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{{Short description|Meat which is red when raw, with high myoglobin content}}
{{Other uses}} {{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
'''Red meat''' is a ] term that refers to ] which is red when raw and not white when ], this includes the meat of most adult ]. This term is also used in nutrition to distinguish between different classes of meat by the presence pigment.
] is red.]]
] is a darker brown color.]]


In ], '''red meat''' is commonly red when raw (and a dark color after it is ]), in contrast to ], which is pale in color before (and after) cooking.<ref name="red">{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat |title=Red Meat |publisher=thefreedictionary.com}}</ref><ref name="white">{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat |title=White Meat |publisher=thefreedictionary.com}}</ref> In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Reinagel M | publisher = Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics |url=http://www.foodandnutrition.org/January-February-2013/Color-Confusion-Identifying-Red-Meat-and-White-Meat/ |title=Color Confusion: Identifying Red Meat and White Meat |access-date=29 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230162203/http://www.foodandnutrition.org/January-February-2013/Color-Confusion-Identifying-Red-Meat-and-White-Meat/ |archive-date=30 December 2016 |date=2 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">], first edition</ref> In ], ''red meat'' is defined as any meat that has more of the protein ] than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or ], which is called dark meat).
Any meat that meets a minimum threshold for the concentration of the pigment ] is scientifically classified as a red meat. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; pork and veal have 0.1–0.3%; young beef has 0.4–1.0%; and old beef has 1.5–2.0%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |title=Iowa State Animal Science |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref> According to the ], all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut) are red meats because they contain more ] than chicken or fish.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Pork_from_Farm_to_Table/index.asp |title=USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table |publisher=Fsis.usda.gov |date=2008-05-16 |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref>


Regular consumption of red meat, both unprocessed and especially processed types, has been associated with negative health outcomes.
In ], red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with ]. The meat from mammals such as ], ], ], ], ], ] is invariably considered red, while ] and ] meat is invariably considered white.<ref name="auto"/> ] is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: ''viandes noires'' — "black meats")<ref>], first edition</ref> This definition is not a scientific definition and therefore has many rules and exceptions.
].]]
].]]


==Confusion== ==Definition==
{| class="wikitable floatright"
Given nutritional concerns, meat producers are eager to have their products considered "white", and the ] ] has positioned their product as "]", alongside poultry and fish; however, meats which are red when raw and turn white on cooking, like ], are categorized by the ] as red meats.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/the-truth-about-red-meat?page=2 | title=The Truth About Red Meat | publisher=] | accessdate=12 October 2014 | author=Lee, Elizabeth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =National Agricultural Statistics Service | title =Idaho Red Meat Production Down 40 Percent | publisher =United States Department of Agriculture | date =2005-11-03 | url =http://www.nass.usda.gov/id/publications/ag%20in%20idaho/2005/agid22-05pg1.pdf | format =PDF | accessdate = 2007-04-05 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> This categorization is controversial as some types of fish, such as ], are red when raw and turn white when cooked; similarly, certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as "white meat" are actually "red" when raw, such as ] and ]. The debate is mainly one of semantics as ]s consider all meat from mammals to be "red meat" while this is not the case in other fields such as ], ], ], ], etc. {{Citation needed|date=November 2012}}
|-
|+ Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
! scope="col" | Name
! scope="col" | Myoglobin
! scope="col" | USDA category
|-
| ] || 1.50 – 2.00%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| ] || 0.40 – 1.00%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| ] || 0.10 – 0.30%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| ] || 0.10 – 0.30%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| ] || 0.25 – 0.30%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Dark meat
|-
| ] || 0.18 – 0.20%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Dark meat
|-
|]
|0.008%<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Çelen |first1=Mehmet Fatih |last2=Söğüt |first2=Bünyamin |last3=Zorba |first3=Ömer |last4=Demirulus |first4=Hüsrev |last5=Tekeli |first5=Ahmet |date=August 2016 |title=Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia |language=en |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=441–444 |doi=10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003 |issn=1516-3598|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|White meat
|-
| ] || 0.005%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science">{{cite web | vauthors = Penner KP, Clarke MP | date = September 1990 |url=http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |title = Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet | publisher = Iowa State Animal Science |access-date=16 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324234102/http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |archive-date=24 March 2009}}</ref> || White meat<ref name="auto"/>
|}


]
== Nutrition ==<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
Red meat contains large amounts of ], ], minerals such as ] and ], and B-vitamins: (], ], ] and ]).<ref>Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, ''Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet'', September 1990, {{deadlink|date=May 2015}}</ref> Red meat is the richest source of ], a powerful antioxidant.<ref>The Nutrition Reporter newsletter, , July 1996{{dead link|date=April 2012}}</ref>


Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "]" mammals (for example, beef, horse, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white although sometimes rabbit meat is considered red meat. Poultry is white, excluding certain birds such as ]es.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Are-ratites-red-or-white-meat |title=Are ratites "red" or "white" meat? |website=AskUSDA |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |date=17 July 2019}}</ref> Most cuts of pork are red, others are white.<ref>''Larousse Gastronomique'', 1961, ''s.v.'' pork</ref> ] is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French: ''viandes noires'' — "dark meats").<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.
Red meat contains small amounts of ].<ref></ref> The ] contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.


