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{{Short description|none}}
{{About|the history of the ] with ] in focus prior to the ] in 1947|the modern Republic of India(post 1947)|History of the Republic of India|] and ] in focus|History of Pakistan|and|History of Bangladesh}}
{{about|the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent|the post-1947 history of India|History of India (1947–present)|the post-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent|South Asia#Contemporary era}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2014}}
{{Redirect2|Ancient India|Indian history|outline|Outline of South Asian history}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{pp|small=yes}}

{{redirects here|Indian history|other uses|Native American history}} {{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Part of History of India}} {{Part of History of India}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}} {{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}


]
The '''history of India''' begins with evidence of human activity of ''],'' as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including '']'' from about 500,000 years ago.<ref>G. Bongard-Levin, ''A History of India'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1979) p. 11.</ref>
] first arrived on the ] between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin">{{cite book|author1=Michael D. Petraglia|author2=Bridget Allchin|author-link2=Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10|publisher=]|page=6|date=22 May 2007|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1}} Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref> The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. ] began in South Asia around 7000 BCE;<ref name="Wright2010-p=44" /> by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread,<ref name="Wright2010-p=44" /> and gradually evolved into the ], one of three early ] in the ],<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Rita P.|author-link=Rita P. Wright|year=2010|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwgFPQAACAAJ|publisher=]|page=1|isbn=978-0-521-57652-9}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|author-link=Jane McIntosh|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|publisher=]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|page=387}}</ref> flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, ] caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. ] moved into the ] from ] in several ]. The ] of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (]). The social structure was loosely stratified via the ], incorporated into the highly evolved present-day ] system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the ]. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (]s) were consolidated into larger states (]). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ] movements and religious concepts,<ref>Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274</ref> including the rise of ] and ]. The latter ] with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to ].


])]]
The ], which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the ] from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, was the first major civilization in ].<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India'' (Penguin Books: New York, 1966) p. 23.</ref> A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the ] period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India'', p. 24.</ref> This civilization collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the ] ], which extended over much of the ] and which witness the rise of major polities known as the ]. In one of these kingdoms, ], ] and ] propagated their '']'' philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE.
]
] overthrew the ] and established the first great empire in ancient India, the ]. India's Mauryan king ] is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of ] and his attempts to spread ] and ] across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor ] by his general ]. Shunga would form the ] in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the ] would claim the north-west and found the ]. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the ], in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a ] religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the ] or ]. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming ].<ref>''The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c. 1800'', Band 1 by ], p. 281</ref><ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 273-4">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274.</ref> The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the ] centred on ]. ] saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The ] conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, ], including ], influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the ], including the creation of the ].<ref>''Essays on Ancient India'' by Raj Kumar p. 199</ref>


] made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and ] as early as the 8th century,<ref>Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 p. 141 ''"Conquest of ]"''</ref> followed by the invasions of ].{{sfn|Meri|2005|p=146}}
Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the ] during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BC onwards ] and ] literature in the north and the ] in southern India started to flourish.<ref>Researches Into the History and Civilization of the Kirātas by G. P. Singh p.33</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">A Social History of Early India by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p.259</ref> The famous ] originated in south India in the 3rd century BC and was also exported to foreign countries.<ref name="Menon R.V.G p.15">Technology and Society by Menon R.V.G. p.15</ref><ref>The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, by Carla M. Sinopoli p.201</ref><ref>Science in India by B.V. Subbarayappa</ref>
The ] was founded in 1206 by Central Asian ] who were ].<ref name="Ahmad1939">{{cite journal|author=Mohammad Aziz Ahmad|title=The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.D.)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44252438|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=1939|volume=3|pages=832–841|jstor=44252438|quote=The government had passed from the foreign Turks to the Indian Mussalmans and their Hindu allies.}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite book|quote=The khalji revolt is essentially a revolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and Ghazna.|title=History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290-1320|author=Dr. K. S. Lal|date=1967|page=14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w14dAAAAMAAJ&q=khalji+indian+muslim+revolution}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC&q=history+of+medieval+india+chaurasia|quote=In spite of all this, capturing the throne for Khilji was a revolution, as instead of Turks, Indian Muslims gained power|title=History of Medieval India:From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|date=2002|publisher=Atlantic|page=30|isbn=978-81-269-0123-4}}</ref><ref name="John Bowman 2000 267">{{cite book|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C|page=267|author=John Bowman|date=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50004-3}}</ref> They ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century. It was ruled by multiple ], ] and ] dynasties, including the Turco-Mongol Indianized ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard Maxwell|title=The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=8 March 2015|pages=41–42|isbn=978-1-4008-6815-5}}</ref> but declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Kumar|first=Sunil|editor-last=Bowering|editor-first=Gerhard|editor-link=Gerhard Böwering|encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|title=Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)|url=https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13484-0|pages=127–128}}</ref> and saw the advent of the ], ], and ] Sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five ]. The wealthy ] also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.<ref name="Eaton1996">{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA64|date=31 July 1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-520-20507-9|pages=64–}}</ref> During this period, multiple strong ]doms, notably the ] and the ], emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.


The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the ] conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,<ref name="exeter" /> signaling the ], becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power.<ref name="Parthasarathi38">{{cite book|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=]|date=11 August 2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|pages=39–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|author-link=Angus Maddison|title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259|date=25 September 2003|publisher=]|isbn=9264104143|pages=259–261}}</ref><ref name="harrison">{{cite book|title=Developing cultures: case studies|last1=Harrison|first1=Lawrence E.|author-link1=Lawrence Harrison (academic)|last2=Berger|first2=Peter L.|author-link2=Peter L. Berger|publisher=]|year=2006|page=158|url=https://archive.org/details/developingcultur0000unse|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-415-95279-8}}</ref> The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the ], who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of State and Religion in India|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|page=161|display-authors=3|publisher=]|year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Michaud|first=Joseph|year=1926|title=History of Mysore Under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan|page=143}}</ref> The ], acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the ], gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of ] led to the ]. India was afterwards ruled directly by the ], in the ]. After ], a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the ], led by ]. Later, the ] would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority ]. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the ] and ], each gaining its independence.
Various parts of India were ruled by numerous ] for the next 1,500 years, among which the ] stand out. This period, witnessing a ] religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "]". During this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (] and ]) spread to much of ], while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of ] which led to the establishment of ] in ] (]).<ref>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From early times to c. 1800, Band 1 by Nicholas Tarling p.281</ref>
{{TOC limit}}


== {{anchor|Prehistory}} Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE) ==
The 7th-11th centuries saw the first conquests by Islamic forces, and the '']'' between the ], ], and ] centered on ]. Southern India saw the rule of the ], ], ], ], and ]. The ] conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of ] and ] in the 11th century.<ref>Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600 to 1750 by Craig Lockard p.333</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref> The early medieval period ] influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the ] were introduced.<ref>Essays on Ancient India by Raj Kumar p.199</ref>
{{Over-quotation|section=section|date=July 2021}}{{multiple image
| perrow = 1/2
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Rock Shelter 15, Bhimbetka 02.jpg
| caption1 = ] rock art at the ], ], showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated,<ref name="DavidMcNiven2018">{{cite book|last=Taçon|first=Paul S.C.|author-link=Paul Taçon|editor-last1=David|editor1-first=Bruno|editor-last2=McNiven|editor-first2=Ian J.|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXFyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181|date=17 October 2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-084495-0|pages=181–|chapter=The Rock Art of South and East Asia}}</ref> it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE,<ref name="Mithen2006">{{cite book|last=Mithen|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven Mithen|title=After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000–5000 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NVygmardAA4C&pg=PA411|year=2006|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-674-01999-7|pages=411–}}</ref> and some slightly earlier.<ref name=pathak-dubey>{{cite journal|last=Dubey-Pathak|first=Meenakshi|year=2014|title=The Rock Art of the Bhimbetka Area in India|url=https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Adoranten|pages=16, 19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913162516/https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2021|archive-format=PDF}}</ref>
| image2 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG
| caption2 = A ] erected by Neolithic people in ], ].
| image3 = EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg
| caption3 = ] (6,000&nbsp;BCE) carvings of ] in Kerala, India.
}}


=== Paleolithic ===
Muslim rule started in some parts of north India as early as the 8th century, but was firmly established in the 13th century when the ] which was founded in 1206 CE by the central Asian Turks.<ref>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought: page 340</ref> The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century, which saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states like the ], ], ] and ]. In the 16th century ] came from Central Asia and covered most of India gradually. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the ], ] and ] to exercise control over large areas in the subcontinent.<ref>A History of State and Religion in India by Ian Copland, Ian Mabbett, Asim Roy, Kate Brittlebank, Adam Bowles: p. 161</ref><ref>History of Mysore Under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan by Joseph Michaud p.143</ref>
{{Main|South Asian Stone Age}}] expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the ] approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|p=147}}{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}} This dating is based on the known presence of '']'' in ] by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at ] in ].{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}<ref name="murray">{{cite book|last=Mishra|first=Sheila|editor-last=Murray|editor-first=Tim|editor-link=Tim Murray (archaeologist)|year=1999|chapter=Developing an Indian stone age chronology|title=Time and Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/timearchaeology00murr|url-access=registration|publisher=]|page=84|isbn=978-0-415-11762-3}}</ref> Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of ], have not been independently verified.{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}}{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}}


The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of ''Homo erectus'' or '']'', from the ] in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}} Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}} Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}}{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}}
Western colonialism started in the 16th century, with explorers and traders. Beginning in the late 18th century and over the next century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the ], after which the ] of India were directly administered by the ] and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide ] was launched with the leading party involved being the ] which was later joined by other organizations as well.


According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:<blockquote>Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.<ref name="Dyson2018-1">{{cite book|last=Dyson|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Dyson|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|page=1|year=2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}</ref></blockquote>
The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were ] into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the ]s all ] to one of the new states.


According to Michael D. Petraglia and ]: <blockquote>Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=6}}</blockquote>
==Periodisation of Indian history==
{| style="float:right;"
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|{{Timetable of South Asia}}
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|{{Periodisation of Indian History}}
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] (1773–1836), in his ] (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19-20}}


Historian of South Asia, ], states: <blockquote>Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.<ref name="Fisher2018-23">{{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|author-link=Michael H. Fisher|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|date=18 October 2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2|page=23}}</ref></blockquote>
Romila Thapar notes that the divison of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to ruling dynasties and foreign invasions, neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that "the Muslims" conquered various parts of India at different periods between the eight and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} Based on significant social and economic changes, the ancient period would end roughly in the eighth century A.D., or possibly a little earlier, since the more significant changes did not coincide with dynastic changes and the conquests of 'the Muslims'.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=20}}{{refn|group=note|See also Tanvir Anjum, ''''.}}


Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of ] in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,<ref name="TunizGillespie2016">{{cite book|author-last1=Tuniz|author-first1=Claudio|author-last2=Gillespie|author-first2=Richard|author-last3=Jones|author-first3=Cheryl|title=The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrJmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|date=16 June 2016|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-315-41888-9|pages=163–}}</ref> although this interpretation is disputed.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Michael D.|last1=Petraglia|first2=Michael|last2=Haslam|first3=Dorian Q.|last3=Fuller|first4=Nicole|last4=Boivin|first5=Chris|last5=Clarkson|s2cid=6421383|date=25 March 2010|title=Out of Africa: new hypotheses and evidence for the dispersal of Homo sapiens along the Indian Ocean rim|journal=]|volume=37|issue=3|pages=288–311|doi=10.3109/03014461003639249|pmid=20334598|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:205007/HCA15UQ205007.pdf|issn=0301-4460}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Paul|last1=Mellars|first2=Kevin C.|last2=Gori|first3=Martin|last3=Carr|first4=Pedro A.|last4=Soares|first5=Martin B.|last5=Richards|date=25 June 2013|title=Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=110|issue=26|pages=10699–10704|bibcode=2013PNAS..11010699M|doi=10.1073/pnas.1306043110|pmid=23754394|pmc=3696785|doi-access=free}}</ref> The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.<ref name="Dyson2018-28a">{{cite book|last=Dyson|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Dyson|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28|year=2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|page=28}}</ref>
Nevertheless, an elaborate periodisation may be as follows:{{sfn|Michaels|2004}}
* Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE);
* Vedic period (c. 1750-500 BCE);
* "Second Urbanisation" (c. 500-200 BCE);
* Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE);{{refn|group=note|Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
* Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism{{refn|group=note|Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.{{sfn|Smart|2003|p=52, 83-86}}}}, Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.{{sfn|Smart|2003|p=52}}
* For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=36}}, whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}
* Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.{{sfn|Muesse|2003|p=14}}}}
:* Pre-classical period (c. 200 BCE-300 CE);
:* "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320-650 CE);
:* Late-Classical period (c. 650-1100 CE);
* Islamic period (c. 1100-1850 CE) and beginning of western colonialism (c.1500-1850);
* Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850).


According to Tim Dyson: <blockquote>Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.<ref name="Dyson2018-28a" /></blockquote>
=={{anchor|Prehistory}} Prehistoric era==


===Stone Age=== === Neolithic ===
] site in ], ]]]
{{Main|South Asian Stone Age}}
] emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the ] alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the ] of the third millennium BCE.<ref name="Wright2010-p=44">{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Rita P.|author-link=Rita P. Wright|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwgFPQAACAAJ&pg=PA44|year=2010|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-57652-9|pages=44, 51}}</ref><ref name="Dyson2018-4-5">{{cite book|last=Dyson|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Dyson|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year=2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=4–5}}</ref> According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:<ref name="Fisher2018-33">{{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|date=18 October 2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2|page=33}}</ref> <blockquote>The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.<ref name="Fisher2018-33" /></blockquote>
{{Further|Peopling of India|Mehrgarh|Bhimbetka rock shelters|Edakkal Cave}}
], ], India (c.&nbsp;30,000 years old)]]
] (5000 BCE) writings of ] in ], India.]]


== Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE) ==
Isolated remains of '']'' in Hathnora in the ] in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the ] era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |first=G.S |last= Mudur |title=Still a mystery |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050321/asp/knowhow/story_4481256.asp |work=KnowHow|publisher=] |date=21 March 2005 |accessdate=7 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm |title=The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India |accessdate=7 May 2007 |date=20 September 2005 |work= Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies|publisher=] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070619031729/http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 19 June 2007}}</ref> Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.<ref name="shef">{{cite web |url=http://www.shef.ac.uk/archaeology/research/pakistan | title = Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan| publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield| accessdate = 1 December 2007 }}</ref><ref name="murray">{{cite book| last = Murray | first = Tim | authorlink = Tim Murray (archaeologist)| title = Time and archaeology | publisher = Routledge| year = 1999 | location = London; New York | page=84|url=http://books.google.com/?id=k3z9iXo_Uq8C&pg=PP3&dq=%22Time+and+Archaeology%22| isbn=0-415-11762-3}}</ref> The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements<ref name="coppa">{{cite journal | last = Coppa| first=A.|author2=L. Bondioli |author3=A. Cucina |author4=D. W. Frayer |author5=C. Jarrige |author6=J. F. Jarrige |author7=G. Quivron |author8=M. Rossi |author9=M. Vidale |author10=R. Macchiarelli | title=Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry| journal=Nature| volume=440| pages=755–756| date = 6 April 2006 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf| doi = 10.1038/440755a | accessdate = 22 November 2007 |format=PDF | pmid = 16598247 | issue = 7085}}</ref> and some of its major civilisations.<ref name="possehl">{{cite journal| last =Possehl| first=G. L.| authorlink = Gregory Possehl|date=October 1990| title=Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanisation| journal = Annual Review of Anthropology| volume=19| issue =1| pages=261–282| doi=10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401|url=http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1?cookieSet=1| accessdate=6 May 2007}}</ref><ref name="asaw">{{cite book| last=Kenoyer| first=Jonathan Mark|author2=Kimberley Heuston| title=The Ancient South Asian World| publisher=]|date=May 2005 | isbn = 0-19-517422-4 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ==| oclc=56413341 }}</ref> The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the palaeolithic ] site in the ].<ref name="ppisv">{{cite book| last=Rendell| first=H. R.| coauthors=Dennell, R. W. and Halim, M.| title=Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan| year=1989| page=364| series=British Archaeological Reports International Series| publisher=]| isbn=0-86054-691-8| oclc=29222688}}</ref> Soanian sites are found in the ] across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.<ref>Parth R. Chauhan. . ''An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian&nbsp;– A Theoretical Perspective''.</ref>


=== Indus Valley Civilisation ===
The ] period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the ] period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last ] approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the ] in modern ], India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the ] findings (7500 BCE) in ], India & ] findings (7000-9000 BCE) in ], Pakistan.<ref name="mfr">{{cite book| last=Jarrige| first=C.| coauthors=J.-F. Jarrige, R. H. Meadow and G. Quivron| title=Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975 to 1985 - from the Neolithic to the Indus Civilisation| publisher=Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France| year=1995}}</ref><ref>. Hindustan Times (4 November 2012). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Coppa|first=A.|author2=et al.|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf|title=Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population|journal=Nature|volume=440|date=6 April 2006|doi=10.1038/440755a|pages=755–6|pmid=16598247|issue=7085}}</ref>
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}}
{{See also|List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites}}
]


The ] began around 3300&nbsp;BCE.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} The Indus Valley region was one of three early ] in the ]; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive,<ref name="auto1"/> and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.<ref name="auto"/>
Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the ] in India, ] to 7500 BCE.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Gaur | first = A. S. |author2=K. H. Vora | date = 10 July 1999 | title = Ancient shorelines of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilisation (Late Mid-Holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences | journal = ] | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 180–185
| issn = 0011-3891 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul10/articles29.htm | accessdate = 6 May 2007 }}</ref> However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards into ] around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with the ].<ref name="acivc">{{cite book| last=Kenoyer| first=J. Mark| title=The Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation| publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1998| isbn=0-19-577940-1| oclc=231832104 38469514}}</ref>


The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the ] basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900&nbsp;BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as ], ], and ] in modern-day Pakistan, and ], ], ], and ] in modern-day India.
===Indus Valley Civilisation===
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}}


] (one of the largest Indus cities). View of the site's ], showing the surrounding urban layout.]]
]]]
], a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, with ] steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs<ref name=news>{{Cite journal|author=Shuichi Takezawa|journal=Journal of Architecture and Building Science|volume=117|issue=1492|date=August 2002|page=24|url=http://news-sv.aij.or.jp/jabs/s1/jabs0208-019.pdf|title=Stepwells – Cosmology of Subterranean Architecture As Seen in Adalaj|access-date=18 November 2009}}</ref>]]
The ] in the ] began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on the ] and its tributaries which extended into the ] valley,<ref name=possehl>{{cite journal
] ]]
| last = Possehl | first = G. L. | authorlink=Gregory Possehl |date=October 1990
| title = Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanisation | journal = Annual Review of Anthropology | volume = 19
| issue = 1 | pages = 261–282 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401 |url=http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1?cookieSet=1 | accessdate = 6 May 2007
}}See map on page 263</ref> the ],<ref>''Indian Archaeology, A Review.'' 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51–52.</ref> ],<ref name="Leshnik">{{cite journal
| last = Leshnik | first = Lawrence S. |date=October 1968 | title = The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View | journal = American Anthropologist, New Series, | volume = 70 | issue = 5
| pages = 911–922 | doi = 10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00070
| jstor = 196810 }}</ref> and southeastern Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kenoyer | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
| title = Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation | date = 15 September 1998
| publisher = Oxford University Press | location = USA | isbn = 0-19-577940-1 | page = 96 }}</ref>


Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.<ref>Kenoyer, J. M., Miller, H. M.-L. ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World,'' MASCA research papers in science and archaeology. 1999, Vol 16, pp 107-151; ref : 7 p.1/4. ISSN 1048-5325</ref> The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an ], the earliest of the ], which is presently undeciphered.<ref>''Early India: A Concise History'', D.N. Jha, 2004, p. 31</ref> This is the reason why ] is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Menon|first1=Sunil|last2=Mishra|first2=Siddhartha|date=13 August 2018|title=We Are All Harappans|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463|magazine=Outlook|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803073245/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463|archive-date=2018-08-03}}</ref>
The civilisation is primarily located in modern-day India (], ], ] and ] provinces) and Pakistan (], ], and ] provinces). Historically part of ], it is one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, along with ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.incredibleindia.org/newsite/cms_page.asp?pageid=759 |title=History |publisher=Incredible India |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the ], developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.


]s and their impressions showing Indus script characters alongside animals: '''unicorn''' (left), '''bull''' (centre), and '''elephant''' (right); at ] ]]
The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such as ], ], ], ], and ] in modern-day India, and ], ], and ] in modern-day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses.
After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarkar|first1=Anindya|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Arati Deshpande|last3=Bera|first3=M. K.|last4=Das|first4=B.|last5=Juyal|first5=Navin|last6=Morthekai|first6=P.|last7=Deshpande|first7=R. D.|last8=Shinde|first8=V. S.|last9=Rao|first9=L. S.|title=Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization|journal=Scientific Reports|date=May 2016|volume=6|issue=1|pages=26555|doi=10.1038/srep26555|pmid=27222033|pmc=4879637|bibcode=2016NatSR...626555S|doi-access=free}}</ref>


=== Ochre Coloured Pottery culture ===
During the ] of this civilisation, signs of a ] began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilization may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms. The Indian ] is attributed to this time, associated in the ] region with the ].
] chariot''', photograph of the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Vijay|title=A note on Chariot Burials found at Sinauli district Baghpat U.P|journal=Indian Journal of Archaeology|url=http://ijarch.org/Admin/Articles/9-Note%20on%20Chariots.pdf}}</ref>]]


During the 2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE, ] was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA220|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|first=Upinder|last=Singh|author-link=Upinder Singh|year=2008|publisher=]|pages=216–219|isbn=9788131711200|access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref>
==Vedic period (1750 BCE - 500 BCE)==
{{Spread of IE-languages}}
{{Indo-Aryan migration}}
{{Main|Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan migration|Vedic period|Vedic Civilisation|Historical Vedic religion}}
{{See also|Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-Iranians|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion}}


== Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE) ==
The ] is characterised by ] culture associated with the texts of ], sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in ]. The ] are some of the oldest extant texts in India.<ref>G. Bongard-Levin, ''A History of India: Part 1'' (Progressive Books: Moscow, 1979) p. 51.</ref> The Vedic period, lasting from about 1750 to 500 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Non-Western Art: A Brief Guide|page=151|author=Lynn MacKenzie|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1995}}</ref><ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India: Part 1'', pp. 29-30.</ref> contributed the foundations of ] and other cultural aspects of ]. In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the ] to the ] in this period.<ref name="Singh255">{{citation|last=Singh|first=U.|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|year=2009|publisher=]|page=255|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC}}</ref>
{{See also|Iron Age in India}}


===Vedic society=== === Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE) ===
{{Main|Vedic period|Historical Vedic religion|Vedas}}
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a ] in the ] and the upper ].<ref name="Singh255"/> Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of ] into the subcontinent from the north-west.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=47|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Kulke|first1=H.|last2=Rothermund|first2=D.|author1-link=Hermann Kulke|date=1 August 2004|title=A History of India|series=4th|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=31|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC}}</ref> Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul, and the ] tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the ].<ref>Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150-151.</ref> Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.<ref>*Day, Terence P. (1982). ''The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature''. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.</ref>
{{See also|Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan migrations}}
] is a major element of ].]]


