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{{Short description|Measures that prevent or mitigate unwanted fire}}
{{inappropriate person}}
'''Fire protection''' is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of potentially ].<ref>NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, pg. 2-19</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=RANA |first=JAGENDRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FkzIEAAAQBAJ&dq=Fire+protection+is+the+study+and+practice+of+mitigating+the+unwanted+effects+of+potentially+destructive+fires&pg=PA218 |title=RISK ENGINEERING |date=2023-06-29 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |pages=218 |language=en}}</ref> It involves the study of the behaviour, ], suppression and investigation of ] and its related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating ]s. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local ] and fire code, which are enforced by the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=RANA |first=JAGENDRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FkzIEAAAQBAJ&dq=In+structures,+be+they+land-based,+offshore+or+even+ships,+the+owners+and+operators+are+responsible+to+maintain+their+facilities+in+accordance+with+a+design-basis+that+is+rooted+in+laws,+including+the+local+building+code+and+fire+code,+which+are+enforced+by+the+authority+having+jurisdiction.&pg=PA215 |title=RISK ENGINEERING |date=2023-06-29 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |pages=215 |language=en}}</ref>


'''Fire protection''' is the prevention and reduction of the hazards associated with ]s. It involves the study of the behaviour, ], suppression and investigation of ] and its related emergencies as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating ]s. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local ] and fire code, which are enforced by the ]. Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of the building code that is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Building inspectors check on compliance of a building under ] with the building code. Once ] is complete, a building must be maintained in accordance with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire department. In the event of fire emergencies, ]s, fire investigators, and other fire prevention personnel called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the damage of a fire. Lessons learned from fires are applied to the authoring of both building codes and fire codes. Buildings must be maintained in accordance with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire department.<ref>{{Cite book |last=BHUYAN |first=DEVAJIT |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpQ3DwAAQBAJ&dq=Buildings+must+be+maintained+in+accordance+with+the+current+fire+code,+which+is+enforced+by+the+fire+prevention+officers+of+a+local+fire+department.&pg=PT238 |title=Complete Guide to Career Planning |date=2015-06-01 |publisher=V&S Publishers |isbn=978-93-5057-403-4 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhuyan |first=Devajit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql8tEg3xte4C&dq=%22Buildings%22+must+be+maintained+in+accordance+with+the+current+fire+code,+which+is+enforced+by+the+fire+prevention+officers+of+a+local+fire+department.&pg=PA209 |title=Multiple Career Choices |date=2004-12-01 |publisher=Pustak Mahal |isbn=978-81-223-0779-5 |pages=201 |language=en}}</ref> In the event of fire emergencies, ]s, fire investigators, and other fire prevention personnel are called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=BHUYAN |first=DEVAJIT |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpQ3DwAAQBAJ&dq=In+the+event+of+fire+emergencies,+Firefighters,+fire+investigators,+and+other+fire+prevention+personnel+are+called+to+mitigate,+investigate+and+learn+from+the+damage+of+a+fire.&pg=PT238 |title=Complete Guide to Career Planning |date=2015-06-01 |publisher=V&S Publishers |isbn=978-93-5057-403-4 |language=de}}</ref>


==Classifying fires==
==Goals==
{{Main|Fire class}}
Fire protection has three major goals:
When deciding on what fire protection is appropriate for any given situation, it is important to assess the types of fire hazards that may be faced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Michael J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G33ADwAAQBAJ&dq=When+deciding+on+what+fire+protection+is+appropriate+for+any+given+situation,+it+is+important+to+assess+the+types+of+fire+hazards+that+may+be+faced.&pg=PA405 |title=Fire Officer: Principles and Practice includes Navigate Advantage Access: Principles and Practice |date=2019-12-18 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-1-284-17239-3 |pages=405 |language=en}}</ref> Some jurisdictions operate systems of classifying fires using code letters.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jr |first1=A. Maurice Jones |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9x6VAgAAQBAJ&dq=Some+jurisdictions+operate+systems+of+classifying+fires+using+code+letters&pg=PA29 |title=Fire Protection Systems |last2=Jones |date=2013-12-27 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers |isbn=978-1-284-03538-4 |pages=29 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Binggeli |first=Corky |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XgbguEkYT_0C&dq=Some+jurisdictions+operate+systems+of+classifying+fires+using+code+letters&pg=PA3 |title=Materials for Interior Environments |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-11428-5 |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> Whilst these may agree on some classifications, they also vary. Below is a table showing the standard operated in ] and ] against the system used in the ].
*Life safety (minimum standard in fire and building codes)
*Property protection (typically an ] requirement, or a regulatory requirement where the protection of ] components is necessary to enable life safety)
*Continuity of operations (typically an ] requirement or an item of self-motivation for building owners - not a regulatory issue). Interruption of operations due to ] damage can be very costly. For instance, a nuclear reactor may cost about one million US dollars per day, if it is not making power that is being sold.


