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{{Short description|Dravidian ethnolinguistic group}} | |||
{{Ethnic group| | |||
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}} | |||
|group=Tamils | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}} | |||
|poptime=74,000,000 (1997 estimate) | |||
{{Infobox ethnic group | |||
|popplace=]: 63,000,000<br /> | |||
|group = Tamils | |||
]: 3,600,000<br /> | |||
|native_name = {{nobold|Tamilar}} | |||
]: 1,500,000<br /> | |||
|native_name_lang = ta | |||
]: 250,000<br /> | |||
|image = | |||
<!-- No other countries should be added to this list. The talk page explains why --> | |||
|image_caption = | |||
|langs=] | |||
|population = {{Circa|77 million}} <br /> ] | |||
|rels=], ], ], ] | |||
|region1 = India | |||
|related=''']''' | |||
|pop1 = 69,026,881 (2011)<ref name="India">{{cite report|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42561/download/46187/Language_Atlas_2011.pdf|title=Census of India 2011 - Language Atlas|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=2 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402144712/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42561/download/46187/Language_Atlas_2011.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
*] | |||
|region2 = Sri Lanka | |||
*] | |||
|pop2 = 3,108,770 (2012)<ref name="SL">{{cite report|title=Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka, 2012 – Table A3: Population by district, ethnic group and sex|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/FinalReport/Population/Table%20A3.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924110443/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/FinalReport/Population/Table%20A3.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead|work=]|access-date=29 February 2016}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into three ethnicities by the ], namely ], ] and ] who accounted for 11.2%, 4.1% and 9.3% respectively of the country's population in 2011.<ref name="SL1">{{cite web|title=A2: Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|work=]|access-date=19 May 2013|archive-date=28 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428063924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|url-status=dead}}</ref> Indian Origin Tamils were separately classified from the 1911 census onwards and the Sri Lankan government lists a substantial Tamil-speaking Muslim population under the distinct ethnicity of Moors. However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.<ref name="SM1">{{cite book|last=Mohan|first=Vasundhara|title=Identity Crisis of Sri Lankan Muslims|publisher=Mittal Publications|location=Delhi|year=1987|pages=9–14, 27–30, 67–74, 113–18}}</ref><ref name="SM2">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2070817.stm|title=Analysis: Tamil-Muslim divide|work=]|access-date=6 July 2014|archive-date=8 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608021900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2070817.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>}} | |||
*]s | |||
|region3 = Malaysia | |||
*'''Tamils''' | |||
|pop3 = 1,800,000 (2016) | |||
*]s | |||
|ref3 = <ref>{{Ethnologue19|tam|Tamil}}</ref> | |||
*]s | |||
|region4 = United States | |||
* ]s | |||
|pop4 = 238,699+ (2017) | |||
|ref4 = <ref name="USA">{{cite press release|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/acs-5yr.html|title=Commuting Times, Median Rents and Language other than English Use|work=]|date=7 December 2017|access-date=1 August 2022|archive-date=21 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021083227/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/acs-5yr.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
|region5 = Canada | |||
|pop5 = 237,890 (2021) | |||
|ref5 = <ref name="Can">{{cite report|title=Knowledge of languages by age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021701|work=]|date=17 August 2022|access-date=12 October 2022|archive-date=16 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116205812/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021701|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Includes all speakers of the Tamil language oncluding ] individuals do not speak the language as a ], but instead as a ] or ].}} | |||
|region6 = Singapore | |||
|pop6 = 174,708 (2020) | |||
|ref6 = <ref name="Sing">{{cite report|title=Singapore Census of Population 2020, Statistical Release 1: Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.ashx|work=]|access-date=13 September 2024|archive-date=25 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925222627/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.ashx|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Note:Includes 88,000 primary Tamil speakers and 86,708 speakers of English language who speak Tamil as secondary language.}} | |||
|region7 = Other | |||
|pop7 = See ] | |||
|langs = ] | |||
|religions = '''Majority''':<br /> ] <br />'''Minority''':<br />{{hlist|]|]|]|]}} | |||
|related = ] | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Infobox ethnonym | |||
|root=Tamiḻ | |||
|people=Tamiḻar | |||
|language=] | |||
|country= ] <br /> {{hlist|] <small>(hist.)</small>|] <small>(hist.)</small>}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Tamils}} | |||
The '''Tamils''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|æ|m|ɪ|l|z|,_|ˈ|t|ɑː|-}} {{respell|TAM|ilz|,_|TAHM|-}}), also known as the '''Tamilar''', {{refn|group=note|{{langx|ta|தமிழர்|Tamiḻar|translit-std=ISO}} {{IPA-ta|t̪amiɻaɾ|pron}} in the singular or {{langx|ta|தமிழர்கள்|Tamiḻarkaḷ|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} {{IPA-ta|t̪amiɻaɾɡaɭ|}} in the plural}} are a ] ] who natively speak the ] and trace their ancestry mainly to the southern part of the ]. The Tamil language is one of the longest-surviving ]s, with over two thousand years of ], dating back to the ] (between 300 BCE and 300 CE). Tamils constitute about 5.7% of the Indian population and form the majority in the ]n state of ] and the ] of ]. They also form significant proportion of the population in ] (15.3%), ] (7%) and ] (5%). Tamils have migrated world-wide since the 19th century CE and a significant population exists in ], ], ], as well as other regions such as the ], ], ] and parts of the ]. | |||
] from Tamil Nadu indicates a continuous history of human occupation for more than 3,800 years. In the Sangam period, ] was ruled by the ] of the ], ] and ]. Smaller ] kings and chieftains ruled certain territories and maintained relationship with the larger kingdoms. Urbanisation and mercantile activity developed along the coasts during the later Sangam period with the Tamils ] the regional trade in the Indian Ocean region. Artifacts obtained from excavations indicate the presence of early ]. The major kingdoms to rule the region later were the ] (3rd–9th century CE), and the ] (14th–17th century CE). | |||
The '''Tamil people''' are an ] group from the ] with a recorded history going back more than two ]. The oldest Tamil communities are those of ] and north-eastern ]. There are also a number of Tamil ] communities scattered around the world, especially in central ], ], ] and ], with more recent emigrants found in ], ], the ], and ]. There are an estimated 74 million Tamils around the world. | |||
The island of Sri Lanka often saw attacks from the Indian mainland with the Cholas establishing their influence across the island and across several areas in Southeast Asia in the 10th century CE. This led to the spread of Tamil influence and contributed to the ] of the region. Scripts brought by Tamil traders like the ] and ]s, induced the development of many Southeast Asian scripts. The ] later controlled the Tamil territory in the north of the Sri Lanka from 13th to 17th century CE. European colonization began in the 17th century CE, and continued for two centuries until the middle of the 20th century. | |||
The art and architecture of the Tamil people has one of the oldest traditions in the world. The ], ], the temple architecture and the stylised sculptures favoured by the Tamil people are still being learnt and practiced. The classical language of ], one of the oldest languages in India, has the oldest extant ] amongst other ]. | |||
Due to its long history, the Tamil culture has seen multiple influences over the years and have developed diversely. The Tamil visual art consists of a distinct ], scultpure and other art forms. Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed ]. The ancient Tamil country had its own system of music called ]. Tamil performing arts include the theatre form ], ] ], ] ], and various ]. ] is the major religion followed by the Tamils and the religious practices include the veneration of various ] and ]. A smaller number are also ] and ], and a small percentage follow ] and ]. ] consist of various ] and ] items, usually spiced with ]. Historian ] called the Tamils the last surviving classical civilization on Earth, because the Tamils have preserved substantial elements of their past regarding belief, culture, music, and literature despite the influence of ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wood|first=Michael|title=A South Indian Journey: The Smile of Murugan|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sK4hIRAdIJ8C|isbn=978-0-14193-527-0|date=2 August 2007|pages=x, xiii, xvi|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124112/https://books.google.com/books?id=sK4hIRAdIJ8C|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Unlike many ]s, Tamils were not governed by a single political entity during most of their history; ], the traditional name for the Tamil lands, was politically united for a brief period only between the 9th and 12th centuries under the ]. The Tamil identity is primarily linguistic, with Tamils being those whose ] is ]. In recent times, however, the definition has been broadened to also include emigrants of Tamil descent who ], even if they no longer regularly speak the language. Tamils are ethnically, linguistically and culturally related to the other ]s of the ]. | |||
== |
== Etymology == | ||
''Tamil'' is derived from the name of the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tamil, n. and adj.|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/197399?redirectedFrom=tamil|work=]|access-date=24 January 2023|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331201359/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/tamil_n|url-status=live}}</ref> The people are referred to as {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Tamiḻar}} in Tamil language, which is etymologically linked to the name of the language.<ref>{{cite book|title=Bhutan: Ways of Knowing|date=December 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_snDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tamils+or+tamilians&pg=PA247|publisher=]|editor=Frank Rennie, Robin Mason|page=247|isbn=978-1-60752-824-1|quote=Tamilians, a group living in the southern state of Tamil Nadu.|access-date=19 August 2023|archive-date=18 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918041800/https://books.google.com/books?id=q_snDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tamils+or+tamilians&pg=PA247|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] and precise etymology of the word Tamil is unclear with multiple theories attested to it.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kamil|last=Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|year=1973|title=The smile of Murugan: on Tamil literature of South India|publisher=]|location=Leiden|isbn=978-3-447-01582-0|pages=11–12}}</ref> ] suggests that the term ''tamiz'' might have been derived from ''tam'' meaning "self" and "-iz" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation of ''tamiz'' < ''tam-iz'' < ''*tav-iz'' < ''*tak-iz'', meaning "the proper process (of speaking)".{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=10-16}} ] suggests that the name comes from ''tam-miz'' > ''tam-iz'' meaning "self-speak", or "our own speech".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Southworth|first=Franklin|author-link=Franklin Southworth|title=On the Origin of the word tamiz|year=1998|journal=International Journal of Dravidial Linguistics|volume=27|issue=1|pages=129–32}}</ref> | |||
{{See also | History of Tamil Nadu}} | |||
===The pre-classical period=== | |||
].]] | |||
The origins of the Tamil people, like those of the other ]s, are unknown, although ] and ] evidence suggest a possible migration into ] around 6000 ].<ref>Gadgil (1997), p. ??.</ref> Connections with the ]ite people of ancient ] have been suggested, but there is little evidence to support this view. It has also been suggested that the people of the ] were either Tamil or another ],<ref>See, for example, Parpola (1974), p. ?? and Parpola (2003), p. ??</ref> but this theory is deeply controversial and there is at present no academic consensus on the identity of the ] people. | |||
It is unknown whether the term ''Tamila'' and its equivalents in ] such as ''Damela'', ''Damila'', or ''Tamira'' was first used as a self designation or a by outsiders. The ] from ] in ] dated to the second century BCE,<ref>{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani|url-access=registration |date=11 February 2003 |publisher=]|isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=–141}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Rama Shankar Tripathi |title=History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC&pg=PA199 |year=1942 |publisher=] |isbn=978-8-12080-018-2 |pages=199–201}}</ref> describes a ''Tamira samghata'' (Confederacy of Tamil rulers), which was in existence for the previous 113 years.<ref>{{cite book |author1=K. P. Jayaswal |author2=R. D. Banerji |title=Epigraphia Indica Volume XX |year=1920 |url=https://archive.org/details/epigrahiaindicav014769mbp |publisher=]|pages=86–89}}</ref> Epigraphical evidence from the second century BCE mentioning ''Damela'' or ''Dameda'' from ] have been found.{{sfn|Indarapala|2007|p=155-156}} In the ] ] texts, there is a mention of a ''Damila-rattha'' (Tamil dynasty).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Pali Literature of Burma|author=Mabel Haynes Bode|year=1909|page=39}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Jātaka: together with its commentary, being tales of the anterior births of Gotama Buddha|author=Dines Andersen|year=1992|publisher=]|page=66}}</ref> ] historian ] (first century BCE) mentions that the ] ] received an ambassador from ''Pandyan of Dramira''.<ref name="Dramira">{{cite book|title=Jesus of Nazareth: The Deep State of Rome|author=Tomás Morales y Durán|year=2020|isbn=979-8-56272-624-7|publisher=]|page=27}}</ref> An inscription from ] dated to third century CE refers to a ''Dhamila-vaniya'' (Tamil trader).<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot|editor-first=Mohan|editor-last=Lal|page=4283|publisher=]|year=1992}}</ref> | |||
The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the Tamil people in modern ] are the ]ic urn burials, dating from around 1000 BCE and onwards, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably in ].<ref>Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture - K.A.N. Sastri, ''A History of South India'', pp49-51</ref> These burials conform to the descriptions of funerals in classical ] in a number of details, and appear to be concrete evidence of the existence of Tamils in southern ] during that period. Recent excavations at these sites have also provided samples of early Tamil writing, dating back to at least 500 BCE.<ref>Subramanian, T.S. '']'', 17 February 2005. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref> | |||
== |
== History == | ||
=== In India === | |||
{{See also|History of Tamil Nadu|Sources of ancient Tamil history}} | |||
==== Pre-historic period (before 4th century BCE) ==== | |||
Around the third century BCE onwards, three royal dynasties—the ], the ] and the ]—rose to dominate the ]. Each of these dynasties had its own realm within the Tamil-speaking region. ] and contemporary inscriptions also describe a number of '']'', or minor chieftains, who collectively ruled over large parts of central ]. Wars between the kings and the chieftains were frequent, as were wars with ancient ]. These wars appear to have been fought to assert hegemony and demand tribute, rather than to subjugate and annex those territories. The kings and chieftains were patrons of the arts, and a significant volume of literature exists from this period. The literature shows that many of the cultural practices that are considered peculiarly Tamil date back to the classical period. | |||
] points to the region being first inhabited by hominids more than 400 millennia ago.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/sharp-stones-found-india-signal-surprisingly-early-toolmaking-advances|title=Science News : Archaeology – Anthropology : Sharp stones found in India signal surprisingly early toolmaking advances|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209183736/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/sharp-stones-found-india-signal-surprisingly-early-toolmaking-advances|archive-date=9 February 2018|url-status=live|date=31 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/02/01/very-old-very-sophisticated-tools-found-in-india-the-question-is-who-made-them/|title= Very old, very sophisticated tools found in India. The question is: Who made them?|newspaper=]|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210201237/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/02/01/very-old-very-sophisticated-tools-found-in-india-the-question-is-who-made-them/|archive-date=10 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Artifacts recovered in ] by the ] (ASI) indicate ]ic urn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE.,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/skeletons-dating-back-3800-years-throw-light-on-evolution/articleshow/1354201.cms|title=Skeletons dating back 3,800 years throw light on evolution|access-date=11 June 2008|newspaper=]|date=1 January 2006|archive-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124105726/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1354201,prtpage-1.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=John|first=Vino|title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way: Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne|work=]|date=27 January 2006|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|access-date=9 July 2008|quote=But Indian/south Indian history/archaeology has pushed the date back to 1500 B.C., and in Sri Lanka, there are definitely good radiometric dates coming from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur at least around 900 B.C. or 1000 B.C.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202174036/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|archive-date=2 February 2009 }}</ref>{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=67}} which are also described in later Tamil literature.<ref>{{cite journal|first=K. De B.|last=Codrington|date=October 1930|title=Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burials|journal=Man|volume=30|issue=30|pages=190–196|doi =10.2307/2790468|quote = It is necessary to draw attention to certain passages in early Tamil literature which throw a great deal of light upon this strange burial ceremonial ...|jstor=2790468}}</ref> ] ] with the ] dated between 15th and 20th century BCE indicate the use of early ].<ref>{{cite news|last1=T|first1=Saravanan|date=22 February 2018|title=How a recent archaeological discovery throws light on the history of Tamil script|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/10th-century-ce-oil-press-discovered-near-andipatti-with-a-tamil-script/article22814589.ece|access-date=26 February 2018|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109005047/https://www.thehindu.com/society/10th-century-ce-oil-press-discovered-near-andipatti-with-a-tamil-script/article22814589.ece|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=the eternal harappan script|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/india/the-eternal-harappan-script-tease|date=27 November 2014|work=Open magazine|access-date=24 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324134658/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/india/the-eternal-harappan-script-tease|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Excavations at ] have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in the ].<ref>{{cite web|date=21 August 2020|title=Keezhadi sixth phase: What do the findings so far tell us?|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/keezhadi-sixth-phase-what-do-findings-so-far-tell-us-131269|access-date=31 January 2021|work=]|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124023909/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/keezhadi-sixth-phase-what-do-findings-so-far-tell-us-131269|url-status=live|first=Anjana|last=Shekar }}</ref> Further epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur use ], a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|title=A rare inscription|work=]|date=1 July 2009|access-date=1 June 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922154651/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Potsherds uncovered from Keeladi indicate a script which might be a transition between the Indus Valley script and Tamil Brahmi script used later.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/artefacts-with-tamil-brahmi-script-unearthed-at-keeladi-to-find-a-special-place-in-museum/article66529594.ece|title=Artifacts unearthed at Keeladi to find a special place in museum|date=19 February 2023|newspaper=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=14 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114173611/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/artefacts-with-tamil-brahmi-script-unearthed-at-keeladi-to-find-a-special-place-in-museum/article66529594.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==== Sangam period (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE) ==== | |||
] was important during this period, and there is evidence that ] networks were built. The economy, however, was centred around trade, both internal and external. There is evidence of significant contact with the ]. Large hoards of ] and evidence of the presence of ] have been discovered at ] and ]. There is also evidence that at least two embassies were sent to the ] ] by Pandya kings. ] with Tamil writing have also been found in ]s on the ], suggesting the presence of Tamil ]s there.<ref>Mahadevan (2003), p. ??.</ref> An anonymous 1st century traveler's account written in ], '']'', describes the ]s of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms and the trade with them in substantial detail. ''Perplus'' also indicates that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils were ], ], ]s, ], ], ], ]s, ], and ].<ref>Casson 1989, pp?</ref> | |||
{{Main|Sangam period}} | |||
{{Further|Tamilakam|Sangam landscape|Economy of ancient Tamil country}} | |||
] during ]]] | |||
The ] lasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the various ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Jesudasan|first=Dennis S.|date=20 September 2019|title=Keezhadi excavations: Sangam era older than previously thought, finds study|newspaper=]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bc-report/article29461583.ece|access-date=12 August 2021|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082058/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bce-report/article29461583.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Joshi|first=Anjali|title=Social and Cultural History of Ancient India|publisher=Online Gatha|date=2017|pages=123–136|isbn=978-9-386-35269-9}}</ref> Ancient ] was ruled by a ] of monarchical states, ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/three-crowned-kings-tamilakam/|title=Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam|work=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=24 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224093728/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/three-crowned-kings-tamilakam/|url-status=live}}</ref> These kings are referred to as ''Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar'' (Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature.<ref>{{cite book|last=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲|title=Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature|year=2000|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|page=17}}</ref> The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in the ] delta.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=109}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=425}} They are mentioned in the inscriptions from the ] dated to third century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Edicts of King Ashoka|url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html|access-date=1 November 2023|work=]|quote=Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the ], the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni|archive-date=11 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511083821/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ] inscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hathigumpha Inscription|work=Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp. 86–89|url=http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/HathigumphaInscription.htm|publisher=Missouri Southern State University|access-date=15 November 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061117151339/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/HathigumphaInscription.htm|archive-date=17 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> The three kings called ''Vendhar'' ruled over several hill tribes headed by the '']'' chiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs called ''Kizhar''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Perspectives on Kerala History|editor=P.J. Cherian|url=http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/historicalantecedents.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826094724/http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/historicalantecedents.htm|archive-date=26 August 2006|publisher=Kerala Council for Historical Research|access-date=15 November 2006|quote=There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements ...}}</ref> The rulers of smaller territories were referred to as ''Kurunilamannar'', with '']'' mentioning the names of many such chieftains.<ref>{{cite journal|first=K.|last=Sivathamby|date=December 1974|title=Early South Indian Society and Economy: The Tinai Concept|journal=Social Scientist|volume=3|issue=5|pages=20–37|quote=Those who ruled over small territories were called Kurunilamannar. The area ruled by such a small ruler usually corresponded to a geographical unit. In Purananuru a number of such chieftains are mentioned;..|doi=10.2307/3516448|jstor=3516448}}</ref> | |||
The classical period ended around the fourth century ] with invasions by ], referred to as the ''kalappirar'' in Tamil literature and inscriptions. These invaders are described as evil kings and barbarians coming from lands to the north of the Tamil country.<ref>'Kalabhraas were denounced as 'evil kings' (''kaliararar'') - K.A.N. Sastri, ''A History of South India'', pp 130</ref> This period, commonly referred to as the dark age of the Tamil country, ended with the rise of the ] dynasty. | |||
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===The imperial and post-imperial periods=== | |||
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]. The Tamil kings were patrons of the arts, and built many ornate temples.]] | |||
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Although the ] records are found from the third century, they did not rise to prominence as an imperial dynasty until the sixth century. The dynasty does not appear to have been Tamil in origin although they rapidly adopted Tamil ways and the ]. The Pallavas sought to model themselves after great northern dynasties such as the ] and ]. They therefore transformed the institution of the kingship into an imperial one, and sought to bring vast amounts of territory under their direct rule. The Pallavas were initially ]s, but later converted to ]. They encouraged the ], which had risen to counter the growing influence of ] and ]. The Pallavas pioneered building large, ornate temples in stone which formed the basis of the Dravidian temple architecture. | |||
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|image1=GreyPotteryWithEngravingsVirampatnamArikamedu1stCenturyCE.jpg | |||
|image2=Souttoukeny, sarcofago da una sepoltura megalitica, II sec. ac..JPG| burial from Tamil Nadu | |||
|footer=Potsherds and megalithic sarcophagus | |||
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The Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions including ], ] and ] and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work being ], a book of Tamil grammar.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Kamil Zvelebil|title=Comments on the Tolkappiyam Theory of Literature|journal=Archiv Orientální|volume=59|year=1991|pages= 345–359}}</ref> ''Purananuru'' describes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about the ] performed by the kings as described in the ] and the rituals performed for the dead.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-224|title=Poem: Purananuru - Part 224 by George L. III Hart|work=Poetrynook|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125839/https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-224|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-231|title=Poem: Purananuru - Part 231 by George L. III Hart|work=Poetrynook|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=27 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227150131/https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-231|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The ] dynasty was overthrown in the 9th century by the resurgent ] and ]. The Cholas become dominant in the 10th century and established an empire covering most of southern India and Sri Lanka. The empire had strong trading links with ] and ]. The Cholas ] conquered the southasian kingdom of ] in ] and went on as far as ] and ]. Chola power declined in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the Pandya dynasty enjoyed a brief period of resurgence thereafter during the rule of Sundara Pandya, but repeated ] from the 15th century onwards placed a huge strain on the empire's resources, and the dynasty came to an end in the 16th century.<ref> (Sastri 2002)</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
The western Tamil lands became increasingly politically distinct from the rest of the Tamil lands after the Chola and Pandya empires lost control over them in the 13th century. They developed their own distinct language and literature, which increasingly grew apart from Tamil, evolving into the modern ] by the 15th century.<ref> (Chaitanya 1971, pp ?)</ref> | |||
Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks of ] channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order.<ref>{{cite journal|first=M. G. S.|last=Narayanan|date=September 1988|title=The Role of Peasants in the Early History of Tamilakam in South India|journal=Social Scientist|volume=16|issue=9|pages=17–34|doi=10.2307/3517170|jstor=3517170}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021884/Cauvery-River|title=Grand Anaicut|encyclopedia=]|access-date=3 May 2006|archive-date=26 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726171728/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021884/Cauvery-River|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] who ruled ].]]No major empires arose thereafter, and Tamil Nadu was for a while ruled by a number of different local chiefs, such as the ]s of the present-day ] and ] regions. From the 17th century onwards, ] began establishing settlements and trading outposts in the region. A number of battles were fought between the ], ] and ] in the 18th century, and by the end of the 18th century most of Tamil Nadu was under British rule. | |||
The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with the ]. ] and other epigraphical evidence from South India and ] with Tamil writing found in excavations along the ] indicate the presence of ] with the ancient Tamilakam.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/william-dalrymple-maritime-trade-route-india-europe-silk-road-8935580/|title=The ancient history behind the maritime trade route between India and Europe|author=William Dalrymple|date=23 September 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|work=]|archive-date=15 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215134525/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/william-dalrymple-maritime-trade-route-india-europe-silk-road-8935580/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=On the Roman Trail |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/01/21/stories/2008012150370500.htm |access-date=9 June 2010 |work=] |date=21 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110160411/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/01/21/stories/2008012150370500.htm |archive-date=10 November 2012 }}</ref> Much of the commerce from the Romans and ] were facilitated via seaports including ] and ] with ] being the most prized goods along with ] and ].{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=125-127}}<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/gastronomica/issue/7/2|title=The Medieval Spice Trade and the Diffusion of the Chile|date=26 October 2021|journal=Gastronomica|volume=7|access-date=31 January 2021|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026111301/https://online.ucpress.edu/gastronomica/issue/7/2|url-status=live}}</ref> There is evidence of emissaries sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by the Pandya kings.<ref name="Dramira"/> An anonymous Greek traveler's account from first century CE, '']'', describes the ports of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms in '']'' and their commercial activity in detail. It also describes that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils were ], ], ]s, ], silk, ], ], ]s, and ].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html|title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century|author=W.H. Schoff|year=1912|access-date=7 December 2006|archive-date=14 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814160845/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Tamils in Sri Lanka === | |||
