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{{short description|outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 originating from Wuhan, China}} {{Short description|Pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2}}
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{{Good article}}
{{Current event|2=current disease outbreak|date=February 2020}}
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{{EngvarB|date=February 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}<!-- Page notice explicitly states to use British English. Please do not change it again. Thanks. -->{{Use British English|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox disease outbreak
{{cs1 config |name-list-style=vanc |display-authors=6}}
| name = 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak
{{Infobox pandemic
| map1 = File:2019-nCoV-outbreak-timeline.gif
| name = COVID-19 pandemic
| legend1 = Animated map of confirmed COVID-19 cases from 12 January to 20 February 2020
| map1 = COVID-19 Outbreak World Map Total Deaths per Capita.svg{{!}}upright=1.5
| map2 =
| legend1 = {{Center|Confirmed deaths per 100,000 population<br />as of 20 December 2023}}
| legend2 =
{{collapsed infobox section begin|div=y|1=<span class="nowrap">Cases per capita</span>}}
| map3 =
| map2 = COVID-19 Outbreak World Map per Capita.svg{{!}}upright=1.46
| legend3 =
| legend2 = {{Center|Cumulative percentage of population infected<br />as of 19 March 2022}}
| disease = ] (COVID-19)
{{plainlist}}
| virus_strain = ] (SARS-CoV-2)
{{div col |colwidth=10em |gap=0}}
| first_case = 1 December 2019<ref name="bjnews680493"/><ref name="caixin101508497"/>
* {{legend inline|#290000|>10%}}
| arrival_date =
* {{legend inline|#510000|3–10%}}
| origin = ], ], China<ref name=20200130cdc />
* {{legend inline|#900000|1–3%}}
| deaths = 2,247<ref name=bno1 />
* {{legend inline|#c80200|0.3–1%}}
| confirmed_cases = 76,730<ref name=bno1 />
* {{legend inline|#ee7070|0.1–0.3%}}
| suspected_cases = 16,342
* {{legend inline|#ffc0c0|0.03–0.1%}}
| total_ili =
* {{legend inline|#ffdfe0|0–0.03%}}
| website =
* {{legend inline|#e0e0e0|None or no data}}
{{div col end}}
{{endplainlist}}
{{collapsed infobox section end|div=y}}
| image = Covid-19_SP_-_UTI_V._Nova_Cachoeirinha.jpg<!-- PLEASE DISCUSS POTENTIAL CHANGES TO THIS PHOTO AT THE TALK PAGE BEFORE MAKING THEM. -->
| image_upright = 1.35
| caption = Medical professionals treating a COVID-19 patient in critical condition in an ] in São Paulo in May&nbsp;2020
| disease = ] (COVID-19)
| virus_strain = ] (SARS‑CoV‑2)
| location = ]
| index_case = ], China<br />{{coord|30|37|11|N|114|15|28|E|type:adm2nd_region:CN-42}}
| dates = Assessed by ] as pandemic: 11 March 2020 ({{time interval|11 March 2020|show=ym}} ago)<ref name=start/>
----
]: 30 January 2020 – 5 May 2023 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=1|day1=30|year1=2020|month2=5|day2=5|year2=2023}})<ref name=reuters/>
| source = ]s,<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zoumpourlis V, Goulielmaki M, Rizos E, Baliou S, Spandidos DA | title = The COVID‑19 pandemic as a scientific and social challenge in the 21st century | journal = Molecular Medicine Reports | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 3035–3048 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32945405 | pmc = 7453598 | doi = 10.3892/mmr.2020.11393 }}</ref> indirectly<ref name="who-origins-20210330" />
| confirmed_cases = {{COVID-19 data/Text|XW|cases}} (true case count is expected to be much higher)<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mathieu E, Ritchie H, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Hasell J, Macdonald B, Dattani S, Beltekian D, Ortiz-Ospina E, Roser M |title= Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) |url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-cases |journal=Our World in Data |access-date=24 February 2024 |date=5 March 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224002105/https://ourworldindata.org/covid-cases |url-status=live }}</ref>
| suspected_cases =
| deaths = {{COVID-19 data/Text|XW|deaths}} (reported) <br /> 18.2–33.5&nbsp;million<ref name=Economist2023>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=The pandemic's true death toll |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/coronavirus-excess-deaths-estimates |orig-date=18 November 2021 |date=26 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208015904/https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/coronavirus-excess-deaths-estimates |access-date=26 July 2023|archive-date=8 February 2024 }}</ref> (estimated)
| fatality_rate = As of 10 March 2023: {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|ratio}}
}} }}
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{{COVID-19 pandemic sidebar}}
An ongoing epidemic of ] (COVID-19) caused by ] started in December 2019. It was first identified in ], capital of ], China. It is believed to have originated from another animal and subsequently spread between people.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Yanping|date=14 February 2020|title=The Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team. The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020|url=http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/fileCCDCW/journal/article/ccdcw/newcreate/COVID-19.pdf|journal=China CDC Weekly|volume=2|pages=|via=}}</ref> The time between ] is typically 2 to 14 days.<ref name="CDC2020Over222">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/symptoms.html|title=Symptoms of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) {{!}} CDC|date=10 February 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)|accessdate=11 February 2020}}</ref> Symptoms may include ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/symptoms.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=18 February 2020 |language=en-us |date=11 February 2020}}</ref> Complications may include ] and ]. There is no vaccine or specific ], with efforts typically aiming at managing symptoms and ].<ref name="cdc21Jan202022">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/prevention.html|title=Prevention and Treatment|date=9 August 2019|publisher=] (CDC)|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215193934/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/prevention.html|archive-date=15 December 2019|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> ] is recommended to prevent spread of the disease.<ref name="cdc21Jan2020" /> Anyone who is suspected of carrying the virus is advised to monitor their health for two weeks, wear a mask, and seek medical advice by calling a doctor before visiting a clinic.<ref name=":8" />
<!-- Please discuss changes to the first sentence on talk, per current consensus item 19. -->


The '''COVID-19 pandemic''' (also known as the '''coronavirus pandemic''' and '''COVID pandemic'''), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (]), began with an ] of ] in ], China, in December 2019. It spread to other areas of Asia, and ] in early 2020. The ] (WHO) declared the outbreak a ] (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, and assessed the outbreak as having become a ] on 11 March.<ref name="start">{{#invoke:cite web||publisher=Word Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19|title=Archived: WHO Timeline – COVID-19|date=27 April 2020|access-date=7 March 2024|archive-date=29 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429012212/https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19|url-status=live}}</ref>
As of 21 February 2020, 76,727 cases have been confirmed, including in all ] and more than two dozen other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|title=Coronavirus COVID-19 Global Cases|last=|first=|date=|website=gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com|publisher=Johns Hopkins CSSE|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref> Of these, 12,065 cases are serious.<ref name="auto82">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/|title=Coronavirus Update (Live):69,268 Cases and 1,665 Deaths from the Wuhan China Virus Outbreak – Worldometer|last=|first=|date=|website=www.worldometers.info|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref> In China, the daily increase in new cases peaked between 23 and 27 January.<ref name=":2"/> There have been 2,247 deaths attributable to the disease, including 11 outside mainland China<ref name="bno1" /> — nearly triple deaths from the 2003 ] outbreak.<ref name="bno1" />


] range from ] to deadly, but most commonly include fever, ], ], and fatigue. ] is often ]s. Mutations have ]s (variants) with varying degrees of infectivity and ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Clinical questions about COVID-19: Questions and answers |url=https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/89817 |website=CDC Stacks |date=25 June 2020 |access-date=26 May 2023}}</ref> ]s were developed rapidly and ] to the general public beginning in December 2020, made available through government and ] programs such as ], aiming to provide ]. ]s include ]s and symptom control. Common mitigation measures during the public health emergency included ]s, ]s, business restrictions and closures, ]s, ]s, quarantines, ] systems, and ] of the infected.
The outbreak has been declared a ] (PHEIC) by the ] (WHO).<ref name=":3" /><ref name="The Hill 20200130">{{cite web|url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/diversity-inclusion/480749-the-coronavirus-is-causing-an-outbreak-in-anti|title=The coronavirus is causing an outbreak in America—of anti-Asian racism|last=Somvichian-Clausen|first=Austa|date=30 January 2020|website=]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201181522/https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/diversity-inclusion/480749-the-coronavirus-is-causing-an-outbreak-in-anti|archive-date=1 February 2020|access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref> Health authorities have been working to contain the spread of the disease since its discovery.<ref name="auto" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":21">{{cite web |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5671283 |title=襄阳火车站关闭，湖北省最后一个地级市"封城" |date=29 January 2020 |website=thepaper.cn |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202170024/https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5671283 |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> China has introduced ], ], and outdoor restrictions—requiring families to stay at home—affecting over 170 million people.<ref name="auto" /><ref name=":4">{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/26/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-update-intl-hnk/index.html |title=Wuhan coronavirus: Thousands of cases confirmed as China goes into emergency mode |first1=James |last1=Griffiths |first2=Amy |last2=Woodyatt |website=CNN |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128120647/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/26/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-update-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SCMP 20200206">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3049298/coronavirus-zhejiang-adopts-draconian-quarantine-measures-fight|title=Zhejiang province next to Shanghai adopts draconian quarantine measures|date=6 February 2020|website=South China Morning Post|access-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206112642/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3049298/coronavirus-zhejiang-adopts-draconian-quarantine-measures-fight|archive-date=6 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> A number of countries have issued warnings against travel to Wuhan, Hubei, or China generally.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/travelers/index.html |title=2019-nCoV information for Travelers |date=3 February 2020 |website=U.S. ] (CDC) |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130163513/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/travelers/index.html |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/news/2020/01/24/coronavirus-outbreak-leads-state-department-issue-level-4-advisory/4562349002/ |title=Coronavirus: US says 'do not travel' to Wuhan, China, as airlines issue waivers, add safeguards |last=Deerwester |first=Jayme |last2=Gilbertson |first2=Dawn |website=USA Today |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127063342/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/news/2020/01/24/coronavirus-outbreak-leads-state-department-issue-level-4-advisory/4562349002/ |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Airports and train stations have implemented ] checks, health declarations, and information signage in an attempt to identify carriers of the virus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://knpr.org/npr/2020-01/coronavirus-update-masks-and-temperature-checks-hong-kong |title=Coronavirus Update: Masks And Temperature Checks In Hong Kong |website=Nevada Public Radio |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>


The pandemic caused severe ] and ] around the world, including ] since the ].<ref name="RFXoH">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://blogs.imf.org/2020/04/14/the-great-lockdown-worst-economic-downturn-since-the-great-depression/ | vauthors = Gita G |title=The Great Lockdown: Worst Economic Downturn Since the Great Depression|website=IMF Blog|date=14 April 2020 |access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref> ]s, including ]s, were caused by ]s and ]. Reduced human activity led to an ]. ]s and public areas were partially or fully closed in many jurisdictions, and many events were cancelled or postponed during 2020 and 2021. ] became much more common for ]s as the pandemic evolved. ] through ] and ], and ]. The pandemic raised issues of ], ], and the balance between ] imperatives and ].
Amongst the wider consequences of the outbreak are concerns about potential economic instability, the cancellation of events expected to be attended by people travelling from areas with high risk of contagion,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/12/21127754/mwc-2020-canceled-coronavirus-trade-show-phone-mobile-world-congress-gsma-statement|title=The world's biggest phone show has been canceled due to coronavirus concerns|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=12 February 2020|website=The Verge|language=en|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref> and the firing of several local leaders of the ] for their poor response to the outbreak.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/11/china-fires-two-senior-hubei-officials-over-coronavirus-outbreak|title=China fires two senior Hubei officials over coronavirus outbreak|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=18 February 2020|first=Lily |last=Kuo|date= 11 February 2020 }}</ref> Outbreak-related incidents of ] have been reported in several countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/this-is-racism-chinese-australians-say-they-ve-faced-increased-hostility-since-the-coronavirus-outbreak-began|title='This is racism': Chinese-Australians say they've faced increased hostility since the coronavirus outbreak began|work=Special Broadcasting Service|first=Evan|last=Young|date=31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Iqbal|first=Nosheen|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/01/coronavirus-weaponised-way-to-be-openly-racist|title=Coronavirus fears fuel racism and hostility, say British-Chinese|date=1 February 2020|work=The Observer|access-date=4 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203232009/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/01/coronavirus-weaponised-way-to-be-openly-racist|archive-date=3 February 2020|issn=0029-7712}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/6495961/coronavirus-anti-china-sentiment/|title=Coronavirus fears trigger anti-China sentiment across the globe|website=Global News|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203150150/https://globalnews.ca/news/6495961/coronavirus-anti-china-sentiment/|archive-date=3 February 2020|access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/31/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-racism-fear-intl-hnk/index.html|title=As the coronavirus spreads, fear is fueling racism and xenophobia|last=Yeung|first=Jessie|publisher=CNN|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203194428/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/31/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-racism-fear-intl-hnk/index.html|archive-date=3 February 2020|access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref> ], primarily online, which the WHO described as an "infodemic" on 2 February 2020.


The WHO ended the PHEIC for COVID-19 on 5 May 2023.<ref name=reuters/> The disease has continued to circulate, but as of 2024, experts were uncertain as to whether it was still a pandemic.<ref name=timemarch2024/><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||last1=Colarossi |first1=Jessica |title=Is COVID-19 Still a Pandemic? |url=https://www.bu.edu/articles/2024/is-covid-19-still-a-pandemic/ |access-date=9 June 2024 |work=The Brink |publisher=Boston University |date=5 March 2024 |language=en |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515084249/https://www.bu.edu/articles/2024/is-covid-19-still-a-pandemic/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Pandemics and their ends are not well-defined, and whether or not one has ended differs according to the definition used.<ref name=timemarch2024/><ref name=charters2021/> As of {{COVID-19 data/Date|format=j F Y}}, COVID-19 has caused {{COVID-19 data/Text|XW|deaths}} confirmed deaths. The COVID-19 pandemic ranks as the fifth-].
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==Overview==


== Terminology ==
In Wuhan, during December 2019, a cluster of cases displayed symptoms of pneumonia, with an unknown infectious cause.<ref name=":2" /> ], was implicated, a wholesale meat market with many animals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>. RAPID RISK ASSESSMENT. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 17 January 2020</ref> Due to the cluster, on 31 December 2019, the Wuhan Municipal Health Corporation alerted China's CDC, who notified the World Health Organization.<ref name=":2" /> Control measures were implemented simultaneously with investigation of the outbreak. Active case finding occurred and "vigourously pursued".<ref name=":2" /> Working hypotheses were considered.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=6866757 |title=Undiagnosed pneumonia – China (HU) (01): wildlife sales, market closed, RFI Archive Number: 20200102.6866757 |website=Pro-MED-mail |publisher=International Society for Infectious Diseases |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122124653/https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=6866757 |archive-date=22 January 2020 |access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/watch/pneumonia-china |title=Pneumonia of Unknown Cause in China – Watch – Level 1, Practice Usual Precautions – Travel Health Notices |date=6 January 2020 |website=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108143634/https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/watch/pneumonia-china |archive-date=8 January 2020 |access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Schnirring8Jan2020">{{cite web |url=http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/virologists-weigh-novel-coronavirus-chinas-outbreak |title=Virologists weigh in on novel coronavirus in China's outbreak |last=Schnirring |first=Lisa |date=8 January 2020 |website=CIDRAP |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108234455/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/virologists-weigh-novel-coronavirus-chinas-outbreak |archive-date=8 January 2020 |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Shih8Jan2020">{{Cite news |last=Shih |first=Gerry |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/specter-of-possible-new-virus-emerging-from-central-china-raises-alarms-across-asia/2020/01/08/3d33046c-312f-11ea-971b-43bec3ff9860_story.html |title=Specter of possible new virus emerging from central China raises alarms across Asia |date=8 January 2020 |access-date=9 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108172338/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/specter-of-possible-new-virus-emerging-from-central-china-raises-alarms-across-asia/2020/01/08/3d33046c-312f-11ea-971b-43bec3ff9860_story.html |archive-date=8 January 2020 |last2=Sun |first2=Lena H. |website=]}}</ref><ref>http://magictour.free.fr/study17.pdf</ref>
{{Further|COVID-19 naming}}
], Hubei, in 2020]]