Starting {{circa|1900&nbsp;BCE}}, ] moved into the ] from ] in several ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stein|first=Burton|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=David|year=2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}</ref>{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=31}} The ] is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the ] to the ] in this period.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=255}}
Early Vedic society is described in the ], the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=World History|page=90|year=2012|author=William Duiker, Jackson Spielvogel|publisher=Cengage learning}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality|page=77|author=James M. Nelson|publisher=Springer}}</ref> in the northwestern region of the ].<ref>{{citation |last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA37|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=37}}</ref> At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.<ref>. Retrieved on 12 May 2007.</ref> The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the ] in archaeological contexts.<ref name = "tqlgsv">{{cite book | author=Krishna Reddy | title=Indian History | year=2003 | publisher=Tata McGraw Hill | location=New Delhi | isbn=0-07-048369-8 | page=A11 }}</ref><ref>] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. ], Paris, 97–265.</ref>


The Vedic culture is described in the texts of ], still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in ]. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=51}} The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last=MacKenzie|first=Lynn|date=1995|title=Non-Western Art: A Brief Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/nonwesternartbri00mack|url-access=registration|publisher=Prentice Hall|page=|isbn=978-0-13-104894-2}}</ref><ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India: Part 1'', pp. 29–30.</ref> contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.
At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the ], into the western ] plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four '']'', or social classes. This social structure was characterized both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48-51, 61-93}} but also eventually by the excluding of indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 41–43.</ref> During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into monarchical, state-level polities.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=200}}


===Sanskritization=== ==== Vedic society ====
] script of the ], originally transmitted orally<ref>{{cite book|last=Staal|first=Frits|author-link=Frits Staal|year=1986|title=The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science|publisher=]}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Sanskritization}}


Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the ], and the upper ].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=255}} The ] tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Singhal|first1=K. C.|last2=Gupta|first2=Roshan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoXqCmo-Xs8C|title=The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation|date=2003|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=81-269-0286-8|location=New Delhi|oclc=53360586|pages=150–151}}</ref> Many of the concepts of ] espoused later, like ], trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.<ref>{{cite book|last=Day|first=Terence P.|date=1982|title=The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjo2gk2tBK8C|location=Ontario|publisher=]|pages=42–45|isbn=978-0-919812-15-4}}</ref>
Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called ].<ref name="EBHinbduism6"></ref> It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.<ref name="EBHinbduism6" />


Early Vedic society is described in the ], the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William J.|author1-link=William J. Duiker|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson J.|author2-link=Jackson J. Spielvogel|year=2018|orig-year=First published 1994|title=World History|publisher=Cengage|edition=9th|pages=44, 59|isbn=978-1-337-40104-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=James Melvin|title=Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality|year=2009|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyreligi00nels|url-access=limited|page=|publisher=Springer}}</ref> in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA37|date=13 July 1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=37}}</ref> At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46837/The-appearance-of-Indo-Aryan-speakers|title=India: The Late 2nd Millennium and the Reemergence of Urbanism|encyclopedia=]|access-date=12 May 2007}}</ref> The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the ] in archaeological contexts.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}}<ref name=Witzel1989>] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. ], Paris, 97–265.</ref>
The ] was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 - 800 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Marvels and Mysteries of the Mahabharata|author=Abhijit Basu|publisher=Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd|year=2013|page=153}}</ref> as well as with the composition of the ] (the first Indian text to mention iron, as {{IAST|śyāma ayas}}, literally "black metal").<ref>M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Kölver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. München : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, </ref> The Kuru state organized the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodox ] ritual to uphold the social order.<ref name="Witzel 1995">Witzel 1995</ref> When the Kuru kingdom declined, the center of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the ] kingdom.<ref name="Witzel 1995"/> The archaeological ], which flourished in the ] and western ] regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE,<ref name = "tqlgsv"/> is believed to correspond to the ] and ] kingdoms.<ref name="Witzel 1995"/>{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=45-51}}


At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western ] plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four '']'', or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48–51, 61–93}} but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=41–43}} During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into ]s (monarchical, state-level polities).{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=200}}
During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of ] emerged as a new center of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and ] state in India).<ref>Witzel 1989</ref> The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called '']'', all across Northern India.


===Sanskrit Epics=== ==== Sanskrit epics ====
{{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana}} {{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana}}
{{see also|List of historic Indian texts|List of Hindu texts}}
].]]


The Sanskrit epics ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' were composed during this period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Valmiki|author-link=Valmiki|url=https://archive.org/details/ramayanaofva01valm/page/23|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda|date=10 April 1990|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-691-01485-2|editor-last1=Goldman|editor-first1=Robert P.|editor-link1=Robert P. Goldman|location=Princeton, New Jersey|page=|editor-last2=Pollock|editor-first2=Sheldon|editor-link2=Sheldon Pollock}}</ref> The ''Mahabharata'' remains the longest single poem in the world.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India Part 1'', p. 31.</ref> Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=18–19}} The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between {{circa}} 400&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=18–19}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brockington|first=J. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA26|title=The Sanskrit epics, Part 2|publisher=Brill|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-10260-6|volume=12|page=21}}</ref>
In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics '']'' and '']'' are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.<ref>{{cite book
| author=Valmiki | editor=Goldman, Robert P | title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda | series=Ramayana of Valmiki |date=March 1990 | publisher=] | location=Princeton, New Jersey | isbn=0-691-01485-X | page=23 }}</ref> The ''Mahabharata'' remains, today, the longest single poem in the world.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India Part 1'', p. 31.</ref> Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognize that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, the ''Mahabharata'' may have been based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually "transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets".There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharat have any historical basis.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=18-21}} The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=18-21}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA26 |title= The Sanskrit epics, Part 2| volume = Volume 12|first= J. L. |last= Brockington|page = 21|publisher = BRILL| year=1998|isbn=90-04-10260-4}}</ref> Some even attempted to date the events using methods of ] which have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Gupta|Ramachandran|1976|p=246}}, who summarize as follows: "Astronomical calculations favor 15th century BCE as the date of the war while the Puranic data place it in the 10th/9th century BCE. " (p.254)</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=India's Culture: The State, the Arts, and Beyond|page=44|first=Balmiki Prasad |last=Singh |publisher=Oxford University}}</ref>


==== Janapadas ====
=="Second urbanisation" (500-200 BCE)==
{{Main|Janapada}}
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the ]-movement formed, from which originated ] and ]. In the same period the first ] were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} The Central Ganges Plain, where ] gained prominence, forming the base of the ], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48-51}} with new states arising after 500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period"></ref> during the so-called "Second urbanisation".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=42-48}}{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48-51}} It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region the ] movements flourished, and ] and ] originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}
{{See also|Battle of the Ten Kings|List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes}}
] with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India – ], ], ], ] ]]


The ] in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200&nbsp;BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are ], ] and ]—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of ], ], ] and ].<ref name="lanman1912">{{cite book|title=A Sanskrit reader: with vocabulary and notes|last=Lanman|first=Charles Rockwell|author-link=Charles Rockwell Lanman|year=1912|orig-year=First published 1884|publisher=]|location=Boston|url=https://archive.org/stream/sanskritreaderwi00lanmiala#page/158/mode/1up|oclc=633836|quote="''... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...''"}}</ref><ref name="potter1974">{{cite book|title=Pedigree: The Origins of Words from Nature|last1=Potter|first1=Stephen|author-link1=Stephen Potter|last2=Sargent|first2=Laurens Christopher|year=1974|publisher=Taplinger Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8008-6248-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SNDAAAAIAAJ|quote=''... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...''}}</ref>
===Mahajanapadas (600-300 BCE)===
] were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile ], there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of ].]]
{{Main|Mahajanapadas|Haryanka dynasty}}


The ] ({{circa}} 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Marvels and Mysteries of the Mahabharata|last=Basu|first=Abhijit|publisher=Leadstart publishing|year=2013|page=153|isbn=978-93-84027-47-6}}</ref> as well as with the composition of the ].<ref name="Witzel 1995">{{cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Witzel|year=1995|title=Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State|url=https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|volume=1|issue=4|pages=1–26|doi=10.11588/ejvs.1995.4.823|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407172825/https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the ] ritual to uphold the social order.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> Two key figures of the Kuru state were king ] and his successor ], who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> The archaeological ] (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's ] and western ] regions from about 1100 to 600&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}} is believed to correspond to the ] and ] kingdoms.<ref name="Witzel 1995" />{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=45–51}}
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 500 BCE. sixteen monarchies and "republics" known as the ]—], ], ], ], ] (or Vriji), ], ], ] (or Vamsa), ], ], ] (or Machcha), ], ], ], ], and ]—stretched across the ] from modern-day Afghanistan to ] and ]. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the ].<ref name="Krishna Reddy 2003 A107">{{cite book | author= Krishna Reddy | title = Indian History | year = 2003 | publisher = Tata McGraw Hill | location = New Delhi | isbn = 0-07-048369-8 | page = A107 }}</ref>


During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of ] emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and ] state);<ref name=Witzel1989 /> reaching its prominence under the king ], whose court provided patronage for ] sages and ] such as ], ], and ].<ref>H.C. Raychaudhuri (1950), ''Political History of Ancient India and Nepal'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 58</ref> The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called '']'', across Northern India.
Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early "republics" such as the ] (or Vriji) confederation centered in the city of ], existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The educated speech at that time was ], while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as ]s. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of ]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.The Life of Gautam Budhha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms.<ref name="Krishna Reddy 2003 A107"/>


=== Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)<!--Linked from 'Mahajanapadas'--> ===
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the ] culture.


]
===Upanishads and Shramana movements===
The period between 800 and 200&nbsp;BCE saw the formation of the '']'' movement, from which ] and ] originated. The first ] were written during this period. After 500&nbsp;BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the ] of the ] and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heitzman|first=James|date=31 March 2008|title=The City in South Asia|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-134-28963-9|url=https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit|url-access=registration|pages=–13}}</ref>
] is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre of ] learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE.]]
{{Main|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|History of Jainism}}
{{See also|Gautama Buddha|Mahavira}}
{{Further|Upanishads|Indian Religions|Indian philosophy|Ancient universities of India}}


The Central Ganges Plain, where ] gained prominence, forming the base of the ], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} with new states arising after 500&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="EB-Beginning historical period">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce|title=The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 BCE|year=2015|encyclopedia=]}}</ref>{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=42–48}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} "It was the area of the earliest known ] and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}
The 7th and 6th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest ].<ref name="Flood 1996 82">{{citation |last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title= Upaniṣads|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199540259|page=xxiv-xxix}}</ref> Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as ] (conclusion of the ]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|last2=Baumann|first2=Martin|title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref> The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.<ref>{{citation |title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T. M. P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd|page=57}}</ref>


==== Buddhism and Jainism ====
Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref name="Flood 1996 82"/> Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of ], and ] (c. 563-483), founder of ] were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of ], and the concept of liberation.<ref>Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.'' Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273-4. "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.&nbsp;... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara&nbsp;– the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana&nbsp;– the goal of human existence....."</ref> Buddha found a ] that ameliorated the extreme ] found in the ] religions.<ref>Laumakis, Stephen. ''An Introduction to Buddhist philosophy''. 2008. p. 4</ref>
{{Main|Upanishads|Śramaṇa}}
{{Further|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|History of Jainism|Indian religions|Indian philosophy}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| title = Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements
| image1 = MS Indic 37, Isa upanisad. Wellcome L0027330.jpg|caption1=A page of '']'' manuscript.
| image2 = Vardhaman Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg|caption2=], the 24th and last ] of ].
| image3 = Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar.jpg|caption3=]'s cremation stupa, ] (Kushinara).
}}


The time between 800&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest ],<ref name="Flood 1996 82">{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref><ref name="Mascaró1965">{{cite book|last=Mascaró|first=Juan|author-link=Juan Mascaró|title=The Upanishads|url=https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc|url-access=registration|year=1965|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-14-044163-5|pages=–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|title=Upaniṣads|year=2008|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-954025-9|pages=|url=https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/|url-access=registration}}</ref> which form the theoretical basis of ], and are also known as the '']'' (conclusion of the ]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Baumann|first1=Martin|editor-last1=Melton|editor-first1=J. Gordon|editor-link2=J. Gordon Melton|editor-last2=Baumann|editor-first2=Martin|encyclopedia=Religions of the World|title=Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|access-date=|edition=2nd|year=2010|publisher=]|volume=3|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref>
Around the same time, ] (the 24th ] in ]) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<ref>Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - '' Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BCE. Page 114 ''</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe ], accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The ] are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the ] movement.<ref>Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-8606-4148-2 '' "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira." Page 115 ''</ref>


The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref name="Flood 1996 82" /> ] ({{circa}} 599–527&nbsp;BCE), proponent of ], and ] ({{circa}} 563–483&nbsp;BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of ], and the concept of liberation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|editor1-last=Flood|editor1-first=Gavin|editor1-link=Gavin Flood|chapter=The Renouncer Tradition|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|pages=273–274|quote=The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.&nbsp;... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara—the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana—the goal of human existence ...}}</ref> Buddha found a ] that ameliorated the extreme ] found in the '']'' religions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laumakis|first1=Stephen|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-38589-6|page=4}}</ref>
===Magadha Empire===
{{Main|Magadha}}
'''Magadha''' ({{lang-sa|मगध}}) formed one of the sixteen ] (]: "Great Countries") or ]. The core of the kingdom was the area of ] south of the ]; its first capital was ] (modern Rajgir) then ] (modern ]). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and ] with the conquest of ] and ] respectively,<ref name="Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977)">{{cite book | title=Ancient India | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers | author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar | year=1977 | isbn=81-208-0436-8}}</ref> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in ] and ] texts. It is also mentioned in the ], ], ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Magadha Empire|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html}}</ref> A state of Magadha, possibly a ], is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600BCE.


Around the same time, ] (the 24th '']'' in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/121/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=121|quote=Jainism's major teacher for this age is Mahavira ... was a contemporary of the Buddha and died approximately 527 BCE.}}</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the ''Tirthankaras'' predates all known time and scholars believe ] (c. 872 – c. 772&nbsp;BCE), accorded status as the 23rd ''Tirthankara'', was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few ''Tirthankaras'' and an ascetic order similar to the ''Śramaṇa'' movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/122/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=122|quote=The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-Vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.}}</ref>
The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the ] where they are found listed along with the ]s, ], and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of ] and ], and two of India's greatest empires, the ] and ], originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, ], religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "]". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.


==== Mahajanapadas ====
===Persian and Greek conquests===
{{Main|Mahajanapadas}}
{{See also|Achaemenid Empire|Greco-Buddhism|Indo-Greek Kingdom|Alexander the Great|Nanda Empire|Gangaridai}}
] were sixteen powerful polities located mainly within the ] ]]
] and the ] in relation to ]'s Empire and neighbors.]]
The period from {{circa|600&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} to {{circa|300&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} featured the rise of the ], sixteen powerful ] and ] republics in a belt stretching from ] in the north-west to ] in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-] region.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=260–261}} Ancient ], like the '']'',<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p. 213; IV. pp. 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (or Machcha), ], ], ], and ]. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the ].{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}


Early "republics" or ],<ref name=Thapar>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|year=2002|publisher=]|pages=146–150|access-date=28 October 2013|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8}}</ref> such as ]s, ]s, ]s, and ] had republican governments. {{transliteration|sa|Gaṇasaṅgha}}s,<ref name=Thapar /> such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of ], and the ], centred in the city of ], existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 107</ref> The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Republics in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=93–|id=GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0}}</ref>
In 530 BCE ], King of the Persian ] crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).<ref name="Romila Thapar p. 58">{{cite book | title=A History of India: Part 1 | author=Romila Thapar | pages=58}}</ref> By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian ]. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm |title=The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.E) |accessdate=19 May 2007 |author=Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=October 2004 |work=Timeline of Art History |publisher= New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.<ref name="Romila Thapar p. 58"/>


This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the ] culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, ], and the introduction of writing in the form of ] and ] scripts.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In ''Historical Roots" in the Making of 'the Aryan'', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</ref><ref>{{cite conference|title=Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond|first=Jim|last=Shaffer|author-link=Jim G. Shaffer|year=1993|conference=|volume=31|book-title=Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times|series=Symposium Papers XV|publisher=National Gallery of Art|pages=53–67|jstor=42620472}}</ref> The language of the gentry at that time was ], while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as ]s.
Under Persian rule the famous city of ] became a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India'', p. 59.</ref> The impact of Persian ideas was felt in many areas of Indian life. Persian coinage and rock inscriptions were adopted by India. However, Persian ascendency in northern India ended with ]'s conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.<ref>Carl Roebuck, ''The World of Ancient Times'' (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 357.</ref>


Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of ]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}
By 326 BCE, ] had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated ] in the ] (near modern-day ], Pakistan) and conquered much of the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=J.F.C.|authorlink=J. F. C. Fuller |title= The Generalship of Alexander the Great|edition=Reprint|date=3 February 2004|publisher=Da Capo Press |location=New York|isbn=0-306-81330-0 |pages= 188–199|chapter=Alexander's Great Battles}}</ref> Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the ] of ] and the ] of ]. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern ]) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, ], and learning about the might of ], was convinced that it was better to return.


==== Early Magadha dynasties ====
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilisation. The political systems of the Persians were to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, ], which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of ].
{{Main|Magadha|Greater Magadha}}
{{See also|Magadha period|Pradyota dynasty|Haryanka dynasty|Shaishunaga dynasty}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| title = Magadha dynasties
| image1 = Magadha Expansion (6th-4th centuries BCE).png
| caption1 = Magadha state c. 600&nbsp;BCE, which is later expanded from its capital ] – under the ] and the later ].
| image2 = Xerxes Hidush warrior 480 BCE.jpg
| caption2 = Indian warrior of the ], circa 480 BCE, on the ].
}}


Magadha formed one of the sixteen ] (]: "Great Realms") or ]. The core of the kingdom was the area of ] south of the ]; its first capital was ] (modern Rajgir) then ] (modern ]). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of ] and ] respectively,<ref name="Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977)">{{cite book|title=Ancient India|publisher=]|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|author-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1977|isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|edition=8th}}</ref> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html|title=Magadha Empire – Magadha Empire in India, History of Magadh Empire|website=iloveindia.com}}</ref> The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the ] where they are found listed along with the ]s, ], and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of ] and ]. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
===Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE)===
{{Main|Maurya Empire}}
{{Further|Chandragupta Maurya|Bindusara|Ashoka the Great}}
] under ].]]
] at ], 3rd century BCE.]]


Early sources, from the Buddhist ], the ] and the Hindu ], mention Magadha being ruled by the ] and ] ({{circa}} 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, {{circa}} 600–413&nbsp;BCE. King ] of the ] led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and ]. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince ], who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, ], the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in ], gave his first sermon in ] and the ] was held in Rajgriha.<ref name="lumbinitrust">{{cite web|url=http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|publisher=lumbinitrust.org|title=Lumbini Development Trust: Restoring the Lumbini Garden|access-date=6 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041858/http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the ] ({{circa}} 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by ] in 345&nbsp;BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).
The ] (322–185 BCE), ruled by the Maurya dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India. It was the first empire to unify India into one state, and the largest on the Indian subcontinent. The empire was established by ] in ] (in modern ]) when he overthrew the ].<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=Romila Thapar | pages=70}}</ref> He went on to conquer the northwestern parts of the subcontinent that had been conquered by Alexander the Great. The empire flourished under the reign of Chandragupta's grandson, ].<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=G. Bongard-Levin | pages=66}}</ref>


==== Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign ====
At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the natural boundaries of the ] and to the east into what is now ]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the ] mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and ], but it excluded extensive unexplored tribal and forested regions near ] which were subsequently taken by Ashoka.<ref name="Romila Thapar p. 88">{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=Romila Thapar | pages=88}}</ref>
{{main|Nanda Empire}}
{{See also|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}}
The ] ({{circa}} 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the ] in the west and as far south as the ].{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}} The ] built on the foundations laid by their ] and ] predecessors.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=273}} Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 ], 20,000 ], 2,000 war ]s and 3,000 ]s (at the lowest estimates).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raychaudhuri|first1=Hem Chandra|author1-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Bratindra Nath|author2-link=B. N. Mukherjee|year=1996|orig-year=First published 1923|title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc|url-access=registration|edition=8th|publisher=]|pages=208–209|isbn=978-0-19-563789-2}}</ref>


==== Maurya Empire ====
Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire for 37 years from 268 BCE until he died in 232 BCE.<ref name="Romila Thapar p. 88"/> During that time, Ashoka pursued an active foreign policy aimed at setting up a unified state.<ref name="G. Bongard-Levin 67">{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=G. Bongard-Levin | pages=67}}</ref> However, Ashoka became involved in a war with the state of ] which is located on the western shore of the Bay of Bengal.<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=Romila Thapar | pages=72}}</ref> This war forced Ashoka to abandon his attempt at a foreign policy which would unify the Maurya Empire.<ref name="G. Bongard-Levin 67"/>
{{Main|Maurya Empire}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| title = Maurya Empire
| image1 = Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png
| caption1 = ] at its peak under ].
| image2 = Asokanpillar2.jpg
| caption2 = ] at ], 3rd century BCE.
}}


The Maurya Empire (322–185&nbsp;BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the ] ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Peter_2006">{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D.|title=East–West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016|issn=1076-156X}}</ref> At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the ] and to the east into what is now ]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the ] mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by ] assisted by Chanakya (]) in ] (in modern ]) when he overthrew the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=70}}</ref>
During the Mauryan Empire slavery developed rapidly and a significant amount of written records on slavery are found.<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=G. Bongard-Levin | pages=91}}</ref> The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=Romila Thapar | pages=78}}</ref> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary with loans made at the recognized interest rate of 15% per annum.


Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317&nbsp;BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated ], founder of the ], during the ], thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son ] succeeded to the throne around 297&nbsp;BCE. By the time he died in {{circa}} 272&nbsp;BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of ] (around modern day ]) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}}
Ashoka's reign propagated ]. In this regard Ashoka established many Buddhist monuments. Indeed, Ashoka put a strain on the economy and the government by his strong support of Buddhism, towards the end of his reign he "bled the state coffers white with his generous gifts to promote the promulgation of Buddha's teaching".<ref name="G. Bongard-Levin 67"/> As might be expected, this policy caused considerable opposition within the government. This opposition rallied around Sampadi, Ashoka's grandson and heir to the throne.<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=G. Bongard-Levin | pages=80}}</ref> Religious opposition to
Ashoka also arose among the orthodox Brahmanists and the adherents of ].<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=G. Bongard-Levin | pages=108}}</ref>


], one of the ], {{circa}} 250 BCE]]
Chandragupta's minister ] is traditionally credited with authorship of the '']'', a treatise on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of ] (NBPW). The ''Arthashastra'' and the ] are primary written records of the Mauryan times. The '']'' at ], is the national emblem of India.
Bindusara was succeeded by ], whose reign lasted until his death in about 232&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}} His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260&nbsp;BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}} The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, ], was assassinated by ] to establish the ].{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}}


Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the ], one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/|title=Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road|last=Bhandari|first=Shirin|date=5 January 2016|website=Roads & Kingdoms|language=en-US|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref> After the ], the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of ] increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the ], into ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=67}}
During this period the high quality steel called ] was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<ref name="Menon R.V.G p.15"/>


The '']'' written by ] and the ] are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of ]. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=78}}</ref> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, ] was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=91}} During this period, a high-quality steel called ] was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<ref name="Menon R.V.G p.15">''Technology and Society'' by Menon, R.V.G. p. 15</ref>
==Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE)==
{{Main|Middle Kingdoms of India}}


==== Sangam period ====
The time between 200 BCE and ca. 1100 CE is the "Classical Age" of India. It can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. The ] (4th-6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. In southern India The ] flourished from the 3rd century BC to 3rd century CE in southern India.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
{{Main|Sangam period|Sources of ancient Tamil history|Sangam literature|Five Great Epics}}
{{See also|Three Crowned Kings|Tamilakam|List of Tamil monarchs}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = South India in Sangam Period.jpg
| caption1 = ], located at the tip of ] during the Sangam period, ruled by ], ] and the ].
| image2 = Puhar-ILango.jpg
| caption2 = ], author of ], one of the ] of ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review.|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|year=1975|pages=148–150|last=Rosen|first=Elizabeth S.|jstor=3250226|doi=10.2307/3250226}}</ref>
}}


During the Sangam period ] literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the ] of ]: ], ], and the ] ruled parts of southern India.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=204–205}}
===Early Classical Period (ca. 200 BCE–300 CE)===
], now in ].]]
] and ] of ] in the north along with ]s and ] in ].]]


The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<ref>''Essays on Indian Renaissance'' by Raj Kumar p. 260</ref> Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.<ref name="The First Spring p.655">''The First Spring: The Golden Age of India'' by ] p. 655</ref>
The ], also known as the Andhras, ruled in southern and central India after around 230 BCE. ], the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the ] of north India. Afterwards, ], the warrior king of ],<ref name="autogenerated2000">Agrawal, Sadananda (2000): Śrī Khāravela, Sri Digambar Jain Samaj, Cuttack</ref> ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the propagation of ] in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="autogenerated2000"/>


Around {{circa}} 300 BCE – {{circa}} 200 CE, ], an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of ], were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works ] as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works ]; while ], the earliest grammarian work in the ] was developed.<ref>* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tholkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE</ref> Also, during Sangam period, two of ] were composed. ] composed '']'', which is a non-religious work, that revolves around ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|title=Silappathikaram Tamil Literature|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=22 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411214545/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|archive-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> and '']'', composed by ], is a sequel to ''Silappatikaram'', and tells the story of the daughter of ] and ], who became a ] ].<ref name="Muk1">{{harvnb|Mukherjee|1999|p=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/4_drav/tamil/pm/pm141__u.htm|title=Cittalaiccattanar (c. 500): Manimekalai|website=gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de}}</ref>
The Kharavelan Jain empire included a maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, ], ], ], and ]. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and ]. The ] was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE.


== Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE) ==
The ] migrated from ] into northwestern India in the middle of the 1st century CE and founded an empire that stretched from Tajikistan to the middle ]. The ] (35-405 CE) were ] rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the ] and contemporaries of the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and southern India.
{{Main|Classical India}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=160 |File:SungaEmpireMap.jpg|] during the rise of the ] from the North, ] from the ], and ] and ] from the ].
|File:Karla caves Chaitya.jpg|Great Chaitya in the ]. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
|File:Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg|] is home to the ], which was inscribed under ], then Emperor of ] of the ].
|File:Andhra pradesh, santuario a più piani, da ghantasala, 90-110 ca..JPG|Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, ] Stupa.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries|date=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-312-0|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA41|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Le|first1=Huu Phuoc|title=Buddhist Architecture|date=2010|publisher=Grafikol|isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8|page=238|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA238|language=en}}</ref>
}}
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the ] in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.<ref name="stein">{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> The ] (4th–6th century) is regarded as the ], although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the ] flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.<ref name="ReferenceB">''A Social History of Early India'' by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p. 259</ref> During this period, ] is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.<ref name="Maddisson World GDP">{{cite web|title=The World Economy (GDP) : Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|access-date=21 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing by ]|isbn=978-92-64-02262-1|page=656|url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en}}</ref>


=== Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE) ===
Different dynasties such as the ], ], ], ], ], ]s, and ], dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched into Southeast Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and the ] states for domination of the south. The ], a Buddhist dynasty, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the south.


====Southern India==== ==== Shunga Empire ====
{{Main|Shunga Empire}}
During this period, the southern peninsula of India was at first ruled by the ] and by three ] kingdoms: the ], the ], and the ]. Tamil ] flourished during this period. After the collapse of the Satavahana Dynasty in the 3rd century, the ], the ], the ], and the ] emerged and dominated the most of southern India until the 6th century. In the 6th century, the ] was established, and ultimately dominated most of southern India until the 8th century.
{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 450
| caption_align = center
| title = Shunga Empire
| image1 = East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg
| caption1 = East Gateway and Railings, ] ], 2nd century BCE.
| image2 = Royal family Sunga West Bengal 1st century BCE.jpg
| caption2 = Shunga art ], 1st century BCE.
| image3 = Plaque with a Royal Family 1st century B.C. India (West Bengal, Chandraketugarh).jpg
| caption3 = Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.
}}


The Shungas originated from ], and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78&nbsp;BCE. The dynasty was established by ], who overthrew the last ]. Its capital was ], but later emperors, such as ], also held court at ], modern ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stadtner|first=Donald|year=1975|title=A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|pages=101–104|issn=0004-3648|jstor=3250214|doi=10.2307/3250214}}</ref>
====Sunga Empire====
] during the rise of the ] and ] empires.]]
{{Main|Sunga Empire}}


Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son ]. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;<ref>K. A. Nilkantha Shastri (1970), , p. 108: "Soon after Agnimitra there was no 'Sunga empire'".</ref> inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.<ref>Bhandare, Shailendra. "Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain" in ed. Patrick Olivelle (2006), p. 96</ref> The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the ] of ], ] of ], the ], and possibly the ]s and ].
The ]({{lang-sa|शुंग राजवंश}}) or '''Shunga Empire''' was an ancient Indian dynasty from ] that controlled vast areas of the ] from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by ], after the fall of the ]. Its capital was ], but later emperors such as ] also held court at ], modern ] in Eastern ].<ref></ref>
Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son ]. There were ten Sunga rulers. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the ], ]s, the ], and possibly the ]s and ]s.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at ], and the renowned Great Stupa at ]. The Sunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of ] and was used to write the ].
The Sunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing ] at a time when some of the most important developments in ] thought were taking place.


Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at ] and the renowned Great Stupa at ]. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of ] and was used to write the ]. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising ] at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.
====Northwestern hybrid cultures====
], ] (205–171 BCE).]]
{{See also|Indo-Greek kingdom|Indo-Scythians|Indo-Parthian Kingdom|Indo-Sassanids}}
The northwestern hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the ''Indo-Greeks'', the ''Indo-Scythians'', the ''Indo-Parthians'', and the ''Indo-Sassinids''. The first of these, the ], was founded when the ] king ] invaded the region in 180 BCE, extending his rule over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other.


==== Satavahana Empire ====
The ] were a branch of the Indo-European ]s (]) who migrated from southern ], first into ], subsequently into ], ], ], and ], and finally into India. Their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE.
{{Main|Satavahana Empire}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| title = Satavahana Empire
| image1 = Sanchi Stupa No.2 Front view1.jpg
| caption1=], 1st century CE (]).
| image2 = Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg
|caption2=Indian ship on lead coin of ], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.
}}
The Śātavāhanas were based from ] in ] as well as ] (]) and Prathisthan (]) in ]. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the ], but declared independence with its decline.


The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from ] (a ]) to ]. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the ] to the southern tip of India.
Yet another kingdom, the ] (also known as ]), came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the ] ruler ], in the Gandhara region. The ] empire of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day Balochistan in Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian culture and the ] gave birth to a hybrid culture under the ].


They had to compete with the ] and then the ] of ] to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the ], ] and ]. In particular, their struggles with the ] went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty ] and ] were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the ] and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA113|title=Studies in Indian Coins|isbn=9788120829732|last1=Sircar|first1=D. C.|year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers}}</ref>
====Satavahana Dynasty====
{{Main|Satavahana Dynasty}}
The '''Śātavāhana Empire''' ({{indic|lang=te| indic=శాతవాహన సామ్రాజ్యము|trans=Śātavāhana Sāmrājyaṁ}}, ]: {{lang|mr|शालिवाहन}}, {{IAST|Śālivāhana}}<ref name=sal>{{cite book|last=Woolner|first=Alfred C.|title=Introduction to Prakrit|year=1928|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,|location=Delhi|isbn=9788120801899|pages=235 pages(see page:15)}}</ref>) was a royal Indian dynasty based from ] in ] as well as ] (]) and Prathisthan (]) in ]. The territory of the empire covered much of India from 230 BCE onward.
Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the ], but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage of ] and ] which resulted in Buddhist monuments from ] (a ]) to ]. The Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the ] to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with the ] and then the ] of ] to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like the ], ] and ]. In particular their struggles with the ] went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty ] and ] were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the ] and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.


====Kushan Empire==== ==== Trade and travels to India ====
{{Further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
{{Main|Kushan Empire}}
] and ], ancient trade routes that linked India with the ]; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the water routes are marked as blue.]]
The ] expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, ], about the middle of the 1st century CE. By the time of his grandson, ], (whose era is thought to have begun c. 127 CE), they had conquered most of northern India, at least as far as ] and ], in the middle Ganges Valley, and probably as far as the ].<ref>Sims-Williams and Cribb (1995–1996), pp. 175-176.</ref>
The ] in ] attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port ] had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000&nbsp;BCE, according to ]. ] traders arrived in ], ] as early as 562 BCE.<ref name="TheShengold">{{cite book|last=Schreiber|first=Mordecai|title=The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=Schreiber Publishing|location=Rockville, MD|isbn=978-1-887563-77-2|page=125}}</ref> The ] followed by trading along the ] and the ].{{sfn|Law|1978|p=164}} During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at ] ports such as ].<ref>, CSI, UNESCO.</ref> During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and ]s that became the maritime trading power of the ].


Indian merchants involved in spice trade took ] to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and ] became popular with the native inhabitants.{{sfn|Collingham|2006|p=245}} Buddhism entered China through the ] in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA506|title=The Medical Times and Gazette, Volume 1|year=1867|publisher=John Churchill|location=London|page=506}}</ref> Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.{{sfn|Donkin|2003|pp=67, 60–70}}
They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating; their last known great emperor being ] (c. 190-225 CE).


====Travels to India==== ==== Kushan Empire ====
{{Main|Eudoxus of Cyzicus}} {{Main|Kushan Empire}}
], ancient trade route that, linking India with the West, carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and India. The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.]]
According to ], later reported in ]'s '']'',<ref>, LacusCurtius.</ref> the ] of the ] was first sailed by Eudoxus of ] in 118 or 116 BC. Poseidonius said a shipwrecked sailor from India had been rescued in the Red Sea and taken to Ptolemy VIII in ].


{{multiple image
Strabo, whose ''Geography'' is the main surviving source of the story, was skeptical about its truth. Modern scholarship tends to consider it relatively credible. During the 2nd century BC Greek and Indian ships met to trade at ] ports such as ] (called ] by the Greeks).<ref>, CSI, UNESCO.</ref> Another Greek navigator, ], is sometimes credited with discovering the monsoon wind route to India. He is sometimes conjectured to have been part of Eudoxus's expeditions.<ref>For more on the establishment of direct sailing routes from Egypt to India, ancient knowledge of the monsoon winds, and details about Eudoxus and Hippalus, see: {{cite book |last= Hourani |first= George F. |title= Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times |year= 1995 |publisher= Princeton University Press |isbn= 0-691-00032-8 |pages= 24–26}}; online at </ref>
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = center
| title = Kushan Empire
| image1 = Map of the Kushan Empire.png
| caption1 = Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription
| image2 = Kanishka Buddha detail.jpg
| caption2 = Depiction of the ] in Kanishka's coinage, ], 2nd century CE
}}


The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, ], about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a ] tribe,<ref name="TCHAC">{{cite book|last1=Loewe|first1=Michael|last2=Shaughnessy|first2=Edward L.|author-link1=Michael Loewe|author-link2=Edward L. Shaughnessy|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC|year=1999|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|access-date=1 November 2013|pages=87–88}}</ref> one of five branches of the ] confederation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Runion|first=Meredith L.|title=The history of Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/historyafghanist00runi_653|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport|isbn=978-0-313-33798-7|page=|quote=The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.}}</ref><ref name=liu156>{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Xinrui|title=Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history|year=2001|publisher=Temple University Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-56639-832-9|page=156|editor=Adas, Michael}}</ref> By the time of his grandson, ], the empire spread to encompass much of ],<ref> Si-Yu-Ki, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref>
====Roman trade with India====
{{Main|Roman trade with India}}
] found at the ], ].]]
Roman trade with India started around 1 CE, during the reign of ] and following ] of ], which had been India's biggest trade partner in the West.


Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new ] majority.<ref>{{cite book|author=Grégoire Frumkin|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|year=1970|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rafi U. Samad|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93|year=2011|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-859-2|pages=93–}}</ref> Historian ] said about Kanishka:
The trade started by ] in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to ] (II.5.12.<ref>"At any rate, when ] was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the ] as far as ] and the frontiers of ], and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from ] to India, whereas formerly, under the ], only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12. </ref>), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set sail every year from ] on the ] to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the ] for their own coinage, that ] (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:


{{Blockquote|He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.<ref name="ReferenceC">Oxford History of India – Vincent Smith</ref>}}
{{quote|"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million ] from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?"|Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.<ref>"minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.</ref>}}


The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the ] through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and ]. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming ] and ], which reached its peak during Kushan rule.<ref name="ArtPal1986">{{cite book|author1=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|author2=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa|url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=–}}</ref> The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as '']''. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was ].<ref name="kushan">{{cite web|url=http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|publisher=kushan.org|title=The History of Pakistan: The Kushans|access-date=6 January 2017|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707162312/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Si-Yu-Ki, ''Buddhist Records of the Western World'', (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</ref>
The maritime (but not the overland) trade routes, harbours, and trade items are described in detail in the 1st century CE ].


==="Golden Age" (c. 320-650 CE)=== === Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE) ===


====Gupta Empire==== ==== Gupta Empire ====
]]]
{{Main|Gupta Empire}} {{Main|Gupta Empire}}
{{See also|Chandra Gupta I|Samudragupta|Chandra Gupta II|Kumaragupta I|Skandagupta}}
{{Further|Kalidasa|Aryabhata|Varahamihira|Vishnu Sharma|Vatsyayana}}
{{Further|Meghadūta|Abhijñānaśākuntala|Kumārasambhava|Panchatantra|Aryabhatiya|Indian numerals|Kama Sutra}} {{Further|Meghadūta|Abhijñānaśākuntala|Kumārasambhava|Panchatantra|Aryabhatiya|Indian numerals|Kama Sutra}}
], depicted on a coin of their son ], 335–380 CE.]]
Classical India refers to the period when much of the ] was reunited under the ] (c. 320–550 CE).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta <!-- BOT GENERATED TITLE -->|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwqOxl5F|archivedate=31 October 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtindia7.htm |title=India – Historical Setting – The Classical Age – Gupta and Harsha |publisher=Historymedren.about.com |date=2 November 2009 |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> This period has been called the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html |title=Gupta Dynasty, Golden Age Of India |publisher=Nupam.com |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> and was marked by extensive achievements in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |title=The Age of the Guptas and After |publisher=Wsu.edu |date=6 June 1999 |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> The ], a ], originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ore|first=Oystein |title=Number Theory and Its History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Sl_6BPp7S0AC&pg=PA19|year=1988|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-65620-5|page=19}}</ref> The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |title=Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref>


{{multiple image
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as ], ], ], ], and ] who made great advancements in many academic fields.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |title=The Gupta Empire of India &#124; Chandragupta I &#124; Samudragupta |publisher=Historybits.com |date=11 September 2001 |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, ], and ].
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 350
| caption_align = center
| title = Gupta Empire
| image1 = Map of the Gupta Empire.png
| caption1 = ] around 420&nbsp;CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.
| image2 = Mahabodhitemple.jpg
| caption2 = Current structure of the ] built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
}}


The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized ], which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers&nbsp;– ] (c. 319–335), ] (c. 335–376), and ] (c. 376–415)&nbsp;– brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |title=The Story of India - Photo Gallery |publisher=PBS |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the ], who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at ].<ref>Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172. The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|archive-date=30 March 2010}}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as ], ], ], ], and ]. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – ], ], and ] – brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html|title=The Story of India&nbsp;– Photo Gallery|publisher=PBS|access-date=16 May 2010}}</ref> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.<ref>Coedes, G. (1968) ''The Indianized States of Southeast Asia'' Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Introduction... ''The geographic area here called ''Farther India'' consists of Indonesia, or island Southeast Asia....''</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Philippe Groslier|title=The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia|url=https://archive.org/details/artofindochinain00gros|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Crown Publishers}}</ref> The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as '']''.
</ref> However, much of the ] and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.<ref>Early History of India, p 339, Dr V. A. Smith; See also Early Empire of Central Asia (1939), W. M. McGovern.</ref><ref>Ancient India, 2003, p 650, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 50, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.</ref>


The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the ], who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at ].<ref>Iaroslav Lebedynsky, ''Les Nomades'', p. 172.</ref> However, much of the southern India including ] were largely unaffected by these events.<ref>''Early History of India'', p. 339, Dr V.A. Smith; See also ''Early Empire of Central Asia'' (1939), W.M. McGovern.</ref><ref>''Ancient India'', 2003, p. 650, Dr V.D. Mahajan; ''History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj'', p. 50, Dr ], Dr A.D. Pusalkar.</ref>
====Vakataka Dynasty====
{{Main|Vakataka Dynasty}}
The Vākāṭaka Empire({{lang-mr|वाकाटक}}) was a royal Indian ] that originated from the ] in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of ] and ] in the north to the ] in the south as well as from the ] in the western to the edges of ] in the east. They were the most important successors of the ] in the ] and contemporaneous with the ] in northern India.


====Empire of Harsha==== ==== Vakataka Empire ====
{{Main|Empire of Harsha}} {{Main|Vakataka Empire}}
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the ] in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of ] and ] in the north to the ] in the south as well as from the ] in the western to the edges of ] in the east. They were the most important successors of the ] in the ], contemporaneous with the ] in northern India and succeeded by the ].
] Vardhana (]: हर्षवर्धन) (c. 590–647), commonly called '''Harsha''', was an Indian emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 from his capital ]. He was the son of ] and the younger brother of ], a king of ] in present-day ]. At the height of his power his kingdom spanned the ], ], ], ], ] and the entire ] north of the ].