{{See also|History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Tamils}} | |||
==== Medieval era (4th–13th century CE) ==== | |||
]]] | |||
] monuments in ] built by the ]]] | |||
There is little consensus on the history of the Tamil-speaking parts of ] prior to the ] period. Some ] ]s argue that there was no organised Tamil presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from ] in the ], whereas many Tamil historians contend that Tamils are the original inhabitants of the island. | |||
From the fourth century CE, the region was ruled by the ], warriors belonging to the ] community, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chakrabarty|first=D.K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT84|title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties|publisher=Oxford|year=2010|isbn=978-0-199-08832-4|page=84|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=4 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004104153/https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT84|url-status=live}}</ref> The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.<ref>{{cite book|author=T.V. Mahalingam|title= Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference|year=1981|publisher= South Indian History Congress|pages=28–34}}</ref> Around the seventh century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=333}}<ref>{{cite journal|first=Marilyn|last=Hirsh|year=1987|title=Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Mamallapuram|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=48|issue=1/2|pages=109–130|doi=10.2307/3249854|jstor=3249854}}</ref> Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of the ] in the sixth century CE under ], who ruled parts of ] with ] as their capital.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Francis|first=Emmanuel|date=28 October 2021|title=Pallavas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|journal=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History|pages=1–4|doi=10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|isbn=978-1-119-39991-9|s2cid=240189630|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328171504/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|url-status=live}}</ref> The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture.<ref name="UNC"/> Throughout their reign, the Pallavas remained in constant conflict with the Cholas, the Pandyas and other kingdoms of ] and the ].{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=135-140}} The Pandyas were revived by ] towards the end of the sixth century CE and with the Cholas in obscurity in ], the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pandya dynasty|encyclopedia=]|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pandya-dynasty|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=5 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005225758/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pandya-dynasty/|url-status=live}}</ref> The area west of the ] became increasingly distinct from the eastern parts.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Freeman|first=Rich|date=February 1998|title=Rubies and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting of Language in Kerala|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=57|issue=1|pages=38–65|doi=10.2307/2659023|jstor=2659023|s2cid=162294036|doi-access=free}}</ref> A new language ] evolved from Tamil in the region and the socio-cultural transformation was altered further by the migration of ]-speaking ]s from Northern India in the eighth century CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and cultural history of Tamilnad|last=Subrahmanian|first=N.|date=1993|publisher=Ennes|page=209}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections|last=Paniker|first=K. Ayyappa|date=1997|publisher=]|isbn=978-8-12600-365-5|pages=299–300}}</ref> | |||
The historical evidence is not conclusive either way. <!--A few poems from the ] period are attributed to a poet called "Pūtan̲r̲evan̲ār from īl̲am." Il̲am, also spelled ], is an old Tamil name for Sri Lanka, and this is generally used by Tamils as evidence that there were Tamil settlements in Sri Lanka at that time.{{fact}}--> Sinhalese historians, however, do not accept that and claim that there is no archaeological evidence of Tamil settlement in Sri Lanka during the Sangam period. Accounts from that period, whilst not offering conclusive evidence either way, demonstrate that Tamils fought wars against the Sinhalese kingdoms and occasionally ruled over parts of Sri Lanka, and served as counsellors to Lankan kings from a fairly early date. It is, however, unclear whether these Tamils came from India or were native to Sri Lanka. | |||
] at its greatest extent, during the reign of ] in 1030]] | |||
The historical record does establish that the Tamil kingdoms of ] were closely involved in Sri Lankan affairs from a very early date. There is evidence of Tamil traders in ] from an early date. Tamil adventurers invaded the island as far back as 100 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beginnings of tamil rule in ceylon|author=NALLUR SWAMI S. GNANA PRAKASAR O.M.I.|url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/tamil%20rule.htm|publisher=lankalibrary.com|accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> <!--From the seventh century onwards, the kingdoms of Tamil Nadu played a significant role in Sri Lankan politics, and there is concrete evidence of Tamil settlements in Sri Lanka during that period.{{fact}}--> Tamil wars against Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island in the 10th century, which lasted until the latter half of the eleventh century. | |||
The Cholas were revived in the ninth century CE by ] and the last Pallavas ruler ] was defeated by the Chola prince ].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Pallavas|first=Gabriel|last=Jouveau-Dubreuil|journal=Asian Educational Services|year=1995|page=83}}</ref> After the defeat of the Pallavas, the Cholas became the dominant kingdom with the capital at ]. The Chola influence expanded subsequently with ] conquering the entire Southern India and parts of present-day ] and ], and increased Chola influence across the ] in the eleventh century CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=Coins of the Cholas|publisher=Numismatic Society of India|first=Charles Hubert|last=Biddulph|year=1964|page=34}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Atlas of the year 1000|publisher=Harvard University Press|author=John Man|year=1999|page=104|isbn=978-0-674-54187-0}}</ref> Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=590}} Under his son ], the Chola empire reached its zenith and stretched as far as ] in the north and across the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC|title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|publisher=]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-143-02989-2|pages=364–365|orig-year=2002|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328171526/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC|url-status=live}}</ref> He defeated the ]s and the ] ] the ] in South East Asia.<ref name="History">{{cite book|last = Smith|first= Vincent Arthur|title=The Early History of India|year=1904|publisher= ]|pages = 336–358|isbn = 978-8-17156-618-1}}</ref> The Cholas had trade links with the Chinese ] and across Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book|last = Srivastava|first=Balram|title=Rajendra Chola|year=1973|publisher=]|page=80|quote=The mission which Rajendra sent to China was essentially a trade mission, ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Curtin|first= Philip D.|title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History|year=1984|publisher=]|page=101|isbn=978-0-521-26931-5}}</ref> The Cholas built many temples with the most notable being the ] at Thanjavur.<ref name="Great Living Chola Temples">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250/|title=Great Living Chola Temples|publisher=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=12 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912082313/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250/|url-status=live}}</ref> The latter half of the eleventh century saw the union of Chola and ] kingdoms under ].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India|author1=John Allan|author2=Wolseley Haig|author3=Henry Dodwell|year=1934|publisher=]|page=191|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283073}}</ref> The Cholas repulsed attacks from the ] and maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=485}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|editor-last1=Kulke|editor-first1=Hermann|editor-last2=Kesavapany|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Sakhuja|editor-first3=Vijay|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2009|pages=11–12}}</ref> According to historian ], Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundations of the empire for the next 150 years.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nilakanta Sastri|author-link=Nilakanta Sastri|title=The Cōḷas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eg9uAAAAMAAJ|year=1955|publisher=]|page=301|access-date=9 May 2019|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124121/https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=eg9uAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The decline of ] power in Sri Lanka was followed by the re-establishment of the ] monarchy in the late eleventh century. In 1215, the ] dynasty established an independent ] in the ] peninsula and parts of northern Sri Lanka. The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted by ], a Tamil in the service of the Sinhalese monarch. Alagakkonara built a fortress at ], and held the Arya Chakravarthi army there while he defeated the invading fleet at Panadura, southwest of ]. A descendent of Alagakkonara (Tamil-Alagakonar) later became King of the Sinhalese, but this line was deposed by the ] admiral ] (]) in 1409. | |||
] (13th century CE)]] | |||
The eventual decline of Chola power began towards the end of ]'s reign in the thirteenth century CE.<ref name="History"/> The Pandyas again reigned supreme under ] and defeated the Cholas under ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Aiyangar|first=Sakkottai Krishnaswami|title=South India and her Muhammadan Invaders|publisher=]|year=1921|page=44}}</ref> Though the Cholas were revived briefly with the aid of ], civil war between Rajaraja and ] weakened them further.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Land, Peasantry, and Peasant Life in India New Direction, Renewed Debate|editor=S. Jeyaseela Stephen|publisher=Manak Publications|page=87|year=2008}}</ref> With the Hoysalas later siding with the Pandyas, the Pandyas consolidated control over the region.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=487}} The Pandya empire reached its zenith in the thirteenth century CE under ] after he defeated the Hoysalas, the ] and captured parts of Sri Lanka. The Pandyas ruled from their capital of ] and expanded trade links with other maritime empires.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=459}} ] explorer ] mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Millennium Maritime Trade Revolution, 700–1700: How Asia Lost Maritime Supremacy|author=Nick Collins|year=2024|isbn=978-1-39906-016-5|publisher=Pen and Sword}}</ref> The Pandyas also built a number of temples including the ] at Madurai.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meenaskshi-Amman-Temple|title=Meenakshi Amman Temple|date=30 November 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|encyclopedia=]|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223062718/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meenaskshi-Amman-Temple|url-status=live}}</ref> In the fourteenth century CE, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also faced repeated invasions by the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Talbot|title=Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PA281|year=2001|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-198-03123-9|pages=281–282}}</ref> In 1335, the Pandyan capital was conquered by ] and the short-lived ] was established.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XQ6Z1pvFGx0C&dq=madurai+sultanate+indian+muslim&pg=PA14 |title= 'How Best Do We Survive?' A Modern Political History of the Tamil Muslims |author= Kenneth McPherson · |page= 14 |date= 2012 |publisher= ] |isbn= 978-1-13619-833-5 |access-date= 14 September 2024 |archive-date= 14 September 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124120/https://books.google.com/books?id=XQ6Z1pvFGx0C&dq=madurai+sultanate+indian+muslim&pg=PA14 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB-B7Hk_35AC&dq=kaithal+sayyids&pg=PA82 |author=Raj Kumar |title=Essays on Medieval India |page=82 |date=2003 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8-17141-683-7 |access-date=14 September 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526104425/https://books.google.com/books?id=JB-B7Hk_35AC&dq=kaithal+sayyids&pg=PA82 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==== Vijayanagar and Nayak period (14th–17th century CE) ==== | |||
The ] dynasty ruled over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until 1619, when it was conquered by the ]. The coastal areas of the island was then taken by the ], and in 1796 these became part of the ]. | |||
The ] was founded in {{CE|1336}}.<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Gilmartin|first2=Bruce B.|last2=Lawrence|title=Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZhT5Ilq5kAC&pg=PA321|year=2000|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-813-03099-9|pages=300–306, 321–322}}</ref> The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country by {{circa|1370}} and ruled for almost two centuries.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kanhaiya L|last=Srivastava|title=The position of Hindus under the Delhi Sultanate, 1206–1526|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cMgAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|page=202|isbn=978-8-12150-224-5}}</ref> In the sixteenth century, Vijaynagara king ] was forced to intervene in the conflict between their vassals, the Cholas and the Pandyas.<ref>{{cite book|title=The New Cambridge History of India Vijayanagara Volume 1|author=Burton Stein|publisher=]|page=57|year=1990}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Sri Brihadisvara, the Great Temple of Thanjavur|author=Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri|publisher=Nile Books|page=24|year=1998}}</ref> The ] governor under Raya briefly took control of Madurai before it was restored to the empire.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mediaeval Kerala|author=P. K. S. Raja|publisher=Navakerala Co-op Publishing House|page=47|year=1966}}</ref> The Vijayanagara empire was defeated in the ] in 1565 by a confederacy of ].<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521254847.006|chapter=Rama Raya (1484–1565): élite mobility in a Persianized world|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761|year=2005|pages=78–104|isbn=978-0-52125-484-7}}</ref> The Nayaks, who were the military governors in the Vijaynagara empire, took control of the region amongst whom the ] and ] were the most prominent.<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Politics and Social Conflict in South India|publisher=]|year=1969|page=8|isbn=978-0-520-00596-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Balendu Sekaram|first=Kandavalli|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4910527|title=The Nayaks of Madurai|date=1975|publisher=Andhra Pradesh Sahithya Akademi|oclc=4910527|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328171506/https://search.worldcat.org/title/4910527|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hinduism and the Religious Arts|author=Heather Elgood|publisher=]|page=162|year=2000}}</ref> They introduced the ] system and re-constructed some of the temples in Tamil Nadu including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bayly|first=Susan|title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900|publisher=]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-52189-103-5|edition=Reprinted|page=48}}</ref> | |||
==== Later conflicts and European colonization (17th to 20th century CE) ==== | |||
===The modern period=== | |||
In the 18th century, the ] administered the region through the ] with his seat at ], who defeated the Madurai Nayaks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Naravane|first=M.S.|title=Battles of the Honourable East India Company|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-8-131-30034-3|pages=151, 154–158}}</ref> The ] ] several times and defeated the Nawab after the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ramaswami|first=N. S.|title=Political history of Carnatic under the Nawabs|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1984|isbn= 978-0-836-41262-8|pages=43–79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tony Jaques|title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dh6jydKXikoC|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0-313-33538-9|pages=1034–1035|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=16 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116054856/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dh6jydKXikoC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Subramanian|first=K. R.|title=The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore|year=1928|publisher=K. R. Subramanian|place=Madras|pages=52–53}}</ref> This led to a short-lived ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings|first=Pratap Sinh Serfoji Raje|last=Bhosle|year=2017|isbn=978-1-948-23095-7|publisher=Notion press|page=3}}</ref> Europeans started to establish trade centres from the 16th century along the eastern coast. The ] arrived in 1522 followed by the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/rhythms-portuguese-presence-bay-bengal|title=Rhythms of the Portuguese presence in the Bay of Bengal|publisher=Indian Institute of Asian Studies|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207042633/https://www.iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/rhythms-portuguese-presence-bay-bengal|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://chennaicorporation.gov.in/gcc/about-GCC/about-chennai/origin-and-growth/|title=Origin of the Name Madras|work=Corporation of Madras|access-date=25 January 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406202458/https://chennaicorporation.gov.in/gcc/about-GCC/about-chennai/origin-and-growth/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Danish flavour|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2622/stories/20091106262211800.htm|access-date=5 August 2013|work=]|date=6 November 2009|location=India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060423/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2622/stories/20091106262211800.htm|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1639, the ] obtained a grant for land from the Vijayanager emperor and the ] established trading posts at ] in 1693.<ref>{{cite book|title=Symbols of substance : court and state in Nayaka period Tamilnadu|publisher=Oxford University Press, Delhi|year=1998|first1=Velcheru Narayana|last1=Rao|first2=David|last2=Shulman|first3=Sanjay|last3=Subrahmanyam|isbn=978-0-195-64399-2|page=xix, 349 p., p. of plates : ill., maps; 22 cm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3HCbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA583|title=Facets of Contemporary history|last1=Thilakavathy|first1=M.|last2=Maya|first2=R. K.|date=5 June 2019|publisher=MJP Publisher|pages=583|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082111/https://books.google.com/books?id=3HCbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA583#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present|last=Frykenberg|first=Robert Eric|date=26 June 2008|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-198-26377-7|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082100/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> After several conflicts between the British and the French, the British established themselves as the major power in the eighteenth century CE.<ref>{{cite book |last=Keay |first= John |title=The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company |publisher=Harper Collins|year=1993|pages=31–36}}</ref> The British regained control of Madras in 1749 through the ] and resisted a ] in 1759.<ref>{{cite web|title=Madras Miscellany: When Pondy was wasted|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Madras-Miscellany-When-Pondy-was-wasted/article15719768.ece|work=]|date=21 November 2010|last=S.|first=Muthiah|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=1 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501074741/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Madras-Miscellany-When-Pondy-was-wasted/article15719768.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A global chronology of conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA756|publisher=ABC—CLIO|page=756|year=2010|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|isbn=978-1-851-09667-1|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082105/https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA756|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historynet.com/seven-years-war-battle-of-wandiwash.htm|title=Seven Years' War: Battle of Wandiwash|work=History Net: Where History Comes Alive – World & US History Online|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518102613/http://www.historynet.com/seven-years-war-battle-of-wandiwash.htm|archive-date=18 May 2015|url-status=live|date=21 August 2006}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
The British colonists consolidated the Tamil territory in southern India into the ], which was integrated into ]. Similarly, the Tamil parts of Sri Lanka were joined with the other regions of the island in 1802 to form the Ceylon colony. They remained in political union with ] and ] after their independence, in 1947 and 1948 respectively. | |||
The British East India Company demanded tax collection rights, which led to constant conflicts with the local Palaiyakkarars and resulted in the ]. ] was one of the earliest opponents, joined later by ] and ] in the first series of Polygar wars.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=108691|title=Velu Nachiyar, India's Joan of Arc|publisher=]|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-date=27 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727120955/https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=108691|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Anand A|title=Bandits and Kings:Moral Authority and Resistance in Early Colonial India|doi=10.1017/S0021911807001234|jstor=20203235|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=66|issue=4|pages=881–896|year=2007 | issn = 0021-9118 }}</ref> The ] along with ], formed a coalition with ] and Kerala Varma ], which fought the British in the Second Polygar War.<ref>{{cite book|last=Caldwell|first=Robert|title=A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, in the Presidency of Madras|publisher=Government Press|date=1881|pages=195–222}}</ref> In the later 18th century, the ] captured parts of the region and engaged in constant fighting with the British which culminated in the four ]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Modern India:1707 A.D. to 2000 A.D|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&pg=PA94|publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors|page=94|year=2002|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|isbn=978-8-126-90085-5|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082104/https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&pg=PA94#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> By the late eighteenth century CE, the British had conquered most of the region and established the ] with Madras as the capital.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Madras-Presidency|title=Madras Presidency|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-date=17 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017071545/https://www.britannica.com/place/Madras-Presidency|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Naravane|first=M. S.|title=Battles of the Honourable East India Company: Making of the Raj|place=New Delhi|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-8-131-30034-3|pages=172–181}}</ref> On 10 July 1806, the ], which was the first instance of a large-scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company, took place in ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/july-1806-vellore/231918|title=July, 1806 Vellore|date=17 July 2006|work=Outlook|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904023012/http://www.outlookindia.com/article/july-1806-vellore/231918|archive-date=4 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> After the ], the ] passed the ], which transferred the governance of India from the East India Company to the British crown, forming the ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624875/Vellore-Mutiny|first=Kenneth|last=Pletcher|title=Vellore Mutiny|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501053701/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624875/Vellore-Mutiny|archive-date=1 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Adcock|first=C.S.|title=The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvMVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|pages=23–25|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-199-99543-1}}</ref> | |||
When India became independent in 1947, Madras Presidency became the Madras State, comprised of present-day Tamil Nadu, coastal ], northern ], and the southwest coast of ]. The state was subsequently divided up along ] lines. In 1953 the northern districts formed Andhra Pradesh. Under the ] in 1956, Madras State lost its western coastal districts. The ] and ] districts were ceded to ], and Kerala was formed from the ] and the former ]s of ] and ]. In 1968, Madras State was renamed '']''. | |||
Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the ] system resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, the ] and the ] which killed millions and the migration of many Tamils as bonded laborers to other British countries eventually forming the present ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-great-famine-of-madras-and-the-men-who-made-it/article5045883.ece|title=The great famine of Madras and the men who made it|first=B.|last=Kolappan|work=]|date=22 August 2013|access-date=9 May 2021|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509042855/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-great-famine-of-madras-and-the-men-who-made-it/article5045883.ece|url-status=live }}</ref> The ] gathered momentum in the early 20th century with the formation of the ], which was based on an idea propagated by the members of the ] movement after a Theosophical convention held in Madras in December 1884.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sitaramayya|first=Pattabhi|year=1935|title=The History of the Indian National Congress|publisher=Working Committee of the Congress|page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/73b4862g?display=all|title=Theosophy and the Origins of the Indian National Congress|last=Bevir|first=Mark|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|publisher=University of California|year=2003|volume=7|issue=1–3|pages=14–18|doi=10.1007/s11407-003-0005-4|s2cid=54542458|quote="Theosophical Society provided the framework for action within which some of its Indian and British members worked to form the Indian National Congress."|access-date=23 December 2023|archive-date=30 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630205548/http://escholarship.org/uc/item/73b4862g?display=all|url-status=live}}</ref> Various Tamils were contributors to the Independence movement including ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/subramania-bharati-the-poet-and-the-patriot/article37912151.ece|title=Subramania Bharati: The poet and the patriot|date=9 December 2019|access-date=1 December 2023|newspaper=]|archive-date=14 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614110344/https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/subramania-bharati-the-poet-and-the-patriot/article37912151.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> The Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the ] (INA), founded by ].<ref>{{cite web|date=7 November 2023|title=An inspiring saga of the Tamil diaspora's contribution to India's freedom struggle|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/an-inspiring-saga-of-the-tamil-diasporas-contribution-to-indias-freedom-struggle/article67510190.ece|work=]|access-date=15 November 2023|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331152818/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/an-inspiring-saga-of-the-tamil-diasporas-contribution-to-indias-freedom-struggle/article67510190.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
There was some initial demand for an independent Tamil state following the adoption of the federal system.<ref>{{cite news |first = P.C. |last = Vinoj Kumar |author = |coauthors = |url = http://www.tehelka.com/story_main19.asp?filename=op092306Tamil_Nadu.asp |title = Tamil Nadu at the Crossroads |work = |publisher = www.tehelka.com |pages = |page = |date = |accessdate = 2006-12-02 |language = }}</ref> However, the ] in practice granted significant autonomy to the states, and, protests by Tamils in 1963 led to the government adopting a new policy called the "three language formula". This has led to Tamils in India becoming increasingly satisfied with the federal arrangement, and there is very little support for secession or independence today. | |||
==== Post Indian Independence (1947–present) ==== | |||
In Sri Lanka, however, the unitary arrangement led to the slow growth of a feeling amongst Tamils that they were being discriminated against by the ] majority. This resulted in a demand for ], which in the 1970s grew into a movement for an autonomous Tamil country. The situation deteriorated into ] in the early 1980s. A ceasefire in effect since 2002 broke down in August, 2006 amid shelling and bombing from both sides. | |||
After the ] in 1947, the Madras Presidency became ], comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of ], ] and ]. The state was further re-organised as a state for Tamils when the boundaries were redrawn linguistically in ] into the current shape.<ref>{{cite act|url=https://lddashboard.legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1953-30_0.pdf|title=Andhra State Act, 1953|date=14 September 1953|legislature=]|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite act|url=https://interstatecouncil.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/states_reorganisation_act.pdf|title=States Reorganisation Act, 1956|date=14 September 1953|legislature=]|access-date=1 May 2024}}</ref> On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country".<ref>{{cite web|date=6 July 2023 |title=Tracing the demand to rename Madras State as Tamil Nadu |work=] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tracing-the-demand-to-rename-madras-state-as-tamil-nadu/article66347708.ece |access-date=1 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228032145/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tracing-the-demand-to-rename-madras-state-as-tamil-nadu/article66347708.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sundari|first1=S.|year=2007|title=Migrant women and urban labour market: concepts and case studies|page=105|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uMlVGtjbcSIC&q=madras+state+became+Tamilnadu&pg=PA105|isbn=978-8-176-29966-4|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=22 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822035218/https://books.google.com/books?id=uMlVGtjbcSIC&q=madras+state+became+Tamilnadu&pg=PA105|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1965, Tamils ] against the ] and in support of continuing English as a medium of communication which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chennai says it in Hindi|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/chennai-says-it-in-hindi/|work=]|date=14 August 2011|author=V. Shoba|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=30 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430174614/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/chennai-says-it-in-hindi/|url-status=live}}</ref> After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the ] of the Tamils have consistently improved due to ] economic policies and in the 2000s, the region has become one of the most urbanized states in the country.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://tnenvis.nic.in/Database/Demography_1168.aspx?format=Print|title=Demography of Tamil Nadu|work=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=9 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209234142/https://tnenvis.nic.in/Database/Demography_1168.aspx?format=Print|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.icrier.org/pdf/wp144.pdf|title=Economic Growth in Indian States|publisher=Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations|first=K.L.|last=Krishna|date=September 2004|access-date=22 July 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032647/http://www.icrier.org/pdf/wp144.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
===In Sri Lanka=== | |||
==Geographic distribution== | |||
{{Main|Sri Lankan Tamils}} | |||
].]] | |||
====Pre-Anuradhapura period (before fifth century CE)==== | |||
===Tamils in India=== | |||
].<ref>{{cite book|last=de Silva|first=K. M.|author-link=K. M. de Silva|title=A History of Sri Lanka|publisher=Vijitha Yapa|year=2005|isbn=978-9-55809-592-8|page=129}}</ref>]] | |||