According to the ] (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more ], which gives them their red color,<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2014 |title=The color of meat depends on myoglobin: Part 1 |url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/the_color_of_meat_depends_on_myoglobin_part_1 |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=MSU Extension |language=en-us}}</ref> than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat)<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> from chicken.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/fresh-pork-from-farm-to-table/CT_Index |title=USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table |publisher=Fsis.usda.gov |date=16 May 2008 |access-date=16 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918111427/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/fresh-pork-from-farm-to-table/ct_index |archive-date=18 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keeton |first1=Jimmy T. |last2=Dikeman |first2=Michael E. |title='Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion |journal=Animal Frontiers |date=October 2017 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=29–33 |doi=10.2527/af.2017.0440 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The USDA also classifies ratites, such as ostriches, emus, and rhea, as red meat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How do you cook ratites? - Ask USDA |url=https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/How-do-you-cook-ratites |access-date=July 31, 2024 |website=AskUSDA.gov}}</ref> Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The ] has ] it as "]", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.<ref>{{cite web | last = Dougherty | first = Philip H. | name-list-style = vanc | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/business/advertising-dressing-pork-for-success.html | title = Dressing Pork for Success | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170214230836/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/business/advertising-dressing-pork-for-success.html | archive-date = 14 February 2017 | work = ] | date = 15 January 1987}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Hall | first = Trish | name-list-style = vanc | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/garden/and-this-little-piggy-is-now-on-the-menu.html | title = And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170214225719/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/garden/and-this-little-piggy-is-now-on-the-menu.html | archive-date=14 February 2017 | work = ] | date = 13 November 1991}}</ref>
=== USDA recommendations ===
The 1992 edition of the USDA ] has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat.<ref name=HSPHpyrprob>Harvard School of Public Health, , 2008</ref> The 2005 edition, ], was incomprehensible<ref name=HSPHpyrprob/> but the accompanying website stated that "fish, nuts, and seeds contain healthy oils, so choose these foods frequently instead of meat or poultry" and for people who wanted to eat meat, it recommended lean or low-fat red meat and poultry.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |title=Inside the Pyramid |year=2005 |url=http://www.mypyramid.gov/pyramid/meat.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050801231809/http://www.mypyramid.gov/pyramid/meat.html |archivedate=2005-08-01}}</ref>


==Nutrition==<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which didn't distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz of fish each week.<ref name=HSPHshould>Harvard School of Public Health, 2012. </ref><ref>USDA Page accessed February 27, 2015</ref>
Red meat contains large amounts of iron, ], minerals such as ] and ], and B-vitamins: (], ], ] and ]).<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service | title = Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet | date = September 1990 | url = http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060912003940/http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf| archive-date=12 September 2006}}</ref> Red meat is a source of ].


Red meat contains small amounts of ].<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Williams PG | date = September 2007 | publisher = University of Wollongong | url = http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers | title = Nutritional composition of red meat | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110310231338/http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers | archive-date=10 March 2011}}</ref> ] such as ] contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmid A, Walther B | title = Natural vitamin D content in animal products | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 453–62 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23858093 | pmc = 3941824 | doi = 10.3945/an.113.003780}}</ref>
=== Healthy Eating Plate ===
In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate to better communicate with the public and to make different recommendations than the USDA, which has to contend with lobbying from many quarters.<ref name=HSPHshould/> The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to limit red meat and avoid processed meat, and to instead choose fish, poultry, beans or nuts.<ref name=HSPHshould/> Its website says: "Eating a lot of red meat and processed meat has been linked to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. So it’s best to avoid processed meat, and to limit red meat to no more than twice a week. Switching to fish, chicken, nuts, or beans in place of red meat and processed meat can improve cholesterol levels and can lower the risk of heart disease and diabetes.<ref name=HSPHshould/>