The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of ] (a ]) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, ].<ref name=Madan>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year=1990|page=|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref><ref>The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted. "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.</ref>
After the downfall of the prior ] in the middle of the 6th century, ] reverted to small republics and small monarchical states ruled by Gupta rulers. Harsha was a convert to ].<ref><http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha></ref> He united the small republics from Punjab to central India, and their representatives crowned Harsha king at an assembly in April 606 giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 years old. Harsha belonged to Kanojia.<ref name=" RN Kundra & SS Bawa ">RN Kundra & SS Bawa, History of Ancient and Meddieval India</ref> He brought all of northern India under his control.<ref name="Historic Places p.507">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p.507</ref> The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a center of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide.<ref name="Historic Places p.507"/> The Chinese traveler Xuan Zang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favorable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.<ref name="Historic Places p.507"/>


{{Gallery|align=center
===Late-Classical period (c. 650-1100 CE)===
|width=180|File:AJANTA CAVES - C.SHELARE (2).jpg|], 30 ] Buddhist cave monument built under the ].
{{Main|Middle Kingdoms of India|Badami Chalukyas|Rashtrakuta|Eastern Ganga dynasty|Western Chalukyas|Rajput kingdoms|Vijayanagara Empire}}
|File:Ajanta Cave 26 Dagoba with praying monks.jpg|Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
] under ] c. 1030 C.E.]]
|File:Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg|Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
] Triangle''' was the focal point of ]s - the ]s of ], the ]s of ], and the ] of ].]]
|File:Ajanta Cave 17 frescoe.jpg|Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.
}}


==== Kamarupa Kingdom ====
The "Late-Classical Age"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} in India began after the end of the ]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} and the collapse of the ] in the 7th century CE,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} and ended with the fall of the ] in the south in the 16th century, due to pressure from Islamic invaders{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43}} to the north.
{{Main|Kamarupa Kingdom}}
] ruins.|alt=]]
]'s 4th-century ] mentions Kamarupa (])<ref>Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", p. 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</ref> and ] (Central Assam)<ref>Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005, "Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", p. 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</ref> as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present ] and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, ], parts of ] and, at times ] and parts of ].<ref>The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in ]) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" {{harv|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}.</ref>


Ruled by three dynasties ] (c. 350–650&nbsp;CE), ] (c. 655–900&nbsp;CE) and ] (c. 900–1100&nbsp;CE), from their capitals in present-day ] (]), Tezpur (]) and ] (]) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from ].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the reign of the Varman king, ] (c. 600–650&nbsp;CE), the Chinese traveller ] visited the ] and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255&nbsp;CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185&nbsp;CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255&nbsp;CE) dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|date=1990|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|edition=1st|location=Guwahati, India|publisher=Assam Publication Board|oclc=499315420}}</ref> The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the ] under ] of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the ].<ref>Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H.K., ''The Comprehensive History of Assam'', 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48</ref>
This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha of ] succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death.


==== Pallava Empire ====
North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the ] invasion, who followed their own religions such as ], and ]. ]'s invasion of Sindh(modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The ] records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at ]<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen&nbsp;– Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, 1 January 1980, ISBN 978-90-04-06117-0, pg. 4</ref>
{{Main|Pallava Empire}}] (]) at ] built by ].|alt=]]The ]s, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the ]s of the ], great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the ] of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skyknowledge.com/pallava.htm|title=Pallava script|date=30 December 2010|publisher=SkyKnowledge.com}}</ref> Early Pallavas had different connexions to ]n countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in ], ] and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic ] and sculpture style of ].<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, pp. 412–413</ref>


Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of ] (571–630 CE) and ] (630–668 CE) and dominated the ] and northern parts of the ] region until the end of the 9th century.<ref name="histoworldwhitney">{{cite book|title=History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present Day|publisher=World Publications Group|others=John Grayson Kirk|year=2005|isbn=978-1-57215-421-6|editor1-last=Hall|editor1-first=John Whitney|location=North Dighton, MA|page=246|chapter=India|orig-year=1988}}</ref>
In 7th century CE, ] formulated his school of ] philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism.<ref>Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', ed. Ian McGready, New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 198-201. ISBN 0-06-270085-5.</ref> His dialectical success against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian ], who reports that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.<ref>Arnold, Daniel Anderson. Buddhists, Brahmins, and Belief: Epistemology in South Asian Philosophy of religion, p. 4. Columbia University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-231-13281-7.</ref>


==== Kadamba Empire ====
Ronald Inden writes that by 8th century CE symbols of Hindu gods "replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship".<ref>Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship." In JF Richards, ed., ''Kingship and Authority in South Asia''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55</ref> Although Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's position within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline.<ref>Holt, John. ''The Buddhist Visnu''. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15</ref>
{{Main|Kadamba Empire}}
].|alt=]]


Kadambas originated from ], was founded by ] in 345&nbsp;CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of ] possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of ], a notable ruler with whom the kings of ] of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the ] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the ] and the ] empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (], ] and ]).
====Chalukya Empire====

==== Empire of Harsha ====
{{Main|Harsha|Pushyabhuti dynasty}}
] ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of ] and the younger brother of ], who were members of the ] and ruled ], in present-day ].
], c. 606–647 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261204|title=CNG: eAuction 329. India, Post-Gupta (Ganges Valley). Vardhanas of Thanesar and Kanauj. Harshavardhana. Circa AD 606–647. AR Drachm (13&nbsp;mm, 2.28 g, 1h).|website=cngcoins.com}}</ref>|alt=]]

After the downfall of the prior ] in the middle of the 6th century, ] reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.<ref name="RN Kundra & SS Bawa">RN Kundra & SS Bawa, History of Ancient and Medieval India</ref> At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until ], and South until ]; and eventually made ] (in present ]) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.<ref name="Historic Places p.507">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p. 507</ref>

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.<ref name="Historic Places p.507" /> During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from ] worship.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha|title=Harsha|year=2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Chinese traveller ] visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.<ref name="Historic Places p.507" /> His biography '']'' ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet ], describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied ''Dhavalagriha'' (White Mansion).<ref name=encystan>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sthanvishvara (historical region, India)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/566090/Sthanvishvara|access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harsha (Indian emperor)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha|access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref>

== Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200) ==
{{Main|Medieval India|Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|Tripartite Struggle}}
Early ] began after the end of the ] in the 6th century&nbsp;CE.<ref name="stein" /> This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the ] in the 7th century,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the ] in Northern India;{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43}} the beginning of Imperial ], leading to the ]; and the end of the ] with the death of ] in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the ] in the south around the 17th century.

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, ] sacrifices declined, and support for ], ] and ] expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined.<ref name="Sanderson, Alexis 2009 pages 41-43">{{cite book|last=Sanderson|first=Alexis|year=2009|chapter=The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period|editor-last=Einoo|editor-first=Shingo|title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism|location=Tokyo|publisher=Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo|series=Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series|volume=23|pages=41–43|isbn=978-4-7963-0188-6}}</ref> Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical ] formed in the ], and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.<ref>Sarao, ''Decline of Buddhism in India''</ref>

In the 7th century, ] formulated his school of ] philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.<ref>Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', ed. Ian McGready, New York: HarperCollins, 1995, pp. 198–201. {{ISBN|0-06-270085-5}}.</ref>

From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the ]s of Malwa, the ] of Bengal, and the ] of the Deccan. The ] would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the ], the ], the ], the ] of ], and the ], these states were some of the earliest ];<ref>{{cite book|title=India: The Ancient Past. A History of the Indian-Subcontinent from 7000 BC to AD 1200|first=Burjor|last=Avari|author-link=Burjor Avari|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-203-08850-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmB_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT204|pages=204–205|quote=Madhyadesha became the ambition of two particular clans among a tribal people in Rajasthan, known as Gurjara and Pratihara. They were both parts of a larger federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the Rajputs}}</ref> while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the ].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=93}} During this period, the ] emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the ], ], ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Vinod Chandra Srivastava|year=2008|title=History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D.|publisher=Concept|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjZVwYVmNcC&pg=PA857|page=857|isbn=978-81-8069-521-6}}</ref> in the style of ], and their capital Anhilwara (modern ]) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in {{circa}} 1000.

The ] emerged as a major power during the reign of ] and ] who successfully ] and ] in the 11th century.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p. 129">''The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India'' by Balaji Sadasivan p. 129</ref> ] (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri ], which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by ]. ] in his ] credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|year=2006|title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India|publisher=University of California Press|pages=241–242|isbn=978-0-520-93202-9}}</ref><ref>Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). </ref><ref>R. C. Mazumdar, ''Ancient India'', p. 383</ref>

The ] dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the ] rose to power; noted for the advancement of ], most notable being ] and ], as well as being patrons of art and literature.
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Martand Sun Temple Central shrine (6133772365).jpg|] Central shrine, dedicated to the deity ], and built by the third ruler of the ], ], in the 8th century
|File:Konark Temple Panorama2.jpg|] at ], ], built by ] (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
|File:Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg|] in the ] was built by the ]s
|File:PURI JAGANATHA TEMPLE, PURI, ORISSA, INDIA, ASIA.jpg|] at ], built by ] of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
}}

===Later Gupta dynasty===
{{Main|Later Gupta dynasty}}
]
The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the ] region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the ] as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317476818|page=26}}</ref> The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|publisher=New Age|year=1999|isbn=9788122411980|page=246}}</ref>

=== Chalukya Empire ===
{{Main|Chalukya dynasty}} {{Main|Chalukya dynasty}}
The ] ({{lang-kn|ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು}} {{IPA-kn|tʃaːɭukjə|}}) was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of ] and ] between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern ]) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the ] kingdom of ] and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of ]. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of ] and a golden age in the history of ]. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the ] and the ] rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The ] ruled large parts of southern and ] between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern ]) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the ] kingdom of ] and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of ]. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of ]. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the ] and the ]s. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from ] between 970 and 1190.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Galaganatha Temple, Pattadakal, Karnataka.jpg|Galaganatha Temple at ] (]) is an example of ]
|File:View of Bhutanatha temple in Badami during monsoon.jpg|] at ], next to a ], during the monsoon.
|File:Vishnu image inside cave number 3 in Badami.jpg|] image inside the ]. Example of ]
|File:Aihole Temple Karnataka.JPG|8th century Durga temple exterior view at ]. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments
}}

=== Rashtrakuta Empire ===
{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
Founded by ] around 753,{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=334}} the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at ] for almost two centuries.<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=19–20}}</ref> At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the ] in the north to ] in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=83, 85, 97}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians|last=Puttaswamy|first=T.K.|year=2012|chapter=Mahavira|pages=231|publisher=Elsevier Publications|place=London|isbn=978-0-12-397913-1}}</ref>

The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=380}} ] and ] were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote ], the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.<ref name="Chandra" />{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=380–381}} Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at ] in Karnataka.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.{{sfn|Daniélou|2003|p=170}} The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician ] had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.<ref>''The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry'' by William L. Hosch p. 105</ref> The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.<ref name="Chandra" />
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg|], is one of the largest ] ancient ]s located in ]
|File:Indra Sabha Ellora Temple Maharashtra India.jpg|] of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves
|File:Ellora cave10 002.jpg|Statue of the ] seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10).
|File:Ellora Caves 86.jpg|] ] ] with ] Matanga and ] Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves
}}


=== Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ===
====Northern India====
{{Main|Gurjara-Pratihara Empire}}
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the ]s of ], the ] of ], and the ] of the ]. During this period, Indian rulers in spite for internal struggle, were able to avert the Islamic conquest of India, for example: In ], alliance of Gurjar Emperor Nagabhata I of the Pratihara Dynasty with the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty and many small kingdoms defeated armies of ], thus maintaining kingdom of Hindu rulers till the end of millennium in India
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ]. ] defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|author-link=André Wink|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1990|title=Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World|volume=I|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283|pages=283–284}}</ref> Under ], the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son ], who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, ]. Under Bhoja and his successor ], the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of ] in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the ] in the south.{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=204}} The expansion triggered a ] with the ] and ] empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.


By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the ], the ], the ] of ], and the ]<ref name="Wink2002p285-286">{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|author-link=André Wink|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1990|title=Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World|volume=I|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283|pages=285–286}}</ref> and the ].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
The ] would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the ] states, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in ] in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One ]<ref>{{cite book |title=Early Chauhān dynasties: a study of Chauhān political history, Chauhān political institutions, and life in the Chauhān dominions, from 800 to 1316 A.D. |author=Dasharatha Sharma |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1975 |page=280 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ&q=bhandarkar++gurjara&dq=bhandarkar++gurjara&cd=6 |isbn=978-0-8426-0618-9 |quote=According to a number of scholars, the agnikula clas were originally Gurjaras}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 1999 |author=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |year=1834 |page=651 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=TPgAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA651 |quote=By that marriage Haarsha had contracted an alliance with the dominant race of the Gurjaras, of whom the chauhans were a prominent clan}}</ref> Rajput of the ] clan, ], was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic sultanates. ] (r. 724 CE–760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed by ]. He is known primarily for his successful battles against the Muslim and Tibetan advances into Kashmiri-dominated regions. ] in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia. He broke into the Uttarapatha and defeated the rebellious tribes of the Kambojas, Tukharas (Turks in Turkmenistan and Tocharians in Badakhshan), Bhautas (Tibetans in Baltistan and Tibet) and Daradas (Dards). His campaign then led him to subjugate the kingdoms of Pragjyotisha, Strirajya and the Uttarakurus.<ref>] (1147-1149); ].</ref><ref>Sheldon Pollock (2006). , pp. 241-242.</ref><ref>Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). </ref><ref>R.C. Mazumdar, Ancient India, Page 383</ref> The ] dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century.


{{Gallery|align=center
====Southern India====
|width=180|File:Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg|One of the four entrances of the ], built by the Pratihara emperor ].<ref name="Bajpai2006">{{cite book|author=K.D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref>
The ] ruled parts of southern and central India from ] in ] between 550 and 750, and then again from ] between 970 and 1190. The ]s of ] were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, the ] of ], ]s of ], ], and a southern branch of the ], divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century.
|File:Sculptures near Teli Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg|Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, ]
|File:Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside ], Gwalior Fort
|File:Baroli Temple Complex1.jpg|Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at ]. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure
}}


=== Gahadavala dynasty ===
The ] at its peak covered much of the ] and ]. ] conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka in the 11th century. ]'s navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma to Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php |title=The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty |publisher=En.articlesgratuits.com |date=22 August 2007 |accessdate=23 September 2009}}</ref> the ], the ] (Laccadive) islands, ], and the ] in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. Later during the middle period, the ] emerged in ], as well as the ] in parts of ] and ]. By 1343, last of these dynasties had ceased to exist, giving rise to the ].
{{Main|Gahadavala dynasty}}
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day ] of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at ].{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=38}}


===Karnat dynasty===
The ports of south India were engaged in the ] trade, chiefly involving spices, with the ] to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.<ref>Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.</ref><ref>. ]. Retrieved on 22 June 2007.</ref> Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu ] came into conflict with the Islamic ], and the clashing of the two systems caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign cultures that left lasting cultural influences on each other.
{{Main|Karnat dynasty}}
]]]
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in ] and ]. The dynasty was established by ], a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the ] language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the ] being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into ]. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sinha|first1=CPN|title=Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|date=1969|volume=31|pages=66–72|jstor=44138330}}</ref><ref name=Chakrabarty10>{{cite book|last1=Chakrabarty|first1=Dilip|title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=47–48|isbn=978-0-19-908832-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&dq=the+focus+of+the+history+of+bihar+in+the+eleventh+and+twelfth+century+is+on+Mithila&pg=PT115}}</ref>


=== Pala Empire ===
====Rashtrakuta Empire (8th-10th century)====
], a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193]]
{{Main|Rashtrakuta dynasty}}
Founded by ], the ] ruled from its capital at ] for almost two centuries.<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978 81 250 3226 7|pages=19–20}}</ref> At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions.<ref>General Studies History 4 Upsc by Reddy p. B.11</ref> The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.380</ref> ] and ] were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and wrote ], the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.<ref name="Chandra"/><ref name="ReferenceA">Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.380-381</ref> Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Arab traveler Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.<ref>A Brief History of India by Alain Daniélou p.170</ref> The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician ] lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him.<ref>The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry by William L. Hosch p.105</ref> The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the ]s.<ref name="Chandra"/>


====Pala Empire (8th-12th century)====
{{Main|Pala Empire}} {{Main|Pala Empire}}
The ] (Bengali: পাল সাম্রাজ্য Pal Samrajyô) flourished during the Classical period of India, and may be dated during 750–1174 CE. Founded by ],<ref>Epigraphia Indica, XXIV, p 43, Dr N. G. Majumdar</ref><ref name="Nitish2011">{{cite book | author=Nitish K. Sengupta | title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40 | date=1 January 2011 | publisher=Penguin Books India | isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 | pages=43–45 }}</ref><ref name="Biplab2005">{{cite book | author=Biplab Dasgupta | title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341 | date=1 January 2005 | publisher=Anthem Press | isbn=978-1-84331-029-7 | pages=341–}}</ref> it was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. Though the Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism,<ref>History of Buddhism in India, Translation by A Shiefner</ref> they also patronised ] and ].<ref name="ChandraPala">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Midieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978 81 250 3226 7|pages=13–15}}</ref> The ] ''Pala'', meaning "protector", was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The empire reached its peak under ] and ]. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.<ref name="ChandraPala"/> The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal in many ways.<ref name="Sailendra1999">{{cite book | author=Sailendra Nath Sen | title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA278 | date=1 January 1999 | publisher=New Age International | isbn=978-81-224-1198-0}}</ref> Dharmapala founded the ] and revived The Nalanda University,<ref name="ChandraPala"/> considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/><ref name="PNChopra2003">{{cite book | title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set) | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201 | year=2003 | editor = PN Chopra, BN Puri, MN Das and AC Pradhan | publisher=Sterling | isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 | pages=200–202}}</ref> The Palas also built many ]s. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of ] and ]. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala kingdom. The Arab merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in his memoirs.<ref name="ChandraPala"/> The Pala Empire was founded by ].<ref>'']'', XXIV, p. 43, Dr N.G. Majumdar</ref><ref name="Nitish2011">{{cite book|author=Nitish K. Sengupta|title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40|date=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341678-4|pages=43–45}}</ref><ref name="Biplab2005">{{cite book|author=Biplab Dasgupta|title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341|date=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-029-7|pages=341–}}</ref> It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of ]'s ].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=112, 119}}


The Palas were followers of the ] and ] schools of Buddhism,<ref>''History of Buddhism in India'', Translation by A Shiefner</ref> they also patronised ] and ].<ref name="ChandraPala">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=13–15}}</ref> The empire reached its peak under ] and ]. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.<ref name="ChandraPala" />
====Chola Empire (9th-13th century)====
{{Main|Chola dynasty}}
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen.<ref>History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D. by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia p.237</ref> They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.<ref>The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India by Balaji Sadasivan p.129</ref> Under ] and his successors ], ], ] and ] the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in ] and ].<ref name=kulke115>Kulke and Rothermund, p 115</ref><ref name=keay215>Keay, p 215</ref> The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the ] which ] undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of ] in ], as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<ref name="sastri158">], ''A History of South India'', p 158</ref>
They dominated the political affairs of Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.229</ref>] and his equally distinguished son ] gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.<ref>History of Asia by B.V. Rao p.297</ref> Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.<ref>Indian Civilization and Culture by Suhas Chatterjee p.417</ref>


The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}} Dharmapala founded the ] and revived Nalanda,<ref name="ChandraPala" /> considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}}<ref name="PNChopra2003">{{cite book|title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201|year=2003|editor1=PN Chopra|editor2=BN Puri|editor3=MN Das|editor4=AC Pradhan|publisher=Sterling|isbn=978-81-207-2503-4|pages=200–202}}</ref> The Palas also built many ]s. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and ]. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.
====Western Chalukya Empire====
{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
The ] (]:'''{{lang|kn|ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ}}''' ''paśchima chālukya sāmrājya'') ruled most of the ], ], between the 10th and 12th centuries.<ref name="Medieval India p.24">A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui Salma Ahmed,Salma Ahmed Farooqui p.24</ref> Vast areas between the ] in the north and ] in the south came under Chalukya control.<ref name="Medieval India p.24"/> During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the ], the ], the ] and the Southern ], were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.403-405</ref>
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the ] at ], the ] at Kuruvatti, the ] at Bagali and the ] at Itagi.<ref>World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Band 1 by ʻAlī Jāvīd p.132-134</ref> This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of ], and ] like the philosopher and statesman ] and the great mathematician ].<ref>History of Kannada Literature by E.P. Rice p.32</ref><ref>Bilhana by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar p.29</ref>


=== Cholas ===
==The Islamic period (c. 1200-1850 CE)==
{{Main|Chola dynasty|Chola Empire}}
{{Main|Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent|Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Bahmani Sultanate|Deccan Sultanates}}
] under ], {{circa}} 1030]]
{{See also|Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests|Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India}}
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen.<ref>''History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D.'' by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia p. 237</ref> They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p. 129" /> Under ] and his successors ], ], ] and ] the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=116}}<ref name=keay215>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=215}}: The Cholas were in fact the most successful dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.</ref> Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|title=The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty|publisher=En.articlesgratuits.com|date=22 August 2007|access-date=23 September 2009|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120085302/http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|archive-date=20 January 2010}}</ref> the ], the ] (Laccadive) islands, ], and the ]. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the ] which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of ] in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<ref name="sastri158">], ''A History of South India'', p. 158</ref>
] at ], has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine ].]]


