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{{Short description|Historic Indigenous tribe of Texas}}
]
{{Infobox ethnic group

|group = Atakapa<br/>Ishak
⚫ The '''Akokisa''' were the indigenous tribe that lived on ] and the lower ] and ] rivers in ], primarily in the present-day ] area.<ref name=Campbell>Campbell, Thomas N. "Akokisa Indians." (retrieved 2009-1-13)</ref> They are regarded as a band of the ] Indians, closely related to the Atakapa of ].<ref name=swanton>Swanton, John R. ''The Indian Tribes of North America.'' Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 145. 1953: 198</ref>
|image = ]
|caption = Location of the Sabine River
|population = ''ceased to exist as a tribe''
|regions = United States<br/>(Southeastern ])
|religions = ], Indigenous religion
|languages = ]
|related = other ] peoples
}}
⚫ The '''Akokisa''' (also known as the '''Accokesaws''', '''Arkokisa''', or '''Orcoquiza'''<ref name="Zamponi-2024">{{cite book |last=Zamponi |first=Raoul |title=The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America |chapter=Unclassified languages |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2024 |isbn=978-3-11-071274-2 |doi=10.1515/9783110712742-061 |pages=1627–1648 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110712742-061/html}}</ref>) were an ] who lived on ] and the lower ] and ] rivers in ], primarily in the present-day ] area.<ref name="tsha">{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Thomas N. |title=Akokisa Indians |url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/akokisa-indians |website=Texas State Historical Association |access-date=29 July 2023}}</ref> They were a band of the ] Indians, closely related to the Atakapa of ].<ref name=swanton>Swanton, John R. ''The Indian Tribes of North America.'' Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 145. 1953: 198</ref>


==History== ==History==
=== 16th century ===
⚫ ] wrote about the Akosisa in 1528, calling them the "Han."<ref name=swanton/> An early reported encounter with the Akokisa by a European person was in 1719 when ], a French officer, was held captive by the Akokisa until 1721. His account of his captivity provides some information about Akokisa culture.
] wrote about the Akokisa in 1528, calling them the "Han."<ref name=swanton/>


=== 18th century ===
⚫ John Sibley in 1805 reported that they previously lived near ] on the west bank of the ] (Texas) in ancient times.
⚫ An early reported encounter with the Akokisa by a European person was in 1719 when ], a French officer, was held captive by the Akokisa<ref name=tsha/> until 1721. His account of his captivity provides some information about Akokisa culture.


⚫ John Sibley in 1805 reported that they previously lived near ] on the west bank of the ] in ancient times.
Around the 1750s the Akokisa were divided into five village groups. Some Akokisa people entered the ] in 1748-9 but left in 1755. That mission was abandoned and replaced by Nuestra Señora de la Luz Mission, built in 1756-57 on the Trinity River, to serve the Akokisa and Bidais tribes.<ref name=Campbell/>


In 1805, the Akokisa were reduced to two villages. One coastal village lay between the ] and ]s; the other was on the west side ].<ref name=Campbell/> The Akokisas may have been absorbed into other tribes at the wake of the ] of 1835-6.<ref name=Campbell/> Around the 1750s the Akokisa were divided into five village groups. Some Akokisa people entered the ] in 1748-49 but left in 1755.<ref name=tsha/> That mission was abandoned and replaced by ], built in 1756-57 on the Trinity River, to serve the Akokisa and ] tribes.<ref name=tsha/>


=== 19th century ===
In 1947, Orobio counted about 300 families for each village, an estimated total between 1,200-1,250.
In 1805, the Akokisa were reduced to two villages. One coastal village lay between the ] and ]s; the other was on the west side of the ].<ref name=tsha/> The Akokisas may have been absorbed into other tribes at the wake of the ] of 1835-36.<ref name=tsha/>