There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. Historian ] states that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival of ] in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=53–54}} Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginal ] and ] people of Sri Lanka. A ] totem known as ''Nakam'' in the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book|title=South Asia Bulletin: Volumes 7–8|year=1987|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9kuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22According+to+tradition%2C+the+Tamils+of+India+and+Sri+Lanka+are+the+lineal+descendants+of+the+Naga+and+Yaksha+people.+The+aboriginal+Nagas%2C+called+Nakar+in+Tamil+had+the+cobra+%28Nakam+in+Tamil%29+as+their+totem.%22|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124138/https://books.google.com/books?id=W9kuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22According+to+tradition%2C+the+Tamils+of+India+and+Sri+Lanka+are+the+lineal+descendants+of+the+Naga+and+Yaksha+people.+The+aboriginal+Nagas%2C+called+Nakar+in+Tamil+had+the+cobra+%28Nakam+in+Tamil%29+as+their+totem.%22|url-status=live}}</ref> Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and in ] on the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=129}}{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=91}} Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of the ] in the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.<ref>{{cite web|last=Subramanian|first=T.S.|title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way: Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne|work=]|date=27 January 2006|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|access-date=9 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612085446/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127003610200.htm|archive-date=12 June 2008}}</ref> | |||
Most Indian Tamils live in the state of ]. Tamils are in majority in the ] of ], a former ] colony. Pondicherry is a ] situated geographically within Tamil Nadu. There are also Tamil communities in other parts of India. Most of these are fairly recent, dating to the colonial and post-colonial periods, but some—particularly the Hebbar and Mandyam Tamils of southern ], the Tamils of ] in ], and the Tamils of ], ]—date back to at least the medieval period. The tribe of ], who inhabit in the northern districts of Tamil Nadu are famous for their profession of snake and rat catching. | |||
<br clear=all> | |||
====Anuradhapura period (4th century BCE to 10th century CE)==== | |||
===Tamils in Sri Lanka=== | |||
] potsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign of ], indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India.<ref name="Tambiah">{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy|last=Tambiah|first=Stanley Jeyaraja|date=1986|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-026-1|page=90}}</ref> The ] inscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such as ''Parumakal'', ''Ay'', ''Vel'', ''Utiyan'', ''Ticaiyan'', ''Cuda'' and ''Naka'', which points to the presence of Tamils in the region.<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=]|page=223}}</ref> Excavations in ] in the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention of ''vela'', a name related to ''velirs'' of the ancient Tamil country.<ref name="Mahadevan"/> Epigraphical evidence of people identified as Damelas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) from the second century CE have been found in ], the capital city of the northern ] region.{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=157}} | |||
{{See also|Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Tamils|Hill Country Tamils}} | |||
Historical records mention that the three Tamil kingdoms were involved in the island's affairs from second century BCE.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|pp=30–32}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Mendis, G.C.|title=Ceylon Today and Yesterday|pages=24–25|publisher=Associated Newspapers of Ceylon}}</ref> Chola king ] captured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen|first=C.|title=Coromandel: A Personal History of South India|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|year=2017|isbn=978-1-40870-540-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qutzDQAAQBAJ|access-date=10 June 2022|page=154|quote=A later chapter of the 'Great Chronicle' describes how the Chola prince Elara (Ellalan) of Thiruvarur invaded and captured the throne of Lanka in about 205 BCE but was later killed in battle by the Sinhala prince Dutugamunu in about 161|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125955/https://books.google.com/books?id=qutzDQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them.<ref name="Spencer">{{cite journal|last=Spencer|first=George W|title=The politics of plunder: The Cholas in eleventh century Ceylon|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=35|issue=3|pages=405–419|doi=10.2307/2053272|jstor=2053272|year=1976|s2cid=154741845}}</ref> In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known as ''Demel-kaballa'' (Tamil allotment), ''Demelat-valademin'' (Tamil villages), and ''Demel-gam-bim'' (Tamil villages and lands) were established.{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=214–215}} In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island.<ref name="Spencer"/> | |||
] in Sri Lanka still work on tea plantations similar to this one near ].]] | |||
There are today two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka. The first are the '']'', who are descended from the Tamils who lived in the old ] or who migrated to the East coast. The second are the ''Indian origin Tamils'' or '']'', who are descended from ] sent from ] to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work in ] plantations there. Ceylon Tamils mostly live in the northern and eastern provinces, whereas hill-country Tamils largely live in the central highlands. The ''hill-country Tamils'' and '']'' historically have seen themselves as separate communities. In 1949, the ] Government, which included ], a leader of the ] and of the ], stripped the ''Indian Tamils'' of their nationality, including their right to vote. Prominent Tamil political leaders such as ] and his Tamil opposition party opposed this move. | |||
====Polonnaruwa and Jaffna kingdom (11th–15th century CE)==== | |||
Under an agreement between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, around 40% of hill-country Tamils were granted Sri Lankan nationality, and many of the remainder were repatriated to ]. However, the ethnic conflict has led to the growth of a greater sense of common Tamil identity, and the two groups are now more supportive of each other.<ref>(Suryanarayan 2001)</ref> By the 1990s most ''Indian tamils'' had received Sri Lankan citizenship. | |||
]]] | |||
The Chola influence lasted until the latter half of the eleventh century CE and the Chola decline was followed by the restoration of the ].<ref name="Spencer"/>{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=76}} In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant ] established the ] on the ] peninsula and in parts of northern Sri Lanka.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=100–102}} In the fourteenth century CE, the Aryacakaravarthi expansion into the south of the island was halted by ], who belonged to a feudal family from Kanchipuram that migrated to Sri Lanka in the previous century and converted to Buddhism.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=102–04}} He served as the chief minister of the Sinhalese king ] (1344–59 CE) and his descendant Vira Alakeshwara briefly became the king later before the ] admiral ] overthrew him in 1409 CE after which the influence of his family declined.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=104}} The ] of the Sinhalese also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India, which led to the emergence of new Sinhalese caste groups such as the '']'', the '']'', the '']'' and the '']''.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=121}}{{sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=275}} | |||
There is also a significant Tamil-speaking ] population in ]. Unlike Tamil-speaking Muslims from India, however, they do not identify themselves as ethnic Tamils and are therefore usually listed as a separate ethnic group in official statistics. Those of Indian origin (''Indian Moors'') are rarely listed separately from those of Sri Lankan origin. | |||
====Later conflicts and European colonization (16th–20th century CE)==== | |||
===Tamil emigrant communities=== | |||
{{See also|Portuguese Ceylon|Dutch Ceylon|British Ceylon}} | |||
The Aryachakaravarthi dynasty continued to rule over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until arrival of the Europeans on the island in the sixteenth century CE. Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 CE and the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese due to its presence as a logistical and strategic base for accessing the interior ruled by the ].<ref name="Abhay">{{cite book|first=Tikiri|last=Abeysinghe|title=Jaffna Under the Portuguese|publisher=Lake House Investments|year=1986|isbn=978-9-55552-000-3|pages=2–3}}</ref> King ] resisted contacts with the Portuguese and repelled ] ] who were brought from India to the ] to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kantaiya|last=Kunaraca|title=The Jaffna Dynasty: Vijayakalingan to Narasinghan|publisher=Dynasty of Jaffna Kings' Historical Society|year=2003|isbn=978-9-55845-500-5|pages=82–84}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gnanaprakasar|first=S.|title=A critical history of Jaffna: the Tamil era|year=2020|publisher=Gyan|isbn=978-8-12122-063-7|pages=113–117}}</ref> The wrested Mannar during the ] in 1560 and killed king ] during the ] in 1591.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=166}} After the conflicts, the Portuguese ] the kingdom in 1619 from the unpopular ], who was helped by the Thanjavur Nayaks.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC|title=The Nayaks of Tanjore|last=Vriddhagirisan|first=V.|publisher=]|year=1942|isbn=978-8-12060-996-9|pages=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAAJ|title=The Portuguese in Ceylon, 1617–1638|last=de Silva|first=Chandra|date=1972|publisher=]|page=96|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125958/https://books.google.com/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> English sailor ] arrived in the island in 1669 and described the Tamil settlements in the '']'' published in 1681.<ref>{{cite book|last=Knox|first=Robert|title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon|page=166|url=http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:58692:2|publisher=Robert Chiswell|year=1681|id=2596825|isbn=978-1-40691-141-1}}</ref> | |||
{{seealso|Tamil diaspora}} | |||
The ] captured the island later and ruled for more than a century. Following the ] and the ], the island came to the control of the British in the early nineteenth century CE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|first=Nikki|year=2016|title=Britain: losing and gaining an empire, 1763–1914|publisher=]|page=53}}</ref> Upon arrival in June 1799, ], the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Tamils who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners."<ref>{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka: National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle|first=Satchi|last=Ponnambalam|year=1983|publisher=Tamil Information Centre|isbn=978-0-86232-198-7}}</ref> Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure in ] for better administration.<ref>{{cite book|first=Donald|last=Horowitz|title=Ethnic Groups in Conflict|year=2001|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-52092-631-8|page=224}}</ref> During the British colonial rule, Tamils held higher positions in the government and were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the northern highlands, the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British and ] were settled there as plantation workers.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background|year=2002|first=Walter|last=Nubin|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-573-4|page=87}}</ref> Tamils who migrated in the ninteenth century CE to work on tea plantations were later termed as the ].{{sfn|de Silva|1997|pp=177, 181}} | |||
Significant Tamil emigration began in the 18th century, when the British colonial government sent many poor Tamils as ] to far-off parts of the ], especially to ], ], ], ] and the ]. About the same time, many Tamil businessmen also emigrated to other parts of the British Empire, particularly to ] and ].<ref>{{cite web | title= The Tamil Migration Cycle 1830 - 1950 |author=Christophe Z Guilmoto | work= | url= http://www.tamilnation.org/diaspora/articles/guilmoto.htm|publisher= Tamilnation.org | accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> Many Tamils still live in these countries, and the Tamil communities in ], ], ] and ] have retained much of their culture and language. Many Malaysian children attend Tamil schools, and a significant portion of Tamil children in Mauritius, Reunion and Singapore are brought up with ] as their first language. To preserve the ], the Singapore government has made it a national language despite the fact that Tamils make up only about 4.2% of the population, and has also introduced compulsory instruction on the language for Tamils. Other Tamil communities, such as those existing in South Africa, no longer speak Tamil as a first language, but still retain a strong Tamil identity.<ref>{{cite web | title= TAMIL DIASPORA - A TRANS STATE NATION |author=| work= | url= http://www.tamilnation.org/diaspora/southafrica.htm|publisher= Tamilnation.org | accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> | |||
====Post Sri Lankan independence (1948–present)==== | |||
A large emigration also began in the 1980s, as Sri Lankan Tamils sought to escape the ethnic conflict there. These recent emigrants have most often fled to ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book | first= Chris | last= McDowell | authorlink= | coauthors= | year= | title= A Tamil Asylum Diaspora: Sri Lankan Migration, Settlement and Politics in Switzerland | edition= | publisher= Berghahn Books| location= New York | id=ISBN:1571819177 }}</ref> Today, the largest concentration of Tamils outside southern Asia is in ], ].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tamil Studies - History | work= Tamil Studies at the University of Toronto| url= http://tamilstudies.org/history.html|publisher= The University of Toronto | accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and after the colonial rule ended, ethnic tension rose between the Sinhalese, who constituted a majority, and the Tamils.<ref name="SLT"/> In 1956, the ] designated ] as the only official language of Sri Lanka, which forced many Tamils to resign as civil servants because they were not fluent in the language. The Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them.<ref name="Tambiah"/> Anti-Tamil ]s in ] and ] resulted in deaths of many Tamils and further escalated the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ptsrilanka.org/images/documents/massacres_pogroms_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428050130/http://www.ptsrilanka.org/images/documents/massacres_pogroms_en.pdf|archive-date=2016-04-28|title=Genocide Against Tamil People: Massacres, Pogroms, Destruction of Property, Sexual Violence and Assassinations of Civil Society Leaders|publisher=People's Tribunal on Sri Lanka (PTSL)|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Nogdsac">{{cite book|title=Narratives of Gendered Dissent in South Asian Cinemas|publisher=]|year=2012|page=126|isbn=978-0-41596-117-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0vyvO2NGFMC&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA126|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=9 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009144243/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0vyvO2NGFMC&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA126|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sivanandan|first=A.|date=July 1984|title=Sri Lanka: racism and the politics of underdevelopment|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639688402600102|journal=Race & Class|language=en|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1177/030639688402600102|s2cid=143870163|issn=0306-3968|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125842/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639688402600102|url-status=live}}</ref> More than a million Indian Tamil plantation workers were made stateless after Sri Lanka refused citizenship to them. In 1964, the ] and ] entered into an agreement, based on which, about 300,000 would be granted Sri Lankan citizenship and about 975,000 Tamils would be ]d to India over a period of fifteen years.<ref name="SLT"/>{{sfn|de Silva|1997|p=262}} | |||
Many young Tamil professionals from ] have also emigrated to Europe and the ] in recent times in search of better opportunities. These new emigrant communities have established ] to protect and promote Tamil culture and language in their adopted homes. | |||
A new ] enacted in the 1970s further discriminated against the Tamils and various state-sponsored schemes led Sinhalese settlers into Tamil populated areas. The ] was followed by a crackdown against the Tamils, which curtailed their rights. Following the declaration of state of emergency in 1981, state-backed Sinhalese mobs turned on Tamils, which led many Tamils to leave the country as refugees resulting in an exodus more than half a million to India and other countries.<ref name="SLT"/> By the 1970s, initial non-violent political struggle for an ] in the ] and ] of Sri Lanka, developed into a violent secessionist insurgency.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BlCXRQo__6oC|title=The Political Economy of Armed Conflict: Beyond Greed and Grievance|publisher=]|last=Sherman|first=Jake|year=2003|location=New York|page=198|isbn=978-1-58826-172-4|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124757/https://books.google.com/books?id=BlCXRQo__6oC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Security And Development: Investing in Peace And Prosperity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXHRX20ibVAC|publisher=]|last1=Picciotto|first1=Robert|last2=Weaving|first2=Rachel|year=2006|location=London|page=171|isbn=978-0-415-35364-9|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124655/https://books.google.com/books?id=YXHRX20ibVAC|url-status=live}}</ref> This led to the bloody ] for more than three decades.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stokke|first=K.|year=2006|title=Building the Tamil Eelam State: emerging state institutions and forms of governance in LTTE-controlled areas in Sri Lanka|journal=]|volume=27|issue=6|pages=1021–40|doi=10.1080/01436590600850434|citeseerx=10.1.1.466.5940|s2cid=45544298}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=McConnell|first=D.|year=2008|title=The Tamil people's right to self-determination|journal=]|volume=21|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1080/09557570701828592|s2cid=154770852}}</ref> The conflict resulted in the deaths of at least 100,000 Tamils in the island and led to the flight of over 800,000 refugees.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Lanka's war 10 years on: Finding Father Francis|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-48300279|access-date=22 March 2021|work=]|date=18 May 2019|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210234516/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-48300279|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=UN rights chief seeks sanctions against Sri Lanka generals|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210127-un-rights-chief-seeks-sanctions-against-sri-lanka-generals-1|access-date=22 March 2021|work=]|agency=]|date=27 January 2021|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127223120/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210127-un-rights-chief-seeks-sanctions-against-sri-lanka-generals-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Open Wounds and Mounting Dangers|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/02/01/open-wounds-and-mounting-dangers/blocking-accountability-grave-abuses-sri-lanka|work=]|access-date=22 March 2021|date=1 February 2021|archive-date=22 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322035936/https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/02/01/open-wounds-and-mounting-dangers/blocking-accountability-grave-abuses-sri-lanka|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524|title=Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN|work=ABC News|access-date=1 March 2016|date=20 May 2009|archive-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923153656/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524|url-status=live}}</ref> The war ended after the ] in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/19/sri.lanka.conflict/|title=Sri Lankan president declares war 'victory'|work=]|access-date=8 February 2022|archive-date=12 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112160735/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/19/sri.lanka.conflict/|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating ] as a result of committing ] through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the ] and ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|date=19 February 2009|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411165610/https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2020|title=The Sri Lankan Civil War and Its History, Revisited in 2020|url=https://hir.harvard.edu/sri-lankan-civil-war/|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Harvard International Review|language=en|archive-date=28 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628153741/https://hir.harvard.edu/sri-lankan-civil-war/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Sri Lankan Conflict|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/sri-lankan-conflict|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Council on Foreign Relations|archive-date=27 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327173217/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/sri-lankan-conflict|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/20/sri-lanka-new-evidence-wartime-abuses|title=Sri Lanka: New Evidence of Wartime Abuses|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=9 March 2016|date=20 May 2010|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509095213/https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/20/sri-lanka-new-evidence-wartime-abuses|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==Culture== | |||
<!-- to be inserted when existent: {{main|Tamil culture}} --> | |||
== Geographic distribution == | |||
===Language and literature === | |||
:''Main articles: ], ]'' | |||
=== India === | |||
Tamils have strong feelings towards the ], which is often venerated in literature as "''tamil̲an̲n̲ai''", "the Tamil mother."<ref>See Sumathi Ramasamy, ''Passions of the Toungue'', 'Feminising language: Tamil as Goddess, Mother, Maiden' Chapter 3.</ref> It has historically been, and to large extent still is, central to the Tamil identity<ref>(Ramaswamy 1998)</ref>. Like the other languages of ], it is a ], unrelated to the ] of northern India. The language has been far less influenced by ] than the other Dravidian languages, and preserves many features of ], though modern-day spoken Tamil, especially in Tamil Nadu, freely uses ]s from Sanskrit and ].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tamil - A historical and linguistic perspective |work= Tamilar.org | url= http://www.tamilar.org/tamil-history.asp | publisher=Tamilar.org|accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> ] is of considerable antiquity, and the language was recognised as a ] by the ]. | |||
] speakers in South India and Sri Lanka (1981)]] | |||
As per the ], there were 69 million Tamil speakers, constituting about 5.7% of the Indian population. Tamils formed the majority in the ]n state of ] (63.8 million) and the ] of ] (1.1 million).<ref name="India"/> There were also significant Tamil population in other states of India such as ] (2.1 million), ] and ] (0.7 million), ] (0.5 million), and ] (0.5 million).<ref>{{cite report|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42458/download/46089/C-16_25062018.pdf|title=Census of India: Language (Table C-16)|work=]|access-date=1 July 2024|archive-date=24 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824120826/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42458/download/46089/C-16_25062018.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
], which ranges from ] to works on ] and ], is remarkably different from contemporary and later literature in other Indian languages, and represents the oldest body of secular literature in ].<ref> See Hart, ''The Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and their Sanskrit Counterparts'' (1975)</ref> Notable works in classical Tamil literature include the ] by ], ] and the works of ]. <!--The written language has changed very little over the years, with the result that much of classical literature remains easily accessible to modern Tamils and continues to influence modern Tamil culture. {need citations for this claim--> | |||
=== Sri Lanka === | |||
Modern Tamil literature is diverse. Its range includes ] in the works of ], historical romanticism by ], radical and moderate ] by ] and ]<!-- Are these notable?, ] by ] and ]-->. ], an author whose works range from ]s to ], is one of the most popular modern writers in Tamil. Sri Lankan Tamil literature has produced several works reflecting the civilian tragedy caused by decades of war. There is also an emerging ] literature in Tamil. | |||
{{Further|Sri Lankan Tamils|Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Moors}} | |||
Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into two ethnicities by the ], namely ], and ] who accounted for 11.2%, and 4.1% respectively of the country's population in 2011.<ref name="SL1"/> The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are the descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftainships called ]s. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.{{sfn|de Silva|1997|pp=177, 181}} Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and around ], whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.<ref name="SLD">{{cite report|title=Population by Ethnicity according to District|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/Population/p9p8%20Ethnicity.pdf|work=]|access-date=3 May 2007|archive-date=13 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713101148/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/Population/p9p8%20Ethnicity.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Historically, both the Tamil ethnic groups have identified themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|author=V. Suryanarayan|title=In search of a new identity|work=]|year=2001|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/18160950.htm|access-date=2 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529221016/http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/18160950.htm|archive-date=29 May 2008}}</ref> | |||
There are a number of regional dialects in use by the Tamil people. These dialects vary according to both region and community. Tamil dialects are mainly differentiated from each other by the fact that they have undergone different phonological changes and sound shifts in evolving from old Tamil. Although most Tamil dialects do not differ very significantly in their vocabulary, there are a few exceptions. The ] retain many words that are not in everyday use in ], and use many other words slightly differently. The dialect of the ]s of ] has a large number of ] loanwords, has also been influenced by Malayalam syntax and also has a distinct Malayalam accent. Finally, the ], ] and ] dialects, the former spoken by groups of Tamil ] and the latter two by ] who migrated to ] in the 11th century, retains many features of the language evolved with ] religious and spiritual values. Although not a dialect, the Tamil spoken in ] infuses ] words and is called '']'' (Madras language). | |||
There also exists a significant ] population in Sri Lanka. However, they are listed as a separate entity under the ] by the government.{{sfn|de Silva|1987|pp=3–5, 9}}<ref name="SLD"/> However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.<ref name="SM1"/><ref name="SM2"/> | |||
===Visual art and architecture=== | |||
{{see also | Chola Art}} | |||
] depicting ].]] | |||
<!-- to be inserted when existent: {{main|Tamil visual arts}} --> | |||
===Tamil diaspora=== | |||
Most traditional Tamil art is at least nominally religious, usually centred on ], although the religious element is often only a means to represent universal—and, occasionally, ]—themes.<ref>Coomaraswamy, A.K., ''Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought''</ref> The classical art forms are living traditions, which continue to be practiced. | |||
{{Main|Tamil diaspora|Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora}} | |||
{{See also|Tamil Malaysians|Tamil South Africans|Tamil Canadians|Tamil British|Tamil Americans|Tamil Indonesian|Myanmar Tamils|Tamils in Réunion|Malbars}} | |||
] | |||
The most important form of Tamil painting is ], which originated in ] in the ninth century. The painting's base is made of cloth coated with ], over which the image is painted using dyes and decorated with semi-precious stones and gold or silver thread.<ref>{{cite web | title= Tanjore - Painting |work= tanjore.net | url= http://www.tanjore.net/tanjorepainting.htm | publisher=Tanjore.net|accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> A style which is related in origin, but which exhibits significant differences in execution, is used for painting ]s on temple walls, the most notable example being the murals on the ] of ].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tamil Mural Paintings - a History |work= Temple Mural Paintings of Tamilnadu, India | url= http://web.mac.com/mvbhaskar/iWeb/Naayakaa/History.html | publisher=Nayaka Painting Archival Project|accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> Tamil painting in general is known for its stylistic elegance, rich colours and attention to small details. | |||
Significant emigration from Indian subcontinent began in the late 18th century, when the Tamils went as ] and established businesses in other territories under the control of the British empire such as ], ], ], ], ], and the ].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Tamil Migration Cycle 1830–1950|author=Christophe Z Guilmoto|journal=]|jstor=4399307|pages=111–20|volume=28|issue=3|year=1993}}</ref> The descendants of these Tamils continued to live in these countries, and practice their original culture, tradition and language. They form significant proportion of the population in ] (7%) and ] (5%).<ref name="Sing"/> A significant population also exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia and the Caribbean.<ref name="Dias">{{cite web|url=https://www.instituteofasianstudies.com/tamil_diaspora.html|title=Tamil Diaspora|publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=2 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002122209/http://instituteofasianstudies.com/tamil_diaspora.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, ]s might not speak the language as a ], but instead as a ] or ].<ref>{{citation|title=Tamil diaspora – a trans state nation|url=http://searchko.in/literature/ta-cached.jsp?id=82&idx=0|work=Tamilnation|access-date=4 December 2006|archive-date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181236/http://searchko.in/literature/ta-cached.jsp?id=82&idx=0|url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
] of the ] in ].]] | |||
Tamil ] ranges from the elegant stone sculptures in the temples to the ] icons with exquisite details.<ref>{{cite web | title= SHILPAIC LITERATURE OF THE TAMILS |work=V. Ganapathi | url= http://www.intamm.com/arts/ancient.htm| publisher=INTAMM|accessdate=2006-12-04}}</ref> Unlike most Western art, the material in Tamil sculpture does not influence the form taken by the sculpture; instead, the artist imposes his vision of the form on the material.<ref>{{cite book|first=Carmel |last=Berkson|title=The Life of Form in Indian Sculpture |publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2000|id=ISBN:8170173760|chapter=II The Life of Form pp29-65}}</ref> As a result, one often sees in stone sculptures the sort of flowing forms that would normally be reserved for metal.<ref> Sivaram 1994</ref> As with painting, these sculptures show a fine eye for detail, with great care being taken in sculpting minute details of jewellery worn by the subjects of the sculpture. The lines tend to be smooth and flowing, and many pieces capture movement with great skill. The cave sculptures at ] are a particularly fine example of the technique, as are the bronzes of the ] period. A particularly popular motif in the bronzes was the depiction of ] as ], in a dance posture with one leg upraised and a fiery circular halo surrounding his entire body. | |||
There is a small ], notably settled since the ] in 1947.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-4-98530-Strangers-to-their-roots-and-those-around-them|title=Strangers to their roots, and those around them|work=The News|date=20 March 2012|access-date=8 September 2014|first=Ammar|last=Shahbazi|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617043012/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-4-98530-Strangers-to-their-roots-and-those-around-them|archive-date=17 June 2013 }}</ref> Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such as ] and the ] for employment.<ref name="Dias"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unodc.org/southasia/frontpage/2010/may/irregular-migration.html|title=Irregular migration|work=]|date=May 2010|access-date=1 June 2023|archive-date=26 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426075519/https://www.unodc.org/southasia/frontpage/2010/may/irregular-migration.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/kas065_066-009.pdf|title=Image and Identity: Tamil Migration to the United States|author=Kelsey Clark Underwood|publisher=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324061732/https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/anthpubs/ucb/text/kas065_066-009.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A large emigration of Sri Lankan Tamils began in the 1980s, as they sought to escape the ethnic conflict there.<ref name="SLT">{{cite journal|url=https://minorityrights.org/communities/tamils/|title=Tamils|journal=Minority Rights|date=16 October 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=4 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604034412/https://minorityrights.org/communities/tamils/|url-status=live}}</ref> The largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka is found in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://heritagetoronto.org/new-beginnings-tamil-heritage-in-toronto/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305191149/http://heritagetoronto.org/new-beginnings-tamil-heritage-in-toronto/|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 March 2016|title=New Beginnings: Tamil Heritage in Toronto|work=Heritage Toronto|access-date=15 December 2017}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
