:10.1080/00497878.2011.603606. ISSN 0049-7878. S2CID 144937285.
39. Hardin, Marie; Whiteside, Erin (2013). "From Second-Wave to Poststructuralist Feminism". The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies: Media Effects/Media Psychology. Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems991. ISBN 9781405193566.
40. Elizabeth Adams St. Pierre (2000). "Poststructural feminism in education: An overview". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 13 (5): 477–515. doi:10.1080/09518390050156422. S2CID 216559048.
41. Scott, Joan W (1988). "Deconstructing Equality-versus-Difference: Or, the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism". Feminist Studies. 14 (1): 32–50. doi:10.2307/3177997. hdl:2027/spo.0499697.0014.104. JSTOR 3177997.
42. Zimmerman, Amber Lynn; McDermott, M. Joan; Gould, Christina M. (2009). "The Local is Global: Third Wave Feminism, Peace, and Social Justice". Contemporary Justice Review. 12: 77–90. doi:10.1080/10282580802681766. S2CID 143985823.
43. Davies, Edward (2018). Third Wave Feminism and Transgender: Strength Through Diversity (1 ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 9781315107776.
44. Davey, Monica (7 March 2006). "South Dakota Bans Abortion, Setting Up a Battle". The New York Times. Vol. 155, no. 53511. pp. A1–A14.
45. Ludlow, Jeannie (Spring 2008). "Sometimes, It's a Child and a Choice: Toward an Embodied Abortion Praxis". NWSA Journal. 20 (1): 26–50. doi:10.1353/ff.2008.a236179. JSTOR 40071251. OCLC 364432908.
46. Weitz, Tracy A.; Yanow, Susan (May 2008). "Implications of the Federal Abortion Ban for Women's Health in the United States". Reproductive Health Matters. 16 (31): 99–107. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(08)31374-3. JSTOR 25475407. OCLC 282104847. PMID 18772090. S2CID 10189579.
47. Indiana Code Title 16, art. XXXIV, ch. 2, § 1.1 cl. 1: Voluntary and informed consent required; viewing of fetal ultrasound Archived 2009-04-09 at the Wayback Machine x (1993; amended 1997)
48. South Dakota Code Title 34, ch. 23A, § 7 Archived 2009-02-08 at the Wayback Machine
49. South Carolina Code Title 44, ch. 41, art. 1, § 10 Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine
50. Muscio, Inga (1998). Cunt: A Declaration of Independence. Seattle: Seal Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-58005-015-9.
51. ^ Wurtzel, Elizabeth (1998). Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-48400-8. OCLC 38144418.
52. ^ "SlutWalk Toronto". Archived from the original on 2011-05-22. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
53. "Slutwalks – Do you agree with the Toronto policeman?". World Have Your Say 60. BBC. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
54. Murphy, Meghan. "We're sluts, not feminists. Wherein my relationship with Slutwalk gets rocky". The F-Word. Archived from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2011-05-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
55. Beyerstein, Lindsay. "Sluts Like Me". Big Think. Archived from the original on 2011-05-21. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
56. "Women: Should they have autonomy?". Women: Shakesville. Archived from the original on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
57. Walia, Harsha. "Slutwalk – To March or Not to March". Racialicious. Archived from the original on 2012-08-01.
58. "feminism | Definition, History, & Examples". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-10-08.
59. ^ Harnois, Catherine (Spring 2008). "Re-Presenting Feminisms: Past, Present, and Future". NWSA Journal. 20: 120–145. doi:10.1353/ff.2008.a236183.
60. Yenor, Scott (July 31, 2017). "The Rolling Revolution in Sex and Gender: A History". Public Discourse. Witherspoon Institute. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
61. Grady, Constance (July 20, 2018). "The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained". Vox. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
62. Munden, Frank (7 May 2003). "Female medical workers feel maternity leave unfair". The Kapi'o Newspress. 36 (28). Archived from the original on 28 February 2009.
63. Iannello, Kathleen (2010). "Women's Leadership and Third-Wave Feminism". In O'Connor, Karen (ed.). Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook. Sage Publishing. pp. 70–77. ISBN 978-1412960830 – via The Cupola at Gettysburg College.
64. ^ Iannello, Katherine P. (1998). "Third-Wave Feminism and Individualism: Promoting Equality or Reinforcing the Status Quo?" (PDF). In Whitaker, Lois Duke (ed.). Women in Politics: Outsiders or Insiders? A Collection of Readings. Boston, Mass: Longman.