In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least {{convert|8|oz|g|abbr=on}} of fish each week.<ref name=HSPHshould>{{cite web| publisher = Harvard School of Public Health |year = 2012 | url = http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html | title = Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090416231207/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html | archive-date=16 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = USDA | url = http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/protein-foods.html | title = MyPlate Protein foods | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130116120159/http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/protein-foods.html | archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.<ref name=HSPHshould/> The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.<ref name=HSPHshould/>
==Human health==
{{see also|Beef#Health concerns}}
Red meat is not a uniform product; its health effects can vary based on fat content, processing and preparation. Processed red meat is strongly linked to higher mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer.<ref name=BMC03713>{{cite journal|coauthors=Sabine Rohrmann, Kim Overvad, et al.|title=Meat consumption and mortality – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|journal=BMC Medicine|date=7 March 2013|volume=11:63|doi=10.1186/1741-7015-11-63|url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/11/63/abstract|accessdate=March 7, 2013|author=European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|authorlink=European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|quote=The results of our analysis support a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer.|issue=1|pages=63}}</ref> There is some evidence too that the consumption of unprocessed red meat may be bad for human health.<ref name=Larsson>{{cite journal |author=Larsson SC, Orsini N |title=Red meat and processed meat consumption and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=179 |issue=3 |pages=282–9 | date=February 2014 |pmid=24148709 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwt261 |type=Meta-analysis}}</ref>


=== Cancer === ==Health effects==
{{see also|Beef#Health concerns|Meat#Health effects}}
Epidemiological studies have found that an increased consumption of processed and red meat is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. The risk is not associated with white meat like chicken.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cross|first1=Amanda|title=Meat-related mutagens/carcinogens in the etiology of colorectal cancer.|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/em.20030/abstract|publisher=Environ. Mol. Mutagen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Figueiredo|first1=Jane|title=Genome-Wide Diet-Gene Interaction Analyses for Risk of Colorectal Cancer.|url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1004228|publisher=PLOS Genetics}}</ref> The ] (WCRF) and ] (AICR) classify red meat consumption as carrying an increased risk of contracting bowel cancer.<ref name=cruk-bowel/> In the ] approximately 21% of bowel cancers are associated with red meat consumption.<ref name=cruk-bowel>{{cite web |publisher=] |title=Bowel cancer risk factors |date=17 December 2013 |accessdate=September 2014 |url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/cancerstats/types/bowel/riskfactors/bowel-cancer-risk-factors}}</ref> The WCRF recommends limiting intake of red meat to less than 300g (11&nbsp;oz) cooked weight per week, "very little, if any of which to be processed."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/?p=recommendation_05|title=WCRF-AICR Diet and Cancer Report|work=dietandcancerreport.org|accessdate=6 May 2015}}</ref>


Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of ], ], cancer (particularly ]), and all-cause mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abete |first1=Itziar |last2=Romaguera |first2=Dora |last3=Vieira |first3=Ana Rita |last4=Munain |first4=Adolfo Lopez de |last5=Norat |first5=Teresa |title=Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |date=September 2014 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=762–775 |doi=10.1017/S000711451400124X |pmid=24932617 |s2cid=14401281 |language=en |issn=0007-1145|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neuenschwander |first1=Manuela |last2=Ballon |first2=Aurélie |last3=Weber |first3=Katharina S. |last4=Norat |first4=Teresa |last5=Aune |first5=Dagfinn |last6=Schwingshackl |first6=Lukas |last7=Schlesinger |first7=Sabrina |title=Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies |journal=BMJ |date=3 July 2019 |volume=366 |pages=l2368 |doi=10.1136/bmj.l2368 |pmid=31270064 |pmc=6607211 |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/366/bmj.l2368.long |language=en |issn=0959-8138}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mozaffarian |first1=Dariush |title=Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity |journal=Circulation |date=12 January 2016 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=187–225 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585 |pmid=26746178 |pmc=4814348 }}</ref><ref name="Hu">{{cite journal |last1=Qian |first1=Frank |last2=Riddle |first2=Matthew C. |last3=Wylie-Rosett |first3=Judith |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |year=2020 |title=Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence? |url=https://doi.org/10.2337/dci19-0063 |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=265–271 |doi=10.2337/dci19-0063 |pmc=6971786 |pmid=31959642}}</ref> These associations are strongest for ], which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.<ref name="IARC2015PR" /> Also, meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=W. |last2=Gustafson |first2=D. R. |last3=Sinha |first3=R. |last4=Cerhan |first4=J. R. |last5=Moore |first5=D. |last6=Hong |first6=C. P. |last7=Anderson |first7=K. E. |last8=Kushi |first8=L. H. |last9=Sellers |first9=T. A. |last10=Folsom |first10=A. R. |date=1998-11-18 |title=Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9827527/ |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume=90 |issue=22 |pages=1724–1729 |doi=10.1093/jnci/90.22.1724 |issn=0027-8874 |pmid=9827527}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Farvid |first1=Maryam S. |last2=Sidahmed |first2=Elkhansa |last3=Spence |first3=Nicholas D. |last4=Mante Angua |first4=Kingsly |last5=Rosner |first5=Bernard A. |last6=Barnett |first6=Junaidah B. |date=2021-09-01 |title=Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9 |journal=European Journal of Epidemiology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=9 |pages=937–951 |doi=10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9 |pmid=34455534 |issn=1573-7284}}</ref>
Red meat consumption also increases the risk of ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Xue XJ, Gao Q, Qiao JH, Zhang J, Xu CP, Liu J |title=Red and processed meat consumption and the risk of lung cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 33 published studies |journal=Int J Clin Exp Med |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=1542–53 |year=2014 |pmid=25035778 |pmc=4100964 |type=Meta-analysis}}</ref>