== Epidemiology == === Pandemic ===
In ], a ] is defined as "an epidemic occurring over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries, and usually affecting a large number of people". During the COVID-19 pandemic, as with other pandemics, the meaning of this term has been challenged.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Doraiswamy S, Mamtani R, Cheema S |title=An in-depth analysis of 10 epidemiological terminologies used in the context of COVID-19 |journal=Scand J Public Health |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=819–826 |date=August 2022 |pmid=34903120 |pmc=9361413 |doi=10.1177/14034948211057736 |url=}}</ref>
{{Main|Timeline of the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak in December 2019 – January 2020||Timeline of the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak in February 2020{{!}}... February 2020|2019–20 coronavirus outbreak by country and territory}}
{{2019–20 Wuhan coronavirus data/China medical cases (confirmed)}}{{2019–20 Wuhan coronavirus data}}
] of the outbreak has shown a probable pattern of a "mixed outbreak" – there was likely a continuous common source outbreak at the seafood market in December 2019, potentially from several zoonotic events.<ref name=":2"/> Following this, the epidemiologists found that the outbreak likely became a propagated source (transmitted from person to person), potentially due to the virus' ability to mutate.<ref name=":2"/> The earliest reported symptoms occurred on 1 December 2019 in a person who had not had any exposure to the ] or to the remaining 40 of the first cluster detected with the new virus.<ref name="Huang24Jan2020">{{Cite journal|last=Huang|first=Chaolin|last2=Wang|first2=Yeming|last3=Li|first3=Xingwang|last4=Ren|first4=Lili|last5=Zhao|first5=Jianping|last6=Hu|first6=Yi|last7=Zhang|first7=Li|last8=Fan|first8=Guohui|last9=Xu|first9=Jiuyang|last10=Gu|first10=Xiaoying|last11=Cheng|first11=Zhenshun|date=24 January 2020|title=Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10223|pages=497–506|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5|issn=0140-6736|pmid=31986264}}</ref><ref name="Wang24Jan2020">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Chen|last2=Horby|first2=Peter W.|last3=Hayden|first3=Frederick G.|last4=Gao|first4=George F.|date=24 January 2020|title=A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30185-9/abstract|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10223|pages=470–473|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9|issn=0140-6736|pmid=31986257}}</ref> Of this first cluster, two-thirds were found to have a link with the market, which also sold live animals.<ref name="Huang24Jan2020" /><ref name="Joseph24Jan2020">{{Cite news|last=Joseph|first=Andrew|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/01/24/coronavirus-infections-no-symptoms-lancet-studies/|title=New coronavirus can cause infections with no symptoms and sicken otherwise healthy people, studies show|date=24 January 2020|work=STAT|access-date=27 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124204338/https://www.statnews.com/2020/01/24/coronavirus-infections-no-symptoms-lancet-studies/|archive-date=24 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="han24Jan2020">{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Yuan|first2=Shuofeng|last3=Kok|first3=Kin-Hang|last4=To|first4=Kelvin Kai-Wang|last5=Chu|first5=Hin|last6=Yang|first6=Jin|last7=Xing|first7=Fanfan|last8=Liu|first8=Jieling|last9=Yip|first9=Cyril Chik-Yan|last10=Poon|first10=Rosana Wing-Shan|last11=Tsoi|first11=Hoi-Wah|date=24 January 2020|title=A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster|journal=The Lancet|volume=0|issue=10223|pages=514–523|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9|issn=0140-6736|pmid=31986261}}</ref><ref name="Schnirring25Jan2020">{{cite web|url=http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/doubts-rise-about-chinas-ability-contain-new-coronavirus|title=Doubts rise about China's ability to contain new coronavirus|last=Schnirring|first=Lisa|date=25 January 2020|website=CIDRAP|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126102242/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/doubts-rise-about-chinas-ability-contain-new-coronavirus|archive-date=26 January 2020|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Of cases that began before 1 January 2020, 55% were linked to the market. By 22 January this figure was reported to have dropped to 8.6%.<ref name="Qun29Jan2020">{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=Qun|last2=Guan|first2=Xuhua|last3=Wu|first3=Peng|last4=Wang|first4=Xiaoye|last5=Zhou|first5=Lei|last6=Tong|first6=Yeqing|last7=Ren|first7=Ruiqi|last8=Leung|first8=Kathy S. M.|last9=Lau|first9=Eric H. Y.|last10=Wong|first10=Jessica Y.|last11=Xing|first11=Xuesen|date=29 January 2020|title=Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001316|issn=1533-4406|pmid=31995857}}</ref> Hence, as the number of cases has increased, the significance of the market has lessened.<ref name="Huang24Jan2020" /><ref name="Wang24Jan2020" /><ref name=Qun29Jan2020/>


The end of a pandemic or other epidemic only rarely involves the total disappearance of a disease, and historically, much less attention has been given to defining the ends of epidemics than their beginnings. The ends of particular epidemics have been defined in a variety of ways, differing according to academic field, and differently based on location and social group. An epidemic's end can be considered a social phenomenon, not just a biological one.<ref name=charters2021/>
During the early stages, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days.<ref name=Qun29Jan2020/> In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other ], helped by the ]. On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new patients, including two people in ] and one in ].<ref name="france2420200120">{{Cite news |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200120-china-confirms-sharp-rise-in-cases-of-sars-like-virus-across-the-country |title=China confirms sharp rise in cases of SARS-like virus across the country |date=20 January 2020 |access-date=20 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120055618/https://www.france24.com/en/20200120-china-confirms-sharp-rise-in-cases-of-sars-like-virus-across-the-country |archive-date=20 January 2020}}</ref>


] reported in March 2024 that expert opinions differ on whether or not COVID-19 is considered endemic or pandemic, and that the WHO continued to call the disease a pandemic on its website.<ref name=timemarch2024/>
The virus was soon carried to other countries by ]lers: Thailand (13 January); Japan (15 January); Macau (19 January);<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.mo/en/news/122165/ |title=Macao sparing no effort to prevent the spread locally of a new coronavirus |publisher=Government Information Bureau |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205204527/https://www.gov.mo/en/news/122165/ |archive-date=5 February 2020 |access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref> South Korea (20 January); Taiwan and the United States (21 January); Hong Kong (22 January); Singapore (23 January); France, Nepal, and Vietnam (24 January); Australia and Malaysia (25 January); Canada (26 January); Cambodia (27 January); Germany (28 January); Finland, Sri Lanka, and the United Arab Emirates (29 January); India, Italy, and the Philippines (30 January); the United Kingdom, Russia, Sweden, and Spain (31 January); Belgium (4 February); Egypt (14 February); Iran (19 February).<ref name="auto2" /><ref name="APviruswhere" />


=== Virus names ===
By 25 January, the number of laboratory-confirmed cases had stood at 2,062, including 2,016 in Mainland China, 7 in Thailand, 6 in Hong Kong, 5 in Macau, 5 in Australia, 4 in Malaysia, 4 in Singapore, 3 in France, 3 in Japan, 3 in South Korea, 3 in Taiwan, 3 in the United States, 2 in Vietnam, 1 in Nepal, and 1 in Sweden.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |last=Frejdeman |first=Hannah |url=https://www.svd.se/bekraftat-fall-i-jonkoping-av-nya-coronaviruset |title=Coronaviruset har upptäckts i Jönköping |date=31 January 2020 |work=Svenska Dagbladet |access-date=31 January 2020 |language=Swedish |issn=1101-2412 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131163041/https://www.svd.se/bekraftat-fall-i-jonkoping-av-nya-coronaviruset |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera2001250709">{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2020/01/countries-confirmed-cases-coronavirus-200125070959786.html |title=Which countries have confirmed cases of new coronavirus? |publisher=Al Jazeera |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127035129/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2020/01/countries-confirmed-cases-coronavirus-200125070959786.html |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="scmp3047663">{{Cite news |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3047663/china-coronavirus-singapore-and-malaysia-both-report |title=Singapore, Malaysia both report fourth confirmed coronavirus cases |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125235133/https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3047663/china-coronavirus-singapore-and-malaysia-both-report |archive-date=25 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post}}</ref>
During ] in ], the virus and disease were commonly referred to as "coronavirus", "Wuhan coronavirus",<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite news||title=2nd U.S. Case Of Wuhan Coronavirus Confirmed|newspaper=NPR.org|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/01/24/799208865/a-second-u-s-case-of-wuhan-coronavirus-is-confirmed|access-date=4 April 2020|publisher=NPR}}
* {{#invoke:cite news||author-link=Donald McNeil Jr.|date=2 February 2020|title=Wuhan Coronavirus Looks Increasingly Like a Pandemic, Experts Say|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/02/health/coronavirus-pandemic-china.html|access-date=4 April 2020|issn=0362-4331|vauthors=McNeil Jr DG}}
* {{#invoke:cite news||title=Wuhan coronavirus deaths spike again as outbreak shows no signs of slowing|publisher=CNN|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/05/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-update-death-toll-spike-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=4 April 2020|vauthors=Griffiths J}}</ref> "the coronavirus outbreak" and the "Wuhan coronavirus outbreak",<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Zhu H, Wei L, Niu P|date=2 March 2020|title=The novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China|journal=Global Health Research and Policy|volume=5|issue=1|page=6|doi=10.1186/s41256-020-00135-6|pmc=7050114|pmid=32226823|doi-access=free}}</ref> with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan ]".<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Jiang S, Xia S, Ying T, Lu L | title = A novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome | journal = Cellular & Molecular Immunology | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | page = 554 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32024976 | pmc = 7091741 | doi = 10.1038/s41423-020-0372-4 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CC, Poon RW, Tsoi HW, Lo SK, Chan KH, Poon VK, Chan WM, Ip JD, Cai JP, Cheng VC, Chen H, Hui CK, Yuen KY | title = A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10223 | pages = 514–523 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31986261 | pmc = 7159286 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref> In January 2020, the WHO recommended 2019-nCoV<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=21 January 2020|title=Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report – 1|url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200121-sitrep-1-2019-ncov.pdf|publisher=] (WHO)}}</ref> and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=30 January 2020|title=Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV) Situation Report – 10|url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200130-sitrep-10-ncov.pdf|publisher=] (WHO)}}</ref> as interim names for the virus and disease per 2015 international guidelines against using geographical locations (e.g. Wuhan, China), animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names in part to prevent ].<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite news||title=Novel coronavirus named 'Covid-19': WHO|work=Today|location=Singapore|url=https://www.todayonline.com/world/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-named-covid-19-who|url-status=live|access-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200321085608/https://www.todayonline.com/world/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-named-covid-19-who|archive-date=21 March 2020}}
* {{#invoke:cite news||date=17 February 2020|title=The coronavirus spreads racism against – and among – ethnic Chinese|newspaper=]|url=https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/17/the-coronavirus-spreads-racism-against-and-among-ethnic-chinese|url-status=live|access-date=17 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217223902/https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/17/the-coronavirus-spreads-racism-against-and-among-ethnic-chinese|archive-date=17 February 2020}}
* {{#invoke:cite report||url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf|title=World Health Organization Best Practices for the Naming of New Human Infectious Diseases|date=May 2015|publisher=] (WHO)|hdl-access=free|hdl=10665/163636}}</ref> WHO finalised the official names COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 on 11 February 2020.<ref name="WHO-naming">{{#invoke:cite web||title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228035651/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|archive-date=28 February 2020|access-date=13 March 2020|publisher=] (WHO)}}</ref> ] explained: CO{{spaces}}for ''corona'', VI{{spaces}}for ''virus'', D{{spaces}}for ''disease'' and 19 for when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019).<ref>{{#invoke:cite report||url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/covid-19-rapid-risk-assessment-coronavirus-disease-2019-eighth-update-8-april-2020.pdf|title=Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the EU/EEA and the UK – eighth update|publisher=ecdc|access-date=19 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314223709/https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/RRA-sixth-update-Outbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-disease-2019-COVID-19.pdf|archive-date=14 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public communications.<ref name="WHO-naming" />


WHO named ] and ] using ]s. The initial practice of naming them according to where the variants were identified (e.g. ] began as the "]n variant") is no longer common.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=7 June 2021|title=Covid Indian variant: Where is it, how does it spread and is it more infectious?|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-57157496|access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref> A more systematic naming scheme reflects the variant's ] (e.g., ]'s lineage is B.1.1.529) and is used for other variants.<ref name="BBC.May.31.2021">{{#invoke:cite news||date=31 May 2021|title=Covid: WHO renames UK and other variants with Greek letters|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-57308592|access-date=8 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Patel V |date=27 November 2021|title=How Omicron, the New Covid-19 Variant, Got Its Name|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/27/world/africa/omicron-covid-greek-alphabet.html|access-date=28 November 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=28 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128015620/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/27/world/africa/omicron-covid-greek-alphabet.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=27 November 2021|title=There are several COVID-19 variants you haven't heard of|url=https://www.newsnationnow.com/health/coronavirus/there-are-several-covid-19-variants-you-havent-heard-of/|access-date=27 November 2021|newspaper=Newsnation|archive-date=27 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127211302/https://www.newsnationnow.com/health/coronavirus/there-are-several-covid-19-variants-you-havent-heard-of/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Citing 7,711 cases essentially in China and 83 cases abroad across 18 countries as of 29 January, WHO declared the outbreak to be a ] on 30 January.<ref name="WHO_PHEIC_decl2" /> As of 21 February, 76,727 cases have been confirmed worldwide, over 98.4% in mainland China.<ref name="APviruswhere">{{cite news |last=Holm |first=Phil |url=https://apnews.com/VirusOutbreak |title=Where the virus has spread |access-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130191856/https://apnews.com/VirusOutbreak |archive-date=30 January 2020 |agency=Associated Press |last2=Moritsugu |first2=Ken}}</ref>