== Culture == | |||
Tamil temples were often simply treated as sculptures on a grand scale. The temples are most notable for their high spires, known as ], consisting of a number of stepped levels, and the '']'' which rises above the '']''. During the ] period the ''vimanams'' had more prominance, as seen in the ] of ]. During ] period the spires became progressively more elaborate and ornate, as exemplified by the ] in ], while the ''vimanam'' bacame much smaller. From the 13th century onwards, the entrance gates to the temples—called ]s in Tamil—also began to grow bigger and more elaborate. The temples at ] and ] have particularly impressive gopurams, covered with sculptures and reliefs of various scenes and characters from ]. | |||
{{main|Tamil culture}} | |||
=== Language === | |||
As with ] in general, Tamil art does not traditionally aspire to ] or ]. Much more emphasis is placed on the representation of ideal prototypes and on depicting the symbols with which the theme of the artistic work is associated. This means that small details, such as the direction which a hand faces, the animals or trees portrayed, or the time of day depicted, are often of critical importance to understanding the meaning of a work of art.<ref>{{cite web | title= Tamil Art & Architecture |work= Dr.T.V.Mahalingam, Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, January 1968 | url= http://www.tamilnation.org/art/tvmahalingam.htm | publisher=Nayaka Painting Archival Project||publisher=Tamilnation.orgaccessdate=2006-12-07}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Tamil language|Sri Lankan Tamil dialects}} | |||
]]] | |||
Tamil people speak ], which belongs to the ] and is one of the oldest ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|title=The Dravidian Languages|publisher=]|series=Cambridge Language Surveys|year=2003|isbn=978-0-52177-111-5|page=480}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.tamilvu.org/library/kulothungan/pdf/Tamil_Among_the_Classical_Languages_of_the_World.pdf|title=Tamil among the classical languages of the world|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=22 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122074115/http://www.tamilvu.org/library/kulothungan/pdf/Tamil_Among_the_Classical_Languages_of_the_World.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Tamil language|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-language|encyclopedia=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007012008/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-language|url-status=live}}</ref> According to epigraphist ], the rudimentary ] script originated in South India in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="Mahadevan">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/iravatham-mahadevan-early-tamil-epigraphy-from-the-earliest-times-to-the-sixth-century-a.-d./page/n5/mode/2up|author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|last=Mahadevan|title=Early Tamil Epigraphy From The Earliest Times To The Sixth Century A. D.|date=2003 |publisher=]|isbn=978-0-67401-227-1|page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|title=A rare inscription|work=]|date=1 July 2009|access-date=1 June 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922154651/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30205148.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Though the old Tamil preserved features of ] language,<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00868-w|title=Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization|author=Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay|journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications|date=3 August 2021|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229161550/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00868-w|url-status=live}}</ref> modern-day spoken Tamil uses ]s from other languages such as ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://ia801303.us.archive.org/24/items/ColloquialTamil_201512/Colloquial%20Tamil.pdf|page=157|title=Colloquial Tamil|author1=R.E.Asher|author2=E.Annamalai|date=2002|isbn=978-0-41518-788-6|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Southworth|first=Franklin C.|title=Linguistic archaeology of South Asia|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-41533-323-8|pages=129–132}}</ref> The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar book '']'' which incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary work '']''.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_01-PDF.pdf|title=Pre-history of Tamil literature|year=2010|author=]|page=16|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133216/https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_01-PDF.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the later part of the 19th century, Tamils made the language as a key part of the Tamil identity and the language is personified in the form of ''Tamil̲taay'' ("Tamil mother").<ref>{{cite book|first=Sumathi|last=Ramasamy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.5973093|title=Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970|chapter=Feminizing Language: Tamil as Goddess, Mother, Maiden|date=1997|volume=29|publisher=]|pages=79–134|isbn=978-0-520-20804-9|access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref> Various ] of Tamil is spoken by the Tamils across regions such as ], ], ], ], Kumari Tamil and various ] such as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Smirnitskaya|first1=Anna|title=Diglossia and Tamil varieties in Chennai|journal=Acta Linguistica Petropolitana|date=March 2019|issue=3|pages=318–334|doi=10.30842/alp2306573714317|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331772782|access-date=4 November 2022|doi-access=free|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328173206/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331772782_Diglossia_and_Tamil_varieties_in_Chennai|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/several-dialects-of-tamil-and-10-mother-tongues-of-the-dravidian-family/article67481730.ece|title=Several dialects of Tamil|date=31 October 2023|newspaper=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=5 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205083033/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/several-dialects-of-tamil-and-10-mother-tongues-of-the-dravidian-family/article67481730.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
===Performing arts=== | |||
=== Literature === | |||
The traditional Tamil ] have ancient roots.<ref name="bharata">{{cite web | title= Bharata Natyam - Classical Dance of the Ancient Tamils |author=Nirmala Ramachandran | work= paper presented at First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1966| url= http://www.http://www.tamilnation.org/culture/dance/index.htm|publisher= Tamilnation.org | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> The royal courts and temples have been centres for the performing arts since at least the classical period. Descriptions of performances in classical Tamil literature and the '']'', a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts, indicate a close relationship between the ancient and modern artforms. The aim of a performance in Tamil tradition is to bring out the ''rasa''—the flavor, mood, or feeling—inherent in the text, and its quality is measured by the extent to which it induces the mood in the audience.<ref name="bharata">t</ref> | |||
{{Main|Tamil literature|Sri Lankan Tamil literature}} | |||
], poet from the first Sangam period]] | |||
] is of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia.<ref name="Old">{{cite report|url=https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_16-PDF.pdf|title=Credentials of Tamil as a classical language|author=George L. Hart|publisher=]|date=August 2018|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173029/https://www.tamiluniversity.ac.in/english/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/paper_16-PDF.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Maloney|first=C.|title=The Beginnings of Civilization in South India|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=29|issue=3|pages=603–616|year=1970|jstor=2943246|doi=10.2307/2943246|s2cid=162291987}}</ref> The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{cite news|last=Subramaniam|first=T.S.|title=Palani excavation triggers fresh debate|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2408091.ece|newspaper=]|location=Chennai, India|date=29 August 2011|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=8 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908080611/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2408091.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as ], the earliest of which destroyed by floods.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1353/asi.2003.0031|title=Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India|journal=Asian Perspectives|volume=42|issue=2|page=207|year=2003|last1=Abraham|first1=S. A.|s2cid=153420843|hdl=10125/17189|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/17189/1/AP-v42n2-207-223.pdf|access-date=6 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903211259/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/17189/1/AP-v42n2-207-223.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2019|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nadarajah|first=Devapoopathy|title=Love in Sanskrit and Tamil Literature: A Study of Characters and Nature, 200 B.C.-A.D. 500|date=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-8-12081-215-4}}</ref>{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=12-13}} The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions: ''iyal'' (poetry), ''isai'' (music) and ''nadagam'' (drama).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIeqvcai5XQC|page=2|title=Tamil Literature|author=M. S. Purnalingam Pillai|year=1994|isbn=978-8-12060-955-6|publisher=Asian Educational Services|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173543/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Literature/QIeqvcai5XQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sangam.org/an-overview-of-sangam-literature-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95-%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D/|title=Overview of Sangam literature|publisher=Tamil Sangam|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=27 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227021527/https://sangam.org/an-overview-of-sangam-literature-%e0%ae%9a%e0%ae%99%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%95-%e0%ae%87%e0%ae%b2%e0%ae%95%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%95%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%af%e0%ae%ae%e0%af%8d/|url-status=live}}</ref> The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories: '']'' ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of the '']'' ("Eight Anthologies") and the '']'' ("Ten Idylls"), and the '']'' ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").<ref>{{cite book|first=Takanobu|last=Takahashi|title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics|year=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC&pg=PA1|publisher=]|isbn=90-04-10042-3|pages=1–3|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173544/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IGNOU">{{cite report|url=https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/22251/5/Unit-10.pdf|title=Early Tamil society|page=2|publisher=]|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=20 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120154928/https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/22251/5/Unit-10.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Tamil shares a classical ] tradition, called ], with the rest of ]. It is primarily oriented towards vocal music, with ] functioning either as ]s or imitating the role of the singer. ], stemming from the long traditions of ] and '']'' played a major part in the evolution of Carnatic music.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Music - OIGINS|url=http://www.carnatica.net/origin.htm|publisher=carnatica.net|accessdate=20061207}}</ref> Carnatic music is organized around the twin notions of melody types (''rāgam'') and cyclical rhythm types (''thāḷam''). Unlike the northern ] tradition, carnatic music is almost exclusively religious. In sharp contrast with the restrained and intellectual nature of carnatic music, Tamil ] tends to be much more exuberant. Popular forms of Tamil folk music include the '']'', a form of music performed with a bow, and the '']'', ]s that convey ] and folk history. | |||
The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included the ].{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=12-13}}<ref name="IGNOU"/><ref>{{cite book|author=T.V. Mahalingam|title=Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference of the South Indian History Congress|year=1981|publisher=]|pages=28–34}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Tamil Country: Its Social and Economic Structure|author=S. Sundararajan|publisher=Navrang|year=1991|page=233}}</ref> Another book of the post Sangam era is the '']'', a book on ethics, by ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC|title=The Kural|author=P.S.Sundaram|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=978-9-35118-015-9|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173546/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kural/aPpv2F2RRgcC|url-status=live}}</ref> In the beginning of the ], ] and ] literature became prominent following the ] in 7th century CE with hymns composed by ] and ].<ref name="Bhakti">{{cite book|last=Pillai|first=P. Govinda|title=The Bhakti Movement: Renaissance or Revivalism?|date=4 October 2022|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-00078-039-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sep5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT46|page=46|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173546/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Bhakti_Movement/sep5EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT46|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Padmaja|first=T.|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamil nāḍu|year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-8-17017-398-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C|page=47|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=30 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630001437/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Temples_of_Kr%CC%A5%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a_in_South_India/pzgaS1wRnl8C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Nair|first1=Rukmini Bhaya|title=Keywords for India: A Conceptual Lexicon for the 21st Century|last2=de Souza|first2=Peter Ronald|year=2020|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-35003-925-4}}</ref> Notable work from the post-Bhakti period included '']'' by ] in 12th century CE and '']'' by ] in 15th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=P.S.Sundaram|title=Kamba Ramayana|date=3 May 2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-9-351-18100-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPTcCd32pJIC|pages=18–|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173549/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kamba_Ramayana/EPTcCd32pJIC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bergunder|first1=Michael|title=Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India|last2=Frese|first2=Heiko|last3=Schröder|first3=Ulrike|date=2011|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-9-380-60721-4|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OcEM2IsnA1AC|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173548/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ritual_Caste_and_Religion_in_Colonial_So/OcEM2IsnA1AC|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script named ''Thambiraan Vanakkam'', thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-saw-its-first-book-in-1578/article476102.ece|title=Tamil saw its first book in 1578|author=Karthik Madhavan|newspaper=]|access-date=8 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101181012/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-saw-its-first-book-in-1578/article476102.ece|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=live|date=21 June 2010}}</ref> '']'', published by the ] between 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensive ] published in the language.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kolappan|first=B.|title=Delay, howlers in Tamil Lexicon embarrass scholars|newspaper=]|date=22 June 2014|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/delay-howlers-in-tamil-lexicon-embarrass-scholars/article6138747.ece|access-date=25 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704063848/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/delay-howlers-in-tamil-lexicon-embarrass-scholars/article6138747.ece|archive-date=4 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Madras-Miscellany-The-Tamil-Lexicon/article14964046.ece|title=The Tamil Lexicon|date=27 March 2011|access-date=1 December 2023|newspaper=]|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133220/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Madras-Miscellany-The-Tamil-Lexicon/article14964046.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> The 19th century gave rise to ] and writings and poems by authors such as ], ], ], ] and others.<ref>{{cite book|title=The embodiment of bhakti|author=Karen Prechilis|pages=8|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19512-813-0|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133221/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Embodiment_of_Bhakti/Vu95WgeUBfEC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Tamil Renaissance and the Dravidian Movement, 1905-1944|first=K. Nambi|last=Arooran|publisher=]|year=1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WxluAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133221/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Renaissance_and_Dravidian_National/WxluAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/seeds-of-tamil-renaissance/article5787804.ece|title=Seeds of Tamil Renaissance|author=Theodore Baskaran|date=19 March 2014|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=21 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021193425/https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/seeds-of-tamil-renaissance/article5787804.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During the ], many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, notably ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jlls.org/index.php/jlls/article/download/5312/1872|title=Bharathiyar Who Impressed Bharatidasan|journal=Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies|access-date=1 December 2023|issn=1305-578X|archive-date=24 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224200602/https://www.jlls.org/index.php/jlls/article/download/5312/1872|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Literature: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mivv3p-msd8C&pg=PA125|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=978-8-13170-520-9|page=125|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228174600/https://books.google.com/books?id=mivv3p-msd8C&pg=PA125|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] dancer.]] | |||
The dominant classical dance amongst Tamils is ]. Bharatanatyam is performative rather than participative. The dance is an exposition of the story contained in a song, and is usually performed by one performer on stage, with an orchestra of drums, a drone, and one or more singers backstage. The story is told through a complicated combination of ''mudras'' (hand gestures), facial expressions, and body posture. Dancers used to be exclusively female, but the dance now also has several well-known male practitioners.<ref name="bharata">t</ref> | |||
=== Art and architecture === | |||
The most notable of Tamil ]s is '']''. In its religious form, the dance is performed in front of an image of the goddess ]. The dancer bears on his or her head a brass pot filled with uncooked rice, decorated with flowers and surrounded by a bamboo frame, and tumbles and leaps to the rhythm of a song without spilling a grain. Karakāṭṭam is usually performed to a special type of song known as '']'' or '']'', a folk song in the mode of a lover speaking to his beloved, to the accompaniment of a '']'' and '']''. Other Tamil folk dances include '']'', where the dancers tie a string of peacock feathers around their waist; '']'', danced in a circle while waving small pieces of cloth of various colors; '']'', in which the dancers use dummy horses; '']'', in which the dancers imitate the graceful leaping of ]; '']'', a dance to the sound of rhythmical drumbeats, and '']'', a dance involving playing with burning wooden torches.<ref>Sharma, Manorama (2004). Folk India: A Comprehensive Study of Indian Folk Music and Culture, Vol. 11</ref> The ''kuravanci'' is a type of dance-drama, performed by four to eight women. The drama is opened by a woman playing the part of a female ] of a wandering '']'' tribe, who tells the story of a lady pining for her lover. | |||
According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms called '']''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Āya kalaikaḷ ar̲upattunān̲ku|author=Centur̲aimuttu|year=1978|page=2|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r88zAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715175323/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/%C4%80ya_kalaika%E1%B8%B7_ar%CC%B2upattun%C4%81n%CC%B2ku/r88zAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Heritage of the Tamils: Siddha Medicine|year=1983|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|first=Ca. Vē|last=Cuppiramaṇiyan̲|page=554}}</ref> The art is classified into two broad categories: ''kavin kalaigal'' (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry and ''nun kalaigal'' (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.<ref>{{cite book|title=Communication as Mission|year=2007|isbn=978-8-18458-006-8|publisher=Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|editor1=Jose Joseph|editor2=L. Stanislaus|page=123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBCBgO0chcMC|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715175324/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Communication_as_Mission/oBCBgO0chcMC|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==== Architecture ==== | |||
The ] (which literally means "street play") is a form of village theater or folk opera. It is traditionally performed in ]s with no sets and very simple props. The performances involves songs and dances, and the stories can be either religious or ].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tamil Art History |author= | work= | url= http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=578&SID=119|publisher= eelavar.com | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> The performances are not formal, and performers often interact with the audience, mocking them or involving them in the dialogue. Therukkūthu has in recent times been very successfully adapted to convey social messages, such as ] and anti-] criticism, as well as information about legal rights, and has spread to other parts of India.<ref>{{cite web | title= Striving hard to revive and refine ethnic dance form |author= | work= | url= http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/11/11/stories/2006111100670300.htm|publisher= hindu.com | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> | |||
]'' is a hallmark of ]]] | |||
] is the distinct style of architecture of the Tamils. The large '']s'', which are monumental ornate towers at the entrance of the temples form a prominent feature of ] of the Dravidian style.<ref name="Hindu">{{cite book|last=Fergusson|first=James|title=History of Indian and Eastern Architecture: Volume 1|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=309|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindiana030585mbp/page/308/mode/2up|year=1910|author-link=James Fergusson (architect)}}</ref><ref name="Temple">{{cite book|author=Francis Ching|year=1995|title=A Visual Dictionary of Architecture|publisher=]|location=New York|isbn=978-0-4712-8451-2|page=253|url=https://ia802804.us.archive.org/18/items/avisualdictionaryofarchitecture/A%20Visual%20Dictionary%20of%20Architecture.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Gopuram">{{cite book|author1=Francis Ching|author2=]|author3=Vikramaditya Prakash|year=2017|title=A Global History of Architecture|publisher=]|location=New York|isbn=978-1-11898-161-0|page=320|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtuHDgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133737/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_Global_History_of_Architecture/BtuHDgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HINqPkgNr2MC&pg=PA6|page=6|title=Hinduism|author=David Rose|year=1995|isbn=978-1-85276-770-9|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133729/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Hinduism/HINqPkgNr2MC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA6|url-status=live}}</ref> They are topped by '']s'' (]s) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgPXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA224|page=224|title=History of Interior Design|author=Jeannie Ireland|year=2018|isbn=978-1-50131-989-1|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133737/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/History_of_Interior_Design/mgPXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA224|url-status=live}}</ref> There are a number of early ] cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g_uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA313|page=313|title=The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain|author1=Susan L. Huntington|author2=John C. Huntington|year=2014|isbn=978-8-12083-617-4|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133737/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Art_of_Ancient_India/9g_uDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA313|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cave-temples in the Regions of the Pāṇdya, Muttaraiya, Atiyamān̤ and Āy Dynasties in Tamil Nadu and Kerala|first=D.|last=Dayalan|year=2014|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnPOAQAACAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716062055/https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Cave_temples_in_the_Regions_of_the_P%C4%81.html?id=HnPOAQAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cave-temples of the Pallavas|author=K. R. Srinivasan|year=1964|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNdOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133730/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Cave_temples_of_the_Pallavas/ZNdOAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The ], built by the ] in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths and ]s.<ref name="UNC">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249|title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|publisher=]|access-date=3 April 2022|archive-date=2 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202145914/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-82393-179-8|page=399}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNqDFSxR8-MC&pg=PA154|year=2008|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-42620-336-7|page=154}}</ref> The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments in ] and ], were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style.<ref name="UNC"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzpYb5UOeiwC|page=15|title=Cultural History of India|author=Om Prakash|year=2005|isbn=978-8-12241-5-872|publisher=New Age International|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133738/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Cultural_History_of_India/nzpYb5UOeiwC|url-status=live}}</ref> These gateways became regular features in the ] and the ], was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and the ] and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.004/--tamil-gopura-from-temple-gateway-to-global-icon?rgn=main;view=fulltext|title=The Tamil Gopura From Temple Gateway to Global Icon|author=Crispin Branfoot|journal=Ars Orientalis|date=2015|volume=45|publisher=]|doi=10.3998/ars.13441566.0045.004|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=4 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604025548/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.004/--tamil-gopura-from-temple-gateway-to-global-icon?rgn=main;view=fulltext|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Michell|first=George|title=The Hindu Temple|publisher=]|year=1988|location=Chicago|pages=151–153|isbn=978-0-22653-230-1|url=https://archive.org/details/hindutempleintro0000mich/page/8/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura|title=Gopuram|encyclopedia=]|access-date=20 January 2008|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819003114/https://www.britannica.com/technology/gopura|url-status=live}}</ref> There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Tamil-Nadu-Andhra-Pradesh-build-temple-ties-to-boost-tourism/articleshow/6284409.cms|title=Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh build temple ties to boost tourism|newspaper=]|date=10 August 2010|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=18 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418203859/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Tamil-Nadu-Andhra-Pradesh-build-temple-ties-to-boost-tourism/articleshow/6284409.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/web-stories/10-hindu-temples-to-visit-outside-india/slideshow/104720622.cms?from=mdr|title=Ten Hindu temples to visit outside India|date=23 October 2021|access-date=1 June 2024|newspaper=]|archive-date=2 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802114059/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/web-stories/10-hindu-temples-to-visit-outside-india/slideshow/104720622.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/5-hindu-temples-outside-india-that-are-worth-a-visit/photostory/87366618.cms?picid=87366637|title=Five Hindu temples to visit outside India that are worth a visit|date=29 October 2021|access-date=1 June 2024|newspaper=]|archive-date=2 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802114059/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/5-hindu-temples-outside-india-that-are-worth-a-visit/photostory/87366618.cms?picid=87366637|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] influence in medieval times and the ] influence later gave rise to a blend of ], ] and ] styles, resulting in the distinct ] architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Metcalfe|first=Thomas R.|title=A Tradition Created: Indo-Saracenic Architecture under the Raj|journal=History Today|volume=32|issue=9|url=http://www.historytoday.com/thomas-r-metcalfe/tradition-created-indo-saracenic-architecture-under-raj|access-date=28 December 2012|archive-date=18 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618230153/https://www.historytoday.com/thomas-r-metcalfe/tradition-created-indo-saracenic-architecture-under-raj|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indo-saracenic Architecture|work=Henry Irwin, Architect in India, 1841–1922|publisher=higman.de|url=http://www.higman.de/Henry%20Irwin/indo-saracenic.htm|access-date=28 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730131008/http://www.higman.de/Henry%20Irwin/indo-saracenic.htm|archive-date=30 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|last=Jeyaraj|first=George J.|title=Indo Saracenic Architecture in Channai|work=]|url=http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/pdfs/seminar_heritage_buildings/Indo_Saracenic_Architecture_in_Chennai.pdf|access-date=28 December 2012|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725063408/http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/pdfs/seminar_heritage_buildings/Indo_Saracenic_Architecture_in_Chennai.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> By the early 20th century, the ] made its entry upon in the urban landscape.<ref>{{cite web|title=Art Deco Style Remains, But Elements Missing|date=2 September 2014|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2014/sep/02/art-deco-style-remains-but-elements-missing-655242.html|work=]|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208132502/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2014/sep/02/Art-Deco-Style-Remains-But-Elements-Missing-655242.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in the ] ] buildings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/chennai-a-rich-amalgamation-of-various-architectural-styles/article32451353.ece|title=Chennai, a rich amalgamation of various architectural styles|date=27 August 2020|access-date=1 June 2024|work=]|archive-date=17 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717174553/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/chennai-a-rich-amalgamation-of-various-architectural-styles/article32451353.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chennai looks to the skies|date=31 October 2014|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/homes-and-gardens/Five-years-after-the-CMDA-allowed-buildings-to-go-above-60-metres-Chennai%E2%80%99s-skyline-finally-begins-to-look-up-finds-Vishal-Menon/article60348870.ece|work=]|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208132503/https://www.thehindu.com/features/homes-and-gardens/Five-years-after-the-CMDA-allowed-buildings-to-go-above-60-metres-Chennai%E2%80%99s-skyline-finally-begins-to-look-up-finds-Vishal-Menon/article60348870.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The village of ] in ] has a special type of performance, called the ], in honour of the local deity, which is performed once a year and lasts all night. Tamil Nadu also has a well developed stage theater tradition, which has been heavily influenced by western theatre. A number of theatrical companies exist, with repertoires including ], ] and ] plays.<ref>{{cite web | title= Bhagavata mela |author= | work= The Hindu, Apr 30, 2004 | url= http://www.hindu.com/fr/2004/04/30/stories/2004043001360600.htm|publisher= hindu.com | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> | |||