A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q |title=Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review |journal=Food Chem |volume=356 |pages=129697 |date=September 2021 |pmid=33838606 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697 |type=Review}}</ref>
There is suggestive evidence that red meat intake might increase the risk of ], ], ], ] and ] cancer.<ref name="aicr">{{cite book|isbn=978-0-9722522-2-5 | page=116|title=Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Song P, Lu M, Yin Q, et al. |title=Red meat consumption and stomach cancer risk: a meta-analysis |journal=J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. |volume=140 |issue=6 |pages=979–92 |date=June 2014 |pmid=24682372 |doi=10.1007/s00432-014-1637-z |type=Meta-analysis}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bandera EV, Kushi LH, Moore DF, Gifkins DM, McCullough ML |title=Consumption of animal foods and endometrial cancer risk: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis |journal=Cancer Causes Control |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=967–88 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17638104 |pmc=2592095 |doi=10.1007/s10552-007-9038-0 |type=Systematic review &amp; meta-analysis}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ferrís J, Berbel O, Alonso-López J, Garcia J, Ortega JA |title=Environmental non-occupational risk factors associated with bladder cancer |journal=Actas Urol Esp |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=579–86 |date=October 2013 |pmid=23618510 |doi=10.1016/j.acuro.2013.02.004 |type=Review}}</ref>


A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lescinsky H, Afshin A, Ashbaugh C, Bisignano C, Brauer M, Ferrara G, Hay SI, He J, Iannucci V, Marczak LB, McLaughlin SA, Mullany EC, Parent MC, Serfes AL, Sorensen RJ, Aravkin AY, Zheng P, Murray CJ |title=Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study |journal=Nat Med |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=2075–2082 |date=October 2022 |pmid=36216940 |pmc=9556326 |doi=10.1038/s41591-022-01968-z |type=Systematic review |display-authors=5}}</ref> However, the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Tanya |title=New System Ranks Evidence for Health Risks of Eating Red Meat, Smoking, and More—But Critics Say It's Overly Simplistic |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-system-ranks-evidence-for-health-risks-of-eating-red-meat-smoking-and-more-but-critics-say-its-overly-simplistic/ |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref>
There is no good evidence that red meat consumption increases ] or ] risk.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alexander DD, Morimoto LM, Mink PJ, Cushing CA |title=A review and meta-analysis of red and processed meat consumption and breast cancer |journal=Nutr Res Rev |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=349–65 |date=December 2010 |pmid=21110906 |doi=10.1017/S0954422410000235 |type=Review &amp; meta-analysis}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Alexander DD, Mink PJ, Cushing CA, Sceurman B |title=A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat intake and prostate cancer |journal=Nutr J |volume=9 |issue= 1|pages=50 |year=2010 |pmid=21044319 |pmc=2987772 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-9-50 |type=Review &amp; meta-analysis}}</ref> {{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}}