65. Tarrant, Shira (2006). When Sex Became Gender. New York: Routledge. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-415-95347-4. OCLC 62281555.
66. Marbley, Aretha Faye (Fall 2005). "African-American Women's Feelings of Alienation from Third-Wave Feminism: A Conversation with My Sisters". Western Journal of Black Studies.
67. ^ Newman & White 2012, p. 246
68. ^ Newman & White 2012, p. 247.
69. "FindLaw | Cases and Codes". FindLaw. Archived from the original on 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
70. Chocano, Carina (21 April 2011). "Thelma, Louise and All the Pretty Women" Archived 2018-09-28 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times.
71. Schmitt, Eric (1 August 1991). "Senate Votes to Remove Ban on Women as Combat Pilots". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
72. Wilson, Emily (13 December 2005). "Backlash by Susan Faludi". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
73. Jones, Judy (28 December 1992). "Equality campaign for women falters" Archived 2018-11-04 at the Wayback Machine, The Independent.
74. "Equal opportunities for women Training Activity – TrainerActive, Training Activity Portal". Fenman.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2012-11-23. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
75. ^ "BBC Radio 4 – Woman's Hour – Women's History Timeline: 1990–1999". BBC. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
76. Third Wave Foundation. "History". Third Wave Foundation. Archived from the original on 2015-10-25. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
77. Schoenberg, Shira (2019-05-22). "Shannon Liss-Riordan touts 'fresh perspective' in campaign to unseat U.S. Sen. Ed Markey". masslive.com. Retrieved 2019-08-02.
78. Dicker, R.C. (2016). A History of U.S. Feminisms. Seal Studies. Basic Books. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-58005-614-4. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
79. Dicker, R.; Piepmeier, A. (2016). Catching a Wave: Reclaiming Feminism for the 21st Century. Northeastern University Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-1-55553-856-9. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
80. Jones, R. (2019). Women in Changing Society. EDTECH. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-83947-434-7. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
81. "Family and Medical Leave Act (1993) | LII / Legal Information Institute". Law.cornell.edu. 2012-10-12. Archived from the original on 2012-10-25. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
82. "Ms. Foundation for Women – Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work". ms.foundation.org. Archived from the original on 2012-10-18.
83. "History of the Violence Against Women Act". Legal Momentum. Archived from the original on 2016-05-19. Retrieved 2016-04-26.
84. ^ Snyder 2008, pp. 176–177
85. ^ ""Vagina Monologues" performances mark S.A. V-Day". QSanAntonio. 25 February 2012. Archived from the original on 10 August 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
86. Ensler, Eve (2001). The Vagina Monologues. New York: Villard. ISBN 978-0-375-75052-6. OCLC 37492271.
87. "United States v. Virginia". The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law. Archived from the original on 2012-11-04. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
88. "Bitch Magazine: Our History". Bitch: Feminist Response to Pop Culture. Archived from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2019-06-02.
89. Tahirih Justice Center. "Services". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
90. Schnall, Marianne (January 30, 2008). "From Superdome to SUPERLOVE—V-Day at 10". Archived from the original on 4 January 2010.
91. Baumgardner & Richards 2000.
92. Carlson, Scott (2000-10-25). "CBS to pay $8 million to settle sex discrimination lawsuit". Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service. Archived from the original on 2016-09-11. Retrieved 2016-04-25.
93. ^ "Women's History Timeline: 2000–now". Woman's Hour, BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 2015-10-19. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
94. "March for Women's Lives". Guttmacher.org. April 25, 2005. Archived from the original on March 10, 2013. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
95. "Los Angeles man wins right to use wife's last name". Reuters. 2008-05-05. Archived from the original on 2013-05-06. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
96. Chamberlain 2017, pp. 114–115.