{| class="wikitable"
==Components==
|-
Structural fire protection (in land-based ]s, ] or onboard ]s) is typically achieved via three means:


! Type of fire
*] (use of integral, fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies that are used to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of ], or occupancy separations, or firewalls, to keep fires, high temperatures and flue gases within the fire compartment of origin, thus enabling firefighting and evacuation)
*] (manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires , as in finding the fire (]) and/or extinguishing it)
*] (ensuring that building owners and operators have copies and a working understanding of the applicable building and fire codes, having a purpose-designed fire safety plan and ensuring that building occupants, operators and emergency personnel know the ], its means of ] and ], its weak spots and strengths to ensure the highest possible level of safety)


! Australia
==Common items to check for to avoid systemic problems==
If any one of the three components of Fire Protection fail, the fire safety plan can be immediately and severely compromised. For example, if the ] systems in a structure were inoperable, a significant part of the fire safety plan would not work in the event of a fire. Since the overall plan depends on all pieces, it is important to see that each item is in fact functional. Likewise, if there were a ] or an alarm system, but it's down for lack of knowledgeable maintenance, or if ] occupants prop open a ] and then run a ] through, the likelihood of damage and casualties is markedly increased. It is vital for everyone to realise that fire protection within a structure is a system that relies on all of its components.


! European
There are many things that can and often do go wrong prior to and during the ] of a ]. What happens afterwards, however, can also be substantially hazardous, to the point of entirely defeating the fire protection plan that was put in place during the design-phase of a building. Common operator errors include, but are not limited to, the following: failure to regularly clean grease ducts in commercial kitchens (usually every 3 - 6 months), re-entering ]s without proper repairs, damaging and removing spray ] from structural steel elements, changing of the use or ] of parts of a building. Any changes that affect the overall fire protection plan legally require the owner to either gain the approval of the fire prevention officer at the municipal fire department or to apply for a building permit with the local, municipal building department. The permit fee is intended to cover the time and expenses for the ] to evaluate the contemplated change against applicable code requirements. Failure to obtain such approvals make the owner vulnerable to charges of ] and ] in a court of law should their changes lead to damage or loss of life in a fire.


! North America
=== Proven questions for inspectors ===
|-
A ] for a building, ] or ] owner's degree of ] is this question:
| Fires that involve flammable ]s such as ], ], ], ], and some types of ]s.
| Class A
| Class A
| Class A
|-
| Fires that involve flammable ]s or liquefiable solids such as ], ], ], some ]es & plastics, but {{em|not}} cooking fats or oils
| ]
| ]
| ]
|-
| Fires that involve flammable ]es, such as ], ], ], ]
| Class C
| Class C
|
|-
| Fires that involve ] ]s, such as ], ], and ]
| Class D
| Class D
| Class D
|-
| Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a ] agent is used to control the fire.
| Class E<sup>1</sup>
| (Class E) now no longer in the European standards
| Class C
|-
| Fires involving cooking fats and oils. The high temperature of the oils when on fire far exceeds that of other flammable liquids, making normal extinguishing agents ineffective.
| Class F
| Class F
| Class K
|}


<sup>1</sup> <small>Technically there is no such thing as a "Class E" fire, as electricity itself does not burn. However, it is considered a dangerous and very deadly complication to a fire, therefore using the incorrect extinguishing method can result in serious injury or death. Class E, however generally refers to fires involving electricity, therefore a bracketed E, "(E)" denoted on various types of extinguishers.<ref>New South Wales Rural Fire Service VF - (2005) Village Firefighter Manual, pg 16.</ref></small>
* "How many ]s are there in your building, where are they and where do you keep copies of the certification listings that cover each opening?"