== Epidemiology ==
On 6 February, the Chinese ] (NHC) started to change how cases were reported – ] carriers, who tested positive for the virus but did not show clinical symptoms, would no longer be included in the number of confirmed cases. This had the effect of reducing the total number of cases reported, but also meant that potentially contagious individuals were ignored in reports.<ref name="asymptomatic">{{cite news|title=China changes counting scheme to lower Wuhan virus numbers|url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3874490|newspaper=Taiwan News|date=11 February 2020|accessdate=11 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/12/world/asia/china-coronavirus-cases.html|website=]|title=How Many Coronavirus Cases in China? Officials Tweak the Answer|first=Vivian |last=Wang | date=12 February 2020 | access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>
{{#invoke:Infobox|infoboxTemplate
|subheader=For country-level ], see:
|subheader2=<div style="padding:3px 0; font-size:larger;">''']'''</div>
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<div style="display:inline-block;margin: 0 5px 10px">''']s'''<br /><span style="font-size:1.2em;">{{COVID-19 data/Text|XW|cases}}</span></div><div style="display:inline-block;margin: 0 5px 10px">''']s'''<br /><span style="font-size:1.2em;">{{COVID-19 data/Text|XW|deaths}}</span></div>
<div>As of {{COVID-19 data/Date|format=j F Y}}</div>
{{flatlist|class=nowraplinks|style=margin:5px 10px 5px;font-weight:bold;|1=
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
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* ]
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=== Background ===
On 12 February, the Hubei government adopted a broader definition of confirmed cases, which now includes ] patients diagnosed by their symptoms and ] but without ], which can take days to process and delay treatment. "Using CT scans that reveal lung infection would help patients receive treatment as soon as possible and improve their chances of recovery," the provincial health commission said.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-13/coronavirus-chinas-hubei-province-reports-242-new-deaths/11961602|website=ABC News|title=China's Hubei province reports 242 new coronavirus deaths and 14,840 new cases|date=13 February 2020|accessdate=13 February 2020}}</ref> This new methodology accounts for the sharp increase in Hubei's daily confirmed cases: 13,332 of the 14,840 newly confirmed cases in the province on 12 February were diagnosed clinically under the new definition.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51482994|website=BBC|title=Coronavirus: Sharp increase in coronavrius deaths and cases in Hubei|date=13 February 2020|accessdate=13 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|Origin of SARS-CoV-2|COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei}}
SARS-CoV-2 is a virus closely related to ]es,<ref name="LancetNowcasting" /> ] coronaviruses,<ref name="ia56U" /><ref name="Zhang6April2020">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Zhang T, Wu Q, Zhang Z|date=April 2020|title=Probable Pangolin Origin of SARS-CoV-2 Associated with the COVID-19 Outbreak|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351.e2|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|bibcode=2020CBio...30E1346Z }}</ref> and ].<ref name="ECDC risk assessment" /> The first known ] (the ]) started in ], Hubei, China, in December 2019.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Liu J, Liu S, Wei H, Yang X |title=Epidemiology, clinical characteristics of the first cases of COVID-19 |journal=Eur J Clin Invest |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=e13364 |date=October 2020 |pmid=32725884 |doi=10.1111/eci.13364 |s2cid=220852984 |type=Review}}</ref> Many early cases were linked to people who had visited the ] there,<ref name="Sun2020epidemiology">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sun J, He WT, Wang L, Lai A, Ji X, Zhai X, Li G, Suchard MA, Tian J, Zhou J, Veit M, Su S | title = COVID-19: Epidemiology, Evolution, and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives | journal = Trends in Molecular Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 483–495 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32359479 | pmc = 7118693 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmed.2020.02.008 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=WHO Points To Wildlife Farms In Southern China As Likely Source Of Pandemic |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/03/15/977527808/who-points-to-wildlife-farms-in-southwest-china-as-likely-source-of-pandemic?t=1616302540855 |publisher=] |date=15 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="Maxmen2021whoReport">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Maxmen A | title = WHO report into COVID pandemic origins zeroes in on animal markets, not labs | journal = Nature | volume = 592 | issue = 7853 | pages = 173–174 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33785930 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-00865-8 | s2cid = 232429241 | bibcode = 2021Natur.592..173M |doi-access=free}}</ref> but it is possible that human-to-human transmission began earlier.<ref name="Hu2020natureReviews" /><ref name="Graham2020immunity">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Graham RL, Baric RS | title = SARS-CoV-2: Combating Coronavirus Emergence | journal = Immunity | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 734–736 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32392464 | pmc = 7207110 | doi = 10.1016/j.immuni.2020.04.016 }}</ref> ] analysis suggests that the first cases were likely to have been between October and November 2019.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = To KK, Sridhar S, Chiu KH, Hung DL, Li X, Hung IF, Tam AR, Chung TW, Chan JF, Zhang AJ, Cheng VC, Yuen KY | title = Lessons learned 1 year after SARS-CoV-2 emergence leading to COVID-19 pandemic | journal = Emerging Microbes & Infections | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 507–535 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 33666147 | pmc = 8006950 | doi = 10.1080/22221751.2021.1898291 }}</ref>


The scientific consensus is that the virus is most likely of a ] origin, from bats or another closely related mammal.<ref name="Hu2020natureReviews">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hu B, Guo H, Zhou P, Shi ZL | title = Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 141–154 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33024307 | pmc = 7537588 | doi = 10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7 }}</ref><ref>Multiple sources:
On 20 February, the Chinese ] (NHC) changed how cases are counted again by counting only cases showing positive results through laboratory tests. The change is done as the backlog of patients who needed to be treated has since cleared.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/coronavirus-covid19-china-changed-method-counting-infected-12455084 |title=China changes method of counting COVID-19 patients again |date=20 February 2020 |website=CNA |access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref>
* {{#invoke:cite news ||work=] |publisher=Scripps Research Institute |title=The COVID-19 coronavirus epidemic has a natural origin, scientists say – Scripps Research's analysis of public genome sequence data from SARS‑CoV‑2 and related viruses found no evidence that the virus was made in a laboratory or otherwise engineered |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-03/sri-tcc031720.php |date=17 March 2020 |access-date=15 April 2020 }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF | title = The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 450–452 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32284615 | pmc = 7095063 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9 | doi-access = free }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Latinne A, Hu B, Olival KJ, Zhu G, Zhang L, Li H, Chmura AA, Field HE, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Epstein JH, Li B, Zhang W, Wang LF, Shi ZL, Daszak P | title = Origin and cross-species transmission of bat coronaviruses in China | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | page = 4235 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32843626 | pmc = 7447761 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-020-17687-3 | bibcode = 2020NatCo..11.4235L }}
* {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Fox M |date=7 July 2021 |title=Coronavirus almost certainly came from an animal, not a lab leak, top scientists argue |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/07/health/origins-coronavirus-letter-virologists-scn/index.html |work=CNN |location= |access-date=9 July 2021}}
* {{#invoke:cite news ||author=<!-- Staff writer(s)/no by-line. --> |date=19 November 2021 |title=Market in China's Wuhan likely origin of COVID-19 outbreak – study |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/market-chinas-wuhan-likely-origin-covid-19-outbreak-study-2021-11-19/ |work=Reuters |location= |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="To2021lessons">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=To KK, Sridhar S, Chiu KH, Hung DL, Li X, Hung IF, Tam AR, Chung TW, Chan JF, Zhang AJ, Cheng VC, Yuen KY|date=March 2021|title=Lessons learned 1 year after SARS-CoV-2 emergence leading to COVID-19 pandemic|journal=Emerging Microbes & Infections|volume=10|issue=1|pages=507–535|doi=10.1080/22221751.2021.1898291|pmc=8006950|pmid=33666147}}</ref> While other explanations such as speculations that SARS-CoV-2 was accidentally ] have been proposed,<ref name="CovidMayHave">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Horowitz J, Stanway D |date=9 February 2021 |title=COVID may have taken 'convoluted path' to Wuhan, WHO team leader says |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-who-china/covid-may-have-taken-convoluted-path-to-wuhan-who-team-leader-says-idUSKBN2A90BW |url-status=live |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210092128/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-who-china/covid-may-have-taken-convoluted-path-to-wuhan-who-team-leader-says-idUSKBN2A90BW |archive-date=10 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="nofact">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Pauls K, Yates J |date=27 January 2020 |title=Online claims that Chinese scientists stole coronavirus from Winnipeg lab have 'no factual basis' |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/china-coronavirus-online-chatter-conspiracy-1.5442376 |url-status=live |access-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208134329/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/china-coronavirus-online-chatter-conspiracy-1.5442376 |archive-date=8 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200208economist">{{#invoke:cite news ||date=8 February 2020 |title=China's rulers see the coronavirus as a chance to tighten their grip |newspaper=] |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/08/chinas-rulers-see-the-coronavirus-as-a-chance-to-tighten-their-grip |url-status=live |access-date=29 February 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200229034330/https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/08/chinas-rulers-see-the-coronavirus-as-a-chance-to-tighten-their-grip |archive-date=29 February 2020}}</ref> as of 2021 these were not supported by evidence.<ref name="Holmes2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Holmes EC, Goldstein SA, Rasmussen AL, Robertson DL, Crits-Christoph A, Wertheim JO, Anthony SJ, Barclay WS, Boni MF, Doherty PC, Farrar J |title=The Origins of SARS-CoV-2: A Critical Review |journal=Cell |date=August 2021 | volume = 184 | issue = 19 | pages = 4848–4856 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.08.017| pmid = 34480864 |pmc=8373617 }}</ref>


=== Cases ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory|COVID-19 pandemic cases}}
File:2019-nCoV cases in Mainland China.svg|Map of COVID-19 cases in ]
Official "case" counts refer to the number of people who have been ] and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols whether or not they experienced symptomatic disease.<ref name="1ceLG">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117 |title=Laboratory testing for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in suspected human cases |publisher=] (WHO) |access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="J0rix">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/full-list-cumulative-total-tests-per-thousand |title=Total tests for COVID-19 per 1,000 people |website=Our World in Data |access-date=16 April 2020}}</ref> Due to the effect of ], studies which obtain a more accurate number by extrapolating from a random sample have consistently found that total infections considerably exceed the reported case counts.<ref name="WqXOo">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/departments/school-public-health/infectious-disease-epidemiology/mrc-global-infectious-disease-analysis/covid-19/report-13-europe-npi-impact/ |title=Report 13 – Estimating the number of infections and the impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions on COVID-19 in 11 European countries |website=Imperial College London |access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="BtFLV">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lau H, Khosrawipour V, Kocbach P, Mikolajczyk A, Ichii H, Schubert J, Bania J, Khosrawipour T | title = Internationally lost COVID-19 cases | journal = Journal of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infection = Wei Mian Yu Gan Ran Za Zhi | volume = 53 | issue = 3 | pages = 454–458 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32205091 | pmc = 7102572 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.013 }}</ref> Many countries, early on, had official policies to not test those with only mild symptoms.<ref name="elpais640000">{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://english.elpais.com/society/2020-03-23/640000-rapid-coronavirus-tests-arrive-in-spain.html |title=640,000 rapid coronavirus tests arrive in Spain | vauthors = Sevillano EG, Linde P, Vizoso S |date=23 March 2020 |newspaper=El País English Edition |access-date=2 April 2020 }}</ref><ref name="20200313reuters">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Parodi E, Jewkes S, Cha S, Park JM |date=12 March 2020 |title=Special Report: Italy and South Korea virus outbreaks reveal disparity in deaths and tactics |work=] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-response-specialre-idUSKBN20Z27P |url-status=live |access-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312210714/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-response-specialre-idUSKBN20Z27P |archive-date=12 March 2020}}</ref> The strongest risk factors for severe illness are obesity, ], anxiety disorders, and the total number of conditions.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kompaniyets L, Pennington AF, Goodman AB, Rosenblum HG, Belay B, Ko JY, Chevinsky JR, Schieber LZ, Summers AD, Lavery AM, Preston LE, Danielson ML, Cui Z, Namulanda G, Yusuf H, Mac Kenzie WR, Wong KK, Baggs J, Boehmer TK, Gundlapalli AV | title = Underlying Medical Conditions and Severe Illness Among 540,667 Adults Hospitalized With COVID-19, March 2020 – March 2021 | journal = Preventing Chronic Disease | volume = 18 | pages = E66 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34197283 | pmc = 8269743 | doi = 10.5888/pcd18.210123 | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
File:2019-nCoV Outbreak World Map.svg|Map of the 2019–20 COVID-19 outbreak as of {{today}} <div align=left>{{legend|#710000|Region of origin (mainland China)}}{{legend|#c80000|Confirmed cases reported}}{{legend|#558eed|Suspected cases reported}}</div>
</gallery>


During the start of the COVID-19 pandemic it was not clear whether young people were less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop symptoms and be tested.<ref name="vox21190033">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.vox.com/2020/3/23/21190033/coronavirus-covid-19-deaths-by-age |title=The Covid-19 risks for different age groups, explained | vauthors = Scott D |date=23 March 2020 |website=Vox |access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref> A retrospective ] in China found that ] and adults were just as likely to be infected.<ref name="489Q3">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bi Q, Wu Y, Mei S, Ye C, Zou X, Zhang Z, Liu X, Wei L, Truelove SA, Zhang T, Gao W, Cheng C, Tang X, Wu X, Wu Y, Sun B, Huang S, Sun Y, Zhang J, Ma T, Lessler J, Feng T | title = Epidemiology and transmission of COVID-19 in 391 cases and 1286 of their close contacts in Shenzhen, China: a retrospective cohort study | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 8 | pages = 911–919 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32353347 | pmc = 7185944 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30287-5 }}</ref>
=== Deaths ===
As of 21 February, 2,247 deaths have been attributed to COVID-19. According to China's NHC, most of those who died were older patients – about 80% of deaths recorded were from those over the age of 60, and 75% had pre-existing health conditions including ]s and ].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51368873 |title=Coronavirus: Window of opportunity to act, World Health Organization says |date=5 February 2020 |work=] |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205213138/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51368873 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Among more thorough studies, ]s from 9 April 2020 found that in ], the centre of a major infection cluster in Germany, 15 per cent of a population sample tested positive for ].<ref name="otW1O">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.land.nrw/sites/default/files/asset/document/zwischenergebnis_covid19_case_study_gangelt_0.pdf |title=Vorläufiges Ergebnis und Schlussfolgerungen der COVID-19 Case-Cluster-Study (Gemeinde Gangelt) | vauthors = Streeck H |date=9 April 2020 |website=Land NRW – State of North Rhine-Westphalia |access-date=13 April 2020}}</ref> Screening for COVID-19 in pregnant women ], and ]s in the Netherlands, found rates of positive antibody tests that indicated more infections than reported.<ref name="rCdvL">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sutton D, Fuchs K, D'Alton M, Goffman D | title = Universal Screening for SARS-CoV-2 in Women Admitted for Delivery | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 382 | issue = 22 | pages = 2163–2164 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32283004 | pmc = 7175422 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMc2009316 }}</ref><ref name="20200416reuters">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-netherlands-study-idUSKCN21Y102 |title=Dutch study suggests 3% of population may have coronavirus antibodies |date=16 April 2020 |work=Reuters |access-date=20 April 2020}}</ref> ]-based estimates are conservative as some studies show that persons with mild symptoms do not have detectable antibodies.<ref name="0LgFK">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Interactive Serology Dashboard for Commercial Laboratory Surveys |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/commercial-labs-interactive-serology-dashboard.html |date=21 July 2020 |access-date=24 July 2020 |publisher=Centres for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
The first confirmed death was a 61-year-old man on 9 January 2020 who was first admitted to a Wuhan hospital on 27 December 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/23/world/asia/china-coronavirus.html |title=Coronavirus Death Toll Climbs in China, and a Lockdown Widens |date=23 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206091324/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/23/world/asia/china-coronavirus.html |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The first death outside of China occurred in the Philippines,<ref name="twitter1223797298">{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/WHOPhilippines/status/1223797298477424641 |title=A 44-year-old male is confirmed as the second person with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the Philippines. He passed away on 1 February 2020.pic.twitter.com/5a5tPWtvpc |last=Philippines |first=World Health Organization |date=1 February 2020 |website=@WHOPhilippines |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202054800/https://twitter.com/WHOPhilippines/status/1223797298477424641 |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}{{Primary source inline|date=February 2020}}</ref><ref name="APviruswhere" /> when a 44-year-old Chinese male citizen developed severe pneumonia and died on 1 February. His companion, a 38-year-old Chinese female citizen was also confirmed to have contracted the virus, but eventually recovered. She stayed in the same hospital in Manila as her companion until her discharge on 8 February.<ref name="NYT2020PhilDeath">{{Cite news |last=Ramzy |first=Austin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/02/world/asia/philippines-coronavirus-china.html |title=Philippines Reports First Coronavirus Death Outside China |date=2 February 2020 |work=] |access-date=4 February 2020 |last2=May |first2=Tiffany |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203204845/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/02/world/asia/philippines-coronavirus-china.html |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 8 February 2020, it was announced that a ]ese and an ] died from the virus in ]. They were the first non-Chinese killed by the virus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/coronavirus-updates-u-s-japanese-citizens-die-wuhan-global-deaths-n1132951|title=Coronavirus updates: U.S., Japanese citizens die in Wuhan|website=NBC News|access-date=10 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209101938/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/coronavirus-updates-u-s-japanese-citizens-die-wuhan-global-deaths-n1132951|archive-date=9 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The first death outside of Asia was confirmed in Paris, France, on 15 February 2020, when an 80-year-old Chinese tourist from Hubei died after being in hospital since 25 January.<ref>{{cite news |title=Coronavirus Live Updates: First Death Outside Asia Reported in France |accessdate=<!-- 15 February 2020--> |agency=New York Times |issue=New York Times |work=New York Times |date=15 February 2020}}</ref> On 19 February 2020, two elderly Japanese citizens who had been on the ''Diamond Princess'' died after being hospitalized for a week after they had tested positive for the virus.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yamaguchi|first=Mari|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/2-former-cruise-ship-passengers-with-new-coronavirus-die-in-japan-1.4819685|title=2 former cruise ship passengers with new coronavirus die in Japan|date=19 February 2020|access-date=20 February 2020|work=]|}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1630521/world|title=China reports drop in new coronavirus cases, two Japan cruise ship passengers die|work=]|date=20 February 2020|access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref>