==Name== ==Name==
The name ''Akokisa'' is of unknown origin, although ] has speculated that the name may be from the ] word ''icāk'' meaning "person". The Akokisa have also been known by the following names (and spellings): ''Accockesaws'', ''Accokesaus'', ''Accokesaws'', ''Aco-ke-sas'', ''Arkokisa'', ''Horcoquisa'', ''Ocosaus'', ''Orcoquisa(s)'', ''Orcoquisacs'', ''Orcoquizas''. The name ''Akokisa'' is of unknown origin, although ] has speculated that the name may be from the ] word ''icāk'' meaning "person". The Akokisa have also been known by the following names and spelling variations: Arkokisa,<ref name=tsha/> Caque,<ref name=tsha/> Han,<ref name=tsha/> Orcoquiza,<ref name=tsha/> Accocesaw, Accockesaw, Accokesaus, Accokesaw,<ref name="clark">{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=Patricia Roberts |title=Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced |date=21 October 2009 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5169-2 |page=11 |language=en}}</ref> Acokesa, Horcoquisa, Ocosau, Orcoquisa, and Orcoquisac.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}


== Culture == == Culture ==
Akokisa people lived in settled villages and built airy structures to cope with their warm climate. Their homes were beehive-shaped and ] with grass or ] leaves. A hearth would be located in the center of the floor with a smokehole in the ceiling. During summer months, an Akokisa would sleep in a ], a raised platform with a thatched roof and open sides. Beds were made of straw, covered with animal skins.<ref name=stahl>Stahl, Carmine. ''Jesse J. Jones & Nature Center Redbud Hill Homestead.'' 2002</ref> Akokisa people lived in settled villages and built airy structures to cope with their warm climate. Their homes were beehive-shaped and ] with grass or ] leaves. A hearth would be located in the center of the floor with a smokehole in the ceiling. During summer months, an Akokisa would sleep in a ], a raised platform with a thatched roof and open sides. Beds were made of straw, covered with animal skins.<ref name=stahl>Stahl, Carmine. ''Jesse J. Jones & Nature Center Redbud Hill Homestead.'' 2002</ref>


For water transportation and fishing, Akokisas carved ] logs into ].<ref name=stahl/> For water transportation and fishing, Akokisas carved ] logs into ].<ref name=stahl/>
Line 24: Line 36:
Both men and women decorated their bodies and faces with ]s. Both men and women decorated their bodies and faces with ]s.


The Akokisa, like the ], practiced ], which may have been connected to their religious beliefs. Cannibalist feasts were described by ], who observed them firsthand.<ref name=newcomb>Newcomb, William Wilmon, Jr. ''The Indians of Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times.'' Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972:327</ref> Akokisa were ] and had a died of ], fish, cotton rates, ] and ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/6996476//|title=Original Islanders Deserve Respect|last=Muhich|first=Mark|date=29 March 1995|work=The Galveston Daily News|access-date=12 October 2016|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The Akokisa, like the ], practiced ], which may have been connected to their religious beliefs. Cannibalistic efforts were described as consumption of enemies' flesh after a battle by ], who observed them firsthand.<ref name=newcomb>Newcomb, William Wilmon, Jr. ''The Indians of Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times.'' Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972:327</ref> Akokisa were ]s and had a diet of ], fish, ]s and ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/6996476//|title=Original Islanders Deserve Respect|last=Muhich|first=Mark|date=29 March 1995|work=The Galveston Daily News|access-date=12 October 2016|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>


] was used for purification in certain ceremonies. ] was used for purification in certain ceremonies.
Line 34: Line 46:
== Language == == Language ==
{{Infobox language {{Infobox language
|name=Akokisa | name = Akokisa
|nativename= | nativename =
|region=Texas | region = ]
|extinct=19th century | extinct = 19th century
|family= unclassified | family = unclassified
|familycolor=American | familycolor = American
|iso3=none | iso3 = none
|linglist=096 | linglist = 096
|linglist2=aqp-ako | linglist2 = aqp-ako
|linglist3=qm5-ako | linglist3 = qm5-ako
|glotto=none | glotto = none
| acceptance =
| ethnicity = Akokisa
| states = ]
}} }}
⚫ The Akokisa language is ] and virtually unknown.