==== Mechanisms ==== ===Cancer===
The ] (IARC) of the ] (WHO) classifies ] as ]ic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes ]."<ref name="who">{{cite web |title=Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=https://www.who.int/features/qa/cancer-red-meat/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=7 August 2019 |date=1 October 2015}}</ref> Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."<ref name=IARC2015PR>{{citation |author=International Agency for Research on Cancer |title=IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |issue=Press Release N° 240 |date=26 October 2015 |url=https://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110184724/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |archive-date=10 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="WHO-20151026">{{cite web|title=Press release: IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |publisher=], World Health Organization|access-date=26 October 2015|date=15 October 2015}}</ref> Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of ] and ] but the link is not as clear.<ref name=IARC2015PR/> The ] have stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."<ref>{{cite journal |title=American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention |journal=CA |date=2020 |doi=10.3322/caac.21591 |last1=Rock |first1=Cheryl L. |last2=Thomson |first2=Cynthia |last3=Gansler |first3=Ted |last4=Gapstur |first4=Susan M. |last5=McCullough |first5=Marjorie L. |last6=Patel |first6=Alpa V. |last7=Andrews |first7=Kimberly S. |last8=Bandera |first8=Elisa V. |last9=Spees |first9=Colleen K. |last10=Robien |first10=Kimberly |last11=Hartman |first11=Sheri |last12=Sullivan |first12=Kristen |last13=Grant |first13=Barbara L. |last14=Hamilton |first14=Kathryn K. |last15=Kushi |first15=Lawrence H. |last16=Caan |first16=Bette J. |last17=Kibbe |first17=Debra |last18=Black |first18=Jessica Donze |last19=Wiedt |first19=Tracy L. |last20=McMahon |first20=Catherine |last21=Sloan |first21=Kirsten |last22=Doyle |first22=Colleen |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=245–271 |pmid=32515498 |s2cid=219550658|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Processed meats (like bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages) are preserved by smoking, salting, and addition of certain chemicals like nitrates and nitrites. Nitrates and nitrites can be converted by our body into nitrosamines that can be carcinogenic, causing mutation in the colorectal cell line, thereby causing tumorigenesis and eventually leading to cancer.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Raphaëlle|first1=Santarelli|title=Processed Meat and Colorectal Cancer: A Review of Epidemiologic and Experimental Evidence.|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01635580701684872?journalCode=hnuc20#preview|publisher=Nutrition and Cancer}}</ref>
Cooking red meat at high temperature and smoking produces the carcinogens polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCA)<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|website=National Cancer Institute}}</ref> Red meat itself contains certain factors that, under certain conditions, produce carcinogens like N-nitroso compounds (NOCs)<ref>{{cite web|title=Inherited Bowel Cancer|url=http://www.geneticseducation.nhs.uk/genetic-conditions-54/677-inherited-bowel-cancer-new|website=geneticseducation.nhs.uk}}</ref>
Additionally, the heme iron that gives meat its red color may promote carcinogenesis due to its ability to increase cell proliferation in the mucosa, through lipid peroxidation and/or cytotoxicity of fecal water<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lynch|first1=Dennis|title=Thanksgiving Turkey 2014: What Is The Difference Between Dark Meat And White Meat?|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/thanksgiving-turkey-2014-what-difference-between-dark-meat-white-meat-1729347|website=International Business Times}}</ref>
Both marinating fresh lean red meat and thoroughly cooking the meat at low temperature will reduce the production of carcinogenic compounds and thereby lower the risk of colorectal cancer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Marinades Reduce Heterocyclic Amines from Primitive Food Preparation Techniques|url=http://naturalmedicinejournal.com/journal/2010-07/marinades-reduce-heterocyclic-amines-primitive-food-preparation-techniques|publisher=Schor J}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Seer Stat Fact Sheets: Colon and Rectum Cancer|url=http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/colorect.html|website=Seer.cancer.gov|publisher=National Cancer Institute}}</ref>


The ], ] and World Cancer Research Fund International have stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 June 2019|title=Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/does-eating-processed-and-red-meat-cause-cancer|access-date=30 December 2022|website=Cancer Research UK|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer|url=https://www.aicr.org/cancer-prevention/food-facts/red-meat-beef-pork-lamb/|access-date=30 December 2022|website=American Institute for Cancer Research|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Limit red and processed meat|url=https://www.wcrf.org/diet-activity-and-cancer/cancer-prevention-recommendations/limit-red-and-processed-meat/|access-date=30 December 2022|website=WCRF International|language=en-US}}</ref> Put in perspective in the UK, adults eating processed and red meat at 79g per day on average had a 32% increased risk of colorectal cancer compared to those eating less than 11g per day.<ref>. news.cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved 20 June 2023.</ref>
=== Cardiovascular diseases ===
The postwar Seven Countries Study found a significant correlation between red meat consumption and risk of ] and marked the beginning of our current understanding.<ref>Menotti A, Kromhout D, Blackburn H, Fidanza F, Buzina R, Nissinen A, for the Seven Countries Study Research Group (1999). Food intake patterns and 25-year mortality from coronary heart disease: Cross-cultural correlations in the Seven Countries Study. Eur J Epidemiol 15, 507–515.</ref>


A 2023 review found that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Di, Yan; Ding, Lei; Gao, Luying; Haung, Hongya|year=2023|title=Association of meat consumption with the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=BMC Cancer|volume=23|issue=1|pages=782|doi=10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1|pmid=37612616|doi-access=free|pmc=10463360}}</ref>
Many studies associate red meat consumption with ]. Specifically red meat consumption is associated with ], ],<ref>Fung, T. T. et al. "Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women." Stroke 35.9 (2004): 2014.</ref> with greater ], (an indicator of atherosclerosis),<ref name="Fraser">{{cite pmid|10479227}}</ref><ref>Oh, Sun Min et al. "Association between meat consumption and carotid intima-media thickness in Korean adults with metabolic syndrome." Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health = Yebang Ŭihakhoe Chi 43.6 (2010): 486–495</ref> ],<ref>Kontogianni, M. D. et al. "Relationship between meat intake and the development of acute coronary syndromes: the CARDIO2000 case–control study." European journal of clinical nutrition 62.2 (2007): 171–177.</ref> A significant relationship between red meat and CHD has been found specifically for women.<ref>Zyriax BC, Boeing H, Windler E (2005). Nutrition is sometimes thought to be a powerful independent risk factor for coronary heart disease in women-The CORA study: a population-based case–control study. Eur J Clin Nutr 59, 1201–1207.</ref>