Initial estimates of the ] (R<sub>0</sub>) for COVID-19 in January 2020 were between 1.4 and 2.5,<ref name="WFNfK">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/23-01-2020-statement-on-the-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-the-outbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov) |title=Statement on the meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus 2019 (n-CoV) on 23 January 2020 |publisher=] (WHO) |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref> but a subsequent analysis claimed that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95 per cent ] of 3.8 to 8.9).<ref name="mmCQc">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sanche S, Lin YT, Xu C, Romero-Severson E, Hengartner N, Ke R | title = High Contagiousness and Rapid Spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 26 | issue = 7 | pages = 1470–1477 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32255761 | pmc = 7323562 | doi = 10.3201/eid2607.200282 | s2cid = 215410037 }}</ref>
=== Estimates ===
On 17 January, a ] from the ] in the United Kingdom published a report that there had been 1,723 cases (95% ], 427–4,471) with onset of symptoms by 12 January. This was based on the pattern of the initial spread to Thailand and Japan. They also concluded that "self-sustaining human-to-human transmission should not be ruled out",<ref name="Gallagher18Jan2020">{{Cite news |last=Gallagher |first=James |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-51148303 |title=New Chinese virus 'will have infected hundreds' |date=18 January 2020 |access-date=18 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118020222/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-51148303 |archive-date=18 January 2020 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref name="Imai17Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/medicine/sph/ide/gida-fellowships/2019-nCoV-outbreak-report-17-01-2020.pdf |title=Estimating the potential total number of novel Coronavirus cases in Wuhan City, China (report 1) |last=Imai |first=Natsuko |last2=Dorigatti |first2=Ilaria |date=17 January 2020 |website=Imperial College London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121081317/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/medicine/sph/ide/gida-fellowships/2019-nCoV-outbreak-report-17-01-2020.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2020 |access-date=18 January 2020 |last3=Cori |first3=Anne |last4=Riley |first4=Steven |last5=Ferguson |first5=Neil M}}</ref> which has since been confirmed. As further cases came to light, they later recalculated that there may be 4,000 symptomatic cases in Wuhan City by 18 January (uncertainty range of 1,000 to 9,700).<ref name="Schnirring22Jan2020"> {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200124063004/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/who-decision-ncov-emergency-delayed-cases-spike |date=24 January 2020 23 January 2020 ''CIDRAP News''. Retrieved 23 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Imai21Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/medicine/sph/ide/gida-fellowships/2019-nCoV-outbreak-report-22-01-2020.pdf |title=Estimating the potential total number of novel Coronavirus cases in Wuhan City, China (Report 2 |last=Imai |first=Natsuko |last2=Dorigatti |first2=Ilaria |date=21 January 2020 |website=Imperial College London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124060030/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/medicine/sph/ide/gida-fellowships/2019-nCoV-outbreak-report-22-01-2020.pdf |archive-date=24 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |last3=Cori |first3=Anne |last4=Donnelly |first4=Christl |last5=Riley |first5=Steven |last6=Ferguson |first6=Neil M}}</ref><ref name="Imai17Jan2020" /> A ] group has reached a similar conclusion as the earlier study, with additional detail on transport within China.<ref name="hkumed">{{cite web |url=https://sph.hku.hk/en/news/press-releases/2020/nowcasting-and-forecasting-the-wuhan-2019-ncov-outbreak |title=HKUMed WHO Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control releases real-time nowcast on the likely extent of the Wuhan coronavirus outbreak, domestic and international spread with the forecast for chunyun |website=HKUMed School of Public Health |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125050442/https://sph.hku.hk/en/news/press-releases/2020/nowcasting-and-forecasting-the-wuhan-2019-ncov-outbreak |archive-date=25 January 2020 |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref>


In December 2021, the number of cases continued to climb due to several factors, including new COVID-19 variants. As of that 28{{nbsp}}December, 282,790,822 individuals worldwide had been confirmed as infected.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=ArcGIS Dashboards |url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/dashboards/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6 |publisher=gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> {{As of |2022|April|14}}, over 500&nbsp;million cases were confirmed globally.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||vauthors = Kavya B, Mazumder A |title=Worldwide COVID cases surpass 500 mln as Omicron variant BA.2 surges |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/worldwide-covid-cases-surpass-500-mln-omicron-variant-ba2-surges-2022-04-14/ |website=Reuters |access-date=21 April 2022 |date=14 April 2022}}</ref> Most cases are unconfirmed, with the ] estimating the true number of cases as of early 2022 to be in the billions.<ref name="57percent1" /><ref name="57percent2" />
Based on cases reported and assuming a ten-day delay between infection and detection, researchers at ] estimated that the number of actual infections may be much higher than those confirmed at the time of reporting. Northeastern University estimated 21,300 infections by 26 January, increasing to 31,200 infections by 29 January (95% confidence interval 23,400–40,400).<ref name="20200122mobs-lab">{{cite web |url=https://www.mobs-lab.org/2019ncov.html |title=Preliminary analysis of the 2019 nCOV outbreak in Wuhan city |date=22 January 2020 |publisher=Northeastern University |url-status=live}}</ref> On 31 January 2020, an article in '']'' estimated that 75,815 individuals (95% confidence interval 37,304–130,330) had been infected in Wuhan as of 25 January, with an estimated doubling time of 6.4 days in the period of study.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Joseph T. |last2=Leung |first2=Kathy |last3=Leung |first3=Gabriel M. |year=2020 |title=Nowcasting and forecasting the potential domestic and international spread of the 2019-nCoV outbreak originating in Wuhan, China: a modelling study |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30260-9/fulltext#%20 |url-status=live |journal=The Lancet |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30260-9 |pmid=32014114 |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201002232/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30260-9/fulltext#%20 |archive-date=1 February 2020}}</ref>


]
There are concerns about whether adequate medical personnel and equipment are available in regions affected by the outbreak for hospitals to correctly identify coronavirus cases instead of misdiagnosing suspected cases as "severe pneumonia".<ref name="WashPost_some_wonder">{{Cite news |last=Fifield |first=Anna |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/as-families-tell-of-pneumonia-like-deaths-in-wuhan-some-wonder-if-china-virus-count-is-too-low/2020/01/22/0f50b1e6-3d07-11ea-971f-4ce4f94494b4_story.html |title=As families tell of pneumonia-like deaths in Wuhan, some wonder if China virus count is too low |date=22 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.ph/hf801 |archive-date=23 January 2020 |work=]}}</ref><ref name="20200121theguardian">{{Cite news |last=Kuo |first=Lily |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/21/coronavirus-chinese-hospitals-not-testing-patients-say-relatives |title=Coronavirus: Chinese hospitals not testing patients, say relatives |date=21 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121170326/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/21/coronavirus-chinese-hospitals-not-testing-patients-say-relatives |archive-date=21 January 2020 |publisher=The Guardian}}</ref><ref name="wsj1157991563">{{Cite news |last=Fan |first=Wenxin |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/relatives-wonder-whether-pneumonia-deaths-were-tied-to-coronavirus-11579915630 |title=Relatives Wonder Whether Pneumonia Deaths Were Tied to Coronavirus |date=24 January 2020 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |website=]}}</ref> Many of those experiencing symptoms were told to self-quarantine at home instead of going to a hospital to avoid close contact with other patients with different levels of symptoms.<ref name="ft547046735">{{Cite news |last=Tom Hancock |url=https://www.ft.com/content/08371b58-3eb4-11ea-a01a-bae547046735 |title=The new coronavirus: is China moving quickly enough? |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=1 February 2020 |last2=Christian Shepherd |last3=Clive Cookson |url-access=subscription |website=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131171756/https://www.ft.com/content/08371b58-3eb4-11ea-a01a-bae547046735 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> After two repatriation flights were conducted from Wuhan to Japan in late January, 5 out of approximately 400 persons repatriated were diagnosed with the virus, of whom 1 was symptomatic, and 4 were not.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20200131/k10012267841000.html |title=New pneumonia Two people returning home on the second flight Infection confirmed No symptoms such as fever |work=NHK Japan |access-date=31 January 2020 |language=Japanese |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131103912/https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20200131/k10012267841000.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


==== Test positivity rate ====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="220px">
One measure that public health officials and policymakers have used to monitor the pandemic and guide decision-making is the test positivity rate ("percent positive"). According to Johns Hopkins in 2020, one benchmark for a "too high" per cent positive is 5%, which was used by the WHO in the past.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web ||date=10 August 2020 |title=COVID-19 Testing: Understanding the "Percent Positive" |url=https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2020/covid-19-testing-understanding-the-percent-positive |access-date=26 September 2024 |website=Johns Hopkins {{!}} Bloomberg School of Public Health |language=en}}</ref>
File:Log-linear plot of coronavirus cases with linear regressions.png|thumb|] of ] of confirmed cases and deaths in China from the ]<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/yqtb/list_gzbd.shtml|title=疫情通报|publisher=National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China|language=Chinese|url-status=dead|accessdate=9 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126135736/http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/yqtb/list_gzbd.shtml|archive-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>
File:Semi-log_plot_daily_incidence_of_nCoV.png|thumb|Semi-log plot of daily new confirmed cases and deaths in China from the ]<ref name=autogenerated1 />
File:NCoV20200209 Hubei China ROW cases.png|thumb|Semi-log plot of daily new confirmed cases by region: Hubei Province; mainland China excluding Hubei; the rest of the world (ROW); and the world total<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bnonews.com/index.php/2020/02/the-latest-coronavirus-cases|title=Tracking coronavirus: Map, data and timeline|publisher=BNO News|url-status=live|accessdate=20 February 2020}}</ref>
</gallery>


=== Deaths ===
On 4 February the ]'s WorldPop research group used mobile phone data and airline flight records to create a risk map for the likely spread of the disease.<ref>Shengjie Lai; Bogoch, Isaac I.; Ruktanonchai, Nick W. ''et al.'' (4 February 2020). WorldPop, School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic deaths|COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country}}
Southampton, UK. and School of Public Health, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Public Health
{{Further|List of deaths due to COVID-19}}
Safety, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.04.20020479. Retrieved 15 February 2020.</ref><ref>O’Neill, Marnie. (12 February 2020). "New data reveals no country safe from coronavirus tentacles". Retrieved 15 February 2020. </ref>
], US, in April 2020]]
], 3 April 2020]]
]
As of {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|date|editlink=|ref=no}}, more than {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|dround|editlink=|ref=yes}} deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. The first confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020.<ref name="AutoDW-25" /> These numbers vary by region and over time, influenced by testing volume, healthcare system quality, treatment options, government response,<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite magazine||title=The Best Global Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://time.com/5851633/best-global-responses-covid-19/|magazine=Time|access-date=18 August 2020}}
* {{#invoke:cite web||date=11 May 2020|title=Portugal and Spain: same peninsula, very different coronavirus impact|url=https://english.elpais.com/spanish_news/2020-05-11/portugal-and-spain-same-peninsula-very-different-coronavirus-impact.html|access-date=25 May 2020|website=El País|vauthors=Barrio PL, del Javier M}}
* {{#invoke:cite news||date=5 April 2020|title=Fewer deaths in Veneto offer clues for fight against virus|website=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/9c75d47f-49ee-4613-add1-a692b97d95d3|access-date=25 May 2020|vauthors=Johnson M}}</ref> time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health.<ref name="worldindata">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Ritchie H, Roser M|date=25 March 2020|title=What do we know about the risk of dying from COVID-19?|url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-mortality-risk|journal=]|access-date=28 March 2020|veditors=Chivers T}}</ref>


Multiple measures are used to quantify mortality.<ref name="wBm2a">{{#invoke:cite web||date=18 February 2019|title=Principles of Epidemiology {{!}} Lesson 3 – Section 3|url=https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson3/section3.html|access-date=28 March 2020|website=US ] (CDC)}}</ref> Official death counts typically include people who died after testing positive. Such counts exclude deaths without a test.<ref name="20200331reuters">{{#invoke:cite news||date=31 March 2020|title=Italy's coronavirus deaths could be underestimated in data: Official|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-italy-data/italys-coronavirus-deaths-could-be-underestimated-in-data-official-idUSKBN21I250}}</ref> Conversely, deaths of people who died from underlying conditions following a positive test may be included.<ref name="stuff120443722">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Coronavirus: Is Covid-19 really the cause of all the fatalities in Italy?|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/120443722/coronavirus-is-covid19-really-the-cause-of-all-the-fatalities-in-italy|access-date=16 April 2020|website=Stuff|date=20 March 2020}}</ref> Countries such as Belgium include deaths from suspected cases, including those without a test, thereby increasing counts.<ref name="npr841005901">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Schultz T |date=22 April 2020|title=Why Belgium's Death Rate Is So High: It Counts Lots Of Suspected COVID-19 Cases|newspaper=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/04/22/841005901/why-belgiums-death-rate-is-so-high-it-counts-lots-of-suspected-covid-19-cases|access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref>
=== Criticism of official statistics ===


Official death counts have been claimed to underreport the actual death toll, because ] (the number of deaths in a period compared to a long-term average) data show an increase in deaths that is not explained by COVID-19 deaths alone.<ref name=":7">{{#invoke:cite news||title=Tracking covid-19 excess deaths across countries|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/coronavirus-excess-deaths-tracker|access-date=6 November 2022}}</ref> Using such data, estimates of the true number of deaths from COVID-19 worldwide have included a range from 18.2 to 33.5&nbsp;million (≈27.4&nbsp;million) by 18 November 2023 by '']'',<ref name=Economist2023 /><ref name=":7" /> as well as over 18.5&nbsp;million by 1 April 2023 by the ]<ref name="COVID-19 Projections">{{#invoke:cite web || title=COVID-19 Projections|url=https://covid19.healthdata.org/|access-date=20 January 2022|website=Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation}}</ref> and ≈18.2&nbsp;million (earlier) deaths between 1 January 2020, and 31 December 2021, by a comprehensive international study.<ref name="10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02796-3">{{#invoke:cite journal || title = Estimating excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic analysis of COVID-19-related mortality, 2020–21 | journal = Lancet | volume = 399 | issue = 10334 | pages = 1513–1536 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 35279232 | pmc = 8912932 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02796-3 | vauthors = Wang H, Paulson KR, Pease SA, Watson S, Comfort H, Zheng P, Aravkin AY, Bisignano C, Barber RM, Alam T, Fuller JE, May EA, Jones DP, Frisch ME, Abbafati C, Adolph C, Allorant A, Amlag JO, Bang-Jensen B, Bertolacci GJ, Bloom SS, Carter A, Castro E, Chakrabarti S, Chattopadhyay J, Cogen RM, Collins JK, Cooperrider K, Dai X, Dangel WJ }}<br />News article about the study: {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Adam D | title = COVID's true death toll: much higher than official records | journal = Nature | volume = 603 | issue = 7902 | page = 562 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35277684 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-022-00708-0 | s2cid = 247407282 | bibcode = 2022Natur.603..562A }}</ref> Such deaths include deaths due to healthcare capacity constraints and priorities, as well as reluctance to seek care (to avoid possible infection).<ref name="20200429reason">{{#invoke:cite web || date=29 April 2020|title=What 'Excess Deaths' Do and Don't Tell Us About COVID-19|url=https://reason.com/2020/04/29/what-excess-deaths-do-and-dont-tell-us-about-covid-19/|access-date=4 May 2020|website=Reason}}</ref> Further research may help distinguish the proportions directly caused by COVID-19 from those caused by indirect consequences of the pandemic.<ref name="10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02796-3"/><!-- as well as from potential likely coincidental concurrent increases or issues with the expected deaths modelling/data. -->
Case and death counts in China are influenced by changes in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/02/13/805566551/officials-report-huge-jump-in-coronavirus-cases-in-1-chinese-province|title=Officials Report Huge Jump In Coronavirus Cases In 1 Chinese Province|publisher=NPR|url-status=live|accessdate=20 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2020/02/19/world/asia/19reuters-china-health-hubei.html|title=China's Hubei Reports 349 New Coronavirus Cases, Lowest Since Jan. 25|work=New York Times|url-status=live|accessdate=20 February 2020}}</ref>


In May 2022, the WHO estimated the number of excess deaths by the end of 2021 to be 14.9&nbsp;million compared to 5.4&nbsp;million reported COVID-19 deaths, with the majority of the unreported 9.5&nbsp;million deaths believed to be direct deaths due the virus, rather than indirect deaths. Some deaths were because ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-61327778 |title=Covid: World's true pandemic death toll nearly 15 million, says WHO| vauthors = Naomi G, Cornish J, Stylianou N |work=BBC News |date=5 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Nearly 15 million deaths directly or indirectly linked to COVID-19 {{!}} UN News |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/05/1117582 |access-date=4 February 2023 |work=news.un.org |date=5 May 2022 }}</ref>
Reporting in ] observed that the cumulative death statistics released by China "is described by a simple mathematical formula to a very high accuracy"<ref>{{cite newspaper |title=China's Coronavirus Figures Don't Add Up. 'This Never Happens With Real Data.' |newspaper=]
|url=https://www.barrons.com/articles/chinas-economic-data-have-always-raised-questions-its-coronavirus-numbers-do-too-51581622840
|date=15 February 2020}}</ref> with much less ] than expected and quoted Melody Goodman, associate professor of biostatistics at ]'s School of Global Public Health as saying "As a statistician, it makes me question the data."


