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{{Short description|Irredentist beliefs for Morocco}}
{{TotallyDisputed}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2010}}
{{Sahara conflict}}
], 1956]]
{{Politics of Morocco}}
'''Greater Morocco''' is a label historically used by some ] nationalist political leaders protesting against ], ] and ] rule, to refer to wider territories historically associated with the Moroccan sultan. Current usage most frequently occurs in a critical context, accusing Morocco, largely in discussing the disputed ], of ] claims on neighboring territories.
'''Greater Morocco''' is the name for those areas believed by most Moroccan nationalists to have historically formed a part of the country. It is supported by the ]. The Greater Morocco ideology caused Morocco to refuse to recognize of most of its post-] borders, and has contributed to difficult relations with neighbouring countries, especially ], with which a ] was fought in 1962. It has been the driving force behind the invasion and controversial ] of ] in 1975-79 - another sore point in relations between Morocco and Algeria. The Kingdom still today spends much of its diplomatic capital trying to gain recognition for its hold over these areas, which it terms its "]".


The main competing ideologies of the Greater Morocco ideology have been ], ], ], ] and ].
⚫ Today, Morocco has dropped its claims to most of the lands included in the Greater Morocco vision, but it still claims the entire Western Sahara and the Spanish ]s on its northern coast, ] and ]. Morocco's refusal to accept its post-colonial borders in the case of Western Sahara has, however, put it on a collision course with the ], which holds this as one of its most sacred principles (in the interest of avoiding massive border strife). As a consequence, Morocco is the only African country not part of the union, while Western Sahara is represented by its ] ], the ].


Irredentist, official and unofficial Moroccan claims on territories viewed by Moroccans as having been under some form of Moroccan sovereignty (most frequently with respect to the Spanish exclaves), are rhetorically tied back to an accused expansionism. However, Moroccan government claims make no current reference to the Greater Morocco concept.
==Origin of the Greater Morocco ideology==
In the early ]'s, the Moroccan nationalist party - ] - used the ] concept of "Greater Morocco" as a ] tool to rally support of Moroccan citizens against ] colonial rule. After ] gained independence in ], and the death of ], the monarchy of ] revived the "Greater Morocco" as a continuation of the ongoing independence process. This has been successful, as Morocco quickly (re)acquired possessions such as the ] (after a brief ]), and much of the territory between ] and ], which have been after the ].


== History ==
==Territorial boundaries==
{{Main|Sand War}}
]
In 1963, following the Independence of ], Morocco attacked a strip of its south-western regions (] and ]), claiming that parts of them were previously under Moroccan sovereignty. There were several hundred casualties. French sources reported Algerian casualties to be 60 dead and 250 wounded,<ref name="worldcat.org">{{Cite book|title=Conflict and conquest in the Islamic world : a historical encyclopedia|others=Mikaberidze, Alexander|isbn=9781598843378|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|oclc=763161287|date = 2011-07-22}}</ref> with later works giving a number of 300 Algerian dead.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Warfare and armed conflicts : a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1494-2007|author=Clodfelter, Micheal|date=2008|publisher=McFarland & Co|isbn=9780786451715|edition= 3rd|location=Jefferson, N.C.|oclc=318813041}}</ref> Morocco officially reported to have suffered 39 dead.<ref name="O. 2001">{{Cite book|title=Morocco under King Hassan|last=O.|first=Hughes, Stephen|date=2001|publisher=Ithaca|isbn=0863722857|edition= 1st|location=Reading, U.K.|oclc=47150173}}</ref> Moroccan losses were probably lower than the Algerians' but are unconfirmed,<ref name="worldcat.org" /> with later sources reporting 200 Moroccan dead.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Warfare and armed conflicts : a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1494-2007|author=Clodfelter, Micheal|date=2008|publisher=McFarland & Co|isbn=9780786451715|edition= 3rd|location=Jefferson, N.C.|oclc=318813041}}</ref> About 57 Moroccans and 379 Algerians were ].<ref name="O. 2001" /> After a month of fighting and some hundreds of casualties, the conflict stalemated (see ]).
The area of "Greater Morocco" composed a far larger territory than current Morocco, though, including: all of ], the whole of ] along with the ] and ] and the ] areas in ], portions of western ] and northern ]; its aspirations include the Spanish ']', which include the cities of ] and ] .{{Verify credibility}}