====Processed meat vs. unprocessed==== ====Mechanisms====
] in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk.<ref>{{Cite journal | journal = Cancer Prev. Res. | date = 2011 | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–184 | doi = 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0113 | title = Heme iron from meat and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis and a review of the mechanisms involved | last1 = Bastide | first1 = N. M. | last2 = Pierre | first2 = F. H. | last3 = Corpet | first3 = D. E. | pmid = 21209396 | s2cid = 4951579 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/543808/filename/Bastide-Corpet-CAPR-2010-0113R1-Authors-V.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150925071420/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/543808/filename/Bastide-Corpet-CAPR-2010-0113R1-Authors-V.pdf | archive-date = 25 September 2015 }}</ref> The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."<ref>. wcrf.org. Retrieved 10 April 2023.</ref>
The consensus on the role of red meat consumption to increased risk of ] has changed in recent years. Studies that differentiate between processed and fresh red meat have failed to find a link between unprocessed red meat consumption and heart disease. A major Harvard University meta-study<ref>{{cite journal|last=Micha|first=R.|author2=Wallace, S. K. |author3=Mozaffarian, D. |title=Red and Processed Meat Consumption and Risk of Incident Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Circulation|date=1 June 2010|volume=121|issue=21|pages=2271–2283|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/121/21/2271.abstract|accessdate=28 January 2013|pmid=20479151}}</ref><ref></ref> in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that the "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."


]
==== Mechanisms ====
A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, ]s (PAHs), and ]s (HCAs).<ref name="jeyakumar">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V | title = A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis | journal = Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 52 | issue = 4 | pages = 407–418 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27913919 | doi = 10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x | s2cid = 20865644}}</ref> Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|website=National Cancer Institute|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106080003/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|archive-date=6 November 2011|year=2018}}</ref>
Some mechanisms that have been suggested for why red meat consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease include: its impact on ],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gotto | first1 = AM | last2 = LaRosa | first2 = JC | last3 = Hunninghake | first3 = D | last4 = Grundy | first4 = SM | last5 = Wilson | first5 = PW | last6 = Clarkson | first6 = TB | display-authors = 6 | last7 = et al | year = 1990 | title = The cholesterol facts. A summary relating dietary fats, serum cholesterol and coronary heart disease | url = | journal = Circulation | volume = 81 | issue = | pages = 1721–1733 }}</ref> that red meat contains ],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Leaf | first1 = A | last2 = Weber | first2 = PC | year = 1988 | title = Cardiovascular effects of n-3 fatty acids | url = | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 318 | issue = | pages = 549–557 | doi=10.1056/nejm198803033180905}}</ref> ],<ref>Malaviarachchi D, Veugelers PJ, Yip AM, MacLean DR (2002). Dietary iron as a risk factor for myocardial infarction. Public health considerations for Nova Scotia. Can J Public Health 93, 267–270.</ref> and ].,<ref>Verhoef P, Stampfer MJ, Buring JE, Gaziano JM, Allen RH, Stabler SP et al. (1996). Homocysteine metabolism and risk of myocardial infarction: relation with vitamins B6 and B12 and folate. Am J Epidemiol 143, 845–859.</ref> its high content of ].<ref name="Fraser"/> Bacteria in the digestive tract of people who eat meat have been found to produce a spike in ] when supplied with carnitine (abundant in red meat).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324050304578408702646200088.html |title=New Health Culprit Carnitine Found in Red Meat |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=2013-04-07 |accessdate=2013-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://healthland.time.com/2013/04/08/its-not-just-the-fat-theres-another-way-red-meat-may-harm-the-heart/ |title=It’s Not Just the Fat: There’s Another Way Red Meat May Harm the Heart |publisher=Time Magazine |date=2013-04-08 |accessdate=2013-04-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/08/health/study-points-to-new-culprit-in-heart-disease.html |title=Culprit in Heart Disease Goes Beyond Meat’s Fat |publisher=The New York Times |date=2013-04-07 |accessdate=2013-04-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/chemical-in-red-meat-linked-to-cardiovascular-disease/1637590.html |title=Chemical in Red Meat Linked to Heart Disease |publisher=Voice of America |date=2013-04-09 |accessdate=2013-04-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-204_162-57578422/carnitine-chemical-not-fat-may-explain-link-between-red-meat-and-heart-disease/ |title=Carnitine chemical, not fat, may explain link between red meat and heart disease |publisher=CBS News |date=2013-04-08 |accessdate=2013-04-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/video/nightly-news/51472670/ |title=Red meat linked to heart disease |publisher=NBC News |date=2013-04-08 |accessdate=2013-04-09}}</ref> TMAO is a metabolite that promotes ], a thickening of the arteries.