A December 2022 ] study estimated excess deaths from the pandemic during 2020 and 2021, again concluding ≈14.8&nbsp;million excess early deaths occurred, reaffirming and detailing their prior calculations from May as well as updating them, addressing criticisms. These numbers do not include measures like ] and may make the pandemic 2021's ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Nearly 15 million excess deaths occurred globally in 2020 and 2021 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2351763-nearly-15-million-excess-deaths-occurred-globally-in-2020-and-2021/ |access-date=17 January 2023 |work=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Globale Übersterblichkeit durch COVID-19 |url=https://www.sciencemediacenter.de/alle-angebote/research-in-context/details/news/globale-uebersterblichkeit-durch-covid-19/ |website=www.sciencemediacenter.de |access-date=17 January 2023 }}</ref><ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Msemburi W, Karlinsky A, Knutson V, Aleshin-Guendel S, Chatterji S, Wakefield J | title = The WHO estimates of excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic | journal = Nature | volume = 613 | issue = 7942 | pages = 130–137 | date = January 2023 | pmid = 36517599 | pmc = 9812776 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2023Natur.613..130M }}</ref>
A paper submitted to ] modelling China's official death rate statistics found that "the number of infections and the number of fatalities .. follows a remarkably regular trend ... that the growth turns out to be quadratic to high accuracy is rather surprising ... it is therefore important to verify the credibility of the officially released data".<ref>{{cite arXiv |last=Brandenburg |first=A. |eprint=2002.03638 |title=Quadratic growth during the 2019 novel coronavirus epidemic |date=14 February 2020 }}</ref>


The time between symptom onset and death ranges from{{nbsp}}6 to 41 days, typically about 14&nbsp;days.<ref name="pathogenesis" /> Mortality rates increase as a function of age. People at the greatest mortality risk are the elderly and those with underlying conditions.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Yanez ND, Weiss NS, Romand JA, Treggiari MM | title = COVID-19 mortality risk for older men and women | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | page = 1742 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33213391 | pmc = 7675386 | doi = 10.1186/s12889-020-09826-8 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="6XONR">{{#invoke:cite web || date=15 March 2021|title=People with Certain Medical Conditions|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
== Signs and symptoms ==
{{Main|Coronavirus disease 2019}}
]
Those infected may be asymptomatic or have mild to severe ], including fever, cough, shortness of breath, and diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Nanshan |last2=Zhou |first2=Min |last3=Dong |first3=Xuan |last4=Qu |first4=Jieming |last5=Gong |first5=Fengyun |last6=Han |first6=Yang |last7=Qiu |first7=Yang |last8=Wang |first8=Jingli |last9=Liu |first9=Ying |last10=Wei |first10=Yuan |last11=Xia |first11=Jia'an |date=30 January 2020 |title=Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30211-7/abstract |journal=The Lancet |volume=0 |issue=10223 |pages=507–513 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=32007143}}</ref><ref name="Hessen27Jan2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.elsevier.com/connect/coronavirus-information-center|title=Novel Coronavirus Information Center: Expert guidance and commentary|last=Hessen|first=Margaret Trexler|date=27 January 2020|website=Elsevier Connect|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130171622/https://www.elsevier.com/connect/coronavirus-information-center|archive-date=30 January 2020|access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/symptoms.html |title=Coronavirus About Symptoms and Diagnosis |date=30 January 2020 |website=] |location=United States |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130180428/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/symptoms.html |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] is estimated at 2 to 10 days by WHO,<ref>{{cite report | vauthors=((World Health Organization)) | year=2020 | title=Novel Coronavirus (&lrm;2019-nCoV)&lrm;: situation report, 6 | publisher=] | hdl=10665/330770 | hdl-access=free}}</ref> and 2 to 14 days by the US ] (CDC).<ref name="CDC2020Over2" /> One study found the usual incubation time was three days but may be as long as 24 days.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.06.20020974v1}}</ref> Upper respiratory symptoms, such as sneezing, a ], and sore throat, are less frequent.<ref name="Huang24Jan2020" /><ref name="Joseph24Jan2020" />


<gallery mode="packed" widths="360px" heights="160">
Cases of severe infection can result in ], ], and death.<ref name="Hui14Jan20202">{{vcite journal|authors=Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, Ippolito G, Mchugh TD, Memish ZA, Drosten C, Zumla A, Petersen E|title=The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China|journal=Int J Infect Dis|year=2020 Jan 14|volume=91|pages=264–266|pmid=31953166|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009}}{{open access}}</ref><ref name="WHOQ&A27Jan202">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-coronaviruses |title=Q&A on coronaviruses |website=who.int |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120174649/https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-coronaviruses |archive-date=20 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref> Among 137 early cases that were admitted to hospitals in Hubei province, 16 (12%) individuals died.<ref name="KuiFang2020">{{cite journal|last1=Kui|first1=Liu|last2=Fang|first2=Yuan-Yuan|last3=Deng|first3=Yan|last4=Liu|first4=Wei|last5=Wang|first5=Mei-Fang|last6=Ma|first6=Jing-Ping|last7=Xiao|first7=Wei|last8=Wang|first8=Ying-Nan|last9=Zhong|first9=Min-Hua|last10=Li|first10=Cheng-Hong|last11=Li|first11=Guang-Cai|last12=Liu|first12=Hui-Guo|title=Clinical characteristics of novel coronavirus cases in tertiary hospitals in Hubei Province|journal=Chinese Medical Journal|year=2020|page=1|issn=0366-6999|doi=10.1097/CM9.0000000000000744|pmid=32044814}}</ref> Many of those who died had other conditions such as ], ], or ] that impaired their immune systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-the-advice-of-the-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus |title=WHO Director-General's statement on the advice of the IHR Emergency Committee on Novel Coronavirus |website=who.int}}</ref> As of 20 February 2020, the number of severe cases is 12,065 (16%)<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ |title=Coronavirus cases |work=Worldometers |url-status=live |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131025422/https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ |archive-date=31 January 2020}}</ref> out of 76,727 with 18,461 having recovered.
File:Covid-19 daily deaths in top 5 countries and the world.png|Semi-log plot of weekly deaths due to COVID-19 in the world and top six current countries (mean with cases)
File:Mapping estimated P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths).webp|alt=Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (the patterns indicate the quality of the all-cause mortality data that were available for each respective country)|Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (The patterns indicate the quality of the all-cause mortality data that were available for each respective country)<ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2"/>
File:COVID-19 pandemic excess deaths - global and WHO region P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths).webp|Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (global and WHO region)<ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2"/>
File:The 25 countries with the highest total estimated COVID-19 pandemic excess deaths between January 2020 and December 2021.webp|The 25 countries with the highest total estimated COVID-19 pandemic excess deaths between January 2020 and December 2021<ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2"/>
File:The 25 countries with the highest mean P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths).webp|The 25 countries with the highest mean P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths)<ref name="10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2"/>
</gallery>


==== Infection fatality ratio (IFR) ====
== Cause ==
{{See also|List of human disease case fatality rates}}
{{Main|Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
Coronaviruses are spread through aerosol droplets expelled when an infected individual coughs or sneezes within a range of about 6 feet (1.83 m), which can contaminate surfaces like door handles or railings.<ref name="nbcnews1121856">{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/how-does-new-coronavirus-spread-n1121856 |title=How does coronavirus spread? |publisher=NBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128081650/https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/how-does-new-coronavirus-spread-n1121856 |archive-date=28 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200127cdc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/transmission.html |title=Transmission of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) |date=27 January 2020 |website=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128152653/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/transmission.html |archive-date=28 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=AFP |title=Doctor, nurses describe treating coronavirus patient |date=24 January 2020 |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=vGFhm-nM-DE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125142950/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGFhm-nM-DE |access-date=28 January 2020 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-coronavirus-factbox/factbox-the-new-coronavirus-what-is-it-and-how-does-it-behave-idUSKBN1ZR11F |title=Factbox: The new coronavirus – What is it and how does it behave? |last=Kelland |first==Kate |date=28 January 2020 |website=World News |access-date=3 February 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref> Coronavirus droplets only stay suspended in the air for a short time, but can stay viable and contagious on a metal, glass or plastic surface for up to nine days.<ref name="GunterTPS_9days_persistence">{{cite journal | last1 = Kampf | first1 = Günter | last2 = Todt | first2 = Daniel |last3=Pfaender |first3=Stephanie |last4=Steinmann |first4=Eike | title = Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and its inactivation with biocidal agents | journal = ] | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = Elsevier | date = 6 February 2020 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195670120300463/ | url-access = <!-- (subscription/registration/limited) default=free --> | issn = | doi = 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022 | pmid = 32035997 | id = | biorxiv= | accessdate = 15 February 2020 | archiveurl= https://archive.ph/Ftr5w | archivedate= 15 February 2020 |url-status=live <!-- live|dead|unfit|usurped -->}}</ref> Disinfection of surfaces is possible with cheap substances such as 62–71% ] applied for one minute.<ref name="GunterTPS_9days_persistence" /> Chinese public health officials suggest extra caution for aerosol transmission in closed rooms and recommend regularly exchanging air.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eeo.com.cn/2020/0208/375915.shtml |title=新冠肺炎可通过气溶胶传播意味着什么 |publisher=Economic Observation Network |language=chinese |date=8 February 2020|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
|+ class="nowrap" | IFR estimate per <br />age group<ref name="EJE_levinetal" />
|-
! Age group !! IFR
|-
| 0–34 || 0.004%
|-
| 35–44 || 0.068%
|-
| 45–54 || 0.23%
|-
| 55–64 || 0.75%
|-
| 65–74 || 2.5%
|-
| 75–84 || 8.5%
|-
| 85 + || 28.3%
|}
The ] (IFR) is the cumulative number of deaths attributed to the disease divided by the cumulative number of infected individuals (including asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections and excluding vaccinated infected individuals).<ref name="fjMw6">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Tate N |title=What Changing Death Rates Tell Us About COVID-19|url=https://www.webmd.com/lung/news/20200901/what-changing-death-rates-tell-us-about-covid|access-date=19 September 2020|website=WebMD}}</ref><ref name="WHOest">{{#invoke:cite web || date=4 August 2020|title=Estimating mortality from COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/estimating-mortality-from-covid-19|access-date=21 September 2020|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref><ref name="ovoEx">{{#invoke:cite web ||date=11 February 2020|title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html|access-date=19 September 2020|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> It is expressed in percentage points.<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mallapaty S | title = How deadly is the coronavirus? Scientists are close to an answer | journal = Nature | volume = 582 | issue = 7813 | pages = 467–468 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32546810 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-020-01738-2 | s2cid = 219726496 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020Natur.582..467M }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Alwan NA, Burgess RA, Ashworth S, Beale R, Bhadelia N, Bogaert D, Dowd J, Eckerle I, Goldman LR, Greenhalgh T, Gurdasani D, Hamdy A, Hanage WP, Hodcroft EB, Hyde Z, Kellam P, Kelly-Irving M, Krammer F, Lipsitch M, McNally A, McKee M, Nouri A, Pimenta D, Priesemann V, Rutter H, Silver J, Sridhar D, Swanton C, Walensky RP, Yamey G, Ziauddeen H | title = Scientific consensus on the COVID-19 pandemic: we need to act now | journal = Lancet | volume = 396 | issue = 10260 | pages = e71–e72 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33069277 | pmc = 7557300 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32153-X }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Meyerowitz-Katz G, Merone L | title = A systematic review and meta-analysis of published research data on COVID-19 infection fatality rates | journal = International Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 101 | pages = 138–148 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33007452 | pmc = 7524446 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.1464 }}</ref> Other studies refer to this metric as the ''infection fatality risk''.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Yang W, Kandula S, Huynh M, Greene SK, Van Wye G, Li W, Chan HT, McGibbon E, Yeung A, Olson D, Fine A, Shaman J | title = Estimating the infection-fatality risk of SARS-CoV-2 in New York City during the spring 2020 pandemic wave: a model-based analysis | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 203–212 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33091374 | pmc = 7572090 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30769-6 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Pastor-Barriuso R, Pérez-Gómez B, Hernán MA, Pérez-Olmeda M, Yotti R, Oteo-Iglesias J, Sanmartín JL, León-Gómez I, Fernández-García A, Fernández-Navarro P, Cruz I, Martín M, Delgado-Sanz C, Fernández de Larrea N, León Paniagua J, Muñoz-Montalvo JF, Blanco F, Larrauri A, Pollán M | title = Infection fatality risk for SARS-CoV-2 in community dwelling population of Spain: nationwide seroepidemiological study | journal = BMJ | volume = 371 | pages = m4509 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33246972 | pmc = 7690290 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m4509 }}</ref>


In November 2020, a review article in '']'' reported estimates of population-weighted IFRs for various countries, excluding deaths in elderly care facilities, and found a median range of 0.24% to 1.49%.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = O'Driscoll M, Ribeiro Dos Santos G, Wang L, Cummings DA, Azman AS, Paireau J, Fontanet A, Cauchemez S, Salje H | title = Age-specific mortality and immunity patterns of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Nature | volume = 590 | issue = 7844 | pages = 140–145 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33137809 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-020-2918-0 | bibcode = 2021Natur.590..140O | s2cid = 226244375 | doi-access = free }}</ref> IFRs rise as a function of age (from 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25, to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4% at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85). These rates vary by a factor of ≈10,000 across the age groups.<ref name="EJE_levinetal" /> For comparison, the IFR for middle-aged adults is two orders of magnitude higher than the annualised risk of a fatal automobile accident and much higher than the risk of dying from ].<ref name="EJE_levinetal" />
On 13 February 2020 the director of the ] of the United States confirmed asymptomatic transmission.<ref>{{cite news | first=Jackie | last=Salo | title=CDC says coronavirus can spread through people who aren't showing symptoms | website=] | date=13 February 2020 | url=https://nypost.com/2020/02/13/coronavirus-can-be-spread-by-people-who-dont-show-symptoms-cdc-warns/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214054214/https://nypost.com/2020/02/13/coronavirus-can-be-spread-by-people-who-dont-show-symptoms-cdc-warns/ | archive-date=14 February 2020 | url-status=live | access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> Viral RNA was detected in stool specimens collected from the first confirmed case in the United States, though it was unclear if enough of the infectious virus was present to suggest ]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Holshue |first=Michelle L. |last2=DeBolt |first2=Chas |last3=Lindquist |first3=Scott |last4=Lofy |first4=Kathy H. |last5=Wiesman |first5=John |last6=Bruce |first6=Hollianne |last7=Spitters |first7=Christopher |last8=Ericson |first8=Keith |last9=Wilkerson |first9=Sara |last10=Tural |first10=Ahmet |last11=Diaz |first11=George |date=31 January 2020 |title=First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |pages=NEJMoa2001191 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001191 |issn=0028-4793 |pmid=32004427}}</ref>