In the early stages of decolonisation, certain elected Moroccan politicians, in particular some members of the ], like ], the sole advocate of “total liberation” who refused to enter France even to meet with his monarch or long-standing nationalist colleagues,<ref name="Douglas"/> were in favour of claiming wider territories historically associated in some way with the Moroccan Sultan. That was initially not supported by the Sultan (later King) of ].<ref name="Douglas">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/106591296201500405 |quote=The sole advocate of "total liberation" was ], who refused to enter France even to meet with his Monarch or long-standing nationalist colleagues. |title=The Irredentist Appeal in Morocco and Mauritania|year=1962|last1=Ashford|first1=Douglas E.|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=15|issue=4|pages=641–651|s2cid=154455607}}</ref>{{rp|645}} Al-Fassi's ambitions gained more support in parliament in the beginning of the sixties, leading to a delay in the recognition of ] (independent in 1960, not recognised by Morocco until 1969).<ref name="Douglas"/>{{rp|646}}
==Effect on Moroccan policy==
The Greater Morocco doctrine has contributed strongly to poor relations with all Morocco's neighbours, although its importance as a cause of conflict has sharply decreased since the early independence years.


⚫ Al-Fassi's wider claims were effectively abandoned in the later 1960s, although Morocco claims ] and the Spanish '']'' on its northern coast. Morocco's refusal to accept its post-colonial borders in the case of Western Sahara has put it on a collision course with the ], which holds that as one of its principles. As a consequence, Morocco is the only African country to step out of the union because the ], representing the ], was awarded a seat.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724134916/http://www.wsahara.net/gmorocco.html |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref>
===Mauritania===
Morocco withheld recognition of the ]n ] from its independence in 1960 until 1969, and persuaded most of the ] to do similarly. The reluctant recognition of Mauritania's sovereignty didn't appease Mauritanian fears, and Morocco continued to suggest proposals of union and federation between Morocco and Mauritania, and back Mauritanian opposition groups who worked for Moroccan control over the country.


The government of ] laid claim on several territories, successfully acquiring the ] after the ] with Spain, and much of the territory around ] and ]. Morocco also acquired much of ] after Spain handed the territory to Morocco and ] (see the ]). Spanish Sahara remains a disputed territory, with the ] who claim it as the ].
Therefore, in 1975, the ] government of ] maneouvered to annex a share of Western Sahara, in order to use it as a buffer against Moroccan expansionism. This contributed strongly to the outbreak of hostilities there. Morocco was outraged when Mauritania pulled out of the war in 1979, and after surging into the rump of Western Sahara right up to the Mauritanian border and annexing it, the government immediately set about to try to overthrow the republic and install a pro-Moroccan government. This rift has since healed, and the two countries now enjoy generally friendly relations.


In 1982, Spain entered the ]. However, Ceuta and Melilla are not under NATO protection since Article 6 of the treaty limits the coverage to Europe and North America. The ] are protected, as they are islands north of the ]. Legal experts have interpreted that other articles could cover the Spanish North African cities, but that perspective has not been tested in practice.<ref name="Newtral">{{cite web |title=¿Están Ceuta y Melilla bajo el paraguas de la OTAN? |url=https://www.newtral.es/ceuta-melilla-otan-expertos/20211002/ |website=Newtral |access-date=25 February 2022 |language=es |date=2 October 2021}}</ref>
===Algeria ===
A ] took place between Morocco and Algeria in 1963 (immediately after Algeria became independent from France, after an eight-year war) over ], ] and the surrounding, mineral-rich territories. Morocco failed to gain any territory, and a cease-fire was concluded with no border modifications. The attack caused the previously good relations between the ]-led Algerian government and Morocco to plummet, and they would be further inflamed when Algeria stepped in as the main supporter of Western Sahara's independence movement (]) in the 1970s. Although the common border was regulated in 1972 (in favor of the established border, at the cost to Algeria of sharing mineral wealth with Morocco), the two governments remain at odds. Their common border is frequently closed, and they regularly trade harsh words over the Western Sahara question, although the risk of open war between them has diminished since the 1980s.