==== Risk ==== ===Cardiovascular disease and stroke===
{{See also|Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease}}
Those that eat more than 8 servings of red meat per month are 4.9 times more likely to have cardiac events than those eating less than four servings per month.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602713}}</ref>


Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of ], ] and stroke.<ref name="NZ Heart Foundation">. assets.heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang X, Liang S, Chen X, Yang J, Zhou Y, Du L, Li K |title=Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review |journal=Br J Nutr |volume= 130|issue= 3|pages=484–494 |date=December 2022 |pmid=36545687 |doi=10.1017/S0007114522003415 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref> Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of ], ], ]s, and ] iron, which may precipitate ] in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.<ref name=Kim>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim K, Hyeon J, Lee SA, Kwon SO, Lee H, Keum N, Lee JK, Park SM | display-authors = 6 | title = Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies | journal = Journal of the American Heart Association | volume = 6 | issue = 9 | pages = e005983 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28855166 | pmc = 5634267 | doi = 10.1161/jaha.117.005983}}</ref>
A 21-year follow up of about thirty thousand ] (adventists are known for presenting a "health message" that recommends vegetarianism) found that people who ate red meat daily were 60% more likely to die of heart disease than those who ate red meat less than once per week.<ref>{{cite pmid|6720674}}</ref>


In 2020, the ] Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16% therefore one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein.<ref name="NZ Heart Foundation"/><ref>. heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.</ref>
The risk of coronary disease due to ] can be mitigated by switching to a leaner red meat. According to one study, funded by the beef producers advocacy group, ], eating lean meat (both red and white) produced nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups.<ref>Science Daily, , 1999</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Davidson MH, Hunninghake D, Maki KC, Kwiterovich PO, Kafonek S |title=Comparison of the effects of lean red meat vs lean white meat on serum lipid levels among free-living persons with hypercholesterolemia: a long-term, randomized clinical trial |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=159 |issue=12 |pages=1331–8 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10386509 |doi= 10.1001/archinte.159.12.1331|url=http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10386509}}</ref>


=== Diabetes === ===Diabetes===
Red meat intake has been associated with an increased risk of ].<ref>Song, Y. et al. "A prospective study of red meat consumption and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and elderly women." Diabetes Care 27.9 (2004): 2108.</ref><ref>Fung, T. T. et al. "Dietary patterns, meat intake, and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women." Archives of internal medicine 164.20 (2004): 2235.</ref><ref name="doi10.2337/diacare.25.3.417">{{cite doi|10.2337/diacare.25.3.417}}</ref> Interventions in which red meat is removed from the diet can lower ] levels.<ref>de Mello, V. D. F. et al. "Withdrawal of red meat from the usual diet reduces albuminuria and improves serum fatty acid profile in type 2 diabetes patients with macroalbuminuria." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83.5 (2006): 1032.</ref> Replacing red meat with a low protein or chicken diet can improve ].<ref>{{cite doi|10.2337/diacare.25.4.645}}</ref>


A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk of ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xingxia |last2=Liang |first2=Shiqi |last3=Chen |first3=Xinrong |last4=Yang |first4=Jie |last5=Zhou |first5=Yong |last6=Du |first6=Liang |last7=Li |first7=Ka |date=n.d. |title=Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=3 |language=en |pages=484–494 |doi=10.1017/S0007114522003415 |pmid=36545687 |issn=0007-1145|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another review found that red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Riccardi G, Vaccaro O, Vitale M | title = Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies | journal = Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice | volume = 191 | pages = 110071 | date = September 2022 | pmid = 36067917 | doi = 10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071 | s2cid = 252107061 }}</ref>
Other findings have suggested that the association may be due to ], ] and ], rather than red meat per se.<ref name="doi10.2337/diacare.25.3.417"/><ref>{{cite pmid|11508264}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1093/ije/19.4.953}}</ref>


A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming ]s, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.<ref name="Schwing">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, Bechthold A, Schlesinger S, Boeing H | display-authors = 6 | title = Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies | journal = European Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 363–375 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28397016 | pmc = 5506108 | doi = 10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y}}</ref> One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB | title = Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 1088–96 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21831992 | pmc = 3173026 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.111.018978}}</ref>
An additional ] is that diets high in ] could increase the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1007/s00125-003-1220-7}}</ref>{{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}}


A 2023 review found that both processed and unprocessed red meat consumption increase type 2 diabetes risk.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wenming Shi, Xin Huang, C Mary Schooling, Jie V Zhao|year=2023|title=Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=European Heart Journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/44/28/2626/7188739|volume=44|issue=28|pages=2626–2635|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336|pmid=37264855|doi-access=free}}</ref>
One study estimated that “substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes”.<ref>{{cite doi|10.3945/ajcn.111.018978}}</ref>


The ] recommends that diabetics minimise the consumption of red meat.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Reynolds, Andrew; Aas, Anne-Marie; Axelsen, Mette; Churuangsuk, Chaitong|year=2023|title=Evidence-based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes|journal=Diabetologia|volume=66|issue=6|pages=965–985|doi=10.1007/s00125-023-05894-8|pmid=37069434|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Obesity ===
The Diogenes project used data from ninety thousand men and women over about seven years and found that "higher intake of total protein, and protein from animal sources was associated with subsequent weight gain for both genders, strongest among women, and the association was mainly attributable to protein from red and processed meat and poultry rather than from fish and dairy sources. There was no overall association between intake of plant protein and subsequent changes in weight."<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2010.254}}</ref> They also found an association between red meat consumption and increased waist circumference.