In December 2020, a systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population-weighted IFR was 0.5% to 1% in some countries (France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in other countries (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and about 2.5% in Italy. This study reported that most of the differences reflected corresponding differences in the population's age structure and the age-specific pattern of infections.<ref name="EJE_levinetal">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Levin AT, Hanage WP, Owusu-Boaitey N, Cochran KB, Walsh SP, Meyerowitz-Katz G | title = Assessing the age specificity of infection fatality rates for COVID-19: systematic review, meta-analysis, and public policy implications | journal = European Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 35 | issue = 12 | pages = 1123–1138 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33289900 | pmc = 7721859 | doi = 10.1007/s10654-020-00698-1 | doi-access = free }}</ref> There have also been reviews that have compared the fatality rate of this pandemic with prior pandemics, such as MERS-CoV.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Pitlik SD |title=COVID-19 Compared to Other Pandemic Diseases. |journal=Rambam Maimonides Medical Journal |date=31 July 2020 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=e0027 |doi=10.5041/RMMJ.10418 |pmid=32792043 |pmc=7426550 }}</ref>
Of the initial 41 cases, two-thirds had a history of exposure to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market.<ref name= Huang24Jan2020 />


For comparison the infection mortality rate of seasonal flu in the United States is 0.1%, which is 13 times lower than COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite book || vauthors = Spence ND, Sekercioglu F |title=Indigenous Health and Well-Being in the COVID-19 Pandemic |date=31 August 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-64420-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CA5_EAAAQBAJ&dq=infection+fatality+ratio++influenza++is+0.1%25+united+states&pg=PT125 |access-date=12 May 2023 }}</ref>
There have been estimates for the ] (the average number of people an infected person is likely to infect), ranging from 2.13<ref name="Leung27Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.med.hku.hk/f/news/3549/7418/Wuhan-coronavirus-outbreak_AN-UPDATE_20200127.pdf |title=Real-time nowcast and forecast on the extent of the Wuhan CoV outbreak, domestic and international spread |last=Leung |first=Gabriel |last2=Wu |first2=Joseph |date=27 January 2020 |website=Wuhan-coronavirus-outbreak AN UPDATE |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> to 3.11.<ref name="Read28Jan2020">{{Cite journal |last=Read |first=Jonathan M. |last2=Bridgen |first2=Jessica RE |last3=Cummings |first3=Derek AT |last4=Ho |first4=Antonia |last5=Jewell |first5=Chris P. |date=28 January 2020 |title=Novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV: early estimation of epidemiological parameters and epidemic predictions |url=https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.01.23.20018549v2 |journal=MedRxiv |pages=2020.01.23.20018549 |doi=10.1101/2020.01.23.20018549}}</ref> The virus has reportedly been able to transmit down a chain of up to four people so far.<ref name="Saey24Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-new-wuhan-coronavirus-stacks-up-against-sars-mers |title=How the new coronavirus stacks up against SARS and MERS |last=Saey |first=Tina Hesman |date=24 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125064423/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-new-wuhan-coronavirus-stacks-up-against-sars-mers |archive-date=25 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref> This is similar to ] (SARS-CoV).<ref>Julien Riou & Christian L. Althaus, , Preprint, ], 23 January 2020.</ref> There are disputed reports that some of the infected may be ]s.<ref name="xinhuanet138733483">{{Cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/25/c_138733483.htm |title=China CDC head dismisses super-spreader media report |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125191047/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/25/c_138733483.htm |archive-date=25 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref><ref name="qq2020012500">{{Cite news |url=https://new.qq.com/rain/a/TWF2020012500903100 |date=25 January 2020 |work=China Newsweek |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125200018/https://new.qq.com/rain/a/TWF2020012500903100 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |publisher=] |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:还原"超级传播者"传染路径 武汉医生：疫情刚开始"整个不让说" |trans-title=Restore the infection route for "super-spreader"s; "'Not allowed to speak anything' at the beginning of the outbreak," said Wuhan doctors}}</ref>


=== Virology === ==== Case fatality ratio (CFR) ====
Another metric in assessing death rate is the ] (CFR),{{efn|Some refer to "fatality rate"; however, "fatality ratio" is more accurate as this is not per unit time.<ref name="WHOest" />}} which is the ratio of deaths to diagnoses. This metric can be misleading because of the delay between symptom onset and death and because testing focuses on symptomatic individuals.<ref name="Hauser 2020">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Hauser A, Counotte MJ, Margossian CC, Konstantinoudis G, Low N, Althaus CL, Riou J|date=July 2020|title=Estimation of SARS-CoV-2 mortality during the early stages of an epidemic: A modeling study in Hubei, China, and six regions in Europe|journal=PLOS Medicine|volume=17|issue=7|pages=e1003189|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003189|pmc=7386608|pmid=32722715|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The natural wildlife reservoir of SARS-CoV-2 (also known as 2019-nCoV) and intermediate host that transmitted the SARS-CoV-2 to humans has not been confirmed.<ref name="Liu22Jan2020">{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Shan-Lu |last2=Saif |first2=Linda |date=22 January 2020 |title=Emerging Viruses without Borders: The Wuhan Coronavirus |journal=Viruses |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=130 |doi=10.3390/v12020130 |pmid=31979013}}</ref> Research suggests that the 2019 novel coronavirus has ] origins, just like the viruses responsible for ]<ref name=":01">{{Cite news |last=McKie |first=Robin |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/10/sars-virus-bats-china-severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome |title=Scientists trace 2002 Sars virus to colony of cave-dwelling bats in China |date=10 December 2017 |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 December 2017 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> and ].<ref name="Corman2014">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Corman VM, Ithete NL, Richards LR, Schoeman MC, Preiser W, Drosten C, Drexler JF |date=October 2014 |title=Rooting the phylogenetic tree of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus by characterization of a conspecific virus from an African bat |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=88 |issue=19 |pages=11297–303 |doi=10.1128/JVI.01498-14 |pmc=4178802 |pmid=25031349}}</ref> SARS-CoV-2 is 96% identical at the whole ] level to a bat coronavirus identified in 2013.<ref name="bioRxivBatOrigin">{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Peng |last2=Yang |first2=Xing-Lou |last3=Wang |first3=Xian-Guang |last4=Hu |first4=Ben |last5=Zhang |first5=Lei |last6=Zhang |first6=Wei |last7=Si |first7=Hao-Rui |last8=Zhu |first8=Yan |last9=Li |first9=Bei |last10=Huang |first10=Chao-Lin |last11=Chen |first11=Hui-Dong |displayauthors=1 |date=23 January 2020 |title=Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.01.22.914952v2 |journal=] |pages=2020.01.22.914952 |doi=10.1101/2020.01.22.914952 |access-date=24 January 2020 |last12=Chen |first12=Jing |last13=Luo |first13=Yun |last14=Guo |first14=Hua |last15=Jiang |first15=Ren-Di |last16=Liu |first16=Mei-Qin |last17=Chen |first17=Ying |last18=Shen |first18=Xu-Rui |last19=Wang |first19=Xi |last20=Zheng |first20=Xiao-Shuang |last21=Zhao |first21=Kai |last22=Chen |first22=Quan-Jiao |last23=Deng |first23=Fei |last24=Liu |first24=Lin-Lin |last25=Yan |first25=Bing |last26=Zhan |first26=Fa-Xian |last27=Wang |first27=Yan-Yi |last28=Xiao |first28=Geng-Fu |last29=Shi |first29=Zheng-Li}}</ref>


Based on ] statistics, the global CFR was {{replace|{{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|ratio|editlink=|ref=no}}|%|&nbsp;percent}} ({{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|deaths|editlink=|ref=no}} deaths for {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|confirmed|editlink=|ref=no}} cases) as of {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|date|editlink=|ref=no}}.{{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|ref=yes}} The number varies by region and has generally declined over time.<ref name="b0L7I">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Lazzerini M, Putoto G|date=May 2020|title=COVID-19 in Italy: momentous decisions and many uncertainties|journal=The Lancet. Global Health|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e641–e642|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30110-8|pmc=7104294|pmid=32199072}}</ref>
In February 2020, researchers from ] announced that there is a 99% similarity in genome sequences between the viruses found in ]s and those from human patients, suggesting that the animal may be an intermediary host for the virus, but did not release evidence.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2 |title=Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people? |first=David |last=Cyranoski|date=7 February 2020 |journal=Nature |doi= 10.1038/d41586-020-00364-2}}</ref>


== Disease ==
] studies of SARS-CoV-2 examine the ] history of the virus and its relationships with other organisms. The seventh member of the family of coronaviruses that can infect humans, SARS-CoV-2 has been reported to have a ] 75% to 80% identical to the ] and to have more similarities to several bat coronaviruses.<ref name="Zhu24Jan2020">{{Cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Na |last2=Zhang |first2=Dingyu |last3=Wang |first3=Wenling |last4=Li |first4=Xinwang |last5=Yang |first5=Bo |last6=Song |first6=Jingdong |last7=Zhao |first7=Xiang |last8=Huang |first8=Baoying |last9=Shi |first9=Weifeng |last10=Lu |first10=Roujian |last11=Niu |first11=Peihua |date=24 January 2020 |title=A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019 |journal=] |volume=382 |issue=8 |pages=727–733 |location=United States |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001017 |issn=0028-4793 |pmid=31978945}}</ref><ref name="PerlmanJan2020">{{Cite journal|last=Perlman|first=Stanley|date=24 January 2020|title=Another Decade, Another Coronavirus|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=0|issue=8|pages=760–762|doi=10.1056/NEJMe2001126|issn=0028-4793|pmid=31978944}}</ref> At least five genomes of the novel coronavirus have been isolated and reported.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus |title=Coronavirus |publisher=] (WHO) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120214550/https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus |archive-date=20 January 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200111virological">{{cite web |url=http://virological.org/t/initial-genome-release-of-novel-coronavirus/319 |title=Initial genome release of novel coronavirus |date=11 January 2020 |website=Virological |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112100227/http://virological.org/t/initial-genome-release-of-novel-coronavirus/319 |archive-date=12 January 2020 |access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200117nih">{{cite document |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MN908947.3 |title=Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus isolate Wuhan-Hu-1, complete genome |date=17 January 2020}}</ref> Like '']'', it is a member of ] lineage B.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nextstrain.org/groups/blab/sars-like-cov |title=Phylogeny of SARS-like betacoronaviruses |website=nextstrain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120190511/https://nextstrain.org/groups/blab/sars-like-cov |archive-date=20 January 2020 |access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19}}


=== Variants ===
] by Benvenuto et al. of the ]s of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronaviruses, shows that the ] and the spike ] have some sites under positive ]. ] indicated certain molecular and structural differences among the viruses. The phylogenetic tree showed that SARS-CoV-2 significantly clustered with a bat SARS-like coronavirus sequence, whereas structural analysis revealed mutations in spike glycoprotein and nucleocapsid protein. The authors conclude SARS-CoV-2 is a coronavirus distinct from SARS virus that probably was transmitted from bats or another host that provided the ability to infect humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benvenuto |first=D |last2=Giovannetti |first2=M |last3=Ciccozzi |first3=A |last4=Spoto |first4=S |last5=Angeletti |first5=S |last6=Ciccozzi |first6=M |date=29 January 2020 |title=The 2019-new coronavirus epidemic: evidence for virus evolution |journal=Journal of Medical Virology |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=455–459 |doi=10.1002/jmv.25688 |pmid=31994738}}</ref>
{{Main|Variants of SARS-CoV-2}}
Several variants have been named by WHO and labelled as a ] (VoC) or a ] (VoI). Many of these variants have shared the more infectious ]. As of May 2023, the WHO had downgraded all variants of concern to previously circulating as these were no longer detected in new infections.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 – 25 May 2023 |url=https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---25-may-2023 |website=www.who.int |access-date=26 May 2023 }}</ref><ref name="CDC2">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Statement on the update of WHO's working definitions and tracking system for SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern and variants of interest |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/16-03-2023-statement-on-the-update-of-who-s-working-definitions-and-tracking-system-for-sars-cov-2-variants-of-concern-and-variants-of-interest |website=www.who.int |access-date=26 May 2023 }}</ref> Sub-lineages of the Omicron variant (BA.1 – BA.5) were considered separate VoCs by the WHO until they were downgraded in March 2023 as no longer widely circulating.<ref name=CDC2/> {{As of|2024|9|24}}, the ] of interest as specified by the WHO are BA.2.86 and JN.1, and the variants under monitoring are JN.1.7, KP.2, KP.3, KP.3.1.1, JN.1.18, LB.1, and XEC.<ref name="current_variants2">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=WHO Coronavirus Network (CoViNet) |url=https://data.who.int/dashboards/covid19/variants |access-date=1 September 2024}}</ref>
] video which describes how variants proliferate in unvaccinated areas]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+Variants of concern (past and present)<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/variant-classifications.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 October 2022 |date=11 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants |url=https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants |website=www.who.int |access-date=7 November 2022 }}</ref>
! Name !! Lineage !! Detected !! Countries !! Priority
|-
| ] || ] || United Kingdom || 190 || VoC
|-
| ] || ] || South Africa || 140 || VoC
|-
| ] || ] || India || 170 ||VoC
|-
| ] || ] || Brazil || 90 ||VoC
|-
| ] || ] || Botswana || 149 ||VoC
|}