They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.<ref>''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations'' by Tansen Sen p. 229</ref> Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.<ref>''History of Asia'' by B.V. Rao p. 297</ref> Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.<ref>''Indian Civilization and Culture'' by Suhas Chatterjee p. 417</ref>
===Early Islamic conquests (c.720-1100)===
After conquering Persia, the Arab ] incorporated parts of what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720. The Muslim rulers were keen to invade India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india_resource.tripod.com/sindh.html |title=History Sindh, Invasions, Arab contact, trade, civilisation, India, Pakistan, Islam |publisher=India_resource.tripod.com |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world.<ref>http://www.indianscience.org/essays/22-%20E--Gems%20&%20Minerals%20F.pdf</ref> In 712, Arab Muslim general ] conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan for the Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, {{convert|72|km|0|abbr=on}} north of modern ] in ], Pakistan. After several wars, the ] Rajas defeated the Arabs at the ], halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan.<ref></ref>


] is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/|title=Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam}}</ref> present in ], ] ]]
The north Indian Emperor Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty and the south Indian Emperor ] of the ] defeated the Arab invaders in the early 8th century. Many short-lived Islamic kingdoms (]ates) under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan) over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third ]ic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Mahmud of Ghazni of Afghanistan in the early 11th century raided mainly the north-western parts of the Indian sub-continent 17 times, but he did not seek to establish “permanent dominion” in those areas.<ref>Richard M. Eaton, ''Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States'', Part I, '''Frontline''', December 22, 2000, p.63.</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Big Temple-Temple.jpg|The granite ] of ], 1010
|File:Chariot detail, Airavatesvara, Tamil Nadu.jpg|Chariot detail at ] built by ] in the 12th century
|File:Back view of Raja gopuram.jpg|The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at ].
|File:Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams, Thanjavur.JPG|Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at ]
}}


=== Western Chalukya Empire ===
===Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)===
{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
] is the world's tallest brick ], commenced by ] of the ].]]
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the ], South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.<ref name="Medieval India p.24">A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p. 24</ref> Vast areas between the ] in the north and ] in the south came under Chalukya control.<ref name="Medieval India p.24" /> During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the ], the ], the ] and the ], were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.<ref>''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'' by Sailendra Nath Sen pp. 403–405</ref>

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the ] at ], the ] at Kuruvatti, the ] at Bagali, ] at Haveri, and the ] at Itagi.<ref>''World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India'', Band 1 by ʻAlī Jāvīd pp. 132–134</ref> This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of ], and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman ] and the great mathematician ].<ref>''History of Kannada Literature'' by E.P. Rice p. 32</ref><ref>''Bilhana'' by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar, p. 29</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Profile of the vimana (sanctum outerwall and tower) of the Siddhesvara temple at Haveri 2.JPG|Shrine outer wall and ''Dravida'' style superstructure ('']'') at ] at ]
|File:Ornate entrance to closed mantapa in Kalleshvara temple at Bagali.JPG|Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at ]
|File:Shrine wall frieze and relief in Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti.JPG|Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in ]
|File:Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district.JPG|Rear view showing lateral entrances of the ]
}}

== Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526) ==
{{Main|Medieval India}}
{{see also|Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent }}
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other dynasties and empires, built upon military technology of the Sultanate.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 53}} It turned from a turkic Monopoly to an ] Indo-Muslim polity <ref name="Ahmad1939" /><ref name="auto3"/><ref name="auto2"/><ref name="John Bowman 2000 267"/>

=== Delhi Sultanate ===
{{Main|Delhi Sultanate}} {{Main|Delhi Sultanate}}
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive ]s based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of ], ],<ref>{{cite book|title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765|author=]|year=2019|isbn=978-0520325128|publisher=University of California Press|page=105|language=en|quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan, illustrates the transition to an increasingly polycentric north India.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Orsini|first1=Francesca|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59OFoAEACAAJ&q=after+timur+left|title=After Timur Left: Culture and Circulation in Fifteenth-century North India|last2=Sheikh|first2=Samira|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-945066-4|language=en}}</ref> Turko-Indian<ref name=whunter>William Hunter (1903), {{Google books|5IQqAAAAYAAJ|A Brief History of the Indian Peoples|page=124}}, 23rd Edition, pp. 124–127</ref> and ] origins.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Modern Review|volume=109|author=Ramananda Chatterjee|publisher=]|year=1961|page=84|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgPSAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century.<ref name="delhi">, '']''</ref> In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html|title=Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India|last=Bartel|first=Nick|year=1999|website=The Travels of Ibn Battuta – A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612001214/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html|archive-date=12 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The subsequent ] of ] managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the ] conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become ]s.<ref name="delhi" />


In the 12th and 13th centuries, ] and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the ] in the former Hindu holdings.<ref></ref> The subsequent ] of ] managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient ], while the ] conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of ] (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic ]s with immigrants speaking ], ], and ] under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, ] (1236–1240). The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of ] was born during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, ] (1236–1240).


While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim, Indic muslim and Pashtun muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–52}} However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=re2000>Richard Eaton (2000), , Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp. 283–319</ref>
] defeats the ], Nasir Al-Din Mahmum Tughluq, in the winter of 1397-1398]]
A ] conqueror in Central Asia, ] (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the ] Dynasty in the north Indian city of ].<ref></ref> The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the ]s, scholars, and the "other Muslims"(artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III|author=Elliot & Dawson |pages=445–446 }}</ref> The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former.


The ] were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of ]. A major factor in their success was their Turkic ] slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–51}} By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 67}} the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran ] into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp = 50–51}}
===Regional powers===
For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th, the politics in the Northern India was dominated by the ] and in the Southern India by the ].<ref>{{cite book |last= Nilakanta Sastri|first= K.A.|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|origyear=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|page=239|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}</ref> However, there were other regional powers present as well. In the North, the ]s were a dominant force in the Western and Central India. Their power reached to the zenith under ] during whose time Rajput armies were constantly victorious against the Sultanate army.<ref>I. Austin, ''Mewar The World's Longest Serving Dynasty''</ref> In the South, the ] was the chief rival of the Vijaynagara and gave Vijayanagara tough days many a times.<ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</ref> It was established either by a Brahman convert or patronized by a Brahman and form that source it got the name ''Bahmani''.<ref>The Discovery of India, J.L.Nehru</ref> In the early 16th century, it collapsed and got split into five small ].<ref>''The Five Kingdoms of the Bahmani Sultanate''</ref> In the East, the ] remained a strong regional power to reckon with.<ref>Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 365–72.</ref>


A ] conqueror in Central Asia, ] (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the ] in the north Indian city of Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|title=Timur – conquest of India|website=Gardenvisit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090047/http://gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the ]s, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III|author=Elliot & Dawson|pages=445–446}}</ref> The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the ], it was but a shadow of the former.
====Hoysala Kingdom (12th-14th century)====
The ] was a prominent ] ] kingdom that ruled most of the modern-day state of ] between the 12th and the 14th centuries.<ref>The History of India herausgegeben by Kenneth Pletcher p.107</ref> The Hoysala rulers were originally from ] Karnataka, an elevated region in the ] range. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of ] and parts of western ] and ] in ] India. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts, encouraging literature to flourish in ] and ].


{{Gallery|align=center
====Pandyan Dynasty (second) (13th-14th century)====
|width=180|File:Qutb minar ruins.jpg|], a ], whose construction was begun by ], the first Sultan of Delhi.
The 13th century is the greatest period in the history of the ].<ref>Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia by Andrea L. Stanton,Edward Ramsamy,Peter J. Seybolt,Carolyn M. Elliott p.48</ref> Their power reached its zenith under ] in the middle of the 13th century. The Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the ] river to the northern half of Sri Lanka, which was invaded by Sundara Pandyan I in 1258 and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira Pandyan I from 1262–1264.
|File:Nizamuddin Dargah and Jamaat Khana Masjid, Delhi.jpg|]s of ]-saint ], and poet and musician ] in Delhi.
||
||
||
}}


====Vijayanagara Empire (14th-16th century)==== === Vijayanagara Empire ===
Main articles: ] {{Main|Vijayanagara Empire}}
] of the ] ]]
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by ] and his brother ] of ],<ref>''History of Classical Sanskrit Literature'': by M. Srinivasachariar p. 211</ref> which originated as a political heir of the ], ],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=28–29}} and the ].{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=239}} The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off ] by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the ]. The empire is named after its capital city of ], whose ruins surround present day ], now a ] in Karnataka, India.<ref>''South India'' by Amy Karafin, Anirban Mahapatra p. 32</ref>


In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of ], the ]s of Kondavidu, and the ] and had gained control over ] in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna ] in the north.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=170–171}}{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=317}}
The Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty.<ref>History of Classical Sanskrit Literature: by M. Srinivasachariar p.211</ref> The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.<ref>Decisive Battles India Lost (326 B. C. to 1803 A. D.) by Jaywant Joglekar p.69</ref> The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.<ref>South India by Amy Karafin,Anirban Mahapatra p.32</ref> The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician ] founded the famous ] in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like ], ] and ] in medieval south India.<ref>History of Science and Philosophy of Science by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p.91</ref> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<ref>Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526 by Satish Chandra p.188-189</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>Art History, Volume II: 1400-present by Boundless p.243</ref> The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of ] when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.<ref>World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia by Marshall Cavendish Corporation p.337</ref> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota(1565).
<!-- Deleted image removed: ] in 1700.]] -->
], built by the Mughals]]


], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the ] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref name="umbrella">The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to {{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=242}}</ref> The next ruler, ], emerged successful against the ] of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref name="aqueduct">From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=243}}).</ref> Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Bowman|editor-first=John Stewart|year=2000|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=271|isbn=0-231-11004-9}}</ref> ] succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=244}} He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the ] of ] and ] in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of ] at ] and ].<ref>From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire. ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=245}})</ref>{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=173}}<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p. 11)</ref>
===Mughal Empire===

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref name="democracy">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. ({{harvnb|Kamath|1980|p=189}})</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', "protector of cows and Brahmins") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' (''lit'', "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara|first=Phillip B.|last=Wagoner|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|date=November 1996|volume=55|issue=4|pages=851–880|doi=10.2307/2646526|jstor=2646526|s2cid=163090404}}</ref> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout ]s (worshippers of ]), but made grants to the ] order of ] with ] as their patron saint, and designated '']'' (an ] of Vishnu) as their emblem.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=188-189}} Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|page=50|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> The later ] and ] kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord ] (Vishnu) at ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|pages=41, 43|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<ref>{{cite book|last=Wagoner|first=Phillip B.|editor1-last=Fritz|editor1-first=John. M.|editor2-last=Michell|editor2-first=George|year=2001|chapter=Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas|title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|publisher=Marg Publications|page=14|isbn=81-85026-53-X}}</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the ] order (philosophy of dualism) of ] at ].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=189}}

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Ruins of Bala Krishna Temple Vijayanagara Hampi 1868 Edmund Lyon photo.jpg| Photograph of the ruins of the ] at ], now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868<ref>"The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built ] temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the ] Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief description .</ref>
|File:Elephant's stable or Gajashaale.JPG|Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/ele_stables.html|title=Vijayanagara Research Project::Elephant Stables|publisher=Vijayanagara.org|date=9 February 2014|access-date=21 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517222359/http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/Ele_Stables.html|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|File:Krishna Pushkarani - Hampi Ruins.jpg|Vijayanagara marketplace at ], along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
|File:The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg|Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi
}}

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician ] founded the famous ] in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like ], ] and ].<ref>''History of Science and Philosophy of Science'' by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p. 91</ref> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<ref>''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526)'' by Satish Chandra pp. 188–189</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>''Art History'', Volume II: 1400–present by Boundless p. 243</ref>

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the ] (1565). After the death of ] in the Battle of Talikota, ] started the ], moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=100–101}} Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=li–lii}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=101–115}} During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the ], ], ], ], ] and ]&nbsp;– all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}

=== Other kingdoms ===
{{Main|Guhila dynasty|Kingdom of Mewar}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=130|File:Tower of victory.jpg
|] (Tower of Victory).
|File:Temple in Rajasthan.jpg|Temple inside ]
|File:Man Singh Palace as viewed in the early hours of the morning.JPG|Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the ]
|File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|Chinese manuscript ''Tribute Giraffe with Attendant'', depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan ] of Bengal to the ] of ]
|File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education
|||title=}}

For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the ], and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the ] ruled much of Eastern ], ] and ] from the 12th to the 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=chero+dynasty&pg=PT71|title=Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn=9789352667697|last1=Singh|first1=Pradyuman|date=19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan}}</ref><ref name="Gopal2017">{{cite book|author=Surendra Gopal|title=Mapping Bihar: From Medieval to Modern Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCZFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-03416-6|pages=289–295}}</ref><ref name="SinghGaur2008">{{cite book|author1=Surinder Singh|author2=I. D. Gaur|title=Popular Literature and Pre-modern Societies in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC&pg=PA77|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1358-7|pages=77–}}</ref> The ] successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from ] in the north to ] in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="Mackenzie1990">{{cite book|author=Gordon Mackenzie|title=A manual of the Kistna district in the presidency of Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=430nAMZz8LwC&pg=PA10|year=1990|orig-year=First published 1883|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0544-2|pages=9–10, 224–}}</ref>

In the north, the ] remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The ] under ] defeated and captured ] with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the ]. The ] established themselves at ], and ] reconstructed the ].<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-93-80607-34-4|pages=116–117}}</ref> During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and ] expanded his kingdom at the expense of the ]ates of ] and ].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>''Lectures on Rajput history and culture'' by Dr. ]. Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 1970. {{ISBN|0-8426-0262-3}}.</ref> The next great Rajput ruler, ] of Mewar, became the principal player in ]. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the ] consolidated the new ] in India.<ref name="sen2" /> The Mewar dynasty under Maharana ] faced further defeat by Mughal emperor ], with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded ], which became the new capital of the ]. His son, ] of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the ].<ref name="Ap">John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67–115</ref>

In the south, the ] in the Deccan, born from a ] in 1347 against the ],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=41–42}} was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.<ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</ref> Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five ]; ] declared independence, followed by ] and ] in the same year; ] became independent in 1518 and ] in 1528.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Majumdar|editor-first=R. C.|editor-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1974|title=The Mughul Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/page/n6/mode/2up|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VII|location=Bombay|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|page=412}}</ref> Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=George|first2=Mark|last2=Zebrowski|title=Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|location=Cambridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju1XvgAACAAJ|isbn=0-521-56321-6|page=10}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=98}}

In the East, the ] remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under ], Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower ] in the north to the ] in the south.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Majumdar|editor1-first=R. C.|editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar|editor2-last=Pusalker|editor2-first=A. D.|editor3-last=Majumdar|editor3-first=A. K.|title=The Delhi Sultanate|url=https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate0006rcma/page/367/mode/1up|year=1980|orig-year=First published 1960|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VI|edition=3rd|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|oclc=664485|pages=367|quote= Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.}}</ref> In ], the ] was a major power for six centuries;<ref name="Sen1999">{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA305|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|page=305}}</ref><ref name="Saikia2004">{{cite book|author=]|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&pg=PA8|date=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-8616-2|page=8}}</ref> led by ], the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the ] during the ].<ref>{{Citation|last=Sarkar|first=J.N.|contribution=Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|volume=2|publisher=Assam Publication Board|place=Guwahati|year=1992|page=213}}</ref> Further east in Northeastern India was the ], which ruled from their seat of power at ] and developed a sophisticated Hindu ] culture.{{Sfn|Williams|2004|pp=83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela}}{{Sfn|Massey|2004|p=177}}{{Sfn|Devi|1990|pp=175–180}}

The ] was the dominant power of the ], with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a ] monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and ] elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of ], including ] in the southwest, ] in the southeast, and ] in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over ] and ] in the northeast and ] and ] in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct ] The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the ]. Its decline began with an ] by the ], followed by ] ] and disintegration into petty kingdoms.

=== Bhakti movement and Sikhism ===
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Buddhism in India|Sikhism}}
{{See also|History of Sikhism}}
The Bhakti movement refers to the ] devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} and later revolutionised in ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johar|first1=Surinder|title=Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted Personality|date=1999|publisher=MD Publications|isbn=978-81-7533-093-1|page=89}}</ref> It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}}
* The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as ] (Vishnu), ] (Shiva), ] (Shakti goddesses), and ].<ref>Lance Nelson (2007), ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'' (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8146-5856-7}}, pp. 562–563</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), , Encyclopædia Britannica; Himalayan Academy (2013)</ref> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic ] of ] to absolute ] of ].{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=2}}<ref name=novetzke>{{cite journal|last=Novetzke|first=Christian|s2cid=144065168|year=2007|title=Bhakti and Its Public|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=11|issue=3|pages=255–272|jstor=25691067|doi=10.1007/s11407-008-9049-9}}</ref>
* Sikhism is a ] and ] religion based on the spiritual teachings of ], the first Guru,<ref>Singh, Patwant (2000). ''The Sikhs''. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. p. 17. {{ISBN|0-375-40728-6}}.</ref> and the ten successive ]. After the death of the tenth Guru, ], the Sikh scripture, ], became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.<ref>Louis Fenech and WH McLeod (2014), ''Historical Dictionary of Sikhism'', 3rd Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-1-4422-3600-4}}, p. 17</ref><ref>William James (2011), ''God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in Kingston'', McGill Queens University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-3889-4}}, pp. 241–242</ref><ref name="granthfinalguru">{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Gurinder Singh|year=2001|title=The Making of Sikh Scripture|url=https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0-19-513024-9|page=}}</ref>
* ] flourished in the ]n kingdoms of ] in ], ] in ], and ] in ] of the Late medieval period.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Rang Ghar Sibsagar.jpg|], built by ] in ]'s capital ], is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent
|File: Chittorgarh fort.JPG| ] is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six ]
|File:Chaumukha Jain temple at Ranakpur in Aravalli range near Udaipur Rajasthan India.jpg|] was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of ]
|File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|] built by the ], has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine ]
}}

== Early modern period (1526–1858) ==
The ] of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the ], which inherited from the ]. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development of ];{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} the growth of ] and ] enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.<ref name="exeter">{{cite web|title=India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526–1857|website=]|url=http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/modules/hih1407/}}</ref> With the discovery of the ] in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITxsDwAAQBAJ&q=early+modern+India|title=Unwanted Neighbours: The Mughals, the Portuguese, and Their Frontier Zones|isbn=978-0-19-909368-7|last1=Flores|first1=Jorge|date=5 June 2018|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

=== Mughal Empire ===
{{Main|Mughal Empire}} {{Main|Mughal Empire}}
{{See also|Bengal Subah|Muslin trade in Bengal|Mughal architecture|Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal clothing|Mughal painting}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 450
| caption_align = center
| title = Mughal Empire
| image1 = Joppen1907India1700a.jpg
| caption1 = Map of the ] at its peak in year 1700
| image2 = Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg
| caption2 = ] is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India ] declaration, 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/|title=Taj Mahal|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
}}

In 1526, ] swept across the ] and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/|title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)|website=University of Calgary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170951/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/|archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> However, his son ] was defeated by the Afghan warrior ] in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to ]. After Sher Shah's death, his son ] and his Hindu general ] established secular rule in North India from ] until 1556, when ] ({{Reign|1556|1605}}), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the ] on 6 November 1556 after winning ]. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the '']'' tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local '']'', and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique ] and ].

Akbar married princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and had a son, ] ({{Reign|1605|1627}}).<ref>Jeroen Duindam (2015), , Cambridge University Press</ref> Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of ] ({{Reign|1628|1658}}) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the ] at Agra.

It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent history,<ref name="Turchin223">{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|author-link=Peter Turchin|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=https://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|journal=]|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|issn=1076-156X|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=14 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914101602/https://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the ],<ref name="maddison261">] (2003): '''', ], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, p. 261</ref> and the world leader in manufacturing,<ref name="Parthasarathi">{{Citation|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|page=2}}</ref> producing 25% of global industrial output.<ref name="williamson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=], David Clingingsmith|publisher=]|date=August 2005|access-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal ]s that intensified agricultural production,<ref name="richards">{{cite book|last=Richards|first=John F.|author-link=John F. Richards|year=1995|orig-year=First published 1993|title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA190|publisher=]|page=190|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref> and a relatively high degree of ].<ref name="eraly">{{cite book|author=]|year=2007|title=The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC&pg=PA5|publisher=Penguin Books|page=5|isbn=978-0-14-310262-5}}</ref>


{{Gallery|align=center|title=Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites
In 1526, ], a ] descendant of ] and ] from ] (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the ] and established the ], which at its zenith covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.<ref></ref> However, his son ] was defeated by the Afghan warrior ] in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to ]. After Sher Shah's death, his son ] and the Hindu king ], who had won 22 battles against Afghan rebels and forces of Akbar, from ] to ] and had established a secular ] rule in North India from ] till 1556. ]'s forces defeated and killed ] in the ] on 6 November 1556.
|width=180|File:Agra Fort 20180908 143826.jpg|] showing ] river and Taj Mahal in the background
|File:Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010.jpg|], near Agra, showing ], the complex built by ], the third Mughal emperor
|||File:Red Fort in Delhi 03-2016 img1.jpg|], Delhi, constructed in the year 1648
}}


The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of ] ({{Reign|1658|1707}}), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.<ref>] (2003): '''', ], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, pages 259–261</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850|author=Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy|publisher=]|year=2009|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|isbn=9789047429975}}</ref> Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the ''jizya'' tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,<ref name="Copland2013">{{cite book|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|title=A History of State and Religion in India|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45950-4|page=119|display-authors=3}}</ref> employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.<ref name="TruschkePT50">{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King|author=Audrey Truschke|author-link=Audrey Truschke|publisher=]|year=2017|pages=56, 58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|isbn=978-1-5036-0259-5}}</ref> However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The ] suffered a defeat in the ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Conflict and Cooperation in Anglo-Mughal Trade Relations during the Reign of Aurangzeb|first=Farhat|last=Hasan|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=34|issue=4|year=1991|pages=351–360|doi=10.1163/156852091X00058|jstor=3632456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690|first=James|last=Vaugn|journal=Britain and the World|volume=11|issue=1|date=September 2017}}</ref>
] submitting to Prince Khurram, later known as Mughal Emperor ], c. 1615.]]
The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from ] and ], causing the ] to be reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated during the ], also called the 1857 War of Independence. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as ] tried to establish complete Muslim dominance, and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general ] of the ] invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. In 1739, ], emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the ].<ref name="Dupuy711">Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy, ''The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History'', 4th Ed., (HarperCollinsPublishers, 1993), 711.</ref> After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the ].<ref></ref>


]
The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states&nbsp;– including the ] - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the '']'' tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local '']'', and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique ]. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after ], who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.
The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from ], ]s, ] and ]. In 1737, the Maratha general ] of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler ], overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.<ref name="Grewal2007">{{cite book|author=Royina Grewal|title=In the Shadow of the Taj: A Portrait of Agra|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-310265-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpFImGZdVEC&pg=PA220|page=220}}</ref> In 1739, ], emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dupuy, R. Ernest|name-list-style=and|author2=Trevor N. Dupuy|title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History|edition=4th|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers|year=1993|page=711}}</ref> After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the ].<ref>{{cite web|website=avalanchepress.com|title=Iran in the Age of the Raj|url=http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Shah.php|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; ] led the ] ] against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu ]s of Bengal, ] and ] revolted; and ] ], of ] Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the ].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=265}} The ] was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. ] took place under the Muslim provincial government based at ] to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the ],<ref>''A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy'', , Routledge, W. Owen Cole, Piara Singh Sambhi, 2005</ref> and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.<ref>], ''A History of the Sikhs'', Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129</ref>


===Maratha Empire=== === Maratha Empire ===
{{Main|Maratha Empire}} {{Main|Maratha Empire}}
{{Main|Maratha Empire|Kingdom of Mysore|Hyderabad State|Nawab of Bengal|Sikh Empire|Rajputs|Durrani Empire}} {{Further|Maratha Army|Maratha Navy|Battles involving the Maratha Empire}}
{{multiple image
{{Further|Shivaji|Tipu Sultan|Nizam|Nawab of Oudh|Ranjit Singh|Ahmad Shah Abdali}}
| perrow = 2
]''' ''(orange)'' was the last ] empire of India.]]
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| title = Maratha Empire
| image1 = India1760 1905.jpg
| caption1 = Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from ] to present-day ]
| image2 = Shaniwarwada gate.JPG
| caption2 = ] palace fort in ], the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818
}}


The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by ].<ref>''Shivaji and his Times'' (1919) – J.N. Sarkar</ref> However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to '']'' (chief minister) ]. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".<ref>'']'', Dr. K.K. Datta, p. 546</ref>
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as other small regional states (mostly late Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). There is no doubt that the single most important power to emerge in the long twilight of the Mughal dynasty was the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46984/Political-and-economic-decentralization-during-the-Mughal-decline#toc46986 |title=Regional states, c. 1700–1850 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref> The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by ], a ] aristocrat of the ] clan who was determined to establish ] (self-rule of ] people). By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the ] under the rule of the '']s'' (prime ministers). Gordon explains how the Maratha systematically took control over the Malwa plateau in 1720-1760. They started with annual raids, collecting ransom from villages and towns while the declining Mughal Empire retained nominal control. However, in 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, Delhi itself, and as a result, the Mughal emperor ceded Malwa to them. The Marathas continued ] against ], ], ] and ] to further extend their boundaries. They built an efficient system of public administration known for its attention to detail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that recovered from years of raids, up to levels previously enjoyed by the Mughals. The cornerstone of the Maratha rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so local tax collectors (kamavisdars) who advanced the Maratha ruler '(Peshwa)' a portion of their district revenues at interest.<ref>Stewart N. Gordon, "The Slow Conquest: Administrative Integration of Malwa into the Maratha Empire, 1720-1760," ''Modern Asian Studies,'' January 1977, 11#1 pp 1-40</ref> By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire subcontinent.<ref name="ansar"/> The north-western expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat(1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under ] Madhavrao I.<ref>N. G. Rathod, ''The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia'', (Sarup & Sons, 1994), 8:</ref> The defeat of Marathas by British in third ] brought end to the empire by 1820. The last ''peshwa'', ], was defeated by the British in the ].