Fires are sometimes categorized as "one alarm", "two alarm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMEiAQAAMAAJ&q=Fires+are+sometimes+categorized+as+%22one+alarm%22,+%22two+alarm%22,+%22three+alarm%22+(or+higher)+fires |title=Paper Industry |date=1965 |publisher=Paper Industry Management Association |pages=53 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Whiton Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eHnZAAAAMAAJ&q=Fires+are+sometimes+categorized+as+%22one+alarm%22,+%22two+alarm%22,+%22three+alarm%22+(or+higher)+fires |title=Proceedings, First National Conference on Burnout, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, November 2-4, 1981 |date=1981 |publisher=Gwynedd Mercy College/Mercy Catholic Medical Center |pages=117 |language=en}}</ref> There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably, though it always refers to the level response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, the number counts the number of "dispatches" for additional personnel and equipment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbc4.com/money/9208480/detail.html |title=Paying for Donated Blood, Ethanol in Lawn Mowers, Numbered Alarm Fires: 5/12/06 - Money News Story - WRC &#124; Washington |access-date=2007-11-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123185444/http://www.nbc4.com/money/9208480/detail.html |archive-date=2007-11-23 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thevillager.com/villager_39/fouralarmfire.html|title=Four-alarm fire on Avenue B|website=www.thevillager.com|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-date=29 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229154104/http://thevillager.com/villager_39/fouralarmfire.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Any answer other than a precise number of ]s in the building in question, reference to a set of drawings that shows each one, with a number and ] or paper reference to the certification listings that bound each installed configuration is a clear indication that the owner is unaware of the most important constituent parts of his overall fire protection plan and cannot be safely relied upon to maintain a building in conformance with the fire code.


==Components==
Another litmus test for an owner is this request:
] in ], 2018.]]


Fire protection in land-based ]s, ] or on board ]s is typically achieved via all of the following:
* "Show me your copy of the current fire code and your copy of the building code that was in effect when you applied for the ] permit."
* ] - the installation of ] and fire rated floor assemblies to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of ], high temperatures, and ].
* ] - manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires, such as ] systems and (]) systems.
* ] - the provision of information regarding passive and active fire protection systems to building owners, operators, occupants, and emergency personnel so that they have a working understanding of the intent of these systems and how they perform in the ].


==Balanced approach==
If the owner does not have a copy of these two documents, it is clear that he or she has insufficient information about what regulations he or she is responsible to be in compliance with. Even full-time inspectors have copies of the documents because nobody can be expected to know an entire code by heart. An owner definitely needs the documents, simply to enable compliance for normal building operations and remedial work, which happens all the time in occupied buildings. An owner definitely needs both the fire code AND the building code, because each refers to the other as they avoid duplication of text. You can't just have one and expect to understand it without the other. Anyone who has ever looked anything up in a code knows this. If a building owner does not know this, and does not employ staff cognisant of the fact, this, again, is an indicative item. Examples for remedial work are plumbing work (a new toilet for instance, which could cause the need for a dozen new firestops to be made and breaches of fire barriers), electrical work (say a new plug in a wall, which has conduit running all over the place) new doors, changing the use of a room, etc. Statements about leaving details of this nature up to outside parties, including the local fire prevention officer, are indicative of inherent and systemic problems for that facility, as any routine, seemingly small act, can defeat the overall fire protection plan, which forms the design basis for the building. All this would take, for instance, is the installation of some piece of equipment in the building - a water pump, for instance. Surely, the piece of equipment would be installed correctly by the contractor or the owner's maintenance staff? After all, you switch it on and it works. BUT, the presence of such equipment could be construed as a ''change in ]'', which actually requires a building permit to ensure compliance with regulations. Likewise, added piping or cable to run the equipment might necessitate the breaching of a fire-resistance rated wall or floor, where now a ] is required, which would also necessitate a building permit. If no application for a building permit is made, the ] is unaware of the change and if the change is not immediately apparent to a fire prevention officer who may or may not do a routine inspection, nobody is the wiser and the owner is culpable, not the contractor who installed the equipment, and certainly not the municipality, whose inspection is no carte blanche for a building. The contractor who installs the equipment cannot be expected to bring anything up to the owner about a permit as this would endanger his or her relations with the owner, who can typically be safely counted upon to prefer to avoid extra attention on the part of the Authority Having Jurisdiction, particularly if a building permit is required, which may uncover other items in need of upgrade or repair - and, of course, more cost. Communications with the AHJ are the owner's responsibility - not that of the hired help.
Passive fire protection (PFP) in the form of compartmentalisation was developed prior to the invention of or widespread use of active fire protection (AFP), mainly in the form of automatic fire sprinkler systems. During this time, PFP was the dominant mode of protection provided in facility designs. With the widespread installation of fire sprinklers in the past 50 years, the reliance on PFP as the only approach was reduced.