=== Signs and symptoms ===
== Diagnosis ==
{{Main|Symptoms of COVID-19}}
The WHO has published several testing protocols for SARS-CoV-2.<ref name="Schirring16Jan2020">{{cite web |url=http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/japan-has-1st-novel-coronavirus-case-china-reports-another-death |title=Japan has 1st novel coronavirus case; China reports another death |last=Schirring |first=Lisa |last2=2020 |date=16 January 2020 |website=CIDRAP |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120043657/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/japan-has-1st-novel-coronavirus-case-china-reports-another-death |archive-date=20 January 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="WHO_InterimGuidance">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus/laboratory-diagnostics-for-novel-coronavirus |title=Laboratory testing for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in suspected human cases: Interim guidance |website=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120175355/https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus/laboratory-diagnostics-for-novel-coronavirus |archive-date=20 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> Testing uses real time ] (rRT-PCR).<ref name=20200130cdc /> The test can be done on respiratory or blood samples.<ref name="20200129cdc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-detection-instructions.html |title=Real-Time RT-PCR Panel for Detection 2019-nCoV |date=29 January 2020 |website=] |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130202031/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-detection-instructions.html |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Results are generally available within a few hours to days.<ref name="20200130businessinsider">{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/how-to-know-if-you-have-the-coronavirus-pcr-test-2020-1 |title=There's only one way to know if you have the coronavirus, and it involves machines full of spit and mucus |last=Brueck |first=Hilary |date=30 January 2020 |website=Business Insider |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201034232/https://www.businessinsider.com/how-to-know-if-you-have-the-coronavirus-pcr-test-2020-1 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="globenewswire1977226">{{cite web |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/01/30/1977226/0/en/Curetis-Group-Company-Ares-Genetics-and-BGI-Group-Collaborate-to-Offer-Next-Generation-Sequencing-and-PCR-based-Coronavirus-2019-nCoV-Testing-in-Europe.html |title=Curetis Group Company Ares Genetics and BGI Group Collaborate to Offer Next-Generation Sequencing and PCR-based Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Testing in Europe |date=30 January 2020 |website=GlobeNewswire News Room |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131201626/https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/01/30/1977226/0/en/Curetis-Group-Company-Ares-Genetics-and-BGI-Group-Collaborate-to-Offer-Next-Generation-Sequencing-and-PCR-based-Coronavirus-2019-nCoV-Testing-in-Europe.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
] of COVID-19]]
Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness.<ref name="CDC2020Sym"><!-- KEEP THIS NAMED REFERENCE -->{{#invoke:cite web||date=22 February 2021|title=Symptoms of Coronavirus|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304195413/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html|archive-date=4 March 2021|access-date=4 March 2021|website=U.S. ] (CDC)}}</ref><ref name="Grant et al 2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Grant MC, Geoghegan L, Arbyn M, Mohammed Z, McGuinness L, Clarke EL, Wade RG | title = The prevalence of symptoms in 24,410 adults infected by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19): A systematic review and meta-analysis of 148 studies from 9 countries | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = e0234765 | date = 23 June 2020 | pmid = 32574165 | pmc = 7310678 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0234765 | bibcode = 2020PLoSO..1534765G | s2cid = 220046286 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Common symptoms include headache, ] and ], ] and ], cough, ], ], fever, ], and ].<ref name="CDC2020Sym"/> People with the same infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, ], shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea.<ref name="ECDC">{{#invoke:cite web||title=COVID-19/csse_covid_19_data/csse_covid_19_time_series at master · CSSEGISandData/COVID-19|url=https://github.com/CSSEGISandData/COVID-19/tree/master/csse_covid_19_data/csse_covid_19_time_series|website=GitHub|access-date=18 January 2022}}</ref> In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, ] combined with ] is associated with ] and is reported in as many as 88% of cases.<ref name="Krishnan">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Krishnan A, Hamilton JP, Alqahtani SA, Woreta TA | title = COVID-19: An overview and a clinical update | journal = World Journal of Clinical Cases | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–23 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33511168 | pmc = 7809683 | doi = 10.12998/wjcc.v9.i1.8 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Docherty AB, Harrison EM, Green CA, Hardwick HE, Pius R, Norman L, Holden KA, Read JM, Dondelinger F, Carson G, Merson L, Lee J, Plotkin D, Sigfrid L, Halpin S, Jackson C, Gamble C, Horby PW, Nguyen-Van-Tam JS, Ho A, Russell CD, Dunning J, Openshaw PJ, Baillie JK, Semple MG | title = Features of 20 133 UK patients in hospital with covid-19 using the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterisation Protocol: prospective observational cohort study | journal = BMJ | volume = 369 | pages = m1985 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32444460 | pmc = 7243036 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m1985 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32483687">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Niazkar HR, Zibaee B, Nasimi A, Bahri N | title = The neurological manifestations of COVID-19: a review article | journal = Neurological Sciences | volume = 41 | issue = 7 | pages = 1667–1671 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32483687 | pmc = 7262683 | doi = 10.1007/s10072-020-04486-3 }}</ref>


=== Transmission ===
Chinese scientists were able to isolate a strain of the coronavirus and publish the ] so that laboratories across the world could independently develop ] tests to detect infection by the virus.<ref name="promedmail">{{cite web|url=https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=6866757|title=Undiagnosed pneumonia – China (HU) (01): wildlife sales, market closed, RFI Archive Number: 20200102.6866757|website=Pro-MED-mail|publisher=International Society for Infectious Diseases|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122124653/https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=6866757|archive-date=22 January 2020|access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Hui14Jan2020">{{Cite journal |last=Hui |first=David S. |last2=Azhar |first2=Esam EI |last3=Madani |first3=Tariq A. |last4=Ntoumi |first4=Francine |last5=Kock |first5=Richard |last6=Dar |first6=Osman |last7=Ippolito |first7=Giuseppe |last8=Mchugh |first8=Timothy D. |last9=Memish |first9=Ziad A. |last10=Drosten |first10=Christian |last11=Zumla |first11=Alimuddin |date=14 January 2020 |title=The continuing epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – the latest novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China |url=https://www.ijidonline.com/article/S1201-9712(20)30011-4/pdf |url-status=live |journal=International Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=91 |pages=264–266 |doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009 |issn=1201-9712 |pmid=31953166 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131005858/https://www.ijidonline.com/article/S1201-9712(20)30011-4/pdf |archive-date=31 January 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Cohen17Jan20202">{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Jon |last2=Normile |first2=Dennis |date=17 January 2020 |title=New SARS-like virus in China triggers alarm |journal=Science |volume=367 |issue=6475 |pages=234–235 |doi=10.1126/science.367.6475.234 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=31949058}}</ref><ref name="Parry20Jan2020">{{Cite journal |last=Parry |first=Jane |date=January 2020 |title=China coronavirus: cases surge as official admits human to human transmission |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=368 |page=m236 |doi=10.1136/bmj.m236 |issn=1756-1833 |pmid=31959587}}</ref>
{{Main|Transmission of COVID-19}}
The disease is mainly transmitted via the respiratory route when people inhale droplets and small airborne particles (that form an ]) that infected people exhale as they breathe, talk, cough, sneeze, or sing.<ref name="Wang_2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wang CC, Prather KA, Sznitman J, Jimenez JL, Lakdawala SS, Tufekci Z, Marr LC | title = Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses | journal = Science | volume = 373 | issue = 6558 | date = August 2021 | pmid = 34446582 | pmc = 8721651 | doi = 10.1126/science.abd9149 | bibcode = | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Greenhalgh T, Jimenez JL, Prather KA, Tufekci Z, Fisman D, Schooley R | title = Ten scientific reasons in support of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Lancet | volume = 397 | issue = 10285 | pages = 1603–1605 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33865497 | pmc = 8049599 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00869-2 }}</ref><ref name="AR2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bourouiba L | title = Fluid Dynamics of Respiratory Infectious Diseases | journal = Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 547–577 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34255991 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-bioeng-111820-025044 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 235823756 | hdl = 1721.1/131115 }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Stadnytskyi V, Bax CE, Bax A, Anfinrud P | title = The airborne lifetime of small speech droplets and their potential importance in SARS-CoV-2 transmission | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 117 | issue = 22 | pages = 11875–11877 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32404416 | pmc = 7275719 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.2006874117 | bibcode = 2020PNAS..11711875S | doi-access = free }}</ref> Infected people are more likely to transmit COVID-19 when they are physically close to other non-infected individuals. However, infection can occur over longer distances, particularly indoors.<ref name="Wang_2021" /><ref name="Miller_2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Miller SL, Nazaroff WW, Jimenez JL, Boerstra A, Buonanno G, Dancer SJ, Kurnitski J, Marr LC, Morawska L, Noakes C | title = Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by inhalation of respiratory aerosol in the Skagit Valley Chorale superspreading event | journal = Indoor Air | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 314–323 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 32979298 | pmc = 7537089 | doi = 10.1111/ina.12751 | bibcode = 2021InAir..31..314M }}</ref>


== Prevention == === Cause ===
{{Main|Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2}}
] sees a patient in a Wuhan hospital]]
]]]
Recommended measures to prevent infection depend on the likelihood of a person coming into contact with the disease. The US CDC recommends avoiding exposure.<ref name="cdc21Jan2020" /> A number of countries have advised against travel to either ], the province of Hubei, or just Wuhan.<ref name=":6" /> Other recommendations include frequent washing of hands with soap and water, not touching one's eyes, nose or mouth unless the hands are clean, and covering the mouth when one coughs.<ref name="cdc21Jan2020" /> People in high risk areas should take additional precautions even around people that are not displaying symptoms.<ref name="cnn-asymptomatic-spread">{{Cite news | last=Cohen | first=Elizabeth | last2=Bonifield | first2=John |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/31/health/coronavirus-asymptomatic-spread-study/index.html |title='There's no doubt': Top US infectious disease doctor says Wuhan coronavirus can spread even when people have no symptoms |publisher=CNN |url-status=live | date=31 January 2020 |access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref>
SARS‑CoV‑2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as ]es.<ref name="Fox2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Fox D |title=What you need to know about the novel coronavirus |journal=Nature |date=January 2020 |pmid=33483684 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00209-y|s2cid=213064026 }}</ref> It is a ] (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species.<ref name="V'kovskik:21">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=V'kovski P, Kratzel A, Steiner S, Stalder H, Thiel V |title=Coronavirus biology and replication: implications for SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=155–170 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33116300 |pmc=7592455 |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-00468-6}}</ref>


Human coronaviruses are capable of causing illnesses ranging from the ] to more severe diseases such as ] (MERS, fatality rate ≈34%). SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh known coronavirus to infect people, after ], ], ], ], ], and the original ].<ref name="NEJM-Novel">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, Niu P, Zhan F, Ma X, Wang D, Xu W, Wu G, Gao GF, Tan W |title=A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019 |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=382 |issue=8 |pages=727–733 |date=February 2020 |pmid=31978945 |pmc=7092803 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001017}}</ref>
Coronaviruses can survive and remain contagious on a metal, glass or plastic surface for up to nine days.<ref name="GunterTPS_9days_persistence" /> Methods to remove the virus from surfaces include ]s, 75% ], ], and ].<ref name=WHO2020Myth/>


=== Diagnosis ===
There is no evidence that pets such as dogs and cats can be infected.<ref name=WHO2020Myth>{{cite web |title=Myth busters |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/myth-busters |website=www.who.int |accessdate=8 February 2020}}</ref> The ] warned anyone travelling outside the city to not touch animals; to not eat ] meat; and to avoid visiting ]s, live poultry markets, and farms.<ref name=":7" />
{{Main|COVID-19#Diagnosis}}
] sets up the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing equipment, in September 2020]]
The standard method of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 is a ],<ref name="20200130cdc">{{#invoke:cite web||date=30 January 2020|title=2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Summary|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/summary.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126210549/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/summary.html|archive-date=26 January 2020|access-date=30 January 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)}}</ref> which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments.<ref name="WHO_InterimGuidance">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Laboratory testing for 2019-nCoV in humans |work=] (WHO) |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315044138/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance |archive-date=15 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited".<ref name="2k0iS">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bullard J, Dust K, Funk D, Strong JE, Alexander D, Garnett L, Boodman C, Bello A, Hedley A, Schiffman Z, Doan K, Bastien N, Li Y, Van Caeseele PG, Poliquin G | title = Predicting Infectious Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 From Diagnostic Samples | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 71 | issue = 10 | pages = 2663–2666 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 32442256 | pmc = 7314198 | doi = 10.1093/cid/ciaa638 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The test is typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a ]; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample may also be used.<ref name="CDC2020Testing">{{#invoke:cite web||date=11 February 2020|title=Interim Guidelines for Collecting, Handling, and Testing Clinical Specimens from Persons for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/guidelines-clinical-specimens.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304165907/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/lab/guidelines-clinical-specimens.html|archive-date=4 March 2020|access-date=26 March 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)}}</ref><ref name="20200129cdc">{{#invoke:cite web||date=29 January 2020|title=Real-Time RT-PCR Panel for Detection 2019-nCoV|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-detection-instructions.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130202031/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/rt-pcr-detection-instructions.html|archive-date=30 January 2020|access-date=1 February 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)}}</ref> The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Laboratory testing for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in suspected human cases|url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317023052/https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117|archive-date=17 March 2020|access-date=13 March 2020|website=] (WHO)}}</ref>


=== Hand washing === === Prevention ===
{{Further|COVID-19#Prevention|Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
] is recommended to prevent the spread of coronavirus. The CDC recommends that individuals:
]
Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include getting vaccinated, staying at home or spending more time outdoors, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, wearing a mask in public, ventilating indoor spaces, managing potential exposure durations, washing hands with soap and water often and for at least twenty seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.<ref name="cdc-prev">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html|date=26 January 2023 |publisher=U.S. ] (CDC) |access-date=3 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="who2023">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Advice for the public on COVID-19 |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public |website=World Health Organization |access-date=27 May 2023 }}</ref>


Those diagnosed with COVID-19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by healthcare authorities to stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal household items.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Isolation |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/isolation.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=27 May 2023 |date=11 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Infection prevention and control and preparedness for COVID-19 in healthcare settings – sixth update |url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/infection-prevention-and-control-and-preparedness-covid-19-healthcare-settings |website=www.ecdc.europa.eu |access-date=27 May 2023 |date=9 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=People with symptoms of a respiratory infection including COVID-19 |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/people-with-symptoms-of-a-respiratory-infection-including-covid-19 |website=GOV.UK |access-date=27 May 2023 |date=10 June 2022}}</ref>
* "Wash hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, especially after going to the bathroom; before eating; and after blowing your nose, coughing, or sneezing."
* "If soap and water are not readily available, use an alcohol-based ] with at least 60% alcohol. Always wash hands with soap and water if hands are visibly dirty."


==== Vaccines ====
The CDC, ], and WHO also advise individuals to avoid touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.<ref name="cdc21Jan2020" /><ref name="WHO-advice">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public|title=Advice for public|website=www.who.int|access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/coronavirus-public-information-campaign-launched-across-the-uk|title=Coronavirus public information campaign launched across the UK|website=GOV.UK|access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19 vaccine}}
{{See also|History of COVID-19 vaccine development|Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines}}
]]]
A COVID-19 ] is intended to provide ] against ] (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (]). Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, an established body of knowledge existed about the structure and function of ]es causing diseases like ] (SARS) and ] (MERS). This knowledge accelerated the development of various ]s during early 2020.<ref name="pmid33341119">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Li YD, Chi WY, Su JH, Ferrall L, Hung CF, Wu TC |date=December 2020 |title=Coronavirus vaccine development: from SARS and MERS to COVID-19 |journal=Journal of Biomedical Science |volume=27 |issue=1 |page=104 |doi=10.1186/s12929-020-00695-2 |pmc=7749790 |pmid=33341119|doi-access=free}}</ref> The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic and severe illness.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Subbarao K |date=July 2021 |title=The success of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and challenges ahead |journal=Cell Host & Microbe |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1111–1123 |doi=10.1016/j.chom.2021.06.016 |pmc=8279572 |pmid=34265245}}</ref> The COVID-19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the severity and death caused by COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/danvergano/mrna-covid-vaccine-success |title=COVID-19 Vaccines Work Way Better Than We Had Ever Expected. Scientists Are Still Figuring Out Why. |date=5 June 2021 | vauthors = Vergano D |website=] |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Mallapaty S, Callaway E, Kozlov M, Ledford H, Pickrell J, Van Noorden R | title = How COVID vaccines shaped 2021 in eight powerful charts | journal = Nature | volume = 600 | issue = 7890 | pages = 580–583 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34916666 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-03686-x | s2cid = 245262732 | bibcode = 2021Natur.600..580M }}</ref>


As of March 2023, more than 5.5&nbsp;billion people had received one or more doses<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Holder J |date=29 January 2021 |title=Tracking Coronavirus Vaccinations Around the World |work=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/world/covid-vaccinations-tracker.html |access-date=23 December 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> (11.8&nbsp;billion in total) in over 197 countries. The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine was the most widely used.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||author=The Visual and Data Journalism Team|title=Covid vaccines: How fast is progress around the world?|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-56237778|access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref> According to a June 2022 study, COVID-19 vaccines prevented an additional 14.4&nbsp;million to 19.8&nbsp;million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Watson OJ, Barnsley G, Toor J, Hogan AB, Winskill P, Ghani AC |date=June 2022 |title=Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling study |journal=] |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=1293–1302 |doi=10.1016/s1473-3099(22)00320-6 |pmc=9225255 |pmid=35753318 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||date=24 June 2022 |title=COVID-19 vaccines saved nearly 20 million lives in a year, study says |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-saved-nearly-20-million-lives-in-a-year-study-says/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629025146/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-saved-nearly-20-million-lives-in-a-year-study-says/ |archive-date=29 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=]}}</ref>
=== Respiratory hygiene ===
]. Masks are not recommended for people at low risk of infection.]]
Those who suspect they are infected should wear a ] (especially when in public) and call a doctor for medical advice.<ref name=":7">{{cite web |url=https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/features/102465.html |title=Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health – Severe Respiratory Disease associated with a Novel Infectious Agent |publisher=Government of Hong Kong |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{cite web |url=https://www.moh.gov.sg/2019-ncov-wuhan |title=Updates on Wuhan Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Local Situation |website=moh.gov.sg |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="who-mask-advices">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail/advice-on-the-use-of-masks-the-community-during-home-care-and-in-health-care-settings-in-the-context-of-the-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)-outbreak |title=Advice on the use of masks the community, during home care and in health care settings in the context of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak |website=who.int |access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref> By limiting the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, sneezing, and coughing, masks can serve a public health benefit in reducing transmission by those unknowingly infected.<ref name="nCoV: What the Public Should Do" />