In 2002, an armed incident erupted between ] and ], regarding the uninhabited ], located 250 m off the Moroccan northern coast. On July 11, 2002 a group of Moroccan soldiers set up base on the islet and so violated the status quo situation agreed between both states. The Moroccan government said that they set foot on the island to monitor ], which was denied by the Spanish government since there had been little co-operation in the matter, a repeated source of complaint from Spain. After protests from the Spanish government, led by ], the soldiers were replaced by ] cadets, who then installed a fixed base on the island. On the morning of July 18, 2002, Spain launched a full-scale military operation to take over the island. The operation was successful, the cadets were dislodged from the island in a matter of hours and offered no resistance to the Spanish ] commando force. The islet returned to its status quo situation and is now deserted. The episode highlighted the mediation role offered by the United States and the lack of collaboration of France towards its European allies during the crisis.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/spain-and-morocco-agree-to-differ-over-perejil-185424.html | title=Spain and Morocco agree to differ over Perejil | work=The Independent | date=July 23, 2002 | access-date=May 22, 2010 | last=Linnee | first=Susan | location=London}}</ref>
===Western Sahara===
* ''Main article: ]''


In 2020, US President ] signed a proclamation recognizing Morocco's sovereignty of the Western Sahara in exchange for the recognition of ] by Morocco.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sardon|first=R. Joseph Huddleston, Harshana Ghoorhoo, Daniela A. Maquera|title=Biden Can Backtrack on Trump's Move in Western Sahara|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/09/biden-can-backtrack-on-trumps-move-in-western-sahara/|access-date=2021-07-20|website=Foreign Policy|date=9 January 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano_en/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_in/zonas_in/ari43-2021-amirahfernandez-werenfels-western-sahara-can-a-trump-tweet-lead-to-unlocking-the-stalemate | title=Western Sahara: can a Trump tweet lead to unlocking the stalemate? | work=The Independent | date=April 7, 2021}}</ref> However, the European states did not modify their position with regard to the ] that recognise the Western Sahara as a territory yet to be decolonised.<ref name="The United Nations and Decolonization">{{cite web | title=Non-Self-Governing Territories | website=The United Nations and Decolonization | url=https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt | access-date=28 Jan 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=Morocco recalls ambassador in Germany over Western Sahara {{!}} DW {{!}} 07.05.2021|url=https://www.dw.com/en/morocco-recalls-ambassador-in-germany-over-western-sahara/a-57455313|access-date=2021-07-20|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-04-14|title=Paris " regrette " la création d'un comité de La République en marche au Sahara occidental|language=fr|work=Le Monde.fr|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2021/04/14/paris-regrette-la-creation-d-un-comite-de-la-republique-en-marche-au-sahara-occidental_6076716_3212.html|access-date=2021-07-20}}</ref> That, indirectly, together with the hosting of ], the leader of the Polisario, for medical treatment in Spain, was seen by Morocco as an aggression and provoked a new migratory crisis over the Spanish domain of ], in North Africa. The crisis was polemic since Morocco had acted beyond the diplomatic channels, while ]'s frontier division did not impede migrants from climbing fences or by swimming around frontier line.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-14|title=Dozens try to cross into Spain's Melilla enclave|url=https://www.expatica.com/es/uncategorized/dozens-try-to-cross-into-spains-melilla-enclave-162798/|access-date=2021-07-20|website=Expat Guide to Spain {{!}} Expatica|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-05-19|title=A Ceuta, des décennies de crise migratoire entre l'Espagne et le Maroc|language=fr|work=Le Monde.fr|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2021/05/19/comprendre-la-crise-migratoire-sans-precedent-a-ceuta_6080732_3210.html|access-date=2021-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Duplan|first=Maxime Biosse|date=2021-05-18|title=Crise migratoire à Ceuta : l'Espagne déploie l'armée, soupçons sur l'attitude du Maroc|url=https://fr.euronews.com/2021/05/18/crise-migratoire-a-ceuta-l-espagne-deploie-l-armee-soupcons-sur-l-attitude-du-maroc|access-date=2021-07-20|website=euronews|language=fr}}</ref> The ] intervened to control the trespassing, and at least two people died in the episode while they were trying to reach the shore.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-18|title=Spain deploys army in Ceuta to patrol border with Morocco after migrants swim ashore|url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210518-spain-deploys-army-in-ceuta-to-patrol-border-with-morocco-after-migrants-swim-ashore|access-date=2021-07-20|website=France 24|language=en}}</ref>
Morocco claimed ] from Spain at its accession to independence in 1956. Spanish colonial possessions within Morocco were given to Moroccan sovereignty. First, ]-] province in 1958, and then the sovereignty of ] in 1969 was transferred from Spain, following the ].