In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending ] in India.<ref name="pearson">{{cite journal|last=Pearson|first=M.N.|date=February 1976|title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=35|issue=2|pages=221–235|doi=10.2307/2053980|jstor=2053980|s2cid=162482005}}</ref><ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=Delhi, the Capital of India|author=Capper, J.|date=1918|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1282-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28|page=28|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="google4">{{cite book|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|author=Sen, S.N.|date=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82|page=1941|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued ] against the Mughals, ], ] and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-12-01|title=Maratha empire {{!}} History, Definition, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maratha-Empire|access-date=2024-01-21|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting ] Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghazi|first=Mahmood Ahmad|author-link=Mahmood Ahmed Ghazi|year=2002|title=Islamic Renaissance in South Asia 1707–1867: The Role of Shāh Walī Allāh and His Successors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QO4KjzuJ52QC&q=vishwasrao+peshwa+throne+delhi&pg=PA129|publisher=Islamic Research Institute|pages=129–130|isbn=969-408-232-3}}</ref>
===Sikh Empire (North-west)===

] or '''''The Golden Temple''''' is culturally the most significant place of worship for the ].]]
The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from ] in the south,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|year=2005|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, 1707–1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA204|publisher=New Dawn Press|page=204|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|quote=The Maratha Governor of Trichinopoly}}</ref> to ] (modern-day ], ]<ref name="XWiACEwPR8C p.16">{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PR22|year=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|page=16}}</ref> {{#tag:ref|Many historians consider ] to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire<ref>Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bharatiya Itihasa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar – '']: The Maratha supremacy''</ref>|group=note}}) in the north, and ] in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the ] (1761). However, the ] within a decade under Peshwa ].<ref>{{cite book|author=N.G. Rathod|title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8|year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-52-9|page=8}}</ref>

Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the ]s of ], the ]s of ] and ], the ]s of ] and ], the ]s of ] and the ] of ] and ]. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in ], which led to the ], resulting in a Maratha victory.<ref name=Naravane2>{{Cite book|last=Naravane|first=M.S.|title=Battles of the Honorourable East India Company|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-81-313-0034-3|pages=63}}</ref> The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the ] and ]s (1805–1818).

=== Sikh Empire ===
{{Main|Sikh Empire}} {{Main|Sikh Empire}}
{{See also|History of Sikhism}} {{See also|Sikh architecture}}
The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the ], from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the ], under the leadership of ] (1780–1839).{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the ], was a political entity that governed the region of modern-day ]. The empire, based around the ], existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the ], under the leadership of ] (1780–1839) from an array of autonomous ] ]. He consolidated many parts of northern India into a kingdom. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh army that he trained and equipped to be the equal of a European force. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well qualified generals for his army. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his kingdom. This came in the face of the powerful British East India Company.<ref>Gulcharan Singh, "Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War," ''USI Journal,'' July 1981, Vol. 111 Issue 465, pp 184-192</ref><ref name="Grewal">{{cite book|last=Grewal|first=J. S.|title=The Sikh empire (1799–1849) |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1990|series=The New Cambridge History of India|volume=The Sikhs of the Punjab|chapter=Chapter 6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849)|url=http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521268844_CHOL9780521268844A008}}</ref> At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the ] in the west, to ] in the north, to ] in the south, running along Sutlej river to ] in the east. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The ] and ] marked the downfall of the ].

Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his ], trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the ]. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Gulcharan|date=July 1981|title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War|journal=USI Journal|volume=111|issue=465|pages=184–192}}</ref><ref name="Grewal">{{cite book|last=Grewal|first=J.S.|author-link=J. S. Grewal|year=1990|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|publisher=Cambridge University Press|series=The New Cambridge History of India|volume=II.3|pages=101, 103–104|isbn=978-0-521-26884-4|quote=Aggrandisement which made him the master of an empire ... the British recognized Ranjit Singh as the sole sovereign ruler of the Punjab and left him free to ... oust the Afghans from Multan and Kashmir ... Peshawar was taken over ... The real strength of Ranjit Singh's army lay in its infantry and artillery ... these new wings played an increasingly decisive role ... possessed 200 guns. Horse artillery was added in the 1820s ... nearly half of his army in terms of numbers consisted of men and officers trained on European lines ... In the expansion of Ranjit Singh's dominions ... vassalage proved to be nearly as important as the westernized wings of his army.}}</ref>

At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the ] in the west, to ] in the north, to ] in the south, running along Sutlej river to ] in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The ] and ] marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

=== Other kingdoms ===
]
The ] in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under ] and his son ] in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The ] ended in April 1787, following the finalising of ''treaty of Gajendragad'', in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the ] took place, where the Mysoreans used the ]. The ] (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the ].


Hyderabad was founded by the ] of ] in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself ] in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ga-pmgxsWwoC&q=Bajirao+I&pg=PA12|title=History Modern India|first=S. N.|last=Sen|date=15 August 2006|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122417746|via=Google Books}}</ref> However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British. ] became a princely state in British India in 1798.
===Other kingdoms===
There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to the British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the ].<ref name="ansar"> Cite: ''"Swarming up from the Himalayas, the Marathas now ruled from the Indus and Himalayas in the north to the south tip of the peninsula. They were either masters directly or they took tribute."''</ref> The rule of ] which established the ] in southern India in around 1400 CE by was interrupted by ] and his son ] in the later half of 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought a ] sometimes against the combined forces of the British and ], but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French.


The ] had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out ] from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, ], the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the ] by ]. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the ''Masnad'' (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.<ref name="sirajbanglaped2">{{cite book|last1=Chaudhury|first1=Sushil|last2=Mohsin|first2=KM|year=2012|chapter=Sirajuddaula|chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula|editor1-last=Islam|editor1-first=Sirajul|editor1-link=Sirajul Islam|editor2-last=Jamal|editor2-first=Ahmed A.|title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh|edition=Second|publisher=]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula|archive-date=14 June 2015|access-date=15 August 2018}}</ref> In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the ''Nizamat'' (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the ].<ref name="british2">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Vipul|date=2009|title=Longman History & Civics (Dual Government in Bengal)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75avUTXB11AC&pg=PA29|publisher=Pearson Education India|pages=29–|isbn=978-8131728888}}</ref><ref name="dualgovernment2">{{cite book|date=2009|title=Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnyaLNskRfEC&pg=PA11|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|pages=11–|isbn=978-81-7482-744-9}}</ref>
The ] had become the de facto rulers of ] following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried ] from 1741 to 1748 as a result of which Bengal became a vassal state of ].


In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The ] distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the ]s, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the ], and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha ] ruler of ] gave up the district of ] to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.<ref>{{Citation|title=A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present|first=Jeremy|last=Black|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-99039-8|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&q=9780275990398|page=78}}</ref> Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the ], and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The ] contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being ], ], ] and ].
Hyderabad was founded by the ] of ] in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself ] in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both ] and ] became ]s in British India in 1799 and 1798 respectively.


After the ] in 1846, under the terms of the ], the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja ] and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second largest princely state in British India, was created by the ].<ref>http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rai |first=Mridu |authorlink= |title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |location= |pages=27, 133 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x5azvT2hjW0C&printsec=frontcover&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0-691-11688-1}}</ref> After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many ] became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the ] in 1846, under the terms of the ], the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja ] and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf|title=Treaty of Amritsar|access-date=25 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826235201/http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf|archive-date=26 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rai|first=Mridu|title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004|pages=27, 133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5azvT2hjW0C|isbn=978-0-691-11688-4}}</ref> While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of ], ] and ] were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.


After the fall of the ], ] states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the ], where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA114|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-8424-568-4|pages=C-114|year=1988}}</ref> Around the 18th century, the ] was formed by Rajput rulers.<ref name="Schmidt2015">{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|date=20 May 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47681-8|pages=138–}}</ref>
Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was formed by ] rulers.


=== European exploration ===
==Beginning and establishment of Colonialism (c.1500-1850)==
{{Main|Colonial India|British Raj}} {{Main|Colonial India}}
]'s first voyage (1497–1499)p]]


In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under ] discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in ], ], ], and ]. The Portuguese instituted the ], where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.<ref name="Elbl2012p12">{{cite book|author=Glenn Ames|editor=Ivana Elbl|title=Portugal and its Empire, 1250–1800 (Collected Essays in Memory of Glenn J. Ames).: Portuguese Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hld-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|year=2012|publisher=Trent University Press|pages=12–15 with footnotes, context: 11–32}}</ref> Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Praval|first=K. C.|year=2009|orig-year=First published 1987|title=Indian Army after Independence|location=New Delhi|publisher=Lancer|page=214|isbn=978-1-935501-10-7}}</ref>
===Western explorers and traders (c.1500-1750)===
]


The next to arrive ], with their main base in ]. They established ports in ]. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the ] by the ] during the ]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M.O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 March 2016 }} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under ] successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in ], ], ] and ]. Goa became the main Portuguese base until it was ].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ''The Portuguese empire in Asia, 1500-1700: a political and economic history'' (2012)</ref>


The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of ] in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of ] and ], and the Portuguese colonies of ].<ref>{{Cite web|website=themaparchive.com|title=The British in India – The Map Archive|url=https://www.themaparchive.com/the-british-in-india/|access-date=2024-11-16|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Magedera|first=Ian H.|date=November 2010|title=Arrested Development: The Shape of ‘French India’ after the Treaties of Paris of 1763 and 1814|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369801X.2010.516092|journal=Interventions|language=en|volume=12|issue=3|pages=331–343|doi=10.1080/1369801X.2010.516092|issn=1369-801X}}</ref>
The next to arrive ], with their main base in Ceylon. The ]—who set up a trading post in the west coast port of ]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.indianchild.com/history_of_india.htm| title = Indian History&nbsp;– Important events: History of India. An overview| accessdate = 7 May 2007| work = History of India| publisher = Indianchild.com}}</ref> in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of ] and ], the Dutch port of ], and the Portuguese colonies of ], ].


===British Company rule in India (c.1750-1850)=== === East India Company rule in India ===
{{Main|East India Company|Company rule in India}} {{Main|East India Company|Company rule in India}}
{{multiple image
]
| perrow = 1/2
In 1617 the ] was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India.<ref>{{cite web
| total_width = 225
|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1617englandindies.html| title = The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 1617 A.D.| accessdate = 7 May 2007|date=June 1998
| caption_align = center
| work = Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE| publisher = Internet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall}} From: ], ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333–335.</ref> Gradually their increasing influence led the '']'' Mughal emperor ] to grant them ''dastaks'' or permits for duty-free trade in ] in 1717.<ref>{{cite web
| title = India under East India Company rule
|url=http://www.calcuttaweb.com/history.shtml| title = KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) : HISTORY | accessdate = 7 May 2007| publisher = Calcuttaweb.com}}</ref>
| image1 = India1765and1805b.jpg
| caption1 = India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink
| image2 = India1837to1857.jpg
| caption2 = India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories
}}


The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a ] in ] on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in ] in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the ] farther south, a second factory was established in ] on the southeastern coast. The islet of '']'' in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese ] not far from Surat, it was presented to ] as ], in his marriage to ]; Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established a ] in the ] delta. During this time other companies established by the ], ], ], and ] were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.
The ] ], the ''de facto'' ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits.This led to the ] on 23 June 1757, in which the ] of the East India Company, led by ], defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_cliveofindia.html| title = Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725-1774| accessdate = 7 May 2007| last = Rickard| first = J.| date = 1 November 2000| work = Military History Encyclopedia on the Web| publisher = historyofwar.org
}}</ref> This was combined with British victories over the French at ], ] and ] that, along with wider ], reduced French influence in India.The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the ] in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from ] Mughal Emperor ]; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHN%20PDF/Transformation%20from%20a%20Pre-Colonial%20-%20Om%20Prakash.pdf
| title = The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India
| accessdate = 7 May 2007| last = Prakash| first = Om| format = PDF| work = Global Economic History Network | publisher = Economic History Department, ]| pages = 3–40}}</ref> The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the ] which introduced a ]-like structure in Bengal, often with ]s set in place.


The company's victory under ] in the 1757 ] and another victory in the 1764 ] (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor ] to appoint it the '']'', or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and ]. The company thus became the ''de facto'' ruler of large areas of the ] by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The ] (1766–99) and the ] (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the ]. With the defeat of the ], no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.<ref>{{cite book|year=2004|orig-year=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne''|editor-first=Claude|editor-last=Markovits|title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA271|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=271–|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>
As a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic region of India.<ref>Lawrence James, ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (1997) pp 30-44</ref> The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; the ] (1766–1799) and later the ] (1772–1818) led to control of the vast regions of India. ] of ] first fell to ] and then to British after ] in 1826. ], ], and ] were annexed after the ] in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the ] to the ] of ] and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between ] and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the ] of 1814–16 and brought the defeated ] under British influence. In 1854, ] was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later.


The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the ] (comprising ], ], and the ]) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (] 1828) and ] (1843). ], ], and ] were annexed after the ] in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the ] (1850) to the ] of ] and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, ] was annexed along with the state of ] two years later.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}
After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General ] began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories.<ref name=ludden-expansion>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> This was achieved either by ]s between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the ] or ''native states'' of the Hindu ]s and the Muslim ]s.


{{Gallery|align=center
By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh also. Their policy was sometimes summed up as ], taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.<ref>H. V. Bowen, ''The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756-1833'' (2008)</ref>
|width=180 |File:Warren Hastings greyscale.jpg|], the first governor-general of ] who oversaw the company's territories in India
|File:India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg|Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of ], king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ] in ]) issued during ]
|File:Railway bridge bhor ghaut incline1855.jpg|Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay
||}}


The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's ] in return for limited internal ]. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up ''political'' underpinnings for its rule.<ref name="brown-p67">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=67}}</ref> The most important such support came from the '']s'' with Indian princes.<ref name="brown-p67" /> In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.<ref name="brown-p67" /> When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.<ref name="brown-68">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=68}}</ref>
==Modern period and independence (after c.1850)==


In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."<ref name="brown-68" /> Subsidiary alliances created the ] of the Hindu ]s and the Muslim ]s. Prominent among the princely states were ] (1791), ] (1794), ] (1795), ] (1798), ] (1799), ] (1815), ] (1819), ] and ] (1819), ] (1818),<ref name="ludden-expansion">{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> and ] (1833).
===The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences===
<!--The East India Company also concluded treaties with various Afghan rulers and with ] of the Punjab, to counterbalance Russia's support of ] plans in western ]. In 1839 the company's actions the ] (1839–42). However, as the British expanded their territory in India, so did Russia in Central Asia, with the taking of ] and ] in 1863 and 1868 respectively, thereby setting the stage for the ] of Central Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=135}}</ref>-->
{{Main|Indian rebellion of 1857 }}
] meets Maharaja ] of Jammu and Kashmir, 9 March 1860]]
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The rebels were disorganized, had differing goals, and were poorly equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside support or funding. They were brutally suppressed and the British government took control of the Company and eliminated many of the grievances that caused it. The government also was determined to keep full control so that no rebellion of such size would ever happen again.<ref>Christopher Hibbert, ''The Great Mutiny: India 1857'' (1980)</ref>


==== Indian indenture system ====
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to the ], which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the Company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the ] ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947-48.<ref>Wilhelm von Pochhammer, ''India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent'' (1981) ch 57</ref>
{{Main|Indian indenture system}}
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5&nbsp;million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large ] that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large ] and ] populations.


== Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947) ==
===British Raj (1858-1947)===
=== Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences ===
{{main|British Raj}}
{{Main|Indian Rebellion of 1857}}
]s under British suzerainty are in yellow.]]
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Rani of jhansi.jpg|], one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the ].
|File:Bahadur Shah II of India.jpg|] the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma.
|File:Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning - Project Gutenberg eText 16528.jpg|], the ] during the rebellion.
|File:Dalhousie.jpg|], the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the ].
}}


The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was ].<ref name="Saul David page 70">Saul David, p. 70, ''The Indian Mutiny'', Penguin Books 2003</ref> In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the ] and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as ] and the ] belonged to this group.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=172}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=91}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=92}}</ref>
====Reforms====
After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The ] came into being.<ref>"Law Commission of India&nbsp;– Early Beginnings"</ref> In education,] had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.<ref>Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India, Suresh Chandra Ghosh(1995)</ref> The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.<ref>Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914, I. D. Derbyshire(1987)</ref> The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports.<ref>Neil Charlesworth, British Rule and the Indian Economy, 1800-1914 (1981) pp 23-37</ref> However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.<ref>British Rule and Indian "Improvement",Economic History Review (Nov 1981), Peter Robb</ref>


After the outbreak of the mutiny in ], the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the ] and ] (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=177}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|2000|p=357}}</ref> However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly ], but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.<ref>Christopher Hibbert, ''The Great Mutiny: India 1857'' (1980)</ref>
In 1905, ] ] into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam," a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be for efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organized anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India ] consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The ] provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.<ref>S. A. Wolpert, ''Morley and India, 1906-1910,'' (1967)</ref> Several secio-religious organizations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the ] in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.<ref>Satya Narayan Mishra, "Muslim Backwardness and Birth of the Muslim League," ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society,'' January 2007, Vol. 55 Issue 1/2, pp 71-83</ref> The ] and ] (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the later always claimed it to be a "cultural" organization.<ref>''Democracy and Hindu nationalism'', Chetan Bhatt (2013)</ref> Sikhs founded the ] in 1920.<ref>Harjinder Singh Dilgeer. Shiromani Akali Dal (1920-2000). Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2001.</ref> However, the largest and oldest political party ], founded in 1885, is perceived to have attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.<ref>''The History of the Indian National Congress'', B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)</ref>
{{double image|right|Tagore3.jpg|150|Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg|150|] is Asia's first ] and composer of ]|] was a key figure in introducing ] and ] in Europe and USA,<ref name="Feuerstein">{{cite book
| last = Georg
| first = Feuerstein
| authorlink = Georg Feuerstein
| title = The Yoga Tradition
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| year = 2002
| page = 600
| isbn = 3-935001-06-1}}</ref> raising interfaith awareness and making ] a world religion.<ref name="clarke">{{cite book
| last = Clarke
| first = Peter Bernard
| title = New Religions in Global Perspective
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2006
| page = 209
| isbn = 0-7007-1185-6
}}</ref>}}


In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the ], which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.<ref>{{Citation|first=Wilhelm von|last=Pochhammer|title=India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent|publisher=Allied Publishers|year=1981|isbn=978-81-7764-715-0}}</ref>
====Famines====
During the British Raj, ], often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the ] in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died<ref name=mikedavis>Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1-85984-739-0 pg 7</ref> and the ] in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.<ref name=mikedavis>Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1-85984-739-0 pg 173</ref> The ] in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.<ref>{{Wayback |date=20090217172854 |url=http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html |title=Plague }}. World Health Organisation.</ref> Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the ], which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.<ref>. ''Peterson Institute for International Economics.''</ref>


===The Indian independence movement=== === British Raj (1858–1947) ===
{{Main|British Raj}}
{{Main|Indian independence movement|Pakistan Movement}}
{{multiple image
{{See also|Mahatma Gandhi|Indian independence activists}}
| perrow = 1/2
] and ], Bombay, 1944.]]
| total_width = 300
The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the ] that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area.
| caption_align = center
| title = British Raj
| image1 = British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg
| caption1 = The British Indian Empire in 1909. ] is shown in pink; the ]s in yellow.
| image2 = Victoriaterminus1903.JPG
| caption2 = A 1903 stereographic image of ] a ], in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and now a ].
}}


After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The ] came into being.<ref>"Law Commission of India&nbsp;– Early Beginnings"</ref> In education, ] had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Suresh Chandra Ghosh|year=1995|title=Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India|journal=History of Education|volume=24|issue=1|pages=17–25|doi=10.1080/0046760950240102}}</ref> The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|author=I.D. Derbyshire|year=1987|title=Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=21|issue=3|pages=521–545|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00009197|jstor=312641|s2cid=146480332}}</ref> Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robb|first=Peter|date=November 1981|title=British Rule and Indian 'Improvement'|journal=Economic History Review|volume=34|issue=4|pages=507–523|jstor=2595587|doi=10.2307/2595587}}</ref>
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British ], in 1861; the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large ], with the senior officers all British, and many of the troops from small minority groups such as ]s from Nepal and ]. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.<ref>Anil Chandra Banerjee, ''A Constitutional History of India 1600-1935'' (1978) p 171-3</ref>


In 1905, ] ] into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India ] consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The ] provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.<ref>S.A. Wolpert, ''Morley and India, 1906–1910'', (1967)</ref> Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the ] in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The ] and ] (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.<ref>''Democracy and Hindu nationalism'', Chetan Bhatt (2013)</ref> Sikhs founded the ] in 1920.<ref>Harjinder Singh Dilgeer. ''Shiromani Akali Dal (1920–2000)''. Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2001.</ref> However, the largest and oldest political party ], founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.<ref>''The History of the Indian National Congress'', B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)</ref>
From 1920 leaders such as ] began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; ] against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like ], ] and ]. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India and Pakistan in 15 August 1947.