==References==
A 1998 survey of about five thousand vegetarian and non-vegetarian people found that vegetarians had about 30% lower ]s.<ref>{{cite pmid|9622343}}</ref> {{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}} A 2006 survey of fifty thousand women found that those with higher "western diet pattern" scores gained about two more kilograms over the course of four years than those who lowered their scores.<ref>Schulze, M. B. et al. "Dietary Patterns and Changes in Body Weight in Women." Obesity 14.8 (2006): 1444–1453.</ref> {{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}}
{{reflist}}

A ten-year follow up of 80,000 men and women found that "ten-year changes in body mass index was associated positively with meat consumption" as well as with weight gain at the waist.<ref>{{cite pmid|1381044}}</ref> In a Mediterranean population of 8,000 men and women, meat consumption was significantly associated with weight gain.<ref>{{cite pmid|16469996}}</ref> {{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}} Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed "consistent positive associations between meat consumption and BMI, waist circumference, obesity and central obesity."<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2009.45}}</ref> {{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}}

A survey of twins found that processed meat intake was associated with weight gain.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2010.1}}</ref> {{Relevance-inline|discuss=Processed meat consumption Vs Red meat consumption Vs Vegetarianism|date=June 2015}} Western diets, which include higher consumption of red meats, are often associated with obesity.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2009.203;}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2009.179}}</ref>

=== Other health issues ===
Regular consumption of red meat has also been linked to ],<ref name="Fraser"/> and ].<ref name="Fraser"/><ref>Pattison, D. J. et al. "Dietary risk factors for the development of inflammatory polyarthritis: evidence for a role of high level of red meat consumption." Arthritis & Rheumatism 50.12 (2004): 3804–3812.</ref>

== Culture ==
{{expand section|date=July 2011}}
In some cultures, eating red meat is considered a masculine activity, possibly due to traditions of hunting big game as a male ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/style/tmagazine/09brubach.html |title=Real Men Eat Meat |publisher=Nytimes.com |accessdate=2009-09-16}}</ref>

==See also==
*]
{{portal|Food}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{sister project links}}
{{sisterlinks}}

{{Meat product navbox}} {{Meat product navbox}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Red Meat}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Red Meat}}
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Latest revision as of 00:04, 25 November 2024

Meat which is red when raw, with high myoglobin content For other uses, see Red meat (disambiguation).

Thinly sliced raw beef is red.
Roast beef is a darker brown color.

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw (and a dark color after it is cooked), in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before (and after) cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white. In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh, which is called dark meat).

Regular consumption of red meat, both unprocessed and especially processed types, has been associated with negative health outcomes.

Definition

Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
Name Myoglobin USDA category
Old beef 1.50 – 2.00% Red meat
Beef 0.40 – 1.00% Red meat
Pork 0.10 – 0.30% Red meat
Veal 0.10 – 0.30% Red meat
Turkey thigh 0.25 – 0.30% Dark meat
Chicken thigh 0.18 – 0.20% Dark meat
Turkey breast 0.008% White meat
Chicken breast 0.005% White meat
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat

Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white although sometimes rabbit meat is considered red meat. Poultry is white, excluding certain birds such as ostriches. Most cuts of pork are red, others are white. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French: viandes noires — "dark meats"). Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin, which gives them their red color, than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat) from chicken. The USDA also classifies ratites, such as ostriches, emus, and rhea, as red meat. Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin). Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D. Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.

In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week. In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations. The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.

Health effects

See also: Beef § Health concerns, and Meat § Health effects

Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality. These associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages. Also, meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat.

A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.

A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat. However, the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic.

Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear. The American Cancer Society have stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."

The American Institute for Cancer Research, Cancer Research UK and World Cancer Research Fund International have stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer. Put in perspective in the UK, adults eating processed and red meat at 79g per day on average had a 32% increased risk of colorectal cancer compared to those eating less than 11g per day.

A 2023 review found that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of gastrointestinal cancer.

Mechanisms

Heme iron in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk. The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."

Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking

A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.

Cardiovascular disease and stroke

See also: Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease

Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure and stroke. Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.

In 2020, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16% therefore one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein.

Diabetes

A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk of diabetes. Another review found that red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.

A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes. One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".

A 2023 review found that both processed and unprocessed red meat consumption increase type 2 diabetes risk.

The European Association for the Study of Diabetes recommends that diabetics minimise the consumption of red meat.

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