⚫ == See also ==
In the middle of an economic crisis and after three failed ], Hassan II decided to send more than 350,000 unarmed civilians towards Spanish-colonized Sahara in what became known as the ]. His intentions were to capture these territories as part of Greater Morocco, and gain the support of nationalist elements of the opposition. This was resisted by the ], a ] group which had fought Spain for ] since 1973, and which was since hosted and supported by ].
{{Div col}}
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
{{End div col}}


== References ==
During the ] in 1975, Morocco negotiated with Spain and ] on how to evacuate Spanish troops and partition the territory. Morocco was willing to cede the lower one-third in favor of the rich ] in the north – this acquisition could at once revive nationalistic confidence in the monarchy and give the economy a shot in the arm. Spain received 35% of the income from phosphate mining, primarily in ] and ], as well as preferential ] rights along the coast. Mauritania would gain the lower third of the territory for itself, while the ]'s demand for a referendum to allow the ] people to exercise its right of ] was ignored.
{{reflist}}


{{Pan-nationalist concepts}}
This prevented Western Sahara's formal ] and led to the ], which is still on-going today. In 2006, Morocco controls ], with a ] under Polisario control, and a ] holding between the two armies. The United Nations still views the area as a non-sovereign territory and remains ] in trying to organize a referendum on independence, but Morocco refuses to allow it. It is unclear if the dispute can be resolved without a return to armed hostilities.
{{Irredentism}}
{{Morocco topics}}
{{Arab nationalism}}


⚫ ]
==Greater Maghreb==
The term "Greater Morocco" or Greater ] is occasionally used in the press and royal proclamations as a sign of political unity between the Kingdom of Morocco proper and the other North African nations: ], ] and ]. The term is slightly ambiguous since the term ]" in the ] can be used both for the region of North-west ] and for the ].



==Further reading==
* Hodges, Tony (1983), ''Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War'', Lawrence Hill Books (ISBN 0-88208-152-7)
* Mercer, John (1976), ''Spanish Sahara'', George Allen & Unwid Ltd (ISBN 0-04-966013-6)
*Pazzanita, Anthony G. and Hodge, Tony (1994), ''Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara'', Scarecrow Press (ISBN 0-8108-2661-5)
* Thompson, Virginia and Adloff, Richard (1980), ''The Western Saharans. Background to Conflict'', Barnes & Noble Books (ISBN 0-389-20148-0)

⚫ ==See also==
*
*
*
*
*

⚫ ]
] ]
] ]
]

]
]

Latest revision as of 00:35, 8 November 2024

Irredentist beliefs for Morocco

Greater Morocco as claimed by the Istiqlal Party, 1956

Greater Morocco is a label historically used by some Moroccan nationalist political leaders protesting against Spanish, French and Portuguese rule, to refer to wider territories historically associated with the Moroccan sultan. Current usage most frequently occurs in a critical context, accusing Morocco, largely in discussing the disputed Western Sahara, of irredentist claims on neighboring territories.