==== Sculpture and paintings ==== | |||
Both classical and folk performing arts survive in modern Tamil society. Tamil people in Tamil Nadu are also passionate about ]s. The Tamil film industry, commonly dubbed ], is the second-largest film industry in India.<ref>{{cite web | title= The states they're in |author= | work= Guardian, November 26, 2006 | url= http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,,1955127,00.html|publisher= guardian.com | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> Tamil cinema is appreciated both for its technical accomplishments and for its artistic and entertainment value. The overwhelming majority of Tamil films contain song and dance sequences, and Tamil film music is a popular genre in its own right, often liberally fusing elements of ], Tamil folk, North Indian styles, hip-hop, and ]. Famous music directors of the late 20th century included ], ] and ]. | |||
] with ] and ] and his mount ] (12th–13th century CE)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|title=Krishna Rajamannar with His Wives, Rukmini and Satyabhama, and His Mount, Garuda | LACMA Collections|publisher=collections.lacma.org|access-date=23 September 2014|archive-date=16 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716040855/http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|url-status=dead}}</ref>]] | |||
Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed ] icons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shilpaic literature of the tamils|first=V.|last=Ganapathi|url=http://www.intamm.com/arts/ancient.htm|publisher=INTAMM|access-date=4 December 2006|archive-date=16 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016163149/http://www.intamm.com/arts/ancient.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Aschwin|last=Lippe|date=December 1971|title=Divine Images in Stone and Bronze: South India, Chola Dynasty (c. 850–1280)|journal=Metropolitan Museum Journal|volume=4|pages=29–79|quote=The bronze icons of the Early Chola period are one of India's greatest contributions to world art...|doi=10.2307/1512615|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|jstor=1512615|s2cid=192943206}}</ref> Models made of a special mixture of ] and ] ] were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23F7vTn3hBMC|page=8|title=Art of the Imperial Cholas|author=Vidya Dehejia|year=1990|isbn=978-0-23151-524-5|publisher=Columbia University Press|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716133749/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Art_of_the_Imperial_Cholas/23F7vTn3hBMC|url-status=live}}</ref> Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD47AAAAMAAJ|page=459|title=Heritage of the Tamils: Art & Architecture|year=1983|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|editor=Ca. Vē Cuppiramaṇiyan̲|author=Ē. En̲ Perumāḷ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134237/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Heritage_of_the_Tamils/lD47AAAAMAAJ?|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is a rock-cut ] and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist of ]es and ]s from the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.indian-heritage.org/swaminathan/sittannavasal/Sittannavasal%20-%20a%20booklet.pdf|author=Sudharsanam|title=A centre for Arts and Culture|access-date=26 October 2012|publisher=Indian Heritage Organization|archive-date=25 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825144451/http://www.indian-heritage.org/swaminathan/sittannavasal/Sittannavasal%20-%20a%20booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://puratattva.in/2011/05/02/sittanavasal-the-legacy-of-chitrasutra-13.html|title=Sittanavasal – A passage to the Indian History and Monuments|access-date=26 October 2012|publisher=Puratattva|date=2 May 2011|archive-date=14 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814174527/http://puratattva.in/2011/05/02/sittanavasal-the-legacy-of-chitrasutra-13.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Ajanta of TamilNadu|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051127/spectrum/main3.htm|newspaper=The Tribune|date=27 November 2005|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=5 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405133236/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051127/spectrum/main3.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on the ] and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnVuAAAAMAAJ|page=188|title=Tamil Nadu, a Real History|author=K. Rajayyan|year=2005|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134239/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Nadu_a_Real_History/wnVuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rI1DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT141|page=141|title=Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society|author=Raghavan Srinivasan|isbn=978-9-35458-2-233|publisher=Leadstart Publishing|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134241/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Rajaraja_Chola_Interplay_Between_an_Impe/rI1DEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nayanthara|first=S.|title=The World of Indian murals and paintings|publisher=Chillbreeze|year=2006|isbn=978-8-19040-551-5|pages=55–57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbVe7pZ6GEIC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134240/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Murals_and_Paintings/FbVe7pZ6GEIC|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the major forms of Tamil painting is ], which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated with ] is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jv_VAAAAMAAJ|page=14|title=Thanjavur Paintings: Materials, Techniques & Conservation|author1=C. B. Gupta|author2=Mrinalini Mani|year=2005|isbn=978-8-18583-223-4|publisher=National Museum|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134243/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Thanjavur_Paintings/jv_VAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Tanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period: Volume 1|first=Jaya|last=Appasamy|isbn=978-8-17017-127-0|year=1980|publisher=Abhinav Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtqKd5a-t4oC|page=9|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134243/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tanjavur_Painting_of_the_Maratha_Period/GtqKd5a-t4oC|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==== Music ==== | |||
{{See also|Music of Tamil Nadu|Ancient Tamil music}} | {{See also|Music of Tamil Nadu|Ancient Tamil music}} | ||
] and ], traditional music instruments]] | |||
The ancient Tamil country had its own ] called ''Tamil Pannisai''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rajagopal|first=Geetha|title=Music rituals in the temples of South India, Volume 1|year=2009|publisher=]|isbn=978-8-12460-538-7|pages=111–112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgVPAQAAIAAJ&q=pannisai}}</ref> Sangam literature such as the '']'' from 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nijenhuis|first=Emmie te|title=Indian Music: History and Structure|publisher=]|year=1974|isbn=978-9-00403-978-0|pages=4–5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=10 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010005745/https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsctDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241|page=241|title=Tamil Pozhil|publisher=Karanthai Tamil Sangam|year=1976|language=ta|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716145142/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsctDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Orality, writing and music in South Asia|date=December 2019|doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.31623.96169|author=Richard Widdess|journal=School of Oriental and African Studies|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Kudumiyamalai-Music-Inscription-detail-South-India-7-th-century_fig1_338108595}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Widdess|first=D. R.|contribution=The Kudumiyamalai inscription: a source of early Indian music in notation|editor-last=Picken|editor-first=Laurence|title=Musica Asiatica|volume=2|place=London|publisher=]|year=1979|pages=115–150}}</ref> The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing of ] ] as a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hymns (''Thirupadigam'') in temples. From the 9th century CE, Shaivite hymns '']'' and Vaishnavite hymns ('']'') were sung along with playing of musical instruments. ] originated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers such ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzurjfF3AE4C|page=ix-xvi|title=Music as a history in Tamil Nadu|author=T. K. Venkatasubramanian|year=2010|isbn=978-9-38060-7-061|publisher=Primus Books|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134755/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Music_as_History_in_Tamilnadu/pzurjfF3AE4C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Karnatak-music|title=Karnatak music|encyclopedia=]|access-date=1 March 2023|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307064333/https://www.britannica.com/art/Karnatak-music|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Sadie|editor-first=Stanley|author=Alastair Dick|title=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments|publisher=]|year=1984|volume=3|page=727|isbn=978-0-943818-05-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLTWAAAAMAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134755/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Musical_Inst/hLTWAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1314|page=1314|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature|year=1988|isbn=978-8-12601-194-0|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134756/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Encyclopaedia_of_Indian_Literature/zB4n3MVozbUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA1314|url-status=live}}</ref> ], a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.<ref>{{cite news|title=Torching prejudice through gumption and Gaana|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/101019/torching-prejudice-through-gumption-and-gaana.html|last=G|first=Ezekiel Majello|date=10 October 2019|newspaper=]|access-date=12 May 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206015436/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/101019/torching-prejudice-through-gumption-and-gaana.html|archive-date=6 December 2020}}</ref> | |||
===Religion=== | |||
:''See also ].'' | |||
Most Tamils are ]s, but ] and ] also have presence in ]. ]s are only a few thousands now.<ref name= census>Total number of Jains Tamil Nadu is 88,000 in 2001. {{cite web | title= Census|author= Directorate of Census Operations - Tamil Nadu| work= | url= http://www.census.tn.nic.in/religion.aspx | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> Tamil Hinduism, like other regional varieties of ], has many peculiarities. The most popular deity is ], who is probably same as ], the son of ], but who may in origin have been a different deity, and has taken on a distinctly local character.<ref>{{cite web | title= Murukan in Cankam Literature: Veriyattu Tribal Worship|author= M. Shanmugam Pillai| work=First International Conference Seminar on Skanda-Murukan in Chennai, Dec. 28-30, 1998. This article first appeared in the September 1999 issue of The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies | url= http://murugan.org/research/shanmugampillai.htm | accessdate=2006-12-06}}</ref> The worship of ] or ], thought to have been derived from an ancient ], also is very common.<ref>{{cite web | title= Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion|author= | work=Hindu Heritage Study Program | url= http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> ], the heroine of the ], is worshipped as ] by many Tamils, particularly in ].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tracing the Sri Lanka-Kerala link|author= PK Balachandran| work=Hindustan Times March 23, 2006 | url= http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214,00430014.htm | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> There are also many temples and devotees of ], ], ], and the other common Hindu deities. | |||
There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such as ],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology|year=2015|isbn=978-0-199-35171-8|publisher=]|page=370|editor1=Jeff Todd Titon|editor2=Svanibor Pettan}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|title=Harihara the Legacy of the Scroll|first=Nithyau|last=Ramkumar|year=2016|isbn=978-9-352-01769-0|publisher=Frog in well|quote=..Thaarai and thappattai, native instruments of Tamil people..}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kc1DwAAQBAJ&q=yazh|title=Musical Instruments of India|author=S.Krishnaswami|year=2017|isbn=978-8-12302-494-3|publisher=Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, ]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716134817/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Musical_Instruments_of_India/7kc1DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=yazh|url-status=live}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/secular-and-sacred/article4268995.ece|title=Secular and sacred|work=]|date=3 January 2013|access-date=10 September 2016|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107170943/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/secular-and-sacred/article4268995.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=When the Kurinji Blooms|first=Rājam|last=Kiruṣṇan̲|year=2002|page=124|isbn=978-8-12501-619-9|publisher=]}}</ref> ], a ] that is often accompanied by the ], a type of ] are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v875EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|pages=38, 43|title=Problems and prospects of handicraft artisans in Thanjavur district|author=K.Leelavathy|isbn=978-8-11965-350-8|publisher=Archers & Elevators Publishing House|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716145143/https://books.google.com/books?id=v875EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is from a group of ] from the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events and functions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/isaikkaruvi/mis-thi-isai-karuvi-mathalam.htm|title=Mathalam - Ancient music instruments mentioned in Thirumurai|publisher=Shaivam.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119053719/http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/isaikkaruvi/mis-thi-isai-karuvi-mathalam.htm|archive-date=19 January 2013|language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0127_01.html|title=11th TirumuRai Paurams|publisher=Project Madurai|access-date=1 June 2024|language=ta|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627210421/https://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0127_01.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AA"/> | |||
The most important Tamil festivals are ], a ] that occurs in mid-January, and ], the Tamil ], which occurs around mid-April. Both are celebrated by almost all Tamils, regardless of religion. The hindu festival ] is celebrated with fanfare. Some Tamil Hindu festivals include ], and ]. | |||
==== Performance arts ==== | |||
]]]In rural ], many local deities called ], who are thought to be the spirits of local heroes who protect the village from harm. Their worship often centers around ], stones erected in memory of heroes who died in battle. This form of worship is mentioned frequently in classical literature and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.<ref>{{cite web | title= 'Hero stone' unearthed |author= | work=The Hindu, Jul 22, 2006| url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Dance forms of Tamil Nadu}} | |||
] performance]] | |||
] is a major genre of ] that originated from the Tamils.<ref name="Loch">{{cite book|first=James|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-82393-179-8|pages=103–104|url=https://ia802901.us.archive.org/15/items/JamesLochtefeldTheIllustratedEncyclopediaOfHinduism/James%20Lochtefeld%20The%20Illustrated%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Hinduism.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiaculture.gov.in/dance|title=Bhartanatyam|publisher=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=30 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730074450/https://www.indiaculture.gov.in/dance|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Banerjee|first=Projesh|title=Indian Ballet Dancing|year=1983|publisher=Abhinav Publications|pages=42–43|isbn=978-0-391-02716-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fXZKe3xHQAC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135259/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Ballet_Dancing/5fXZKe3xHQAC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Britbn">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/bharata-natyam|title=Bharata-natyam|encyclopedia=]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028175552/https://www.britannica.com/art/bharata-natyam|url-status=live}}</ref> It is one of the oldest classical dance forms of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/photos/lifestyle-gallery/in-pictures-on-international-dance-day-a-look-at-indias-famous-dance-forms-and-their-exponents-8580737/8/|title=On International Dance Day, a look at some of India's famous dance forms and their exponents|date=29 April 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|work=]|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135308/https://indianexpress.com/just-now-breaking-scroll/?current_story_id=8580737§ion_name=null|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Schechner|title=Between Theater and Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoEaulAxbu8C|year=2010|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-81227-929-0|page=65}}</ref> There are many ] forms that originated and are practiced in the region. Major folk dance forms include ] and ] which involve dancers balancing decorated pot(s) on their heads and arch shaped wooden sticks on their shoulders respectively while making dance movements with the body.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQFlAAAAMAAJ|page=344|title=Kaṭṭaikkūttu: The Flexibility of a South Indian Theatre Tradition|author=Hanne M. de Bruin|year=1999|isbn=978-9-06980-103-2|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135302/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ka%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADaikk%C5%ABttu/zQFlAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ritual, State, and History in South Asia|first=J. C.|last=Heesterman|year=1992|page=465|isbn=978-9-00409-467-3|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtwtSZwyWpgC&pg=PA465|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135303/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ritual_State_and_History_in_South_Asia/EtwtSZwyWpgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA465|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ethical Life in South Asia|year=2010|isbn=978-0-25335-528-7|publisher=]|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R_nwe6r5R0C|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135304/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Ethical_Life_in_South_Asia/7R_nwe6r5R0C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities Through the Senses|first=Lynne|last=Hume|year=2020|isbn=978-1-00018-987-2|publisher=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWGtAwAAQBAJ|page=88|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135305/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Portals/JWGtAwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> ] and ] are usually performed by women while singing songs.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dances Of India|year=2010|pages=60–65|isbn=978-8-12411-337-0|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|author=Shobana Gupta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KeAES9dsUcC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135305/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Dances_of_India/7KeAES9dsUcC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kolattam|title=Kolattam|publisher=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=1 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201052339/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kolattam|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction|first=M. D.|last=Raghavan|year=1971|publisher=]|pages=274–275|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316094022/https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Tamil_culture_in_Ceylon.html?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hh03DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA919|page=990|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music|year=2017|publisher=]|editor=Allison Arnold|isbn=978-1-35154-438-2|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135307/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Garland_Encyclopedia_of_World_Music/Hh03DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA919|url-status=live}}</ref> In dances like ], ], and ], dancers dress like ], ] and ] respectively and headdresses perform movements imitating the animals.<ref>{{cite book|last=Madhavan|first=Arya|title=Kudiyattam Theatre and the Actor's Consciousness|year=2010|publisher=]|isbn=978-9-04202-799-2|page=113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfl5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135816/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kudiyattam_Theatre_and_the_Actor_s_Consc/jfl5DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA113|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3H8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207|page=207|title=Jhal Muri: Embracing Life's Unpredictable Flavours|author=Gaurab Dasgupta|year=2024|publisher=Blue Rose|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135816/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Jhal_Muri_Embracing_Life_s_Unpredictable/O3H8EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA207|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Spirit of the Tiger|year=2012|isbn=978-1-44545-472-6|publisher=Parragon Publishing|page=206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ixb0rUW0wV0C|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135820/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Spirit_of_the_Tiger/Ixb0rUW0wV0C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Snodgrass|first=Mary Ellen|title=The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance|year=2016|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-44225-749-8|pages=26–27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMGpDAAAQBAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135820/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Encyclopedia_of_World_Folk_Dance/DMGpDAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&pg=PA224|page=224|title=History, Religion and Culture of India|year=2004|publisher=Isha books|isbn=978-8-18205-061-7|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135822/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/History_Religion_and_Culture_of_India/zh6z0nuIjAgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA224|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Traditions of Indian Folk Dance|first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan|year=1987|page=337|isbn=978-8-18512-022-5|publisher=Clarion Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2K1AAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140331/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Traditions_of_Indian_Folk_Dance/I2K1AAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Other traditional dance forms include the war dance ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Reinventing the Arts in Modern South India|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19569-084-2|publisher=]|first1=Devesh|last1=Soneji|first2=Indira|last2=Viswanathan Peterson|pages=334–335|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_LImAQAAIAAJ&q=Oyilattam|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135817/https://books.google.co.in/books?redir_esc=y&id=_LImAQAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Oyilattam|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szcc.tn.nic.in/states/taminadu/folk/oyilattam.html|title=Oyilattam|publisher=], South Zone Cultural Center|access-date=3 August 2009|archive-date=19 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619070144/http://www.szcc.tn.nic.in/states/taminadu/folk/oyilattam.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nathalaya.co.uk/classical-and-carnatic-instruments/percussion-instruments/parai|title=Parai|publisher=Nathalaya|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208162122/https://www.nathalaya.co.uk/classical-and-carnatic-instruments/percussion-instruments/parai|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
], is particularly strong although most of its bases are in the North. The ] and ], who were predominantly Tamils, played a key role in the renaissance of ] tradition in ]. In the 10th century, the philosopher ] who propagated the theory of ] brought lot of changes to worshiping practices, creating new regulations on temple worship and accepting lower-caste Hindus as his prime disciples.<ref>{{cite web | title= Redefining secularism |author= | work=The Hindu, Mar 18, 2004 | url= http://www.hindu.com/2004/03/18/stories/2004031801941000.htm | accessdate=2006-12-05}}</ref> | |||
] is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing.<ref>{{cite book|title=Images of the Body in India: South Asian and European Perspectives on Rituals and Performativity|year=2012|isbn=978-1-13670-392-8|publisher=]|editor1=Axel Michaels|editor2=Christoph Wulf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ui2pAgAAQBAJ&q=koothu|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140334/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Images_of_the_Body_in_India/ui2pAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=koothu|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Koothu">{{cite book|title=Masks and Performance with Everyday Materials|first1=Gita|last1=Wolf|first2=V.|last2=Geetha|first3=Anushka|last3=Ravishankar|year=2003|isbn=978-8-18621-147-2|publisher=Tara Publishing|pages=37–38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4XWU6kr1_UC&pg=PA37|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140337/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Masks_and_Performance_with_Everyday_Mate/c4XWU6kr1_UC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA37|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is a type of ] that uses various ]s manipulated by rods and strings attached to them.<ref>{{cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|year=2016|isbn=978-1-317-27886-3|publisher=]|first=Siyuan|last=Liu|page=182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140340/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Routledge_Handbook_of_Asian_Theatre/H1iFCwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Theatres of India: A Concise Companion|year=2009|pages=71, 433|isbn=978-0-19569-917-3|publisher=]|first=Ananda|last=Lal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140347/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Indian_Theatre/DftkAAAAMAAJ?|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-58822-5|page=84|publisher=]|first1=James|last1=Brandon|first2=Martin|last2=Banham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC}}</ref> | |||
Christianity is believed to have come to Tamil Nadu with the arrival of St. Thomas the apostle, but the number of Christians grew when Europeans came. Many Tamils are Catholic,Protestant and Syrian Orthodox. Tamil Muslims are mostly Sunni and Sufi. | |||
=== |
==== Martial arts ==== | ||
], a dagger that originated in South India]] | |||
{{main|Tamil cuisine}} | |||
Tamil cuisine is one of the oldest vegetarian culinary heritages in the world.<ref name=cuisinenation>{{cite web | |||
| url = http://www.tamilnation.org/culture/cuisine/cuisine.htm | |||
| title = Tamil Cuisine - The Food Tradition of an Ancient People | |||
| accessdate = 2006-12-04 | |||
| work = Culture & the Tamil Contribution to World Civilisation | |||
| publisher = Tamil National Foundation | |||
}}</ref> Rice, the major ] of most of the Tamil people, is usually steamed and served with about two to six accompanying items, which typically include ], dry ], ], ] and ''thayir'' (]) or ''moru'' (] or ]). Lighter meals usually include one or more of ], ], ] or ], which are often served for ] or as an evening snack.<ref name=indiasite>{{cite web | |||
| url = http://www.indiasite.com/tamilnadu/cuisine.html | |||
| title = Cuisine of Tamil Nadu | |||
| accessdate = 2006-12-04 | |||
| work = Tamil Nadu | |||
| publisher = indiasite.com | |||
}}</ref> Clarified butter ] called ] is used to flavor the rice when eaten with dhal or ], but not with curds or buttermilk. ] a dish which can be spicy with ''moru'' is also popular with steamed rice. Each geographical area where Tamil people have been traditionally residing has developed its own distinct variant of the common dishes and also a few dishes native to itself. The ] region comprising of ] and adjoining areas is known for both traditional vegetarian ] like ], ], ] and non-vegetarian dishes, made primarily using ]. | |||
===Martial arts=== | |||
{{main|Dravidian martial arts}} | |||
Various ] including ], ], ], ] (Madhu) and ], are practised in ] and ]. The weapons used include ''Silambam'', ''Maankombukkalai'', ''Yeratthai Mulangkol'' (double stick), ''Surul Pattai'' (spring sword), ''Val Vitchi'' (single sword), and ''Yeretthai Val'' (double sword). | |||
The ancient Tamil art of unarmed ], popular amongst warriors in the classical period, has also survived in parts of ], notably ] near ], where it is known as ] or ''mañcuviraṭṭu'' and is held once a year around the time of the ] festival. | |||
] is a ] using a '']'', a long staff of about {{cvt|168|cm}} in length, often made of wood such as bamboo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Martial Arts (Silambam & Kalaripayattu)|url=https://fitindia.gov.in/events/martial-arts-sillambam-kalaripayattu/|publisher=]|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205090742/https://fitindia.gov.in/events/martial-arts-sillambam-kalaripayattu/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Nainar|first=Nahla|date=20 January 2017|title=A stick in time …|newspaper=]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/A-stick-in-time-%E2%80%A6/article17067195.ece|access-date=11 February 2023|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=2 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902212850/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/A-stick-in-time-%E2%80%A6/article17067195.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sarkar|first=John|title=Dravidian martial art on a comeback mode|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/dravidian-martial-art-on-a-comeback-mode/articleshow/2788821.cms|access-date=5 December 2020|work=]|date=17 February 2008|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731104255/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/dravidian-martial-art-on-a-comeback-mode/articleshow/2788821.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> ] (or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body.<ref name="Warrior">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlI0fxSm1vgC&pg=PA36|page=36|title=The Way of the Warrior|author=Chris Crudelli|year=2008|isbn=978-1-40533-750-2|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140848/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Way_of_the_Warrior/QlI0fxSm1vgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA36|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/adimurai-oldest-form-of-martial-arts-in-the-world-783629|title=Adimurai|date=18 February 2023|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=29 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329181645/https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/adimurai-oldest-form-of-martial-arts-in-the-world-783629|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Luijendijk|first=D.H.|title=Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art|year=2005|publisher=Paladin Press|isbn=978-1-40922-626-0}}</ref> ] is a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sage ] and might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai or ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Zarrilli, Phillip B.|year=1992|title=To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu|url=https://spa.exeter.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html|journal=]|volume=1|issue=1|access-date=23 February 2023|archive-date=1 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601082829/https://spa.exeter.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is the traditional form of combat-wrestling.<ref name="Warrior"/><ref>{{cite journal|first=Joseph S.|last=Alter|author-link=Joseph Alter|date=May 1992|title=The ''sannyasi'' and the Indian wrestler: the anatomy of a relationship|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=19|issue=2|pages=317–336|issn=0094-0496|doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070|jstor=645039|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/645039|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=9 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309133400/https://www.jstor.org/stable/645039|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==Institutions== | |||
Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such as ] (iron sickle), ] (deer horns), ] (sword) and ] (shield), ] (curling blade), ] or ] (spear), ] (whip), ] (fist blade), ] (mchete), silambam (bamboo staff), ] (spiked knuckleduster), ] (dagger), ] (bow and arrow), ] (mace), ] (trident), ] (boomerang), ] (discus) and theepandam (flaming baton).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://silambam.org.in/silambam-education-weapons.html|title=Silambam weapons|work=]|date=17 November 2023 |access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailynews.lk/2024/05/13/featured/535362/hidden-dance-of-the-deadly-staff/|title=Hidden Dance of the Deadly Staff|date=13 May 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|work=]}}</ref> ] used to make weapons, originated in the mid-1st millennium BCE in South India.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Sharada|last=Srinivasan|date=15 November 1994|title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in India|journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology|volume=5|pages=49–59|doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wijepala|first1=W. M. T. B.|last2=Young|first2=Sansfica M.|last3=Ishiga|first3=Hiroaki|date=2022-04-01|title=Reading the archaeometallurgical findings of Yodhawewa site, Sri Lanka: contextualizing with South Asian metal history|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41826-022-00046-0|journal=Asian Archaeology|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=21–39|doi=10.1007/s41826-022-00046-0|s2cid=247355036|issn=2520-8101|access-date=13 September 2024|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913061300/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41826-022-00046-0|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Herbert Henery|last=Coghlan|year=1977|title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World|pages=99–100|edition=2nd|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=B.|last=Sasisekharan|year=1999|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf|title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal|journal=]|volume=34|number=4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf|archive-date=24 July 2015}}</ref> Locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras and the later trade introduced it to other parts of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Manning|first=Charlotte Speir|title=Ancient and Medieval India|volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365|isbn=978-0-543-92943-3|page=365|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914124800/https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Sharada|last1=Srinivasan|first2=Srinivasa|last2=Ranganathan|title=India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World|url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|year=2004|journal=Iron & Steel Heritage of India|pages=69–82|oclc=82439861|access-date=23 July 2015|archive-date=11 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211082829/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped with ]s and heroic ] was glorified in ancient Tamil literature.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=21, 386|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=29 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529095237/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&redir_esc=y|url-status=live}}</ref> Defeated kings committed '']'', a form of ritual suicide.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil, the Purananuru|year=2002|isbn=978-0-23151-252-7|publisher=]|author1=George L. Hart|author2=Hank Heifet|page=217}}</ref> | |||
The global spread of the Tamil diaspora has hindered the formation of formal pan-Tamil institutions. The most important national institutions for Tamils have been the governments of the states where they live, particularly the ] and the ], which have collaborated in developing technical and scientific terminology in ] and promoting its use since the 1950s. | |||
==== Modern arts ==== | |||
Politics in Tamil Nadu is dominated by the ] (also called the Dravidian movement), founded by ], popularly known as Periyar, to promote ] and ], and to fight ]ism and the oppression of the lowest castes. Every major political party in Tamil Nadu bases its ideology on the Self-respect Movement, and the national political parties play a very small role in Tamil politics. | |||
{{main|Tamil cinema|Tamil television soap opera}} | |||
] | |||
The Tamil film industry nicknamed as ] and is one of the largest industries of film production in India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Tamil-leads-as-India-tops-film-production/articleshow/21967065.cms|title=Tamil Nadu leads in film production|newspaper=]|date=22 August 2013|access-date=25 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116192759/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Tamil-leads-as-India-tops-film-production/articleshow/21967065.cms|archive-date=16 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|work=]|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/tamil-telugu-film-industries-outshine-bollywood/238821/|title=Tamil, Telugu film industries outshine Bollywood|date=25 January 2006|access-date=19 February 2012|archive-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325024848/https://www.business-standard.com/article/Companies/Tamil-Telugu-film-industries-outshine-Bollywood-106012501034_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Independent Tamil film production have also originated outside India in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Canada, and western Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hiro|first=Dilip|title=After Empire: The Birth of a Multipolar World|year=2010|isbn=978-1-56858-427-0|page=248|publisher=Public Affairs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zlivv_pQWnAC&q=Kollywood&pg=PA248|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=22 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822035814/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zlivv_pQWnAC&q=Kollywood&pg=PA248|url-status=live }}</ref> The concept of "Tent Cinema" was introduced in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 October 2013|title=A way of life|work=]|url=https://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/cinema/a-way-of-life/article5189219.ece|access-date=19 June 2018|archive-date=6 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140206150806/https://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/cinema/a-way-of-life/article5189219.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/Cinema-and-the-city/article15513259.ece|title=Cinema and the city|date=9 January 2009|newspaper=]|access-date=1 March 2023|archive-date=23 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023234933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/Cinema-and-the-city/article15513259.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/farewell-to-old-cinema-halls/articleshow/8202426.cms|title=Farewell to old cinema halls|date=9 May 2011|work=]|access-date=19 June 2018|archive-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005001958/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/Farewell-to-old-cinema-halls/articleshow/8202426.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first Tamil talkie film was '']'', which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after the release of India's first talking picture '']''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Velayutham|first=Selvaraj|title=Tamil cinema: the cultural politics of India's other film industry|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65Aqrna4o5oC&q=Tamil+cinema+industry|isbn=978-0-415-39680-6|year=2008|publisher=]|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=22 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822035817/https://books.google.com/books?id=65Aqrna4o5oC&q=Tamil+cinema+industry|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/from-silent-films-to-the-digital-era-madras-tryst-with-cinema/article32476615.ece|title=From silent films to the digital era — Madras' tryst with cinema|newspaper=]|date=30 August 2020|access-date=29 June 2021|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108035615/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/from-silent-films-to-the-digital-era-madras-tryst-with-cinema/article32476615.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
In ], Tamil politics was dominated by the federalist movements, led by the Federal Party (later the ]), until the early 1980s. In the 1980s, the political movement was largely succeeded by a violent military campaign conducted by several militant groups. The ] emerged as the most important force amongst these groups in the 1990s, and is currently negotiating a final settlement with the government. The LTTE controls portions of Sri Lanka, and has attempted to establish its own government there, which it calls the government of ]. LTTE has been banned by the ] on account of alleged terrorism. It has also been banned in India following the assassination of former ] ].<ref> ''rediff.com'', 28 February 2001. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref><ref> ''Lanka Truth'', 8 April 2006. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref><ref>Adam, Ruxandra. ''Softpedia News'', 30 May 2006. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref> | |||
=== Clothing === | |||
In the 1960s, the government of ] held a ], and have continued to meet periodically since then. In 1999, a ] was established to protect and foster Tamil culture and further a sense of togetherness amongst Tamils in different countries. The Confederation has since adopted a ] and Tamil song<ref>World Tamil Confederation. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</ref> to act as trans-national symbols for the Tamil people; the words on the flag quote the opening line of a poem by the classical poet Kanian Poongundranaar, and means "''Whosoever is our kin;Wheresoever is our home''". | |||
]s worn by women on special occasions.<ref>{{cite news|title=Weaving through the threads|work=]|date=30 March 2012 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/weaving-through-threads-of-kancheepurams-history/article3264339.ece|access-date=7 March 2015|archive-date=14 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614090426/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/weaving-through-threads-of-kancheepurams-history/article3264339.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses worn by Tamil people.<ref>{{cite book|last=Parthasarathy|first=R.|year=1993|title=The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India – The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal, Translations from the Asian Classics|publisher=]|location=New York|isbn=978-0-23107-849-8}}</ref><ref name="Costume">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34|page=34|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|year=2017|isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140850/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Historical_Dictionary_of_the_Tamils/ALUvDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA34|url-status=live}}</ref> Tamil women traditionally wear a '']'', a garment that consists of a drape varying from {{cvt|15|ft|order=flip}} to {{cvt|27|ft|order=flip}} in length and {{cvt|2|ft|order=flip}} to {{cvt|4|ft|order=flip}} in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boulanger|first=Chantal|title=Saris: An Illustrated Guide to the Indian Art of Draping|year=1997|publisher=Shakti Press International|location=New York|isbn=978-0-96614-961-6|page=6,15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1pEAAAAYAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140902/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Saris/_1pEAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lynton|first=Linda|title=The Sari|year=1995|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|location=New York|isbn=978-0-50028-378-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4dlQgAACAAJ|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140858/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Sari/v4dlQgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dress">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohvzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196|page=196|title=Indian Art & Culture|author=Anurag Kumar|year=2016|isbn=978-9-35094-484-4|publisher=Arihant Publication|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716140858/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Art_Culture/ohvzDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA196|url-status=live}}</ref> Women wear colourful ]s on traditional occasions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V5P_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT47|page=47|title=Exploring The Riches Of India|author=Nick Huyes|date=10 May 2024|publisher=Nicky Huys Books|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716150217/https://books.google.com/books?id=V5P_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT47#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Sociology of Religion|first1=Susanne|last1=C. Monahan|first2=William|last2=Andrew Mirola|first3=Michael|last3=O. Emerson|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2001|isbn=978-0-13025-380-4|page=83}}</ref> Young girls wear a long skirt called ''pavaadai'' along with a shorter length sari called ''dhavani''.<ref name="Costume"/> The men wear a '']'', a {{cvt|1.9|m}} long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.<ref name="Costume"/><ref name="Dress"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/dhoti|title=About Dhoti|encyclopedia=]|access-date=12 January 2016|archive-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313150055/http://www.britannica.com/topic/dhoti|url-status=live}}</ref> A colourful '']'' with typical ] patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.<ref name="Costume"/><ref name="Cloth">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Clothing|title=Clothing in India|encyclopedia=]|access-date=12 January 2016|archive-date=17 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317074255/http://www.britannica.com/place/India/Clothing|url-status=live}}</ref> People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.<ref name="Cloth"/> | |||
==See also== | |||
* ] | |||
* ]s | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
{{Dravidian}} | |||
== |
=== Calendar === | ||
{{main|Tamil calendar}} | |||
{{reflist|2}} | |||
The Tamil calendar is a ] ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich/page/12/mode/2up?q=tamil|pages=11–12|author1=Robert Sewell|author2=Sankara Dikshit|title=The Indian Calendar|publisher=]|year=1995}}</ref> The ''Tamil ]'' is based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4RIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226|page=226|title=Singapore Ethnic Mosaic, The: Many Cultures, One People|year=2017|isbn=978-9-81323-475-8|publisher=World Scientific Publishing Company|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716150230/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4RIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The calendar follows a 60-year cycle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.saveca.ca/Sixty%20year%20cycle.pdf|title=Sixty year cycle|publisher=Sankara Vedic Culture and Arts|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716143712/https://www.saveca.ca/Sixty%20year%20cycle.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> There are 12 months in a year starting with '']'' when the ] enters the first '']'' and the number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/IndianCalendricSystem-SK-Chatterjee/page/n15/mode/2up?q=tamil|author=S.K. Chatterjee|title=Indian Calendric System|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, ]|year=1998|pages=9–12}}</ref> The new year starts following the ] in the middle of April.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ|page=809|title=Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions|publisher=]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59339-491-2|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806053301/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The days of week (''kiḻamai'') in the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the solar system: ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], in that order.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w76Ler3OvEcC&pg=PA631|page=631|title=Tamil dictionary|author=Johann Philipp Fabricius|year=1998|isbn=978-8-12060-264-9|publisher=Asian Educational Services|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806053231/https://books.google.com/books?id=w76Ler3OvEcC&pg=PA631#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==References== | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* Bowers, F. (1956). ''Theatre in the East - A Survey of Asian Dance and Drama''. New York: Grove Press. | |||
* Casson, L. (1989). ''The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary''. Princeton, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04060-5. | |||
* Chaitanya, Krishna (1971). ''A history of Malayalam literature''. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 81-250-0488-2. | |||
* Coomaraswamy, A.K. (1946). ''Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought''. London: Luzac & Co. | |||
* Gadgil, M. & Joshi, N.V. & Shambu Prasad, U.V. & Manoharan, S. & Patil, S. (1997). "Peopling of India." In D. Balasubramanian and N. Appaji Rao (eds.), ''The Indian Human Heritage'', pp.100-129. Hyderabad: Universities Press. ISBN 81-7371-128-3. | |||
* Hart, G.L. (1975). ''The Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and their Sanskrit Counterparts''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02672-1. | |||
* Hart, G.L. (1979). "The Nature of Tamil Devotion." In M.M. Deshpande and P.E. Hook (eds.), ''Aryan and Non-Aryan in India'', pp. 11-33. Michigan: Ann Arbor. ISBN 0-89148-014-5. | |||
* Hart, G.L. (1987). "Early Evidence for Caste in South India." In P. Hockings (ed.), ''Dimesions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David B. Mandelbaum''. Berlin: Mouton Gruyter. | |||
* Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). ''Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Cambridge, Harvard University Press''. ISBN 0-674-01227-5. | |||
* Parpola, Asko (1974). "On the protohistory of the Indian languages in the light of archaeological, linguistic and religious evidence: An attempt at integration." In van Lohuizen, J.E. de Leeuw & Ubaghs, J.M.M. (eds.), ''South Asian Archaeology 1973'', pp. 90-100. Leiden: E.J. Brill. | |||
* Parpola, Asko (2003). ''Deciphering the Indus script'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79566-4. | |||
* Pillai, Suresh B. (1976). ''Introduction to the study of temple art''. Thanjavur: Equator and Meridian. | |||
* Ramaswamy, Sumathi (1998). ''Passions of the Tongue: language devotion in Tamil India 1891-1970''. Delhi: Munshiram. ISBN 81-215-0851-7. | |||
* Sastri, K.S. Ramaswamy (2002). ''The Tamils: The People, Their History and Culture'', Vol. 1: ''An Introduction to Tamil History and Society''. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. ISBN 81-7755-406-9. | |||
* Sharma, Manorama (2004). ''Folk India: A Comprehensive Study of Indian Folk Music and Culture'', Vol. 11: ''Tamil Nadu and Kerala''. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 81-7574-141-4. | |||
* Sivaram, Rama (1994). ''Early Chola Art: Origin and Emergence of Style''. New Delhi: Navrang. ISBN 81-7013-079-4. | |||
* {{cite news | last=Subramanian | first=T.S. | title=`Rudimentary Tamil-Brahmi script' unearthed at Adichanallur | date=17 Feb 2005 | publisher=The Hindu | url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/17/stories/2005021704471300.htm}} | |||
* Suryanarayan, V. (2001). , ''Frontline'' 18(2). | |||
* Swaminatha Iyer, S.S. (1910). ''A Brief History of the Tamil Country'', Part 1: ''The Cholas''. Tanjore: G.S. Maniya. | |||
* Varadpande, M.L. (1992). ''Loka Ranga: Panorama of Indian Folk Theatre''. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-278-0. | |||
* Wells, Spencer (2002). ''The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey''. Princeton University Press. | |||
* Zvebil, K. (1974). ''The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India''. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-03591-5. | |||
</div> | |||
=== Food and hospitality === | |||
===Population data=== | |||
] | |||
All population data has been taken from , with the exception of the data for Sri Lanka, which was taken from the ]'s Sri Lanka . | |||
{{Main|Tamil cuisine}} | |||
] is a major feature of Tamil culture.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tamil Culture: Religion, Culture, and Literature|author=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲|year=2000|isbn=978-8-18605-052-1|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|page=77}}</ref> It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KuQkclfSxsC&pg=PA658|page=658|title=Social Problems in India|author=Selwyn Stanley|year=2004|isbn=978-8-17764-708-2|publisher=Allied Publishers|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715174158/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Social_Problems_in_India/8KuQkclfSxsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA658|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://irjt.iorpress.org/index.php/irjt/article/view/1049|title=Hospitality Characteristics of Tamil People|journal=International Tamil Research|volume=4|year=2022|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=17 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817042310/https://irjt.iorpress.org/index.php/irjt/article/view/1049|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is the diet staple and is served with ], ], and ] as a part of a Tamil meal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2024/Jul/09/rediscovering-the-richness-of-rice|title=Rediscovering the richness of rice|date=9 July 2024|access-date=11 July 2024|publisher=]|archive-date=11 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711010328/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2024/Jul/09/rediscovering-the-richness-of-rice|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HwMAQAAMAAJ&q=tamil+meal+sambar+rasam+poriyal|page=412|title=South India Heritage: An Introduction|year=2007|isbn=978-8-18866-164-0|publisher=East West Books}}</ref> ] find mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on a ], which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Indian Cuisine|year=2023|isbn=978-1-350-12864-4|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jusEAAAQBAJ|page=41|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716151737/https://books.google.com/books?id=3jusEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://iskconhighertaste.com/bananaleaf_sattvic.html|title=Serving on a banana leaf|publisher=ISCKON|access-date=1 January 2023|archive-date=31 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531220859/http://iskconhighertaste.com/bananaleaf_sattvic.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/health/healthyliving/the-benefits-of-eating-food-on-banana-leaves-242512.html|title=The Benefits of Eating Food on Banana Leaves|work=India Times|date=9 March 2015|access-date=20 March 2016|archive-date=7 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307041415/http://www.indiatimes.com/health/healthyliving/the-benefits-of-eating-food-on-banana-leaves-242512.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.<ref>{{cite book|title=India: The Culture|first=Bobbie|last=Kalman|publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company|year=2009|page=29|isbn=978-0-7787-9287-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UuDBEsOF6G4C|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=19 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419005150/https://books.google.com/books?id=UuDBEsOF6G4C|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==External links== | |||
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There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/food/recipes|title=Food recipes|publisher=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610171229/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/food/recipes|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SLC">{{cite web|title=Big, bold flavours from a small island|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/lifestyle/food-and-drink/big-bold-flavours-from-a-small-island-2866110|date=28 January 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=]|archive-date=28 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128000946/https://www.deccanherald.com/lifestyle/food-and-drink/big-bold-flavours-from-a-small-island-2866110|url-status=live}}</ref> There are both vegetarian and meat dishes with ] traditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage of ].<ref name="ETC">{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/food/indias-pluralism-traditional-cuisines-of-tamil-nadu-largely-about-meat-fish/articleshow/49304324.cms?from=mdr|title=India's pluralism: Traditional cuisines of Tamil Nadu largely about meat & fish|publisher=]|date=11 October 2015|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220160216/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/food/indias-pluralism-traditional-cuisines-of-tamil-nadu-largely-about-meat-fish/articleshow/49304324.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It uses ], ], ], and ] to go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region.<ref name="ETC"/><ref name="KN">{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/web-only/2023/Jul/22/flavours-of-kongunadu-there-are-several-tamil-nadus-when-it-comes-to-food-2597501.html|title=Flavours of Kongunadu: There are several Tamil Nadus when it comes to food|date=22 July 2023|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=]|archive-date=22 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722180757/https://www.newindianexpress.com/web-only/2023/jul/22/flavours-of-kongunadu-there-are-several-tamil-nadus-when-it-comes-to-food-2597501.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables.<ref name="ETC"/> Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine uses ] and ] along with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island.<ref name="SLC"/> ] is a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions.<ref name="KN"/> ], and ] are popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people include ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/lifestyle/food/recipes/6-breakfast-items-from-tamil-nadu-to-have-instead-of-idli-and-dosa-article-108816150|title=6 Breakfast Items From Tamil Nadu To Have Instead Of Idli and Dosa|date=27 March 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=]|archive-date=27 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327235308/https://www.timesnownews.com/lifestyle/food/recipes/6-breakfast-items-from-tamil-nadu-to-have-instead-of-idli-and-dosa-article-108816150|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|first=K.T.|last=Achaya|title=The Story of Our Food|date=1 November 2003|publisher=Universities Press|isbn=978-8-17371-293-7|page=80}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QHE-qKU-ugC&pg=PA170|page=170|title=Acceptable Genes? Religious Traditions and Genetically Modified Foods|year=2009|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-43842-894-9|editor=Conrad Bunk|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716151738/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QHE-qKU-ugC&pg=PA170#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4kkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT265|title=Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II People, Places and Potpourri|author=George Abraham Pottamkulam|year=2021|isbn=978-1-63806-520-3|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716141934/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamilnadu_A_Journey_in_Time_Part_II/x4kkEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT265|url-status=live}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg8HEAAAQBAJ|title=India, Sri Lanka and the SAARC Region: History, Popular Culture and Heritage|author=Lopamudra Maitra Bajpai|year=2020|isbn=978-1-00020-581-7|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716141935/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_Sri_Lanka_and_the_SAARC_Region/yg8HEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Medicine === | |||
{{featured article}} | |||
{{main|Siddha medicine}} | |||
] is a form of ] originating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nischennai.org/main/siddha-medicine/|title=About Siddha medicine: Origins|publisher=]|access-date=16 February 2024|archive-date=10 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210052929/https://nischennai.org/main/siddha-medicine/|url-status=live}}</ref> The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came from ], which was passed on to 18 holy men known as '']'' led by ]. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ayushedu.bisag-n.gov.in/AYUSH_EDU/siddha|title=About Siddha|publisher=]|access-date=1 June 2024}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://siddhacouncil.com/ccrs/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Siddha-Dossier_CCRS_Chennai-1.pdf|title=Siddha system of medicine|date=August 2020|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=National Siddha Council|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716144733/https://siddhacouncil.com/ccrs/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Siddha-Dossier_CCRS_Chennai-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
]s''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abbie Mercer|title=Happy New Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3AnvD5jeDMC|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-4042-3808-4|page=22}}</ref>]] | |||
{{Link FA|sv}} | |||
=== Festivals === | |||
] | |||
] is a major and multi-day ] celebrated by Tamils in the month of ] according to the ] (usually falls on 14 or 15 January).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RNBgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|page=126|title=Vegetarianism and Animal Ethics in Contemporary Buddhism|author=James Stewart|year=2015|isbn=978-1-31762-398-4|publisher=]|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716141936/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Vegetarianism_and_Animal_Ethics_in_Conte/RNBgCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA126|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Beteille|first=Andre|title=89. A Note on the Pongal Festival in a Tanjore Village|journal=Man|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=64|year=1964|issue=2 |issn=0025-1496|doi=10.2307/2797924|pages=73–75|jstor=2797924 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-206-7|pages=547–548}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Roy W. Hamilton|author2=Aurora Ammayao|title=The art of rice: spirit and sustenance in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyQoAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-93074-198-3|pages=156–157|access-date=30 October 2019|archive-date=21 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421115348/https://books.google.com/books?id=yyQoAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on the ] and falls on in April every year on the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=puthandu|year=2010|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-14341-421-6|page=406|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716151809/https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=puthandu#v=snippet&q=puthandu&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other major festivals include ],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spagnoli|first1=Cathy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_Aci8KA7JEC&dq=karthigai+deepam+november+december&pg=PA133|title=Jasmine and Coconuts: South Indian Tales|last2=Samanna|first2=Paramasivam|date=1999|publisher=Libraries Unlimited|isbn=978-1-56308-576-5|page=133|access-date=8 February 2024|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930150136/https://books.google.com/books?id=6_Aci8KA7JEC&dq=karthigai+deepam+november+december&pg=PA133|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gajrani|first=S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&dq=karthigai+deepam&pg=PA207|title=History, Religion and Culture of India|date=2004|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-8-18205-061-7|page=207|access-date=8 February 2024|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930145221/https://books.google.com/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&dq=karthigai+deepam&pg=PA207|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|title=Traditional Festivals: A Multicultural Encyclopedia|first=Christian|last=Roy|year=2005|isbn=978-1-85109-689-3|pages=462–463|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Alexandra Kent|title=Divinity and Diversity: A Hindu Revitalization Movement in Malaysia|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=978-8-79111-489-2}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Pechilis|first=Karen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eLFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT155|title=Interpreting Devotion: The Poetry and Legacy of a Female Bhakti Saint of India|date=22 March 2013|page=155|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-136-50704-5|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=13 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213153509/https://books.google.com/books?id=4eLFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT155|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Holiday Symbols & Customs|year=2015|isbn=978-0-780-81365-6|first=James|last=Chambers|publisher=Infobase Publishing}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Encyclopedia|author=Subodh Kant|isbn=978-8-177-55257-7|year=2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|page=7821}}</ref> ] is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated in the Tamil month of ] and the worship of ] and ] deities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare.<ref name="AA">{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2022/jul/26/an-ode-to-aadi-and-ayyanar-2480584.html|title=An ode to Aadi and Ayyanar|newspaper=]|date=26 July 2022|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=22 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222132958/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2022/jul/26/an-ode-to-aadi-and-ayyanar-2480584.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Other festivals celebrated include ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/blog/most-important-festivals-of-tamilnadu-that-are-worth-watching-and-experiencing/|title=Important festivals of Tamilnadu|date=14 June 2023|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=26 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226135224/https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/blog/most-important-festivals-of-tamilnadu-that-are-worth-watching-and-experiencing/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/photos/festivals|title=Festivals|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=11 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240611190954/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/photos/festivals|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/festivals/christmas.php|title=Christmas in Tamil Nadu|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201140154/https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/festivals/christmas.php|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