⚫ The Akokisa language is ] and nearly unknown.
⚫ Swanton claimed that the Akokisa spoke a language related to ] based on the similarity of a vocabulary of 45 words ascribed to the Akokisa collected by Captain Jean Béranger in 1721 on Galveston. However, there is no clear evidence that this document actually represents the language of Akokisa (Béranger provides a tribal designation for the vocabulary).

⚫ ] claimed that the Akokisa spoke a language related to ] based on the similarity of a vocabulary of 45 words ascribed to the Akokisa collected by Captain Jean Béranger in 1721 on Galveston. However, there is no clear evidence that this document actually represents the language of Akokisa (Béranger provides a tribal designation for the vocabulary).


Sibley also reported that they had their own language "peculiar to themselves" and used ] to communicate with other Indians (also reported for other peoples in eastern Texas). He did not connect them with the Atakapa. Sibley also reported that they had their own language "peculiar to themselves" and used ] to communicate with other Indians (also reported for other peoples in eastern Texas). He did not connect them with the Atakapa.


Only two Akokisa words have been found in Spanish records: ''Yegsa'' meaning "Spaniard(s)" and ''Quiselpoo'', a female name. Only two Akokisa words have been found in Spanish records: ''Yegsa'' meaning "Spaniard(s)" and ''Quiselpoo'', a female name.

==See also==
⚫ * ]


==Notes== ==Notes==
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* Bolton, Herbert E. (1915). ''Texas in the middle eighteenth century: Studies in Spanish colonial history and administration''. University of California publications in history (No. 3). Berkeley: University of California. * Bolton, Herbert E. (1915). ''Texas in the middle eighteenth century: Studies in Spanish colonial history and administration''. University of California publications in history (No. 3). Berkeley: University of California.
* Folmer, Henri. (1940). De Bellisle on the Texas coast. ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'', ''44'' (2), 204–231. * Folmer, Henri. (1940). De Bellisle on the Texas coast. ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'', ''44'' (2), 204–231.
* Gatschet, Albert S.; & Swanton, John R. (1932). ''A dictionary of the Atakapa language, accompanied by text material''. Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 108). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Gatschet, Albert S.; & Swanton, John R. (1932). ''A Dictionary of the Atakapa language, accompanied by text material''. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin (No. 108). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
* Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the Southeast. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''47'' (1), 1-60. * Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the Southeast. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''47'' (1), 1-60.
* Margry, Pierre (Ed.). (1879–1888). ''Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Amérique Septentrionale (1614–1754)'' (Vol. 6, pp. 320–347). Paris: Maison-neuve et Cie. (Reprinted 1974 by AMS Press). * Margry, Pierre (Ed.). (1879–1888). ''Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Amérique Septentrionale (1614–1754)'' (Vol. 6, pp.&nbsp;320–347). Paris: Maison-neuve et Cie. (Reprinted 1974 by AMS Press).
* Martin, Jack. (2004). Languages. In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast'' (Vol. 14, pp. 68-86). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Martin, Jack. (2004). Languages. In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast'' (Vol. 14, pp.&nbsp;68–86). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
* Newcomb, William W., Jr. (2004). Atakapans and neighboring groups. In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast'' (Vol. 14, pp. 659–663). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Newcomb, William W., Jr. (2004). Atakapans and neighboring groups. In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast'' (Vol. 14, pp.&nbsp;659–663). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
* Sibley, John. (1806). Historical sketches of the several Indian tribes in Louisiana, south of the Arkansas river, and between the Mississippi and River Grand . In T. Jefferson (Ed.), ''Message from the President of the United States communicating the discoveries made in exploring the Missouri, Red River, and Washita'' (p. 48–62). New York: G. F. Hopkins. * Sibley, John. (1806). Historical sketches of the several Indian tribes in Louisiana, south of the Arkansas River, and between the Mississippi and River Grand . In T. Jefferson (Ed.), ''Message from the President of the United States communicating the discoveries made in exploring the Missouri, Red River, and Washita'' (p.&nbsp;48–62). New York: G. F. Hopkins.
* Swanton, John R. (1911). ''Indian tribes of the lower Mississippi valley and adjacent coast of the Gulf of Mexico''. Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 43). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. * Swanton, John R. (1911). ''Indian tribes of the lower Mississippi valley and adjacent coast of the Gulf of Mexico''. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin (No. 43). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
* Villiers du Terrage, Marc de; & Rivet, Paul. (1919). Les indiens du Texas et les expéditions françaises de 1720 et 1721 à la 'Baie Saint-Bernard'. ''Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris'', ''14'', 127–149. * Villiers du Terrage, Marc de; & Rivet, Paul. (1919). Les indiens du Texas et les expéditions françaises de 1720 et 1721 à la 'Baie Saint-Bernard'. ''Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris'', ''14'', 127–149.