The main competing ideologies of the Greater Morocco ideology have been Sahrawi nationalism, Mauritanian irredentism, Spanish nationalism, Berber separatism and Pan-Arabism.

Irredentist, official and unofficial Moroccan claims on territories viewed by Moroccans as having been under some form of Moroccan sovereignty (most frequently with respect to the Spanish exclaves), are rhetorically tied back to an accused expansionism. However, Moroccan government claims make no current reference to the Greater Morocco concept.

History

Main article: Sand War

In 1963, following the Independence of Algeria, Morocco attacked a strip of its south-western regions (Tindouf Province and Béchar Province), claiming that parts of them were previously under Moroccan sovereignty. There were several hundred casualties. French sources reported Algerian casualties to be 60 dead and 250 wounded, with later works giving a number of 300 Algerian dead. Morocco officially reported to have suffered 39 dead. Moroccan losses were probably lower than the Algerians' but are unconfirmed, with later sources reporting 200 Moroccan dead. About 57 Moroccans and 379 Algerians were taken prisoner. After a month of fighting and some hundreds of casualties, the conflict stalemated (see Sand War).

In the early stages of decolonisation, certain elected Moroccan politicians, in particular some members of the Istiqlal Party, like Allal al-Fassi, the sole advocate of “total liberation” who refused to enter France even to meet with his monarch or long-standing nationalist colleagues, were in favour of claiming wider territories historically associated in some way with the Moroccan Sultan. That was initially not supported by the Sultan (later King) of Morocco. Al-Fassi's ambitions gained more support in parliament in the beginning of the sixties, leading to a delay in the recognition of Mauritania (independent in 1960, not recognised by Morocco until 1969).

Al-Fassi's wider claims were effectively abandoned in the later 1960s, although Morocco claims Western Sahara and the Spanish plazas de soberanía on its northern coast. Morocco's refusal to accept its post-colonial borders in the case of Western Sahara has put it on a collision course with the African Union, which holds that as one of its principles. As a consequence, Morocco is the only African country to step out of the union because the Polisario Front, representing the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, was awarded a seat.

The government of King Hassan II laid claim on several territories, successfully acquiring the Tarfaya Strip after the Ifni War with Spain, and much of the territory around Ceuta and Melilla. Morocco also acquired much of Spanish Sahara after Spain handed the territory to Morocco and Mauritania (see the Madrid Accords). Spanish Sahara remains a disputed territory, with the Polisario Front who claim it as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.

In 1982, Spain entered the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, Ceuta and Melilla are not under NATO protection since Article 6 of the treaty limits the coverage to Europe and North America. The Canary Islands are protected, as they are islands north of the Tropic of Cancer. Legal experts have interpreted that other articles could cover the Spanish North African cities, but that perspective has not been tested in practice.

In 2002, an armed incident erupted between Morocco and Spain, regarding the uninhabited Perejil Island, located 250 m off the Moroccan northern coast. On July 11, 2002 a group of Moroccan soldiers set up base on the islet and so violated the status quo situation agreed between both states. The Moroccan government said that they set foot on the island to monitor illegal immigration, which was denied by the Spanish government since there had been little co-operation in the matter, a repeated source of complaint from Spain. After protests from the Spanish government, led by José María Aznar, the soldiers were replaced by Moroccan navy cadets, who then installed a fixed base on the island. On the morning of July 18, 2002, Spain launched a full-scale military operation to take over the island. The operation was successful, the cadets were dislodged from the island in a matter of hours and offered no resistance to the Spanish Special Operations Groups commando force. The islet returned to its status quo situation and is now deserted. The episode highlighted the mediation role offered by the United States and the lack of collaboration of France towards its European allies during the crisis.