=== Sports === | |||
] | |||
], a traditional bull taming event.]] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
{{Main|Sports in Tamil Nadu}} | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Governor-clears-ordinance-on-%E2%80%98jallikattu%E2%80%99/article17074093.ece|title=Governor clears ordinance on 'jallikattu'|last=Ramakrishnan|first=T.|newspaper=]|access-date=1 December 2023|date=26 February 2017|language=en|archive-date=20 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520145353/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Governor-clears-ordinance-on-%E2%80%98jallikattu%E2%80%99/article17074093.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/events/jallikattu-bull-festival|title=Jallikattu bull festival|work=]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610211259/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/events/jallikattu-bull-festival|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been practised since Sangam period with the aim of keeping people fit. Proficiency in the sport was considered a virtue while untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o56i5ymOIBkC&pg=PA159DQ|title=A Western Journalist on India: The Ferengi's Columns|first=François|last=Gautier|isbn=978-81-241-0795-9|year=2001|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914130005/https://books.google.com/books?id=o56i5ymOIBkC&pg=PA159DQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/03/22/travel/21webletter.html|title=NY Times: ''The ritual dates back as far as 2,000 years ...''|access-date=24 May 2007|work=]|first=Daniel|last=Grushkin|date=22 March 2007|archive-date=24 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224235809/http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/03/22/travel/21webletter.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is a traditional conatct sport that originated from the Tamils.<ref>{{cite book|title=International Sport Management|publisher=Human Kinetics|isbn=978-0-73608-273-0|page=183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BX6QSQAACAAJ&q=kabaddi|access-date=22 August 2015|date=May 2010|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914125846/https://books.google.com/books?id=BX6QSQAACAAJ&q=kabaddi|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=International Sport Management|first1=Ming|last1=Li|first2=Eric W.|last2=MacIntosh|first3=Gonzalo A.|last3=Bravo|year=2012|publisher=Ming Li, Eric W. MacIntosh, Gonzalo A. Bravo|isbn=978-0-736-08273-0|page=106}}</ref> ] is a popular ] which originated as ] in the 7th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Murray, H. J. R.|title=A History of Chess|publisher=Benjamin Press|year=1913|isbn=978-0-93631-701-4|quote=Chathuranga, four-handed dice chess}}</ref> ] like ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Russ|first=Laurence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXeCAAAAMAAJ&q=pallanguli|title=Mancala Games|date=1984|publisher=Reference Publications|isbn=978-0-917-25619-6|pages=60|language=en|access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=27 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827164356/https://books.google.com/books?id=rXeCAAAAMAAJ&q=pallanguli|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news|title=Traditional sports and games mark Pongal festivities|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/traditional-sports-and-games-mark-pongal-festivities/article1096563.ece|work=]|date=17 January 2011|access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603090112/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/Traditional-sports-and-games-mark-Pongal-festivities/article15521808.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|first=Steve|last=Craig|year=2002|title=Sports and Games of the Ancients: (Sports and Games Through History)|isbn=978-0-313-31600-5|page=63|publisher=]}}</ref> ] are played across the region.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Irving|year=2004|contribution=Round and Round the Houses: The Game of ''Pachisi''|editor-last=Mackenzie|editor-first=Colin|editor2-last=Finkel|editor2-first=Irving|title=Asian Games: The Art of Contest|publisher=Asia Society|pages=46–57|isbn=978-0-878-48099-9}}</ref> In modern times, ] is the most popular sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sporteology.com/top-10-most-popular-sports-in-india/|title=Top 10 Most Popular Sports in India|publisher=Sporteology|access-date=16 October 2013|archive-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622111511/https://sporteology.com/top-10-most-popular-sports-in-india/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
== Religion == | |||
] | |||
{{See also|Religion in ancient Tamil country|Dravidian folk religion|Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam}} | |||
] | |||
], guardian folk deity of Tamils]] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
As per the Sangam literature, the ] was classified into five categories known as ''thinais'', which were associated with a ] deity: ] in ''kurinji'' (hills), ] in ''mullai'' (forests), ] in ''marutham'' (plains), ]n in the ''neithal'' (coasts) and ] in ''palai'' (desert).<ref>{{cite book|title=Arts and Crafts of Tamil Nadu|first=C.|last=Chandramouli|year=2004|publisher=Directorate of Census Operations|page=74}}</ref> Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded as ''Paramporul'' ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Friedhelm|title=Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion|year=2015|publisher=]|isbn=978-8-12083-816-1|pages=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Padmaja|first=T.|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|date=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|pages=27}}</ref> While ] worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon, ] became regarded as the ''Tamil kadavul'' ("God of the Tamils").<ref>{{cite book|last=Clothey|first=Fred W.|title=The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan|year=2019|publisher=]|isbn=978-3-11080-410-2|pages=34}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan|title=A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery|year=2006|publisher=Harappa|url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html|archive-date=4 September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Essential Hinduism|author1=Steven Rosen|author2=Graham M. Schweig|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|year=2006|page=45}}</ref> In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva and ] and ] is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as the ''Mudanmudar kadavul'' ("foremost god").<ref>{{cite book|title=Tamil Civilization:Quarterly Research Journal of the Tamil University|volume=5|year=1987|publisher=]|page=9}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
The cult of the ] is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The worship of ], also called ], is thought to have been derived from an ancient ], and is also very common.<ref name="Tradition">{{cite book|title=Ayyanar and Mariamman, Folk Deities in South India|first=Christa|last=Neuenhofer|year=2012|isbn=978-1-457-99010-6|publisher=Blurb, Incorporated}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion|work=Hindu Heritage Study Program|url=http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html|access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114082702/http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html|archive-date=14 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/temples/amman-temples.php|title=Amman temples|access-date=1 December 2023|work=]|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223062719/https://www.tamilnadutourism.com/temples/amman-temples.php|url-status=live}}</ref> ], the heroine of the '']'' is worshipped as a ] by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tracing the Sri Lanka-Kerala link|author=P. K. Balachandran|work=]|date=23 March 2006|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214,00430014.htm|access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210184751/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214%2C00430014.htm|archive-date=10 December 2006|url-status=dead }}</ref> In the Sangam literature, there is a description of the rites performed by the priestesses in temples.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Mohan|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Five Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5|year=2006|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1221-3|page=4396}}</ref> Among the ancient Tamils, the practice of erecting memorial stones ('']'') was prevalent and it continued till the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S.S.|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications}}</ref> It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these ]s to bless them with victory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Subramanium|first=N.|title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils|year=1980|publisher=Ennes Publications}}</ref> In rural areas, local deities called ] (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami, ]), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.<ref name="Tradition"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cutler|first=Norman|date=1983|editor-last=Clothey|editor-first=Fred W.|editor2-last=Ramanujan|editor2-first=A. K.|editor3-last=Shulman|editor3-first=David Dean|title=Tamil Religion: Melting Pot or Battleground?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062405|journal=History of Religions|volume=22|issue=4|pages=381–391|doi=10.1086/462931|jstor=1062405|s2cid=162366616|issn=0018-2710|access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=16 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816205508/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062405|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity|first=Mark|last=Jarzombek|author-link=Mark Jarzombek|journal=Future Anterior|year=2009|url=http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/future_ant4_1.pdf|volume=4|issue=1|pages=18–36|doi=10.1353/fta.0.0031|doi-access=free|access-date=24 July 2015|archive-date=23 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823052722/http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/future_ant4_1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Their worship probably emanated from the hero stone worship and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.<ref>{{cite web|title= 'Hero stone' unearthed|url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071001023228/http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm |url-status= dead |archive-date= 1 October 2007 |access-date=5 December 2006|work= ]|date=22 July 2006}}</ref> ] forms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.htfl.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Hinduism-Philosophy-of-Idol-Worship.pdf|title=Philosophy of Idol Worship|author=]|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Hindu Temple of Florida|archive-date=6 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806053230/https://www.htfl.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Hinduism-Philosophy-of-Idol-Worship.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://saivaneethi.org/en/idol-worship/|title=Idol worship|work=Saiva neethi|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> | |||
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During the Sangam period, ], ] and ] also had a significant following.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tamil Virtual University|url=http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/diploma/c031/c0313/html/c0313201.htm|access-date=15 August 2023|archive-date=15 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815013626/http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/diploma/c031/c0313/html/c0313201.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> ] existed from the Sangam period with inscriptions and drip-ledges from 1st century BCE to 6th century CE describing the same.<ref>{{cite web|last=Nagarajan|first=Saraswathy|title=On the southern tip of India, a village steeped in the past|work=]|date=17 November 2011|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/travel/on-the-southern-tip-of-india-a-village-steeped-in-the-past/article2636325.ece|access-date=23 March 2017|archive-date=10 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210102314/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/travel/on-the-southern-tip-of-india-a-village-steeped-in-the-past/article2636325.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/2200yearold-tamilbrahmi-inscription-found-on-samanamalai/article3220674.ece|title=2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on Samanamalai|work=]|date=24 March 2012|access-date=19 January 2014|first=T. S.|last=Subramanian|archive-date=1 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101051105/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/2200yearold-tamilbrahmi-inscription-found-on-samanamalai/article3220674.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> The ], who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over the ] in the 3rd–7th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|author-link1=Hermann Kulke|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|author-link2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|date=2007|publisher=]|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=105|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC|access-date=7 September 2016|language=en|archive-date=23 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223185128/https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA72|title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India|isbn=978-0-6700-8478-4|last1=Eraly|first1=Abraham|year=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|access-date=8 February 2024|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405183047/https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA72|url-status=live}}</ref> ] had an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later Middle Ages with ancient texts referring to a ] in ] from the time of ] in 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found in ].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar-Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast|last=Rao|first=S.R.|journal=Journal of Marine Archaeology|volume=2|year=1991|page=6|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/3295/2/Mar_Archaeol_2_5.pdf|access-date=9 February 2024|archive-date=24 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124225917/http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/3295/2/Mar_Archaeol_2_5.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Duraiswamy|first=Dayalan|title=Role of Archaeology on Maritime Buddhism|url=https://www.academia.edu/19992743|access-date=9 February 2024|archive-date=10 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710113323/https://www.academia.edu/19992743|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Buddha">{{cite book|title=Survey of Buddhist temples and monasteries|first=Akhtar|last=Malik|year=2007|isbn=978-8-12613-259-1|publisher=Anmol Publications|page=306}}</ref> Around the 7th century CE, the ] and ], who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival of ] and ] during the ] led by Alwars and Nayanmars.{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=333}}<ref name="Bhakti"/> | |||
The Christian apostle, ], is believed to have preached ] to the Tamils between 52 and 70 CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Santhome Cathedral|url=https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/destinations/santhome-cathedral-and-basilica|access-date=28 December 2022|work=]|archive-date=30 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130204928/https://www.tamilnadutourism.tn.gov.in/destinations/santhome-cathedral-and-basilica|url-status=live}}</ref> ]s were Tamils who were converted to ] by the Turkish preacher ] in the tenth century CE and follow the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Shafique Ali Khan|title=Two Nation Theory: As a Concept, Strategy and Ideology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9ggAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 September 2013|year=1985|publisher=Royal Book Company|page=70|quote=Nathar Wali (died in 1039) is supposed to be the earliest Muslim Sufi who dedicated his life to Islam in the south}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mohan |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7d7NNdswXA4C&dq=Rowthers+Turkish&pg=PA206 |title=Utopia and the Village in South Asian Literatures |date=2012|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-13703-189-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=K. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beexzq__jCsC&q=Rowthers+Turkish |title=People of India: pt.1-3 Kerala |date=1992 |publisher=]|isbn=978-8-18593-899-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Abraham|first=George|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RK__DwAAQBAJ&q=Rawther+Turks&pg=PT404|title=Lanterns on the Lanes: Lit for Life|year=2020|page=104|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-64899-659-7|access-date=4 May 2021|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914130414/https://books.google.com/books?id=RK__DwAAQBAJ&q=Rawther+Turks&pg=PT404#v=snippet&q=Rawther%20Turks&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other Muslim clans such as ], ], and ] originated as a result of the trade with the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jean-Baptiste |first=Prashant More |date=1991 |title=The Marakkayar Muslims of Karikal, South India |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=2 |pages=25–44 |doi=10.1093/jis/2.1.25 |pmc=355923 |pmid=15455059 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Weekes |first=Richard V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQ3FEAAAQBAJ |title=Muslim Peoples : A World Ethnographic Survey |date=1984 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-313-23392-0 |pages=431}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wink |first=Andre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&dq=labbai&pg=PA79 |title=Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries |publisher=] |year=1990 |pages=78–80|isbn=978-0-39104-173-8 }}</ref> Majority of the ] speak Tamil rather than ], which is spoken by Muslims in other parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jain|first=Dhanesh|contribution=Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages|editor1-last=Cardona|editor1-first=George|editor2-last=Jain|editor2-first=Dhanesh|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|publisher=]|place=London|year=2003|series=Routledge language family series|isbn=0-70071-130-9|page=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=More|first=J.B.P.|title=Muslim identity, print culture and the Dravidian factor in Tamil Nadu|publisher=]|year=2007|isbn=978-8-12502-632-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Landis|first1=Dan|last2=Albert|first2=Rosita D.|title=Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives|page=150|year=2012|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-4614-0447-7}}</ref> Mercantile groups introduced ''Cholapauttam'', a syncretic form of Buddhism and Shaivism in northern Sri Lanka and Southern India. The religion lost its importance in the 14th century when conditions changed for the benefit of ] and ] traditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-cultural Exchange|last1=Manguin|first1=Pierre-Yves|last2=Mani|first2=A.|last3=Wade|first3=Geoff|date=2011|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-9-81434-510-1|page=138}}</ref> | |||
As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|title=Census 2001 – Statewise population by Religion|work=]|access-date=18 July 2010|archive-date=19 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119031333/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The migation of Tamils to other countries resulted in new Hindu temples being constructed in places with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin, and countries with significant Tamil migrants.<ref>{{cite book|last=Javier|first=A.G.|title=They Do What: A Cultural Encyclopedia of Extraordinary and Exotic Customs from Around the World|publisher=]|year=2014|isbn=979-8-21615-549-2}}</ref> Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly worship Murugan with numerous temples existing throughout the island.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pathmanathan|first=S|author-link=S. Pathmanathan|date=September 1999|title=The guardian deities of Sri Lanka: Skanda-Murgan and Kataragama|url=http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm|url-status=live|journal=The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies|publisher=The institute of Asian studies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926205619/http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm|archive-date=26 September 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bechert|first=Heinz|author-link=Heinz Bechert|year=1970|title=Skandakumara and Kataragama: An Aspect of the Relation of Hinduism and Buddhism in Sri Lanka|url=http://kataragama.org/research/bechert.htm|url-status=live|journal=Proceedings of the Third International Tamil Conference Seminar|location=Paris|publisher=International Association of Tamil Research|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925212357/http://kataragama.org/research/bechert.htm|archive-date=25 September 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> There are also followers of ] in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.<ref>{{cite book|author=R. Ponnu|title=Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the Struggle for Social Equality in South India|date=2000|publisher=Ram Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REH8XwAACAAJ|page=98|access-date=14 September 2024|archive-date=14 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914130355/https://books.google.com/books?id=REH8XwAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> ], ], and ] philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Maloney|first=Clarence|title=Religious Beliefs and Social Hierarchy in Tamiḻ Nāḍu, India|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=2|issue=1|year=1975|pages=169–191|doi=10.1525/ae.1975.2.1.02a00100|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
== Notable people == | |||
{{Main|List of Tamil people}} | |||
== See also == | |||
{{Portal|Tamils|India}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{reflist|group=note}} | |||
== References == | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
=== Bibliography === | |||
{{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=de Silva|first= Chandra|author-link=Chandra de Silva|title= Sri Lanka – A History|edition = 2|year=1997|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|isbn=978-0-95107-102-1}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Indrapala|first=K.|author-link=K. Indrapala|title=The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka|year=2007|publisher=Vijitha Yapa|isbn=978-9-55126-672-1|url=https://archive.org/details/the-evolution-of-an-ethnic-identity-the-tamils-in-sri-lanka-c.-300-bce-to-c.-1200-ce-tamil-version/page/n1/mode/2up}} | |||
* {{cite book|last= Sastri|first=Nilakanta|author-link=Nilakanta Sastri|title=A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn= 978-0-19560-686-7}} | |||
* {{cite book|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|first=Sailendra Nath|last=Sen|publisher=New Age International|year=1999|isbn=978-8-12241-198-0}} | |||
* {{cite book|title=From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|first=Upinder|last=Singh|year=2008|isbn=978-8-131-71120-0|publisher=]}} | |||
* {{cite book|first=Kamil|last=Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature|year=1992|publisher=]|isbn=978-9-00409-365-2}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
== External links == | |||
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* – '']'' entry | |||
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Latest revision as of 12:28, 22 December 2024
Dravidian ethnolinguistic groupEthnic group
Tamilar | |
---|---|
Total population | |
c. 77 million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
India | 69,026,881 (2011) |
Sri Lanka | 3,108,770 (2012) |
Malaysia | 1,800,000 (2016) |
United States | 238,699+ (2017) |
Canada | 237,890 (2021) |
Singapore | 174,708 (2020) |
Other | See Tamil diaspora |
Languages | |
Tamil | |
Religion | |
Majority: Hinduism Minority: | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Dravidians |
Tamiḻ | |
---|---|
People | Tamiḻar |
Language | Tamiḻ |
Country | Tamiḻ Nāṭu |
The Tamils (/ˈtæmɪlz, ˈtɑː-/ TAM-ilz, TAHM-), also known as the Tamilar, are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group who natively speak the Tamil language and trace their ancestry mainly to the southern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Tamil language is one of the longest-surviving classical languages, with over two thousand years of written history, dating back to the Sangam period (between 300 BCE and 300 CE). Tamils constitute about 5.7% of the Indian population and form the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Puducherry. They also form significant proportion of the population in Sri Lanka (15.3%), Malaysia (7%) and Singapore (5%). Tamils have migrated world-wide since the 19th century CE and a significant population exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia, Middle East, Caribbean and parts of the Western World.
Archaeological evidence from Tamil Nadu indicates a continuous history of human occupation for more than 3,800 years. In the Sangam period, Tamilakam was ruled by the Three Crowned Kings of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Smaller Velir kings and chieftains ruled certain territories and maintained relationship with the larger kingdoms. Urbanisation and mercantile activity developed along the coasts during the later Sangam period with the Tamils influencing the regional trade in the Indian Ocean region. Artifacts obtained from excavations indicate the presence of early trade relations with the Romans. The major kingdoms to rule the region later were the Pallavas (3rd–9th century CE), and the Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE).
The island of Sri Lanka often saw attacks from the Indian mainland with the Cholas establishing their influence across the island and across several areas in Southeast Asia in the 10th century CE. This led to the spread of Tamil influence and contributed to the cultural Indianisation of the region. Scripts brought by Tamil traders like the Grantha and Pallava scripts, induced the development of many Southeast Asian scripts. The Jaffna Kingdom later controlled the Tamil territory in the north of the Sri Lanka from 13th to 17th century CE. European colonization began in the 17th century CE, and continued for two centuries until the middle of the 20th century.
Due to its long history, the Tamil culture has seen multiple influences over the years and have developed diversely. The Tamil visual art consists of a distinct style of architecture, scultpure and other art forms. Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed bronze icons. The ancient Tamil country had its own system of music called Tamil Pannisai. Tamil performing arts include the theatre form Koothu, puppetry Bommalattam, classical dance Bharatanatyam, and various other traditional dance forms. Hindusim is the major religion followed by the Tamils and the religious practices include the veneration of various village deities and ancient Tamil gods. A smaller number are also Christians and Muslims, and a small percentage follow Jainism and Buddhism. Tamil cuisine consist of various vegetarian and meat items, usually spiced with locally available spices. Historian Michael Wood called the Tamils the last surviving classical civilization on Earth, because the Tamils have preserved substantial elements of their past regarding belief, culture, music, and literature despite the influence of globalization.
Etymology
Tamil is derived from the name of the language. The people are referred to as Tamiḻar in Tamil language, which is etymologically linked to the name of the language. The origin and precise etymology of the word Tamil is unclear with multiple theories attested to it. Kamil Zvelebil suggests that the term tamiz might have been derived from tam meaning "self" and "-iz" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation of tamiz < tam-iz < *tav-iz < *tak-iz, meaning "the proper process (of speaking)". Franklin Southworth suggests that the name comes from tam-miz > tam-iz meaning "self-speak", or "our own speech".
It is unknown whether the term Tamila and its equivalents in Prakrit such as Damela, Damila, or Tamira was first used as a self designation or a by outsiders. The Hathigumpha inscription from Udayagiri in Eastern India dated to the second century BCE, describes a Tamira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers), which was in existence for the previous 113 years. Epigraphical evidence from the second century BCE mentioning Damela or Dameda from ancient Sri Lanka have been found. In the Buddhist Jataka texts, there is a mention of a Damila-rattha (Tamil dynasty). Greek historian Strabo (first century BCE) mentions that the Roman Emperor Augustus received an ambassador from Pandyan of Dramira. An inscription from Amaravati dated to third century CE refers to a Dhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader).
History
In India
See also: History of Tamil Nadu and Sources of ancient Tamil historyPre-historic period (before 4th century BCE)
Archaeological evidence points to the region being first inhabited by hominids more than 400 millennia ago. Artifacts recovered in Adichanallur by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicate megalithic urn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE., which are also described in later Tamil literature. Neolithic celts with the Indus script dated between 15th and 20th century BCE indicate the use of early Harappan language. Excavations at Keezhadi have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Further epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur use Tamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE. Potsherds uncovered from Keeladi indicate a script which might be a transition between the Indus Valley script and Tamil Brahmi script used later.
Sangam period (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE)
Main article: Sangam period Further information: Tamilakam, Sangam landscape, and Economy of ancient Tamil countryThe Sangam period lasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the various Sangam literature. Ancient Tamilakam was ruled by a triumvirate of monarchical states, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. These kings are referred to as Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar (Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature. The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in the Kaveri delta. They are mentioned in the inscriptions from the Mauryan Empire dated to third century BCE. Kalinga inscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms. The three kings called Vendhar ruled over several hill tribes headed by the Velir chiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs called Kizhar. The rulers of smaller territories were referred to as Kurunilamannar, with Purananuru mentioning the names of many such chieftains.
Potsherds and megalithic sarcophagusThe Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions including vedic religion, Buddhism and Jainism and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work being Tolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar. Purananuru describes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about the Vedic Sacrifices performed by the kings as described in the Vedas and the rituals performed for the dead.
Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks of irrigation channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order.