==Building operation in conformance with design==
It is important to remember that even when a fire prevention officer who conducts an inspection does not find anything amiss, this does not mean that the building is in full compliance with the fire code. There is a limit to the amount of searching and disturbing that a fire prevention officer is legally allowed and financed by the municipality to do. For instance, an inspector may only be given one hour to inspect a school, which would not be enough to lift any ceiling tiles and really go indepth. Often, an inspector will be limited to a quick check on ]s and maintenance records of the sprinkler system. The written OK that results, does not mean that it's OK to have 400 new holes in fire-resistance rated walls above the ceiling tiles, which have not bee ]ped, for instance. This can become a politically charged item of contention in a municipality, as well as a test of the mettle of the Authority Having Jurisdiction, vis-a-vis the executive level of municipal government. A fire prevention officer can only comment upon what he or she has seen. As an example, many fire prevention officers are not given time to lift ceiling tiles to see what is happening in concealed spaces, a popular spot for code violations. A passed inspection, therefore, does not absolve a building owner his or her responsibility to maintain the entire facility in compliance with the fire code, nor does it give him or her carte blanche that everything is OK with the ]. Likewise, in small municipalities, or "one-horse" towns, with few large employers, municipal inspectors are routinely left out of the larger facilities, for fear that the owner may be angered, especially, where the owner is much larger than the municipality that has have sprung up around or is economically dependent on the plant. In those cases, the only advocate for proper fire protection may the industrial insurance company, who is is subject to pressure from competition that may claim to be more lenient as well as risk and damage assessments.
Fire protection within a structure relies on all of its components. The building is designed in compliance with the local ] and ] by the architect and other consultants.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ballast |first=David Kent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBs-EAAAQBAJ&dq=The+building+is+designed+in+compliance+with+the+local+building+code+and+fire+code+by+the+architect+and+other+consultants.&pg=SA28-PA18 |title=PPI NCIDQ Interior Design Reference Manual, 7th Edition—Includes Complete Coverage of Content Areas for All Three Sections of the NCIDQ Exam |date=2021-07-20 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-59126-842-0 |pages=28–18 |language=en}}</ref> A building permit is issued after review by the ].


Deviations from that original plan should be made known to the AHJ to make sure that the change is still in compliance with the law to prevent any unsafe conditions that may violate the law and put people at risk. For example, if the ] systems in a structure were inoperable, a significant part of the fire safety plan might be compromised in the event of a fire because the walls and floors that contain the firestops are intended to have a ]. Likewise, if the ] or fire alarm system is inoperable for lack of proper maintenance, the likelihood of damage or personal injury is increased.
==See also==
*]
*]
*]
*]


== Government Guidelines of Fire Protection and Fire Safety ==
*]
**]
**]
**]
**]
**]


*]
**]
**]
**]
**]
**]
**]
**]


*]

**]


==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
* ]
** ]
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** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
** ]
* ]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Huang, Kai. 2009. Population and Building Factors That Impact Residential Fire Rates in Large U.S. Cities. Applied Research Project. Texas State University. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/287/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308201531/http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/287/ |date=2012-03-08 }}.


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons category|Fire_protection|Fire Protection}}
*
* *
* *
*
*


{{Fire protection}}


{{Authority control}}
] ]
] ]

]

Latest revision as of 01:32, 12 September 2024

Measures that prevent or mitigate unwanted fire

Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of potentially destructive fires. It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local building code and fire code, which are enforced by the authority having jurisdiction.

Buildings must be maintained in accordance with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire department. In the event of fire emergencies, Firefighters, fire investigators, and other fire prevention personnel are called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the damage of a fire.

Classifying fires

Main article: Fire class

When deciding on what fire protection is appropriate for any given situation, it is important to assess the types of fire hazards that may be faced. Some jurisdictions operate systems of classifying fires using code letters. Whilst these may agree on some classifications, they also vary. Below is a table showing the standard operated in Europe and Australia against the system used in the United States.

Type of fire Australia European North America
Fires that involve flammable solids such as wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types of plastics. Class A Class A Class A
Fires that involve flammable liquids or liquefiable solids such as petrol/gasoline, oil, paint, some waxes & plastics, but not cooking fats or oils Class B Class B Class B
Fires that involve flammable gases, such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane Class C Class C
Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium Class D Class D Class D
Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a conductive agent is used to control the fire. Class E (Class E) now no longer in the European standards Class C
Fires involving cooking fats and oils. The high temperature of the oils when on fire far exceeds that of other flammable liquids, making normal extinguishing agents ineffective. Class F Class F Class K

Technically there is no such thing as a "Class E" fire, as electricity itself does not burn. However, it is considered a dangerous and very deadly complication to a fire, therefore using the incorrect extinguishing method can result in serious injury or death. Class E, however generally refers to fires involving electricity, therefore a bracketed E, "(E)" denoted on various types of extinguishers.