{{Native American Tribes in Texas}}
{{authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Akokisa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Akokisa}}
]
] ]
⚫ ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 22:43, 5 October 2024

Historic Indigenous tribe of Texas Ethnic group
Atakapa
Ishak
Location of the Sabine River
Total population
ceased to exist as a tribe
Regions with significant populations
United States
(Southeastern Texas)
Languages
Atakapa
Religion
Christianity, Indigenous religion
Related ethnic groups
other Atakapa peoples

The Akokisa (also known as the Accokesaws, Arkokisa, or Orcoquiza) were an Indigenous tribe who lived on Galveston Bay and the lower Trinity and Sabine rivers in Texas, primarily in the present-day Greater Houston area. They were a band of the Atakapa Indians, closely related to the Atakapa of Lake Charles, Louisiana.

History

16th century

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca wrote about the Akokisa in 1528, calling them the "Han."

18th century

An early reported encounter with the Akokisa by a European person was in 1719 when Simars de Bellisle, a French officer, was held captive by the Akokisa until 1721. His account of his captivity provides some information about Akokisa culture.

John Sibley in 1805 reported that they previously lived near Matagorda Bay on the west bank of the Texan Colorado River in ancient times.

Around the 1750s the Akokisa were divided into five village groups. Some Akokisa people entered the San Ildefonso Mission in 1748-49 but left in 1755. That mission was abandoned and replaced by Nuestra Señora de la Luz Mission, built in 1756-57 on the Trinity River, to serve the Akokisa and Bidai tribes.

19th century

In 1805, the Akokisa were reduced to two villages. One coastal village lay between the Sabine and Neches Rivers; the other was on the west side of the Colorado River. The Akokisas may have been absorbed into other tribes at the wake of the Texas Revolution of 1835-36.

Name

The name Akokisa is of unknown origin, although John R. Swanton has speculated that the name may be from the Atakapa word icāk meaning "person". The Akokisa have also been known by the following names and spelling variations: Arkokisa, Caque, Han, Orcoquiza, Accocesaw, Accockesaw, Accokesaus, Accokesaw, Acokesa, Horcoquisa, Ocosau, Orcoquisa, and Orcoquisac.

Culture

Akokisa people lived in settled villages and built airy structures to cope with their warm climate. Their homes were beehive-shaped and thatched with grass or palmetto leaves. A hearth would be located in the center of the floor with a smokehole in the ceiling. During summer months, an Akokisa would sleep in a Chickee, a raised platform with a thatched roof and open sides. Beds were made of straw, covered with animal skins.

For water transportation and fishing, Akokisas carved cypress logs into dugout canoes.

Both men and women decorated their bodies and faces with tattoos.

The Akokisa, like the Atakapa, practiced cannibalism, which may have been connected to their religious beliefs. Cannibalistic efforts were described as consumption of enemies' flesh after a battle by Simars de Bellisle, who observed them firsthand. Akokisa were hunter-gatherers and had a diet of deer, fish, oysters and bison.

Black drink was used for purification in certain ceremonies.