Bibliography

• Chamberlain, Prudence (2017). The feminist fourth wave : affective temporality. Springer. ISBN 9783319536828. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
• Evans, Elizabeth (2015). The Politics of Third Wave Feminisms: Neoliberalism, Intersectionality, and the State in Britain and the US. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-29527-9.
• Gillis, Stacy; Howie, Gillian; Munford, Rebecca (2007). Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration (Revised ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1821-5.
• Henry, Astrid (2004). Not My Mother's Sister: Generational Conflict and Third-Wave Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21713-4. OCLC 53932637.
• Baumgardner, Jennifer; Richards, Amy (2000). Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52622-1.
• Newman, Jacquetta A.; White, Linda Ann (2012). Women, Politics, and Public Policy: The Political Struggles of Canadian Women (2nd ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195432497.
• Snyder, R. Claire (1 September 2008). "What Is Third-Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 34 (1): 175–196. doi:10.1086/588436. ISSN 0097-9740. JSTOR 10.1086/588436. S2CID 144068546.

Further reading

• Baumgardner, Jennifer; Richards, Amy (2005). Grassroots: A Field Guide for Feminist Activism. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52865-2.
• Evans, Elizabeth (2016). "What makes a (third) wave?". International Feminist Journal of Politics. 18 (3): 409–428. doi:10.1080/14616742.2015.1027627. hdl:1983/7fb16f95-5556-4a3f-b3c0-178a0cf69671. S2CID 145102947.
• Fernandes, Leela (2010). "Unsettling 'Third Wave Feminism': Feminist Waves, Intersectionality, and Identity Politics in Retrospect". In Hewitt, Nancy (ed.). No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4724-4.
• Findlen, Barbara, ed. (1995). Listen Up! Voices from the Next Feminist Generation. Seattle: Seal Press. ISBN 978-1-878067-61-6.
• Harnois, Catherine (2008). "Re-presenting feminisms: Past, present, and future". NWSA Journal. 20 (1): 120–145. doi:10.1353/ff.2008.a236183. JSTOR 40071255.
• Hernández, Daisy; Reman, Bushra (2002). Colonize This! Young Women of Color and Today's Feminism. Seal Press. ISBN 978-1-58005-067-8.
• Heywood, Leslie L., ed. (2005). The Women's Movement Today: An Encyclopedia of Third-Wave Feminism. 2 vols. Westport: Greenwood Press.
• Hitchens, Donna (Fall 1991). "Feminism in the Nineties: Coalition Strategies". Yale Journal of Law and Feminism. 4 (1): 57–63. Pdf.
• Karaian, Lara (2001). Rundle, Lisa Bryn; Mitchell, Allyson (eds.). Turbo Chicks: Talking Young Feminisms. Toronto: Sumach Press. ISBN 978-1-894549-06-6. OCLC 46629305.
• Kinser, Amber E. (2004). "Negotiating spaces for/through third-wave feminism". NWSA Journal. 16 (3): 124–153. JSTOR 4317084. S2CID 145349611.
• Springer, Kimberly (Summer 2002). "Third Wave Black Feminism?". Signs. 27 (4): 1059–1082. doi:10.1086/339636. JSTOR 10.1086/339636. S2CID 143519056.

Suggested listening

• Bikini Kill - The C.D. Version of the First Two Records (Kill Rock Stars) (1994)
• Heavens to Betsy - Calculated (Kill Rock Stars) (1992)
• Huggy Bear - Our Troubled Youth EP (Kill Rock Stars) (1993)
• Alanis Morissette - Jagged Little Pill (Maverick/Reprise) (1995)
• Liz Phair - Exile in Guyville (Matador) (1993)

External links

• "Becoming the Third Wave" by Rebecca Walker
• interview with Rebecca Walker in Satya Magazine
• Interview with Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards

• Third-wave feminism
• 1990s establishments in the United States
• History of women's rights in the United States