In 2020, US President Donald Trump signed a proclamation recognizing Morocco's sovereignty of the Western Sahara in exchange for the recognition of Israel by Morocco. However, the European states did not modify their position with regard to the United Nations resolutions that recognise the Western Sahara as a territory yet to be decolonised. That, indirectly, together with the hosting of Brahim Gali, the leader of the Polisario, for medical treatment in Spain, was seen by Morocco as an aggression and provoked a new migratory crisis over the Spanish domain of Ceuta, in North Africa. The crisis was polemic since Morocco had acted beyond the diplomatic channels, while Moroccan police force's frontier division did not impede migrants from climbing fences or by swimming around frontier line. The Spanish Army intervened to control the trespassing, and at least two people died in the episode while they were trying to reach the shore.

See also

References

  1. ^ Conflict and conquest in the Islamic world : a historical encyclopedia. Mikaberidze, Alexander. Santa Barbara, Calif. 2011-07-22. ISBN 9781598843378. OCLC 763161287.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  2. Clodfelter, Micheal (2008). Warfare and armed conflicts : a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1494-2007 (3rd ed.). Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. ISBN 9780786451715. OCLC 318813041.
  3. ^ O., Hughes, Stephen (2001). Morocco under King Hassan (1st ed.). Reading, U.K.: Ithaca. ISBN 0863722857. OCLC 47150173.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. Clodfelter, Micheal (2008). Warfare and armed conflicts : a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1494-2007 (3rd ed.). Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. ISBN 9780786451715. OCLC 318813041.
  5. ^ Ashford, Douglas E. (1962). "The Irredentist Appeal in Morocco and Mauritania". Western Political Quarterly. 15 (4): 641–651. doi:10.1177/106591296201500405. S2CID 154455607. The sole advocate of "total liberation" was Allal al-Fassi, who refused to enter France even to meet with his Monarch or long-standing nationalist colleagues.
  6. Greater Morocco Archived 2011-07-24 at the Wayback Machine
  7. "¿Están Ceuta y Melilla bajo el paraguas de la OTAN?". Newtral (in Spanish). 2 October 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  8. Linnee, Susan (July 23, 2002). "Spain and Morocco agree to differ over Perejil". The Independent. London. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  9. Sardon, R. Joseph Huddleston, Harshana Ghoorhoo, Daniela A. Maquera (9 January 2021). "Biden Can Backtrack on Trump's Move in Western Sahara". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2021-07-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. "Western Sahara: can a Trump tweet lead to unlocking the stalemate?". The Independent. April 7, 2021.
  11. "Non-Self-Governing Territories". The United Nations and Decolonization. Retrieved 28 Jan 2022.
  12. Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Morocco recalls ambassador in Germany over Western Sahara | DW | 07.05.2021". DW.COM. Retrieved 2021-07-20.
  13. "Paris " regrette " la création d'un comité de La République en marche au Sahara occidental". Le Monde.fr (in French). 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2021-07-20.
  14. "Dozens try to cross into Spain's Melilla enclave". Expat Guide to Spain | Expatica. 2021-07-14. Retrieved 2021-07-20.
  15. "A Ceuta, des décennies de crise migratoire entre l'Espagne et le Maroc". Le Monde.fr (in French). 2021-05-19. Retrieved 2021-07-20.
  16. Duplan, Maxime Biosse (2021-05-18). "Crise migratoire à Ceuta : l'Espagne déploie l'armée, soupçons sur l'attitude du Maroc". euronews (in French). Retrieved 2021-07-20.
  17. "Spain deploys army in Ceuta to patrol border with Morocco after migrants swim ashore". France 24. 2021-05-18. Retrieved 2021-07-20.
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