The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with the Romans. Roman coins and other epigraphical evidence from South India and potsherds with Tamil writing found in excavations along the Red Sea indicate the presence of Roman commerce with the ancient Tamilakam. Much of the commerce from the Romans and Han China were facilitated via seaports including Muziris and Korkai with spices being the most prized goods along with pearls and silk. There is evidence of emissaries sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by the Pandya kings. An anonymous Greek traveler's account from first century CE, Periplus Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms in Damirica and their commercial activity in detail. It also describes that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils were pepper, malabathrum, pearls, ivory, silk, spikenard, diamonds, sapphires, and tortoiseshell.
Medieval era (4th–13th century CE)
From the fourth century CE, the region was ruled by the Kalabhras, warriors belonging to the Vellalar community, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms. The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended. Around the seventh century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas. Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of the Pallavas in the sixth century CE under Mahendravarman I, who ruled parts of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture. Throughout their reign, the Pallavas remained in constant conflict with the Cholas, the Pandyas and other kingdoms of Chalukyas of Badami and the Rashtrakutas. The Pandyas were revived by Kadungon towards the end of the sixth century CE and with the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas. The area west of the Western Ghats became increasingly distinct from the eastern parts. A new language Malayalam evolved from Tamil in the region and the socio-cultural transformation was altered further by the migration of Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryans from Northern India in the eighth century CE.
The Cholas were revived in the ninth century CE by Vijayalaya Chola and the last Pallavas ruler Aparajitavarman was defeated by the Chola prince Aditya I. After the defeat of the Pallavas, the Cholas became the dominant kingdom with the capital at Thanjavur. The Chola influence expanded subsequently with Rajaraja I conquering the entire Southern India and parts of present-day Sri Lanka and Maldives, and increased Chola influence across the Indian Ocean in the eleventh century CE. Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units. Under his son Rajendra Chola I, the Chola empire reached its zenith and stretched as far as Bengal in the north and across the Indian Ocean. He defeated the Eastern Chalukyas and the Chola navy invaded the Srivijaya Empire in South East Asia. The Cholas had trade links with the Chinese Song Dynasty and across Southeast Asia. The Cholas built many temples with the most notable being the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur. The latter half of the eleventh century saw the union of Chola and Vengi kingdoms under Kulottunga I. The Cholas repulsed attacks from the Western Chalukyas and maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia. According to historian Nilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundations of the empire for the next 150 years.
The eventual decline of Chola power began towards the end of Kulottunga III's reign in the thirteenth century CE. The Pandyas again reigned supreme under Maravarman Sundara I and defeated the Cholas under Rajaraja III. Though the Cholas were revived briefly with the aid of Hoysalas, civil war between Rajaraja and Rajendra III weakened them further. With the Hoysalas later siding with the Pandyas, the Pandyas consolidated control over the region. The Pandya empire reached its zenith in the thirteenth century CE under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I after he defeated the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas and captured parts of Sri Lanka. The Pandyas ruled from their capital of Madurai and expanded trade links with other maritime empires. Venetian explorer Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence. The Pandyas also built a number of temples including the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai. In the fourteenth century CE, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also faced repeated invasions by the Delhi Sultanate. In 1335, the Pandyan capital was conquered by Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan and the short-lived Madurai Sultanate was established.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (14th–17th century CE)
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded in 1336 CE. The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country by c. 1370 and ruled for almost two centuries. In the sixteenth century, Vijaynagara king Krishnadeva Raya was forced to intervene in the conflict between their vassals, the Cholas and the Pandyas. The Nayak governor under Raya briefly took control of Madurai before it was restored to the empire. The Vijayanagara empire was defeated in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy of Deccan sultanates. The Nayaks, who were the military governors in the Vijaynagara empire, took control of the region amongst whom the Nayaks of Madurai and Nayaks of Thanjavur were the most prominent. They introduced the palayakkararar system and re-constructed some of the temples in Tamil Nadu including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.
Later conflicts and European colonization (17th to 20th century CE)
In the 18th century, the Mughal empire administered the region through the Nawab of the Carnatic with his seat at Arcot, who defeated the Madurai Nayaks. The Marathas attacked several times and defeated the Nawab after the Siege of Trichinopoly (1751-1752). This led to a short-lived Thanjavur Maratha kingdom. Europeans started to establish trade centres from the 16th century along the eastern coast. The Portuguese arrived in 1522 followed by the Dutch and the Danes. In 1639, the British East India Company obtained a grant for land from the Vijayanager emperor and the French established trading posts at Pondichéry in 1693. After several conflicts between the British and the French, the British established themselves as the major power in the eighteenth century CE. The British regained control of Madras in 1749 through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and resisted a French siege attempt in 1759.
The British East India Company demanded tax collection rights, which led to constant conflicts with the local Palaiyakkarars and resulted in the Polygar Wars. Puli Thevar was one of the earliest opponents, joined later by Rani Velu Nachiyar and Kattabomman in the first series of Polygar wars. The Maruthu brothers along with Oomaithurai, formed a coalition with Dheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, which fought the British in the Second Polygar War. In the later 18th century, the Mysore kingdom captured parts of the region and engaged in constant fighting with the British which culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. By the late eighteenth century CE, the British had conquered most of the region and established the Madras Presidency with Madras as the capital. On 10 July 1806, the Vellore mutiny, which was the first instance of a large-scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company, took place in Vellore Fort. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1858, which transferred the governance of India from the East India Company to the British crown, forming the British Raj.
Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, the Great Famine of 1876–78 and the Indian famine of 1896–97 which killed millions and the migration of many Tamils as bonded laborers to other British countries eventually forming the present Tamil diaspora. The Indian Independence movement gathered momentum in the early 20th century with the formation of the Indian National Congress, which was based on an idea propagated by the members of the Theosophical Society movement after a Theosophical convention held in Madras in December 1884. Various Tamils were contributors to the Independence movement including V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramaniya Siva and Bharatiyar. The Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Subhas Chandra Bose.
Post Indian Independence (1947–present)
After the Independence of India in 1947, the Madras Presidency became Madras state, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The state was further re-organised as a state for Tamils when the boundaries were redrawn linguistically in 1956 into the current shape. On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country". In 1965, Tamils agitated against the imposition of Hindi and in support of continuing English as a medium of communication which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi. After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the Human Development Index of the Tamils have consistently improved due to reform-oriented economic policies and in the 2000s, the region has become one of the most urbanized states in the country.
In Sri Lanka
Main article: Sri Lankan TamilsPre-Anuradhapura period (before fifth century CE)
There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. Historian K. Indrapala states that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival of Sinhalese people in Sri Lanka. Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginal Naga and Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. A cobra totem known as Nakam in the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka. Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of the Iron Age in the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.
Anuradhapura period (4th century BCE to 10th century CE)
Black and red ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign of Anuradhapura kingdom, indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India. The Tamil Brahmi inscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such as Parumakal, Ay, Vel, Utiyan, Ticaiyan, Cuda and Naka, which points to the presence of Tamils in the region. Excavations in Poonakari in the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention of vela, a name related to velirs of the ancient Tamil country. Epigraphical evidence of people identified as Damelas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) from the second century CE have been found in Anuradhapura, the capital city of the northern Rajarata region.
Historical records mention that the three Tamil kingdoms were involved in the island's affairs from second century BCE. Chola king Ellalan captured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE. Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them. In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands) were established. In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island.
Polonnaruwa and Jaffna kingdom (11th–15th century CE)
The Chola influence lasted until the latter half of the eleventh century CE and the Chola decline was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa monarchy. In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant Aryacakravarti dynasty established the Jaffna Kingdom on the Jaffna peninsula and in parts of northern Sri Lanka. In the fourteenth century CE, the Aryacakaravarthi expansion into the south of the island was halted by Alagakkonara, who belonged to a feudal family from Kanchipuram that migrated to Sri Lanka in the previous century and converted to Buddhism. He served as the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE) and his descendant Vira Alakeshwara briefly became the king later before the Ming admiral Zheng He overthrew him in 1409 CE after which the influence of his family declined. The caste structure of the Sinhalese also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India, which led to the emergence of new Sinhalese caste groups such as the Radala, the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava.
Later conflicts and European colonization (16th–20th century CE)
See also: Portuguese Ceylon, Dutch Ceylon, and British CeylonThe Aryachakaravarthi dynasty continued to rule over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until arrival of the Europeans on the island in the sixteenth century CE. Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 CE and the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese due to its presence as a logistical and strategic base for accessing the interior ruled by the Kandyan kingdom. King Cankili I resisted contacts with the Portuguese and repelled Parava Catholics who were brought from India to the Mannar Island to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings. The wrested Mannar during the first invasion in 1560 and killed king Puvirasa Pandaram during the second expedition in 1591. After the conflicts, the Portuguese secured the kingdom in 1619 from the unpopular Cankili II, who was helped by the Thanjavur Nayaks. English sailor Robert Knox arrived in the island in 1669 and described the Tamil settlements in the An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon published in 1681.
The Dutch captured the island later and ruled for more than a century. Following the 1795 invasion of the British and the Kandyan Wars, the island came to the control of the British in the early nineteenth century CE. Upon arrival in June 1799, Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Tamils who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners." Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure in British Ceylon for better administration. During the British colonial rule, Tamils held higher positions in the government and were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the northern highlands, the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British and Indian Tamils were settled there as plantation workers. Tamils who migrated in the ninteenth century CE to work on tea plantations were later termed as the Indian Tamils.
Post Sri Lankan independence (1948–present)
Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and after the colonial rule ended, ethnic tension rose between the Sinhalese, who constituted a majority, and the Tamils. In 1956, the Sinhala Only Act designated Sinhala as the only official language of Sri Lanka, which forced many Tamils to resign as civil servants because they were not fluent in the language. The Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them. Anti-Tamil pogroms in 1956 and 1958 resulted in deaths of many Tamils and further escalated the conflict. More than a million Indian Tamil plantation workers were made stateless after Sri Lanka refused citizenship to them. In 1964, the Sri Lankan and Indian governments entered into an agreement, based on which, about 300,000 would be granted Sri Lankan citizenship and about 975,000 Tamils would be repatriated to India over a period of fifteen years.
A new Constitution enacted in the 1970s further discriminated against the Tamils and various state-sponsored schemes led Sinhalese settlers into Tamil populated areas. The 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom was followed by a crackdown against the Tamils, which curtailed their rights. Following the declaration of state of emergency in 1981, state-backed Sinhalese mobs turned on Tamils, which led many Tamils to leave the country as refugees resulting in an exodus more than half a million to India and other countries. By the 1970s, initial non-violent political struggle for an independent Tamil state in the north and east of Sri Lanka, developed into a violent secessionist insurgency. This led to the bloody Sri Lankan Civil War for more than three decades. The conflict resulted in the deaths of at least 100,000 Tamils in the island and led to the flight of over 800,000 refugees. The war ended after the Sri Lankan military offensive in 2009. Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights as a result of committing war crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the abduction and massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils and sexual violence.
Geographic distribution
India
As per the 2011 Census, there were 69 million Tamil speakers, constituting about 5.7% of the Indian population. Tamils formed the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu (63.8 million) and the union territory of Puducherry (1.1 million). There were also significant Tamil population in other states of India such as Karnataka (2.1 million), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (0.7 million), Maharashtra (0.5 million), and Kerala (0.5 million).
Sri Lanka
Further information: Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan MoorsTamils in Sri Lanka are classified into two ethnicities by the Sri Lankan government, namely Sri Lankan Tamils, and Indian Origin Tamils who accounted for 11.2%, and 4.1% respectively of the country's population in 2011. The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are the descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftainships called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations. Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and around Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands. Historically, both the Tamil ethnic groups have identified themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.
There also exists a significant Tamil Muslim population in Sri Lanka. However, they are listed as a separate entity under the Moors by the government. However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.
Tamil diaspora
Main articles: Tamil diaspora and Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora See also: Tamil Malaysians, Tamil South Africans, Tamil Canadians, Tamil British, Tamil Americans, Tamil Indonesian, Myanmar Tamils, Tamils in Réunion, and MalbarsSignificant emigration from Indian subcontinent began in the late 18th century, when the Tamils went as indentured labourers and established businesses in other territories under the control of the British empire such as Malaya, Burma, South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, and the Caribbean. The descendants of these Tamils continued to live in these countries, and practice their original culture, tradition and language. They form significant proportion of the population in Malaysia (7%) and Singapore (5%). A significant population also exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia and the Caribbean. However, subsequent generations might not speak the language as a mother tongue, but instead as a second or third language.
There is a small Tamil community in Pakistan, notably settled since the partition in 1947. Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such as Middle East and the Western World for employment. A large emigration of Sri Lankan Tamils began in the 1980s, as they sought to escape the ethnic conflict there. The largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka is found in Canada.
Culture
Main article: Tamil cultureLanguage
Main articles: Tamil language and Sri Lankan Tamil dialectsTamil people speak Tamil, which belongs to the Dravidian languages and is one of the oldest classical languages. According to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, the rudimentary Tamil Brahmi script originated in South India in the 3rd century BCE. Though the old Tamil preserved features of Proto-Dravidian language, modern-day spoken Tamil uses loanwords from other languages such as English. The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar book Naṉṉūl which incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary work Tolkāppiyam. Since the later part of the 19th century, Tamils made the language as a key part of the Tamil identity and the language is personified in the form of Tamil̲taay ("Tamil mother"). Various varieties of Tamil is spoken by the Tamils across regions such as Madras Bashai, Kongu Tamil, Madurai Tamil, Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil and various Sri Lankan Tamil dialects such as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.
Literature
Main articles: Tamil literature and Sri Lankan Tamil literatureTamil literature is of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia. The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE. Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as Tamil Sangams, the earliest of which destroyed by floods. The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions: iyal (poetry), isai (music) and nadagam (drama). The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories: Patinenmelkanakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of the Ettuttokai ("Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppattu ("Ten Idylls"), and the Patinenkilkanakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").
The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included the Five Great Epics. Another book of the post Sangam era is the Tirukkural, a book on ethics, by Thiruvalluvar. In the beginning of the middle age, Vaishnava and Saiva literature became prominent following the Bhakti movement in 7th century CE with hymns composed by Alwars and Nayanmars. Notable work from the post-Bhakti period included Ramavataram by Kambar in 12th century CE and Tiruppugal by Arunagirinathar in 15th century CE. In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published. Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras between 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensive dictionaries published in the language. The 19th century gave rise to Tamil Renaissance and writings and poems by authors such as Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, Damodaram Pillai, V. Kanakasabhai and others. During the Indian Independence Movement, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, notably Bharathiar and Bharathidasan.
Art and architecture
According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms called aayakalaigal. The art is classified into two broad categories: kavin kalaigal (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry and nun kalaigal (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.
Architecture
Dravidian architecture is the distinct style of architecture of the Tamils. The large gopurams, which are monumental ornate towers at the entrance of the temples form a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style. They are topped by kalasams (finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. There are a number of early rock-cut cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms. The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by the Pallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths and rock reliefs. The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style. These gateways became regular features in the Cholas and the Pandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and the Nayaks and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka. There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old. The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora. The Mugal influence in medieval times and the British influence later gave rise to a blend of Hindu, Islamic and Gothic revival styles, resulting in the distinct Indo-Saracenic architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style. By the early 20th century, the art deco made its entry upon in the urban landscape. In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in the modern concrete buildings.
Sculpture and paintings
Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed bronze icons. The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art. Models made of a special mixture of beeswax and sal tree resin were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues. Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes. Sittanavasal is a rock-cut monastery and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist of frescoes and murals from the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster. Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur. One of the major forms of Tamil painting is Thanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated with zinc oxide is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.
Music
See also: Music of Tamil Nadu and Ancient Tamil musicThe ancient Tamil country had its own system of music called Tamil Pannisai. Sangam literature such as the Silappatikaram from 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments. A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation. The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing of string instrument veena as a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hymns (Thirupadigam) in temples. From the 9th century CE, Shaivite hymns Thevaram and Vaishnavite hymns (Tiruvaymoli) were sung along with playing of musical instruments. Carnatic music originated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers such Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Shyama Shastri. Villu Paatu is an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments. Gaana, a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.
There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such as parai, tharai, yazh, and murasu. Nadaswaram, a reed instrument that is often accompanied by the thavil, a type of drum instrument are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings. Melam is from a group of percussion instruments from the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events and functions.
Performance arts
Main article: Dance forms of Tamil NaduBharatanatyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated from the Tamils. It is one of the oldest classical dance forms of India. There are many folk dance forms that originated and are practiced in the region. Major folk dance forms include Karakattam and Kavadiattam which involve dancers balancing decorated pot(s) on their heads and arch shaped wooden sticks on their shoulders respectively while making dance movements with the body. Kolattam and Kummi are usually performed by women while singing songs. In dances like Mayilattam, Puravaiattam, and Puliyattam, dancers dress like peacocks, horses and tigers respectively and headdresses perform movements imitating the animals. Other traditional dance forms include the war dance Oyilattam and Paraiattam.
Koothu is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing. Bommalattam is a type of puppetry that uses various doll marionettes manipulated by rods and strings attached to them.
Martial arts
Silambattam is a martial dance using a silambam, a long staff of about 168 cm (66 in) in length, often made of wood such as bamboo. It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form. Adimurai (or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body. Varma kalai is a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sage Agastiyar and might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai or kalari. Malyutham is the traditional form of combat-wrestling.
Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such as valari (iron sickle), maduvu (deer horns), vaal (sword) and kedayam (shield), surul vaal (curling blade), itti or vel (spear), savuku (whip), kattari (fist blade), aruval (mchete), silambam (bamboo staff), kuttu katai (spiked knuckleduster), kathi (dagger), vil ambu (bow and arrow), tantayutam (mace), soolam (trident), valari (boomerang), chakaram (discus) and theepandam (flaming baton). Wootz steel used to make weapons, originated in the mid-1st millennium BCE in South India. Locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras and the later trade introduced it to other parts of the world. Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped with hero stones and heroic martyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature. Defeated kings committed Vatakkiruttal, a form of ritual suicide.
Modern arts
Main articles: Tamil cinema and Tamil television soap operaThe Tamil film industry nicknamed as Kollywood and is one of the largest industries of film production in India. Independent Tamil film production have also originated outside India in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Canada, and western Europe. The concept of "Tent Cinema" was introduced in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films. The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first Tamil talkie film was Kalidas, which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after the release of India's first talking picture Alam Ara.
Clothing
Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses worn by Tamil people. Tamil women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 4.6 m (15 ft) to 8.2 m (27 ft) in length and 0.61 m (2 ft) to 1.2 m (4 ft) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff. Women wear colourful silk sarees on traditional occasions. Young girls wear a long skirt called pavaadai along with a shorter length sari called dhavani. The men wear a dhoti, a 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist. A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside. People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.
Calendar
Main article: Tamil calendarThe Tamil calendar is a sidereal solar calendar. The Tamil Panchangam is based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events. The calendar follows a 60-year cycle. There are 12 months in a year starting with Chithirai when the Sun enters the first Rāśi and the number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32. The new year starts following the March equinox in the middle of April. The days of week (kiḻamai) in the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the solar system: Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, in that order.
Food and hospitality
Main article: Tamil cuisineHospitality is a major feature of Tamil culture. It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues. Rice is the diet staple and is served with sambar, rasam, and poriyal as a part of a Tamil meal. Bananas find mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on a banana leaf, which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy. Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.
There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines. There are both vegetarian and meat dishes with fish traditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage of spices. The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It uses coconut, sesame seeds, groundnut, and turmeric to go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region. Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables. Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine uses gingelly oil and jaggery along with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island. Biryani is a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions. Idli, and dosa are popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people include upma, idiappam, pongal, paniyaram, and parotta.
Medicine
Main article: Siddha medicineSiddha medicine is a form of traditional medicine originating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India. The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came from Shiva, which was passed on to 18 holy men known as Siddhar led by Agastya. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations. Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.
Festivals
Pongal is a major and multi-day harvest festival celebrated by Tamils in the month of Thai according to the Tamil solar calendar (usually falls on 14 or 15 January). Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on the Tamil calendar and falls on in April every year on the Gregorian calendar. Other major festivals include Karthikai Deepam, Thaipusam, Panguni Uthiram, and Vaikasi Visakam. Aadi Perukku is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated in the Tamil month of Adi and the worship of Amman and Ayyanar deities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare. Other festivals celebrated include Ganesh Chaturthi, Navarathri, Deepavali, Eid al-Fitr and Christmas.
Sports
Main article: Sports in Tamil NaduJallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. It has been practised since Sangam period with the aim of keeping people fit. Proficiency in the sport was considered a virtue while untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner. Kabaddi is a traditional conatct sport that originated from the Tamils. Chess is a popular board game which originated as Sathurangam in the 7th century CE. Traditional games like Pallanguzhi, Uriyadi, Gillidanda, Dhaayam are played across the region. In modern times, Cricket is the most popular sport.
Religion
See also: Religion in ancient Tamil country, Dravidian folk religion, and Vaishnavism in Ancient TamilakamAs per the Sangam literature, the Sangam landscape was classified into five categories known as thinais, which were associated with a Hindu deity: Murugan in kurinji (hills), Thirumal in mullai (forests), Indiran in marutham (plains), Varunan in the neithal (coasts) and Kotravai in palai (desert). Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded as Paramporul ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature. While Shiva worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon, Murugan became regarded as the Tamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils"). In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva and Parvati and Pillayar is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as the Mudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").
The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, and is also very common. Kannagi, the heroine of the Cilappatikaram is worshipped as a goddess by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka. In the Sangam literature, there is a description of the rites performed by the priestesses in temples. Among the ancient Tamils, the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) was prevalent and it continued till the Middle ages. It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory. In rural areas, local deities called Aiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami, Muniandi), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm. Their worship probably emanated from the hero stone worship and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition. Idol worship forms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.
Erwadi Dargah (left), Velankanni basilica Madurai Meenakshi Temple (left) and Nallur Kandaswamy templeDuring the Sangam period, Ashivakam, Jainism and Buddhism also had a significant following. Jainism existed from the Sangam period with inscriptions and drip-ledges from 1st century BCE to 6th century CE describing the same. The Kalabhra dynasty, who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over the ancient Tamil country in the 3rd–7th century CE. Buddhism had an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later Middle Ages with ancient texts referring to a Vihāra in Nākappaṭṭinam from the time of Ashoka in 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found in Kaveripattinam. Around the 7th century CE, the Pandyas and Pallavas, who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism during the Bhakti movement led by Alwars and Nayanmars.
The Christian apostle, St. Thomas, is believed to have preached Christianity to the Tamils between 52 and 70 CE. Rowthers were Tamils who were converted to Islam by the Turkish preacher Nathar Shah in the tenth century CE and follow the Hanafi school. Other Muslim clans such as Marakkayar, Labbai, and Kayalar originated as a result of the trade with the Arab world. Majority of the Tamil Muslims speak Tamil rather than Urdu, which is spoken by Muslims in other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Mercantile groups introduced Cholapauttam, a syncretic form of Buddhism and Shaivism in northern Sri Lanka and Southern India. The religion lost its importance in the 14th century when conditions changed for the benefit of Sinhala and Pali traditions.
As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism. The migation of Tamils to other countries resulted in new Hindu temples being constructed in places with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin, and countries with significant Tamil migrants. Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly worship Murugan with numerous temples existing throughout the island. There are also followers of Ayyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts. Atheist, rationalist, and humanist philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.
Notable people
Main article: List of Tamil peopleSee also
- List of languages by first written accounts
- Kumari Kandam
- Tamil population by cities
- Tamil population by nation
Notes
- Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into three ethnicities by the Sri Lankan government, namely Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Origin Tamils and Sri Lankan Moors who accounted for 11.2%, 4.1% and 9.3% respectively of the country's population in 2011. Indian Origin Tamils were separately classified from the 1911 census onwards and the Sri Lankan government lists a substantial Tamil-speaking Muslim population under the distinct ethnicity of Moors. However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.
- Includes all speakers of the Tamil language oncluding multi-generation individuals do not speak the language as a mother tongue, but instead as a second or third language.
- Note:Includes 88,000 primary Tamil speakers and 86,708 speakers of English language who speak Tamil as secondary language.
- Tamil: தமிழர், romanized: Tamiḻar pronounced [t̪amiɻaɾ] in the singular or தமிழர்கள், Tamiḻarkaḷ [t̪amiɻaɾɡaɭ] in the plural
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Bibliography
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- Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9-00409-365-2.
External links
- Tamils – Encyclopædia Britannica entry
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