{{Gallery|align=center
===Independence and partition (1947-present)===
|width=140|File:VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg|Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of ], the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became ] in 1876.
{{Main|Partition of India|History of the Republic of India|History of Pakistan|History of Bangladesh}}
|File:Sir R. Ross on steps of laboratory in Calcutta, 1898 Wellcome L0011943.jpg| ], left, at ] laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of ] by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second ] in 1902.
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although ] called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. The British, extremely weakened by the ], promised that they would leave and participated in the formation of an ]. The ]n territories gained independence in 1947, after being ] into the ] and ]. Following the controversial division of pre-partition ] and ], rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead.<ref name=symonds>{{cite book
|File:'552. Darjeeling. The loop No. 3, near Candaria', albumen print, c.1870.jpg| A ] train shown in 1870. The railway became a ] in 1999.
| last = Symonds | first = Richard | title = The Making of Pakistan | year = 1950 | publisher = ] | location = London | oclc = 1462689 | id = ASIN B0000CHMB1 | page = 74
|File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg|A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of ] as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, ] had been the capital of the Raj.
| quote = at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless
}}
}}</ref> Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).<ref name=symonds/> In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly ] and ], seceded from Pakistan.


==== Indian Renaissance ====
==Historiography==
{{Main|British Raj|Bengali Renaissance}}
] is the study of the history and methodology of the discipline of history. The term historiography also denotes a body of historical work on a specialized topic.<ref></ref> In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its the image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.<ref>Gyan Prakesh, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' (1990), 32 : pp 383-408 {{doi|10.1017/S0010417500016534}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Syed Ahmed Khan.jpg|Sir ] (1817–1898), the author of ''Causes of the Indian Mutiny'', was the founder of ], later the ]
|File:Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati 1858-1922 front-page-portrait.jpg|] (1858–1922) was a ], and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India
|File:Rabindranath Tagore unknown location.jpg|] (1861–1941) was a ] poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913
|File:Srinivasa Ramanujan - OPC - 2 (cleaned).jpg|] (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to ]
}}


The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by ], in the ] of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian ] describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian ] (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate ] (1861–1941).<ref>{{cite book|author=Nitish Sengupta|author-link=Nitish Sengupta|year=2001|title=History of the Bengali-speaking People|publisher=UBS Publishers' Distributors|pages=210–213|isbn=978-81-7476-355-6|quote=Producing in about three quarters of a century so many creative stalwarts in literature, art, music, social and religious reform and also trading and industry ... The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) ... On the whole, it remained an elitist movement restricted to Hindu ''bhadralok'' (gentry) and ''zamindars''.}}</ref> This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian ] as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kopf|first=David|author-link=David Kopf|date=December 1994|title=Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872|type=Book review|journal=American Historical Review|volume=99|issue=5|pages=1741–1742|doi=10.2307/2168519|jstor=2168519}}</ref>
The "Cambridge School," led by Anil Seal,<ref>Anil Seal,''The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century'' (1971)</ref> Gordon Johnson,<ref>Gordon Johnson, ''Provincial Politics and Indian Nationalism: Bombay and the Indian National Congress 1880-1915'' (2005)</ref> Richard Gordon, and David A. Washbrook,<ref>Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, eds. ''Religious Cultures in Early Modern India: New Perspectives'' (2011)</ref> downplays ideology.<ref>Aravind Ganachari, "Studies in Indian Historiography: 'The Cambridge School,'" ''Indica,'' March 2010, 47#1, pp 70-93</ref>


During this period, Bengal witnessed an ] awakening that is in some way similar to the ]. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the ] system, the ], and religion. One of the earliest ]s that emerged during this time was the ] movement, which espoused ] and ] as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sharma|first=Mayank|title=Essay on 'Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement'|date=January 2012|url=http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-date=14 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114224008/http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events.


==== Famines ====
More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history for the schools to support their demands for ] ("Hinduness") in Indian society.<ref>Latha Menon, "Coming to Terms with the Past: India," ''History Today,'' August 2004, 54#8 pp 28-30</ref>
{{Main|Famine in India|Timeline of major famines in India during British rule}}
{{See also|Demographics of India}}
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg|Map of famines in India during ] in year 1800–1885.
|File:Bellary Zilla,Great Famine of 1876–78..jpg|Engraving from '']'', October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in ], ], British India during the ]
|File:FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg|Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the ]
|File:OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg|A picture of orphans who survived the ], a man-made disaster by the British government
}}


During British East India Company and ] rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded ]. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,<ref name="davis" /> included the ] in which 6.1&nbsp;million to 10.3&nbsp;million people died,<ref>Davis, Mike. ''Late Victorian Holocausts''. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} p. 7</ref> the ] where between 1 and 10 million people died,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Datta|first=Rajat|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44927255|title=Society, economy, and the market : commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760-1800|date=2000|publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors|isbn=81-7304-341-8|location=New Delhi|pages=262, 266|oclc=44927255}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Amartya Sen|title=Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation|url=https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena|url-access=registration|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-828463-5|page=}}</ref> the ] in which 1.25 to 10&nbsp;million people died,<ref name="davis">Davis, Mike. ''Late Victorian Holocausts''. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} p. 173</ref> and the ] where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenough|first=Paul Robert|date=1982|title=Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-503082-2}}</ref> The ] in the mid-19th century killed 10&nbsp;million people in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html|title=Plague|access-date=5 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217172854/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html|archive-date=17 February 2009}}. World Health Organisation.</ref> Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200&nbsp;million in 1750,<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Population Growth and Land Use|publisher=]|year=1977|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|isbn=978-1-349-15775-4}}</ref> had reached 389&nbsp;million by 1941.<ref>. Peterson Institute for International Economics.</ref>
The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialization during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device for the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends.<ref>Amiya Kumar Bagchi, "Writing Indian History in the Marxist Mode in a Post-Soviet World," ''Indian Historical Review,'' January 1993, Vol. 20 Issue 1/2, pp 229-244,</ref>


==== World War I ====
The "subaltern school," was begun in the 1980s by ] and ].<ref>Gyan Prakash, "Subaltern studies as postcolonial criticism," ''American Historical Review,'' December 1994, 99#5 pp 1475-1500</ref> It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below," looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasizes caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school.<ref>John Roosa, "When the Subaltern Took the Postcolonial Turn," ''Journal of the Canadian Historical Association,'' 2006, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp 130-147</ref>
{{Main|Indian Army during World War I}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Hodsons Horse France 1917 IWM Q 2061.jpg|Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914
|File:2nd Indian Cav Div.jpg|Indian cavalry from the ] during the ] in 1916.
|File:Indian Army QF 3.7 inch gun battery Jerusalem 1917.jpg|Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with ]s, Jerusalem 1917
|File:India Gate in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg|India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the ] who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War
}}
During ], over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.<ref>{{harvnb|Pati|1996|p=31}}</ref> The Army saw early action on the ] at the ]. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mgtrust.org/ind1.htm|title=Participants from the Indian subcontinent in the First World War|website=Memorial Gates Trust|access-date=12 September 2009}}</ref>


Indian Army and ] fought during the ]'s ] in 1915, at ] in 1916 and to ] in 1917. India units ] and after the ] they became the major force in the ] during the ] and in the ]' advance to ] and on to ]. Other divisions remained in India guarding the ] and fulfilling internal security obligations.
==See also==

{{portal|History|India}}
One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,<ref name="CWrepdirect">{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub|title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008 Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220138/http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub|archive-date=26 September 2007}}</ref> and another 67,000 were wounded.{{sfn|Sumner|2001|p=7}} The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the ] are commemorated by the ].
* ]

* ]
==== World War II ====
{{Main|India in World War II}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Monty, wavvel, auk.jpg|General ] (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then ] ] (centre) and ] (left)
|File:Indian women training for air raid precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay, 1942. IND1492.jpg|Indian women training for ] (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942
|File:INDIAN TROOPS IN BURMA, 1944.jpg|Indian infantrymen of the ] about to go on patrol on the ] in Burma, 1944
|File:VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg|The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II
}}

British India officially declared war on ] in September 1939.<ref name="Kux">{{cite book|last=Kux|first=Dennis|title=India and the United States: estranged democracies, 1941–1991|publisher=Diane Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-8189-8|year=1992}}</ref> The British Raj, as part of the ], sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the ]. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the ].

Indians fought throughout the world, including in the ], ], against the Italians in ], in ] against the ], in the ]. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.

The ] denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the ] in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The ] rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.

] (also called ''Netaji'') broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the ];{{sfn|Müller|2009|p=55}} however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the ] (INA), after the ] under ] was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma.<ref name=Fayviiii>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=viii}}</ref> Bose also headed the ] (or ]), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.<ref name=Sarkar410>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1989|p=410}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=426}}</ref>

By 1942, neighbouring ] was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of ]. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the ] on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as ] in ]. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the ] in June and from ] on 3 July 1944.

The region of Bengal in British India ]. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1991|pp=97–98}}</ref> with most sources asserting that wartime ] policies exacerbated the crisis.<ref>{{harvtxt|Devereux|2000|p=6}}</ref>

=== Indian independence movement (1885–1947) ===
{{Main|Indian independence movement}}
{{See also|Indian independence activists|Pakistan Movement}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:1st INC1885.jpg|The first session of the ] in 1885. ], the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.<ref name="Marshall2001">{{citation|last=Marshall|first=P. J.|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire|url={{Google books|S2EXN8JTwAEC|page=PA179|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00254-7|page=179}} Quote: "The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress."</ref>
|||File:Bhagat Singh's execution Lahore Tribune Front page.jpg|Front page of the ''Tribune'' (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of ], ] and ] by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
|File:Nehru gandhi.jpg|From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of ] (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the ].<ref name=research>{{cite web|title=Information about the Indian National Congress|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress|website=open.ac.uk|publisher=Arts & Humanities Research council|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> Gandhi is shown here with ], later the first prime minister of India.
}}

The numbers of British in India were small,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/CensusOfIndia1931/Census+of+India+1931#page/n437/mode/2up|title=Census Of India 1931|website=archive.org|year=1933}}</ref> yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the ] that accounted for 48% of the area.<ref name="Markovits2004">{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude|title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=386–409|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>

One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76">''Modern India'', Bipin Chandra, p. 76</ref> leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76" /> "racial discriminations",<ref>''India Awakening and Bengal'', N.S. Bose, 1976, p. 237</ref> and "the revelation of India's past".<ref>''British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance'', Part–II, Dr. R.C. Majumdar, p. 466</ref>

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of ]s to advise the British ] in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large ], with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as ]s from Nepal and ].<ref name="business-standard">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-s-well-timed-diversification-of-army-helped-democracy-115032000283_1.html|newspaper=Business Standard|title='India's well-timed diversification of army helped democracy' &#124; Business Standard News|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.<ref>Anil Chandra Banerjee, ''A Constitutional History of India 1600–1935'' (1978) pp. 171–173</ref>

], an Indian nationalist leader, declared ] (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"<ref name="google6">{{cite book|title=Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Struggle for Swaraj|author1=R, B.S.|author2=Bakshi, S.R.|date=1990|publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-7041-262-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOjhv5g629UC|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like ] and ], who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the ] involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;<ref name="Chandra2016p128" /> the triumvirate were popularly known as ]. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like ] and ], on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.<ref name="Chandra2016p128">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Bipan|author1-link=Bipan Chandra|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Mridula|author2-link=Mridula Mukherjee|last3=Mukherjee|first3=Aditya|last4=Mahajan|first4=Sucheta|last5=Panikkar|first5=K.N.|author5-link=K. N. Panikkar|year=2016|orig-year=First published 1987|title=India's Struggle for Independence|edition=Revised and updated|publisher=Penguin Books|page=128|isbn=978-0-14-010781-4}}</ref>

The ] further increased the ]. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the ], which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.<ref>Albert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine. ''The Government of India''. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125</ref> In 1919, Colonel ] ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the ]; which led to the ] of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bond|first=Brian|date=October 1963|title=Amritsar 1919|magazine=History Today|volume=13|issue=10|pages=666–676}}</ref>

From 1920 leaders such as ] began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like ], ] and ]. However, ] against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the ], that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.

The ] gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an ].<ref name="QasmiRobb2017">{{cite book|last1=Qasmi|first1=Ali Usman|last2=Robb|first2=Megan Eaton|title=Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-62123-6|page=2|language=en}}</ref> Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates.<ref name="Haq1970">{{cite book|last1=Haq|first1=Mushir U.|title=Muslim politics in modern India, 1857–1947|date=1970|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|page=114|language=en|quote=This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference, an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India.}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed2016">{{cite web|last1=Ahmed|first1=Ishtiaq|title=The dissenters|url=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-dissenters/|work=]|language=en|date=27 May 2016|quote=However, the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India: the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family. He founded the Sindh People's Party in 1934, which later came to be known as 'Ittehad' or 'Unity Party'. ... Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League's demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis. Consequently, he established the Azad Muslim Conference. In its Delhi session held during April 27–30, 1940 some 1,400 delegates took part. They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class. The famous scholar of Indian Islam, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, feels that the delegates represented a 'majority of India's Muslims'. Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women also took part in the deliberations ... Shamsul Islam argues that the All-India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition. He calls such tactics of the Muslim League as a 'Reign of Terror'. He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India.}}</ref><ref name="Ali2017">{{cite web|last1=Ali|first1=Afsar|title=Partition of India and Patriotism of Indian Muslims|url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/15756-partition-of-india-and-patriotism-of-indian-muslims|work=]|language=en|date=17 July 2017}}</ref> The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion".<ref name="Ahmed2016" /><ref name="Ali2017" /> The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader ] also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.<ref name="Ali2017" />

==== After World War II (c. 1946–1947) ====
{{Quote box
|width = 15em
|border = 1px
|align = right
|bgcolor =#D0F0C0
|fontsize = 85%
|title_bg =
|title_fnt =
|title =
|quote="A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."
|salign = right
|source =&nbsp;— From, ], a speech given by ] to the ] on the eve of independence, 14 August 1947.<ref name="Great_Speeches">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/series/greatspeeches|title=Great speeches of the 20th century|work=The Guardian|date=8 February 2008}}</ref>
}}
In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with ] in ] in February 1946, followed by others in ], ], and ]. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and ] candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.

Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an ].

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader ] proclaimed 16 August 1946 as ], with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "]". The communal violence spread to ], ] in Bengal, ] in the ], and on to ] in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were ] by Muslims.
] grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.]]

== Independence and partition (1947–present) ==
{{Main|Partition of India|South Asia#Contemporary era|History of India (1947–present)|History of Pakistan (1947–present)|History of Bangladesh}}
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the ]. The partition of the ] and Bengal was based on such majorities.
||Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India (1947)
|File:Gandhi Badshah Khan in Bela Bihar 1947.jpg|Gandhi touring ], a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is ].
|File:Lord Mountbatten swears in Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime Minister of free India on Aug 15, 1947.jpg|] being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy ] at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947.
}}

In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the ] and ]. In particular, the partition of the ] and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.<ref>Philip Ziegler, ''Mountbatten''(1985) p. 401.</ref><ref name=symonds>{{cite book|last=Symonds|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Symonds (academic)|title=The Making of Pakistan|year=1950|publisher=Faber and Faber|location=London|oclc=1462689|page=74|quote=At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.}}</ref><ref name="Abid2014">{{cite web|last1=Abid|first1=Abdul Majeed|title=The forgotten massacre|url=https://nation.com.pk/29-Dec-2014/the-forgotten-massacre|website=The Nation|date=29 December 2014|quote=On the same dates , Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)}}</ref> Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12&nbsp;million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).<ref name=symonds /> In 1971, ], formerly ] and ], seceded from Pakistan.<ref name="Raghavan2013">{{cite book|author=Srinath Raghavan|title=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-73129-5}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=18em}}
* ]
* '']''
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* '']''
* ]
* ]
{{colend}}


==Notes== == References ==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}


==References== === Notes ===
{{Reflist|30em}} {{reflist|group=note}}


==Sources== === Citations ===
{{Reflist}}


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==Further reading== == Further reading ==


===General=== === General ===
* Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. ''From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India'' (2010) * ], ed. ''The Illustrated Cultural History of India'' (Oxford University Press, 2007)
* Buckland, C.E. ''Dictionary of Indian Biography'' (1906) 495pp
* ], ed. ''The Illustrated Cultural History of India'' (Oxford University Press, 2007)
* Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.
* Brown, Judith M. ''Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy'' (2nd ed. 1994)
* {{cite book|editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya|editor-given=D. P.|editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya|title=]|volume=15-volum + parts Set|place=Delhi|publisher=]}}
* ] (2003). ''A Brief History of India'' ISBN 0-89281-923-5
* Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970'' (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
* Fisher, Michael. ''An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century'' (Cambridge UP, 2018)
* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947 * Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947
* James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000) * James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000)
* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War'' (2015); also published as ''India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War'' .
* {{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |authorlink=John Keay |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location= New York City |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3aeQqmcXBhoC}}
* Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. ''A History of India.'' (4th ed 2004) * Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017)
* Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002) * Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002)
* ] : '']''. London, 1960. {{ISBN|0-333-90298-X}}
* ] (ed.) : '']'', Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).
* Mansingh, Surjit ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia * Mansingh, Surjit ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
* Markovits, Claude, ed. ''A History of Modern India, 1480–1950'' (2002) by a team of French scholars
* Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. ''A Concise History of Modern India'' (2006) * Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. ''A Concise History of Modern India'' (2006)
* Peers, Douglas M. ''India under Colonial Rule: 1700-1885'' (2006), 192pp * Peers, Douglas M. ''India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885'' (2006), 192pp
* Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' (2006)
* Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
* Rothermund, Dietmar. '''' (1993) * Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998); 5000 entries
* Rothermund, Dietmar. '''' (1993)
* ], '']'', (Oxford University Press, 2005) * ], '']'', (Oxford University Press, 2005)
* Sarkar, Sumit. ''Modern India, 1885-1947'' (2002) * Sarkar, Sumit. ''Modern India, 1885–1947'' (2002)
* {{cite book|last=Senior|first=R.C.|title=Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.|year=2006|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.|isbn=978-0-9709268-6-9}}
* Singhal, D.P. ''A History of the Indian People.'' (1983)
* Singhal, D.P. ''A History of the Indian People'' (1983)
* Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned * Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
* Spear, Percival. ''The History of India'' (1958 and later editions) * ]. ''A History of India''. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990)
* Stein, Burton. ''A History of India'' (1998) * Stein, Burton. ''A History of India'' (1998)
* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)
* Tapan, Habib, and Irfan Raychaudhuri, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of India; Volume 1: c. 1200 - c. 1750'' (1984), essays by scholars
* Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. ''Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India'' (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933
** Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c.1751-c.1970'' (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
* Tomlinson, B.R. ''The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)
* Tomlinson, B.R. ''The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947'' (1979)
* Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. ''Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India'' (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599-1933
* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (8th ed. 2008)
* Tomlinson, B. R. ''The Economy of Modern India, 1860-1970'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India.'' (6th ed. 1999)


===Historiography=== === Historiography ===
* {{cite book|last=Bannerjee|first= Dr. Gauranganath |title=India as known to the ancient world|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up|year=1921|publisher=Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, London}} * {{cite book|last=Bannerjee|first=Gauranganath|year=1921|title=India as known to the ancient world|url=https://archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up|location=London|publisher=Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press}}
* Bayly, C. A. "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years," ''Economic History Review,'' (November 1985), 38#4 pp 583–596, * {{cite journal|last1=Bayly|first1=C.A.|date=November 1985|title=State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=38|issue=4|pages=583–596|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x|jstor=2597191}}
* Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography," ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp 34+. * Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp.&nbsp;34–. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915152404/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478 |date=15 September 2011 }}
* Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (1867–77). ''''. London: Trübner and Co. * {{cite book|last1=Elliot|first1=Henry Miers|first2=John|last2=Dowson|year=1867|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|title=The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period|publisher=London: Trübner and Co.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825184925/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|archive-date=25 August 2009}}
* {{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Yasmin|chapter=Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War|editor1=Martin Gegner|editor2=Bart Ziino|title=The Heritage of War|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|pages=177–193}}
* {{cite book|last=Jain|first=M.|title=The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts|chapter=4|publisher=]: Ocean Books|year=2011}}
* {{cite book|last=Lal|first=Vinay|title=The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India|year=2003}}
* {{cite book|last=Palit|first=Chittabrata|title=Indian Historiography|year=2008}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Arvind Sharma|title=Hinduism and Its Sense of History|publisher=]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-566531-4|last=Sharma|first=Arvind}}
* {{cite book|first=E.|last=Sreedharan|title=A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000|year=2004}}
* {{cite book|last=Warder|first=A.K.|title=An introduction to Indian historiography|year=1972}}


===Primary=== === Primary ===
* ''The Imperial Gazetteer of India'' (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. * {{cite book|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India|date=1908–1931|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/}} Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.