Fires are sometimes categorized as "one alarm", "two alarm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably, though it always refers to the level response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, the number counts the number of "dispatches" for additional personnel and equipment.

Components

Personnel training and fire training alarm in Karelian Research Centre of RAS, 2018.

Fire protection in land-based buildings, offshore construction or on board ships is typically achieved via all of the following:

  • Passive fire protection - the installation of firewalls and fire rated floor assemblies to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire, high temperatures, and smoke.
  • Active fire protection - manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires, such as fire sprinkler systems and (fire alarm) systems.
  • Education - the provision of information regarding passive and active fire protection systems to building owners, operators, occupants, and emergency personnel so that they have a working understanding of the intent of these systems and how they perform in the fire safety plan.

Balanced approach

Passive fire protection (PFP) in the form of compartmentalisation was developed prior to the invention of or widespread use of active fire protection (AFP), mainly in the form of automatic fire sprinkler systems. During this time, PFP was the dominant mode of protection provided in facility designs. With the widespread installation of fire sprinklers in the past 50 years, the reliance on PFP as the only approach was reduced.

Building operation in conformance with design

Fire protection within a structure relies on all of its components. The building is designed in compliance with the local building code and fire code by the architect and other consultants. A building permit is issued after review by the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).

Deviations from that original plan should be made known to the AHJ to make sure that the change is still in compliance with the law to prevent any unsafe conditions that may violate the law and put people at risk. For example, if the firestop systems in a structure were inoperable, a significant part of the fire safety plan might be compromised in the event of a fire because the walls and floors that contain the firestops are intended to have a fire-resistance rating. Likewise, if the sprinkler system or fire alarm system is inoperable for lack of proper maintenance, the likelihood of damage or personal injury is increased.

Government Guidelines of Fire Protection and Fire Safety

INDIA

USA

UAE

EUROPE

UK

See also

Notes

  1. NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, pg. 2-19
  2. RANA, JAGENDRA (2023-06-29). RISK ENGINEERING. Blue Rose Publishers. p. 218.
  3. RANA, JAGENDRA (2023-06-29). RISK ENGINEERING. Blue Rose Publishers. p. 215.
  4. BHUYAN, DEVAJIT (2015-06-01). Complete Guide to Career Planning (in German). V&S Publishers. ISBN 978-93-5057-403-4.
  5. Bhuyan, Devajit (2004-12-01). Multiple Career Choices. Pustak Mahal. p. 201. ISBN 978-81-223-0779-5.
  6. BHUYAN, DEVAJIT (2015-06-01). Complete Guide to Career Planning (in German). V&S Publishers. ISBN 978-93-5057-403-4.
  7. Ward, Michael J. (2019-12-18). Fire Officer: Principles and Practice includes Navigate Advantage Access: Principles and Practice. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 405. ISBN 978-1-284-17239-3.
  8. Jr, A. Maurice Jones; Jones (2013-12-27). Fire Protection Systems. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-284-03538-4.
  9. Binggeli, Corky (2008). Materials for Interior Environments. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-470-11428-5.
  10. New South Wales Rural Fire Service VF - (2005) Village Firefighter Manual, pg 16.
  11. Paper Industry. Paper Industry Management Association. 1965. p. 53.
  12. Paine, Whiton Stewart (1981). Proceedings, First National Conference on Burnout, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, November 2-4, 1981. Gwynedd Mercy College/Mercy Catholic Medical Center. p. 117.
  13. "Paying for Donated Blood, Ethanol in Lawn Mowers, Numbered Alarm Fires: 5/12/06 - Money News Story - WRC | Washington". Archived from the original on 2007-11-23. Retrieved 2007-11-23.
  14. "Four-alarm fire on Avenue B". www.thevillager.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  15. Ballast, David Kent (2021-07-20). PPI NCIDQ Interior Design Reference Manual, 7th Edition—Includes Complete Coverage of Content Areas for All Three Sections of the NCIDQ Exam. Simon and Schuster. pp. 28–18. ISBN 978-1-59126-842-0.

Further reading

External links

Fire protection
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