They are reported to have grown "superfine" maize. Tubers of the greenbrier vine provided meal for baking and cooking. During warm seasons they ate bird eggs, fish, shellfish, and American lotus rhizomes and seeds; during cold seasons they moved further inland and hunted deer, bear, and bison. Horses were used to hunt bison. Tanned deer hides and bear fat were their primary commercial exports.

Almost nothing is known about their kinship systems, life cycle, or marriage customs.

Language

Akokisa
Native toUnited States
RegionTexas
EthnicityAkokisa
Extinct19th century
Language familyunclassified
Language codes
ISO 639-3None (mis)
Linguist List096
 aqp-ako
 qm5-ako
GlottologNone

The Akokisa language is extinct and nearly unknown.

Swanton claimed that the Akokisa spoke a language related to Atakapa based on the similarity of a vocabulary of 45 words ascribed to the Akokisa collected by Captain Jean Béranger in 1721 on Galveston. However, there is no clear evidence that this document actually represents the language of Akokisa (Béranger provides a tribal designation for the vocabulary).

Sibley also reported that they had their own language "peculiar to themselves" and used sign language to communicate with other Indians (also reported for other peoples in eastern Texas). He did not connect them with the Atakapa.

Only two Akokisa words have been found in Spanish records: Yegsa meaning "Spaniard(s)" and Quiselpoo, a female name.

See also

Notes

  1. Zamponi, Raoul (2024). "Unclassified languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America. De Gruyter. pp. 1627–1648. doi:10.1515/9783110712742-061. ISBN 978-3-11-071274-2.
  2. ^ Campbell, Thomas N. "Akokisa Indians". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  3. ^ Swanton, John R. The Indian Tribes of North America. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 145. 1953: 198
  4. Clark, Patricia Roberts (21 October 2009). Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced. McFarland. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7864-5169-2.
  5. ^ Stahl, Carmine. Jesse J. Jones & Nature Center Redbud Hill Homestead. 2002
  6. Newcomb, William Wilmon, Jr. The Indians of Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972:327
  7. Muhich, Mark (29 March 1995). "Original Islanders Deserve Respect". The Galveston Daily News. Retrieved 12 October 2016 – via Newspapers.com.

Bibliography

  • Bolton, Herbert E. (1915). Texas in the middle eighteenth century: Studies in Spanish colonial history and administration. University of California publications in history (No. 3). Berkeley: University of California.
  • Folmer, Henri. (1940). De Bellisle on the Texas coast. Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 44 (2), 204–231.
  • Gatschet, Albert S.; & Swanton, John R. (1932). A Dictionary of the Atakapa language, accompanied by text material. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin (No. 108). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  • Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the Southeast. Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1-60.
  • Margry, Pierre (Ed.). (1879–1888). Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Amérique Septentrionale (1614–1754) (Vol. 6, pp. 320–347). Paris: Maison-neuve et Cie. (Reprinted 1974 by AMS Press).
  • Martin, Jack. (2004). Languages. In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast (Vol. 14, pp. 68–86). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  • Newcomb, William W., Jr. (2004). Atakapans and neighboring groups. In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast (Vol. 14, pp. 659–663). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  • Sibley, John. (1806). Historical sketches of the several Indian tribes in Louisiana, south of the Arkansas River, and between the Mississippi and River Grand . In T. Jefferson (Ed.), Message from the President of the United States communicating the discoveries made in exploring the Missouri, Red River, and Washita (p. 48–62). New York: G. F. Hopkins.
  • Swanton, John R. (1911). Indian tribes of the lower Mississippi valley and adjacent coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin (No. 43). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
  • Villiers du Terrage, Marc de; & Rivet, Paul. (1919). Les indiens du Texas et les expéditions françaises de 1720 et 1721 à la 'Baie Saint-Bernard'. Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris, 14, 127–149.
Texas Native American tribes in Texas
Federally recognized
tribes
Indigenous languages
Historical Indigenous
peoples of Texas
(Several are in
Oklahoma today)
Related topics
extinct language / extinct tribe / early, obsolete name of Indigenous tribe / people absorbed into other tribe(s) / headquartered in Oklahoma today
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