==External links==
*
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/Society_and_Culture/History/}}


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Latest revision as of 04:04, 8 December 2024

This article is about the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent. For the post-1947 history of India, see History of India (1947–present). For the post-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent, see South Asia § Contemporary era. "Ancient India" and "Indian history" redirect here. For outline, see Outline of South Asian history.

Part of a series on the
History of India
Timeline
Prehistoric
Ancient
Classical
Early medieval
Late medieval
Early modern
Modern
Related articles
History of South Asia
South Asia (orthographic projection)
Outline
Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)
Madrasian culture
Soanian culture
Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)
Bhirrana culture (7570–6200 BC)
Mehrgarh culture (7000–3300 BC)
Edakkal culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC)
Ahar-Banas culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu culture (1600–750 BC)
Malwa culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Indus Valley Civilisation(3300–1300 BC)
 – Early Harappan culture(3300–2600 BC)
 – Mature Harappan culture(2600–1900 BC)
 – Late Harappan culture(1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(2000–500 BC)
 – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture(2000–1600 BC)
 – Swat culture(1600–500 BC)
Iron Age (1500–200 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(1500–500 BC)
 – Janapadas (1500–600 BC)
 – Black and Red ware culture(1300–1000 BC)
 – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
 – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)
Pradyota dynasty (799–684 BC)
Haryanka dynasty (684–424 BC)
Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC – AD 1600)
Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC)
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Ror Dynasty (450 BC – AD 489)
Shaishunaga dynasty (424–345 BC)
Nanda Empire (380–321 BC)
Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Sangam period (c. 300 BC – c. 300 AD)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206)
Satavahana Empire (230 BC – AD 220)
Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC – AD 300)
Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 – c. 50 BC)
Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – AD 10)
Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)
Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC – AD 400)
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21 – c. 130)
Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 )
Kushan Empire (AD 60–240)
Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350)
Nagas of Padmavati (210–340)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360)
Vakataka Empire (c. 250 – c. 500)
Kalabhras Empire (c. 250 – c. 600)
Gupta Empire (280–550)
Kadamba Empire (345–525)
Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000)
Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100)
Vishnukundina Empire (420–624)
Maitraka Empire (475–767)
Huna Kingdom (475–576)
Rai Kingdom (489–632)
Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500 – 1026)
Chalukya Empire (543–753)
Maukhari Empire (c. 550 – c. 700)
Harsha Empire (606–647)
Tibetan Empire (618–841)
Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Mallabhum kingdom (694–1947)
Bhauma-Kara Kingdom (736–916)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982)
Paramara Kingdom (800–1327)
Yadava Empire (850–1334)
Somavamshi Kingdom (882–1110)
Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244)
Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189)
Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320)
Hoysala Empire (1040–1347)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675–1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300)
Late medieval period (1206–1526)
Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186)
Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206)
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
 – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
 – Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
 – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
 – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
 – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Empire (1434–1541)
Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842)
Deccan sultanates (1490–1596)
 – Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)
 – Berar sultanate (1490–1574)
 – Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)
 – Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)
 – Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom (1515–1947)
Early modern period (1526–1858)
Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
Sur Empire (1540–1556)
Madurai Kingdom (1529–1736)
Thanjavur Kingdom (1532–1673)
Bhoi dynasty (1541–1804)
Bengal Subah (1576–1757)
Marava Kingdom (1600–1750)
Sikkim Kingdom (1642–1975)
Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799)
Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947)
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Colonial states (1510–1961)
Portuguese India (1510–1961)
Dutch India (1605–1825)
Danish India (1620–1869)
French India (1759–1954)
Company Raj (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)
National histories
Regional histories
Specialised histories
Indus Valley Civilisation, at peak phase (2600–1900 BCE)

Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World, flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified via the varna system, incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.

Indian cultural influence (Greater India)
Timeline of Indian history

Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire. India's Mauryan king Ashoka is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would form the Shunga Empire in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the north-west and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the Gupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Central Asian Turks who were Indianized. They ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century. It was ruled by multiple Turk, Afghan and Indian dynasties, including the Turco-Mongol Indianized Tughlaq Dynasty but declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa, Gujarat, and Bahmani Sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and the Rajput states, emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent. The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.

Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE)

This section contains too many or overly lengthy quotations. Please help summarize the quotations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource. (July 2021)
Mesolithic rock art at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, Madhya Pradesh, showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated, it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE, and some slightly earlier.A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India.Stone Age (6,000 BCE) carvings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Paleolithic

Main article: South Asian Stone Age

Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan. Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of fluvial sediments, have not been independently verified.

The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago. Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable. Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.

According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:

Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.

According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:

Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.

Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher, states:

Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago, although this interpretation is disputed. The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.

According to Tim Dyson:

Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.

Neolithic

Mehrgarh site in Beluchistan, Pakistan

Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:

The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilisation

Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation See also: List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites
Harappan Period at peak, c. 2600 - 1900 BCE

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive, and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.

The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India.

Mohenjo-daro (one of the largest Indus cities). View of the site's Great Bath, showing the surrounding urban layout.
Dholavira, a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, with stepwell steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs
Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at Lothal

Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an Indus script, the earliest of the ancient Indian scripts, which is presently undeciphered. This is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.

Three stamp seals and their impressions showing Indus script characters alongside animals: unicorn (left), bull (centre), and elephant (right); at Guimet Museum

After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture

Sinauli chariot, photograph of the Archaeological Survey of India.

During the 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.

Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)

See also: Iron Age in India

Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)

Main articles: Vedic period, Historical Vedic religion, and Vedas See also: Indo-Aryan peoples and Indo-Aryan migrations

Starting c. 1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic period is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.

The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.

Vedic society

An early 19th century manuscript in the Devanagari script of the Rigveda, originally transmitted orally

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab, and the upper Gangetic Plain. The Peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.

Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE, in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.

At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).

Sanskrit epics

Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana See also: List of historic Indian texts and List of Hindu texts
Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra.

The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period. The Mahabharata remains the longest single poem in the world. Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.

Janapadas

Main article: Janapada See also: Battle of the Ten Kings and List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes
Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of Āryāvarta with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India – Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha

The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala and Videha.

The Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda. The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the srauta ritual to uphold the social order. Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India. When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom. The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions from about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gārgī Vāchaknavī. The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas, across Northern India.

Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)

City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate

The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the Śramaṇa movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain. The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.

The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. "It was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar". In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.

Buddhism and Jainism

Main articles: Upanishads and Śramaṇa Further information: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, History of Jainism, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy Upanishads and Śramaṇa movementsA page of Isha Upanishad manuscript.Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.Gautama Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).

The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads, which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism, and are also known as the Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).

The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Śramaṇa religions.

Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement.

Mahajanapadas

Main article: Mahajanapadas
The Mahajanapadas were sixteen powerful polities located mainly within the Indo-Gangetic Plain

The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE featured the rise of the Mahajanapadas, sixteen powerful kingdoms and oligarchic republics in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the north-west to Bengal in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-Vindhyan region. Ancient Buddhist texts, like the Aṅguttara Nikāya, make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla, Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, and Vatsa. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Early "republics" or gaṇasaṅgha, such as Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis had republican governments. Gaṇasaṅghas, such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjika League, centred in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits.

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.

Early Magadha dynasties

Main articles: Magadha and Greater Magadha See also: Magadha period, Pradyota dynasty, Haryanka dynasty, and Shaishunaga dynasty Magadha dynastiesMagadha state c. 600 BCE, which is later expanded from its capital Rajagriha – under the Haryanka dynasty and the later Shishunaga dynasty.Indian warrior of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE, on the Tomb of Xerxes I.

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Realms") or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mention Magadha being ruled by the Pradyota dynasty and Haryanka dynasty (c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty (c. 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).

Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign

Main article: Nanda Empire See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great

The Nanda Empire (c. 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range. The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors. Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates).

Maurya Empire

Main article: Maurya Empire Maurya EmpireMaurya Empire at its peak under Ashoka the Great.Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda Empire.

Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I, founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.

The Mauryan carved door of Lomas Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves, c. 250 BCE

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India. Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the Indo-Mediterranean, into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.

The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of Northern Black Polished Ware. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.

Sangam period

Main articles: Sangam period, Sources of ancient Tamil history, Sangam literature, and Five Great Epics See also: Three Crowned Kings, Tamilakam, and List of Tamil monarchs Tamilakam, located at the tip of South India during the Sangam period, ruled by Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty.Ilango Adigal, author of Silappatikaram, one of the five great epics of Tamil literature.

During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty, and the Pandya dynasty ruled parts of southern India.

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.

Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while Tolkāppiyam, the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed. Also, during Sangam period, two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed. Ilango Adigal composed Silappatikaram, which is a non-religious work, that revolves around Kannagi, and Manimekalai, composed by Chithalai Chathanar, is a sequel to Silappatikaram, and tells the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bhikkhuni.

Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE)

Main article: Classical India

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India. The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the Golden Age of India, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India. During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.

Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)

Shunga Empire

Main article: Shunga Empire Shunga EmpireEast Gateway and Railings, Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BCE.Shunga art Ancient vina, 1st century BCE.Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.

The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar.

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated; inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.

Satavahana Empire

Main article: Satavahana Empire Satavahana EmpireSanchi Stupa Two and Southern Gateway, 1st century CE (UNESCO World Heritage Site).Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline.

The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.

They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.

Trade and travels to India

Further information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the water routes are marked as blue.

The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port Muziris had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to Sumerian records. Jewish traders arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE. The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes. During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden. During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea.

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants. Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE. Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.

Kushan Empire

Main article: Kushan Empire Kushan EmpireKushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscriptionDepiction of the Buddha in Kanishka's coinage, Mathura art, 2nd century CE

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a Tocharian speaking tribe, one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan, and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority. Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:

He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule. The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax Kushana. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.

Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)

Gupta Empire

Main article: Gupta Empire Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra Gupta EmpireGupta Empire around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.Current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.

The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions. The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta.

The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at Bamiyan. However, much of the southern India including Deccan were largely unaffected by these events.

Vakataka Empire

Main article: Vakataka Empire

The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.

The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.

  • Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas. Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.
  • Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves. Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
  • Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves. Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
  • Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves. Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.

Kamarupa Kingdom

Main article: Kamarupa Kingdom
Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at Madan Kamdev ruins.

Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam) and Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.

Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties. The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.

Pallava Empire

Main article: Pallava Empire
Shore Temple (UNESCO World Heritage Site) at Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman II.

The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called Grantha. Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.

Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.

Kadamba Empire

Main article: Kadamba Empire
Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli.

Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal).

Empire of Harsha

Main articles: Harsha and Pushyabhuti dynasty

Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana.

Coin of Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647 CE.

After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja. At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors. During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya worship. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity. His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).

Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200)

Main articles: Medieval India, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent, and Tripartite Struggle

Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE. This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century, and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India; the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and support for Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined. Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical Hinduism formed in the Hindu synthesis, and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.

In the 7th century, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.

From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand, the Kingdom of Dahala, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Kingdom of Sambhar, these states were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms; while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas. During this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki vav in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in c. 1000.

The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century. Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.

The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.

Later Gupta dynasty

Main article: Later Gupta dynasty
Map of the Later Guptas

The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the Magadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the imperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families. The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.

Chalukya Empire

Main article: Chalukya dynasty

The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada Rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.

Rashtrakuta Empire

Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire

Founded by Dantidurga around 753, the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries. At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.

The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism. Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world. The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians. The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

Main article: Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Umayyad campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the Narmada River in the south. The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.

By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Kingdom of Sambhar and the Kingdom of Dahala.

  • One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja. One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.
  • Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort
  • Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort
  • Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure

Gahadavala dynasty

Main article: Gahadavala dynasty

Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi.

Karnat dynasty

Main article: Karnat dynasty
Pillar from the Karnat capital of Simraungadh

In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in Darbhanga and Simraongadh. The dynasty was established by Nanyadeva, a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the Maithili language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the Varna Ratnakara being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into Nepal. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Pala Empire

Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193
Main article: Pala Empire

The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.

The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism, they also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire. The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.

Cholas

Main articles: Chola dynasty and Chola Empire
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola, c. 1030

Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.

They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire. Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.

Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple present in Tamil Nadu, India

Western Chalukya Empire

Main article: Western Chalukya Empire

The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.

Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526)

Main article: Medieval India See also: Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent

The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other dynasties and empires, built upon military technology of the Sultanate. It turned from a turkic Monopoly to an Indianized Indo-Muslim polity

Delhi Sultanate

Main article: Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of Turkic, Indic, Turko-Indian and Pashtun origins. It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings. The subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.

The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240).

While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim, Indic muslim and Pashtun muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society. However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.

The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them. By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.

A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Lodi dynasty, it was but a shadow of the former.

Vijayanagara Empire

Main article: Vijayanagara Empire
Map of the Sangama dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire, and the Pandyan Empire. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.

Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation. Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show. The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress. The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem. Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.

  • Photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868 Photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868
  • Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants. Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.
  • Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple. Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
  • Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.

Other kingdoms

Main articles: Guhila dynasty and Kingdom of Mewar
  • Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory). Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory).
  • Temple inside Chittorgarh fort Temple inside Chittorgarh fort
  • Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort
  • Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China
  • Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education

For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from the 12th to the 18th centuries. The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.

In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort. During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat. The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.

In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, born from a rebellion in 1347 against the Tughlaq dynasty, was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them. Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five Deccan sultanates; Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528. Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.

In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south. In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries; led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts. Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.

The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and Bengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal. Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.

Bhakti movement and Sikhism

Main articles: Bhakti movement, Buddhism in India, and Sikhism See also: History of Sikhism

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism and later revolutionised in Sikhism. It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.

Early modern period (1526–1858)

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, which inherited from the Timurid Renaissance. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development of Indo-Islamic architecture; the growth of Marathas and Sikhs enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire. With the discovery of the Cape route in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.

Mughal Empire

Main article: Mughal Empire See also: Bengal Subah, Muslin trade in Bengal, Mughal architecture, Army of the Mughal Empire, Mughal clothing, and Mughal painting Mughal EmpireMap of the Mughal Empire at its peak in year 1700Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India UNESCO World Heritage Site declaration, 1983.

In 1526, Babur swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia. However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu general Hemu Vikramaditya established secular rule in North India from Delhi until 1556, when Akbar (r. 1556–1605), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556 after winning Battle of Delhi. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture.

Akbar married princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and had a son, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627). Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra.

It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent history, and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the world economy, and the world leader in manufacturing, producing 25% of global industrial output. The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production, and a relatively high degree of urbanisation.

Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy. Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed, employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion. However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The English East India Company suffered a defeat in the Anglo-Mughal War.

18th-century political formation in India

The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas, Rajputs, Jats and Afghans. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the Peacock Throne. Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted; and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the Panna State. The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara, and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.

Maratha Empire

Main article: Maratha Empire Further information: Maratha Army, Maratha Navy, and Battles involving the Maratha Empire Maratha EmpireMaratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from South India to present-day PakistanShaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818

The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji. However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa (chief minister) Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".

In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Mughal rule in India. In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent. The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.

The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan ) in the north, and Bengal in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.

Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory. The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–1818).

Sikh Empire

Main article: Sikh Empire See also: Sikh architecture

The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the Punjab, from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839).

Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his Sikh Khalsa Army, trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.

At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The First Anglo-Sikh War and Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

Other kingdoms

Territories of India in 1763

The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the finalising of treaty of Gajendragad, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used the Mysorean rockets. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).

Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed. However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British. Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798.

The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal. In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the British East India Company.

In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.

After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the Dogra dynasty. While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces. Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.

European exploration

Main article: Colonial India
The route followed in Vasco da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499)p

In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Velha Goa, Damaon, Dio island, and Bombay. The Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition, where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned. Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was annexed by India in 1961.

The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. They established ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.

The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.

East India Company rule in India

Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India India under East India Company ruleIndia in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pinkIndia in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories

The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in Surat in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern coast. The islet of Bom Bahia in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese outpost not far from Surat, it was presented to Charles II of England as dowry, in his marriage to Catherine of Braganza; Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established a trade post in the River Ganges delta. During this time other companies established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.

The company's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764 Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint it the diwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.

The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828) and Sindh (1843). Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, Berar was annexed along with the state of Oudh two years later.

  • Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the company's territories in India Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the company's territories in India
  • Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ashrafi in Urdu) issued during Company rule in India Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ashrafi in Urdu) issued during Company rule in India
  • Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay

The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule. The most important such support came from the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes. In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India. When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.

In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor." Subsidiary alliances created the Princely States of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Prominent among the princely states were Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Cutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818), and Bahawalpur (1833).

Indian indenture system

Main article: Indian indenture system

The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large Indian diaspora that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African populations.

Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947)

Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences

Main article: Indian Rebellion of 1857

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was Mangal Pandey. In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group.

After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence. However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly Princely states, but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.

In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.

British Raj (1858–1947)

Main article: British Raj British RajThe British Indian Empire in 1909. British India is shown in pink; the princely states in yellow.A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus a terminal train station, in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into being. In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated. The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.

In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government. Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation. Sikhs founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920. However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.

Indian Renaissance

Main articles: British Raj and Bengali Renaissance

The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by Bengali Hindus, in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."

During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion. One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus. It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.

Famines

Main articles: Famine in India and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule See also: Demographics of India

During British East India Company and British Crown rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded famines. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government, included the Great Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died, the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people died, the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died, and the Bengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died. The Third plague pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India. Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.

World War I

Main article: Indian Army during World War I

During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men. The Army saw early action on the Western Front at the First Battle of Ypres. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.

Indian Army and Imperial Service Troops fought during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign's defence of the Suez Canal in 1915, at Romani in 1916 and to Jerusalem in 1917. India units occupied the Jordan Valley and after the German spring offensive they became the major force in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Battle of Megiddo and in the Desert Mounted Corps' advance to Damascus and on to Aleppo. Other divisions remained in India guarding the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security obligations.

One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died, and another 67,000 were wounded. The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate.

World War II

Main article: India in World War II

British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939. The British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theatre.

Indians fought throughout the world, including in the European theatre against Germany, in North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East Africa, in the Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.

The Indian National Congress denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.

Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the Indian Legion; however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the Indian National Army (INA), after the First Indian National Army under Mohan Singh was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India (or Azad Hind), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.

By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.

The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made", with most sources asserting that wartime colonial policies exacerbated the crisis.

Indian independence movement (1885–1947)

Main article: Indian independence movement See also: Indian independence activists and Pakistan Movement
  • The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.
  • Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement. Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
  • From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India. From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India.

The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for 48% of the area.

One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism, leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests", "racial discriminations", and "the revelation of India's past".

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.

The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian independence. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; which led to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.

From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan Republican Association, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.

The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an independent and united India. Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates. The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.

After World War II (c. 1946–1947)

"A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."

 — From, Tryst with destiny, a speech given by Jawaharlal Nehru to the Constituent Assembly of India on the eve of independence, 14 August 1947.

In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.

Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim government.

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946". The communal violence spread to Bihar, Noakhali in Bengal, Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces, and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.

Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.

Independence and partition (1947–present)

Main articles: Partition of India, South Asia § Contemporary era, History of India (1947–present), History of Pakistan (1947–present), and History of Bangladesh

In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. In particular, the partition of the Punjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies. Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively). In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.

See also

References

Notes

  1. The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.
  2. Many historians consider Attock to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire

Citations

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Sources

Printed sources

Further reading

General

  • Basham, A.L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of India (Oxford University Press, 2007)
  • Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906) 495pp full text
  • Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.
  • Chattopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. 15-volum + parts Set. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
  • Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
  • Fisher, Michael. An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge UP, 2018)
  • Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007), 890pp; since 1947
  • James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) online
  • Khan, Yasmin. The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War (2015); also published as India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War.
  • Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017) excerpt
  • Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) excerpt and text search
  • Majumdar, R.C. : An Advanced History of India. London, 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
  • Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) : The History and Culture of the Indian People, Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).
  • Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
  • Markovits, Claude, ed. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 (2002) by a team of French scholars
  • Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India (2006)
  • Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885 (2006), 192pp
  • Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) excerpt
  • Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998); 5000 entries excerpt
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
  • Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005)
  • Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002)
  • Senior, R.C. (2006). Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9709268-6-9.
  • Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People (1983)
  • Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
  • Spear, Percival. A History of India. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990)
  • Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998)
  • Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) excerpt and text search
  • Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search
  • Tomlinson, B.R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
  • Tomlinson, B.R. The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947 (1979) online
  • Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India (8th ed. 2008) online 7th edition

Historiography

  • Bannerjee, Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the ancient world. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press.
  • Bayly, C.A. (November 1985). "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years". The Economic History Review. 38 (4): 583–596. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x. JSTOR 2597191.
  • Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", History Today 57#9 (2007) pp. 34–. online Archived 15 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  • Elliot, Henry Miers; Dowson, John (1867). The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner and Co. Archived from the original on 25 August 2009.
  • Kahn, Yasmin (2011). "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War". In Martin Gegner; Bart Ziino (eds.). The Heritage of War. Routledge. pp. 177–193.
  • Jain, M. (2011). "4". The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts. Delhi: Ocean Books.
  • Lal, Vinay (2003). The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India.
  • Palit, Chittabrata (2008). Indian Historiography.
  • Sharma, Arvind (2003). Hinduism and Its Sense of History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-566531-4.
  • Sreedharan, E. (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000.
  • Warder, A.K. (1972). An introduction to Indian historiography.

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