On 8 November 2022, the first recombinant protein-based COVID-19 vaccine (Novavax's booster ]) was authorised for use in adults in the United Kingdom. It has subsequently received endorsement/authorisation from the WHO, US, European Union, and Australia.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hammershaimb EA, Tapia MD |title=Can protein vaccines for COVID-19 win over the vaccine-hesitant? |journal=Expert Review of Vaccines |date=31 December 2023 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=210–212 |doi=10.1080/14760584.2023.2182293 |pmid=36803364 |s2cid=257069394 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14760584.2023.2182293 |access-date=27 May 2023 |issn=1476-0584}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Parums DV |title=Editorial: First Approval of the Protein-Based Adjuvanted Nuvaxovid (NVX-CoV2373) Novavax Vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 Could Increase Vaccine Uptake and Provide Immune Protection from Viral Variants. |journal=Medical Science Monitor |date=1 March 2022 |volume=28 |pages=e936523 |doi=10.12659/MSM.936523 |pmid=35228506 |pmc=8897963 }}</ref>
If a mask is not available, anyone experiencing respiratory symptoms should cover a cough or sneeze with a tissue, promptly discard it in the trash, and wash their hands. If a tissue is unavailable, individuals can cover their mouth or nose with a flexed elbow.<ref name="WHO-advice"/>


On 12 November 2022, the WHO released its Global Vaccine Market Report. The report indicated that "inequitable distribution is not unique to COVID-19 vaccines"; countries that are not economically strong struggle to obtain vaccines.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=WHO releases first data on global vaccine market since COVID-19 |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/09-11-2022-who-releases-first-data-on-global-vaccine-market-since-covid-19 |website=www.who.int |access-date=12 November 2022 }}</ref>
Masks are also recommended for those taking care of someone who may have the disease.<ref name="who-mask-advices" /> Rinsing the nose, gargling with mouthwash, and eating garlic are not effective.<ref name=WHO2020Myth/>


On 14 November 2022, the first inhalable vaccine was introduced, developed by Chinese biopharmaceutical company ], in the city of Shanghai, China.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Graham F |title=Daily briefing: China reports first roll-out of inhalable COVID-19 vaccine |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-03548-0 |access-date=27 May 2023 |journal=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature |date=1 November 2022 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-03548-0}}</ref>
There is no evidence to show that masks protect uninfected persons at low risk and wearing them may create a false sense of security.<ref name="who-mask-advices" /> Surgical masks are widely used by healthy people in Hong Kong,<ref name="scmp3048492">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3048492/residents-clamour-surgical-masks-coronavirus-hit-hong |title=As Hongkongers clamour for surgical masks, 25,000 stolen from warehouse |date=31 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> Japan,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Takahashi |first=Ryusei |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/31/national/coronavirus-japan-surgical-masks/ |title=Amid virus outbreak, Japan stores scramble to meet demand for face masks |work=Japan Times |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> Singapore<ref name="20200131straitstimes">{{cite web |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/askst/wuhan-virus-who-needs-to-wear-a-mask-and-whats-the-proper-way-to-wear-it |title=Wuhan virus: Who needs to wear a mask and what's the proper way to wear it? |last=munsan |date=31 January 2020 |website=The Straits Times |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.sg/photos-and-videos-show-insane-queues-for-masks-in-singapore-shanghai-and-hong-kong-which-netizens-say-are-all-sold-out/ |title=These 12 Twitter posts show the insane queues for masks in Singapore, Shanghai and Hong Kong, which are all sold out, Business Insider – Business Insider Singapore |last=Chia |first=Rachel Genevieve |website=businessinsider.sg |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> and Malaysia.<ref name="nst561250">{{Cite news |last=Harun |first=Hana Naz |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2020/01/561250/demand-face-masks-hand-sanitisers-soars |title=Demand for face masks, hand sanitisers soars |date=31 January 2020 |work=New Straits Times |access-date=1 February 2020 |last2=Teh |first2=Athira Yusof |last3=Solhi |first3=Farah}}</ref> Surgical masks are not recommended by the CDC as a preventive measure for the American general public.<ref name="nCoV: What the Public Should Do">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/what-you-should-do.html|title=2019-nCoV: What the Public Should Do|date=4 February 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)|access-date=5 February 2020}}</ref>


=== Treatment ===
The WHO advises the following best practices for mask usage:<ref name="who-mask-advices" />
{{Main|Treatment and management of COVID-19}}
] in July 2020. Due to a shortage of mechanical ventilators, a ] is being used to automatically actuate a ]]]
For the first two years of the pandemic, no specific and effective treatment or cure was available.<ref name="BMJLivingReview">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Siemieniuk RA, Bartoszko JJ, Ge L, Zeraatkar D, Izcovich A, Kum E, Pardo-Hernandez H, Qasim A, Martinez JP, Rochwerg B, Lamontagne F, Han MA, Liu Q, Agarwal A, Agoritsas T, Chu DK, Couban R, Cusano E, Darzi A, Devji T, Fang B, Fang C, Flottorp SA, Foroutan F, Ghadimi M, Heels-Ansdell D, Honarmand K, Hou L, Hou X, Ibrahim Q, Khamis A, Lam B, Loeb M, Marcucci M, McLeod SL, Motaghi S, Murthy S, Mustafa RA, Neary JD, Rada G, Riaz IB, Sadeghirad B, Sekercioglu N, Sheng L, Sreekanta A, Switzer C, Tendal B, Thabane L, Tomlinson G, Turner T, Vandvik PO, Vernooij RW, Viteri-García A, Wang Y, Yao L, Ye Z, Guyatt GH, Brignardello-Petersen R | title = Drug treatments for covid-19: living systematic review and network meta-analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 370 | pages = m2980 | date = 31 March 2021 | pmid = 32732190 | pmc = 7390912 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m2980 }}</ref><ref name="cdcmuseum">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=CDC Museum COVID-19 Timeline |url=https://www.cdc.gov/museum/timeline/covid19.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=27 May 2023 |date=15 March 2023}}</ref> In 2021, the European Medicines Agency's (EMA) Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) approved the oral antiviral ], ] (nirmatrelvir plus the HIV antiviral ]), to treat adult patients.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=17 December 2021|title=EMA CHMP advises use of Pfizer's Covid-19 oral antiviral Paxlovid|url=https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/news/ema-chmp-pfizer-paxlovid/|url-status=live|access-date=18 December 2021|newspaper=Pharmaceutical Technology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218175759/https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/news/ema-chmp-pfizer-paxlovid/ |archive-date=18 December 2021 | vauthors = Priyan V }}</ref> FDA later gave it an EUA.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Paxlovid LOA 12222021 {{!}} FDA|url=https://www.fda.gov/media/155049|access-date=23 December 2021|website=www.fda.gov}}</ref>


Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such as ] or ]s to relieve symptoms (fever,<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Islam MA, Kundu S, Alam SS, Hossan T, Kamal MA, Hassan R | title = Prevalence and characteristics of fever in adult and paediatric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A systematic review and meta-analysis of 17515 patients | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = e0249788 | date = 6 April 2021 | pmid = 33822812 | pmc = 8023501 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0249788 | s2cid = 233173405 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2021PLoSO..1649788I }}</ref> body aches, cough), adequate intake of oral fluids and rest.<ref name="cdcmuseum" /><ref>Multiple sources:
* Place mask carefully to cover mouth and nose and tie securely to minimise any gaps between the face and the mask; While in use, avoid touching the mask;
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wang Y, Wang Y, Chen Y, Qin Q | title = Unique epidemiological and clinical features of the emerging 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) implicate special control measures | journal = Journal of Medical Virology | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 568–576 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32134116 | pmc = 7228347 | doi = 10.1002/jmv.25748 | doi-access = free }}
* Remove the mask by using appropriate technique (i.e. do not touch the front but remove the lace from behind);
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Martel J, Ko YF, Young JD, Ojcius DM | title = Could nasal nitric oxide help to mitigate the severity of COVID-19? | journal = Microbes and Infection | volume = 22 | issue = 4–5 | pages = 168–171 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32387333 | pmc = 7200356 | doi = 10.1016/j.micinf.2020.05.002 }}
* After removal or whenever you inadvertently touch a used mask, clean hands by using an alcohol-based hand rub or soap and water if visibly soiled
* {{#invoke:cite news || title=Coronavirus recovery: breathing exercises|url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/coronavirus-recovery-breathing-exercises|access-date=30 July 2020|website=hopkinsmedicine.org|publisher=Johns Hopkins Medicine}}</ref> Good personal hygiene and a ] are also recommended.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Wang L, Wang Y, Ye D, Liu Q | title = Review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) based on current evidence | journal = International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | volume = 55 | issue = 6 | page = 105948 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32201353 | pmc = 7156162 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105948 }}</ref>
* Replace masks with a new clean, dry mask as soon as they become damp/humid;
* Do not re-use single-use masks; Discard single-use masks after each use and dispose of them immediately upon removal


] in severe cases includes treatment to ]s, ], ] and ], and medications or devices to support other affected vital organs.<ref>Multiple sources:
Healthcare professionals interacting directly with people who have the disease are advised to use ] at least as protective as ]-certified ], EU standard FFP2, or equivalent, in addition to other ].<ref name="who-mask-advices" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/infection-control.html|title=Infection Control: Novel Coronavirus 2019 (2019-nCoV) |date=6 February 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)|access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref>
* {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Fisher D, Heymann D|date=February 2020|title=Q&A: The novel coronavirus outbreak causing COVID-19|journal=BMC Medicine|volume=18|issue=1|page=57|doi=10.1186/s12916-020-01533-w|pmc=7047369|pmid=32106852|doi-access=free}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Liu K, Fang YY, Deng Y, Liu W, Wang MF, Ma JP, Xiao W, Wang YN, Zhong MH, Li CH, Li GC, Liu HG|date=May 2020|title=Clinical characteristics of novel coronavirus cases in tertiary hospitals in Hubei Province|journal=Chinese Medical Journal|volume=133|issue=9|pages=1025–1031|doi=10.1097/CM9.0000000000000744|pmc=7147277|pmid=32044814|doi-access=free}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Wang T, Du Z, Zhu F, Cao Z, An Y, Gao Y, Jiang B|date=March 2020|title=Comorbidities and multi-organ injuries in the treatment of COVID-19|journal=Lancet|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=395|issue=10228|pages=e52|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30558-4|pmc=7270177|pmid=32171074|doi-access=free}}</ref> More severe cases may need treatment in hospital. In those with low oxygen levels, use of the glucocorticoid ] is recommended to reduce mortality.<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = | title = Update to living WHO guideline on drugs for covid-19 | journal = BMJ | volume = 371 | pages = m4475 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33214213 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m4475 | s2cid = 227059995 | doi-access = free }}
* {{#invoke:cite web || title=Q&A: Dexamethasone and COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-dexamethasone-and-covid-19|access-date=11 July 2020|publisher=World Health Organization}}
* {{#invoke:cite web || title=Home|url=https://covid19evidence.net.au/|access-date=11 July 2020|website=]}}</ref> ] and, ultimately, admission to an ] for ] may be required to support breathing.<ref name="NIHGuidelines2020">{{#invoke:cite web || title=COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines|url=https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/|access-date=18 January 2021|website=nih.gov|publisher=National Institutes of Health}}</ref> ] (ECMO) has been used to address the issue of respiratory failure.<ref name="Guan Ni Hu Liang p.">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, Liu L, Shan H, Lei CL, Hui DS, Du B, Li LJ, Zeng G, Yuen KY, Chen RC, Tang CL, Wang T, Chen PY, Xiang J, Li SY, Wang JL, Liang ZJ, Peng YX, Wei L, Liu Y, Hu YH, Peng P, Wang JM, Liu JY, Chen Z, Li G, Zheng ZJ, Qiu SQ, Luo J, Ye CJ, Zhu SY, Zhong NS | title = Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 382 | issue = 18 | pages = 1708–1720 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32109013 | pmc = 7092819 | doi = 10.1056/nejmoa2002032 | publisher = Massachusetts Medical Society | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Henry 2020 p.">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Henry BM | title = COVID-19, ECMO, and lymphopenia: a word of caution | journal = The Lancet. Respiratory Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = e24 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32178774 | pmc = 7118650 | doi = 10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30119-3 | publisher = Elsevier BV }}</ref>


Existing drugs such as ], ], and ] are not recommended by US or European health authorities, as there is no good evidence they have any useful effect.<ref name="BMJLivingReview" /><ref name="Kim Read Fauci p=2149">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kim PS, Read SW, Fauci AS | title = Therapy for Early COVID-19: A Critical Need | journal = JAMA | volume = 324 | issue = 21 | pages = 2149–2150 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33175121 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.22813 | publisher = American Medical Association (AMA) | s2cid = 226301949 | doi-access = free | author-link3 = Anthony Fauci }}</ref><ref name="NIHGuidelinesTherapeuticManagement">{{#invoke:cite web || title=COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines|url=https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/therapeutic-management|access-date=18 January 2021|website=nih.gov|publisher=National Institutes of Health}}/</ref> The antiviral ] is available in the US, Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions; however, it is not recommended for use with mechanical ventilation, and is discouraged altogether by the WHO,<ref name="Hsu p=m4457">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hsu J | title = Covid-19: What now for remdesivir? | journal = BMJ | volume = 371 | pages = m4457 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33214186 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m4457 | s2cid = 227060756 | doi-access = free }}</ref> due to limited evidence of its efficacy.<ref name="BMJLivingReview" />
=== Quarantines ===
{{2020 coronavirus quarantines}}
{{Main|2020 Hubei lockdowns}}
On 23 January 2020, a ] on ] of Wuhan was imposed in an effort to stop the spread of the virus out of Wuhan. Flights, trains, public buses, the metro system, and long-distance coaches were suspended indefinitely. Large-scale gatherings and group tours were also suspended.<ref name="channelnewsasia12306684">{{Cite news |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/wuhan-virus-quarantine-city-flights-trains-china-12306684 |title=China halts flights and trains out of Wuhan as WHO extends talks |date=23 January 2020 |access-date=23 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200123054228/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/wuhan-virus-quarantine-city-flights-trains-china-12306684 |archive-date=23 January 2020 |publisher=Channel NewsAsia}}</ref> By 24 January 2020, a total of 15 cities in Hubei, including Wuhan, were placed under similar quarantine measures.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url= https://www.dw.com/zh/武汉肺炎病毒持续扩散-湖北下令封15个城市/a-52132769 |title=Archived copy |date=24 January 2020 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |location=Germany |language=zh-hans |script-title=zh:武汉肺炎病毒持续扩散 湖北下令封15个城市 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200124234427/https://www.dw.com/zh/武汉肺炎病毒持续扩散-湖北下令封15个城市/a-52132769 |archive-date=24 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref> On 27 and 28 January 2020, ] closed its railway stations and suspended all ferry operations, after shutting down its airport and intercity bus services earlier. Thus, the entire Hubei province entered a city-by-city quarantine, save for the ].{{Citation needed|date=February 2020}}


=== Prognosis ===
Before the quarantine began, some in Wuhan questioned the reliability of the figures from the Chinese government as well as the government response, with some calling for quarantine,<ref name="bbc51205074">{{Cite news |last=Coleman |first=Alistair |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51205074 |title=Chinese social media users worry over virus |date=22 January 2020 |publisher=] |last2=Allen |first2=Kerry}}</ref> and a post also showed sick people and three dead bodies covered in white sheets on the floor of a hospital on 24 January, although many such posts in Weibo about the epidemic have since been deleted.<ref name="20200128nytimes">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/28/business/china-coronavirus-communist-party.html |title=Coronavirus Crisis Exposes Cracks in China's Facade of Unity |date=28 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129015445/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/28/business/china-coronavirus-communist-party.html |archive-date=29 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200126telegraph">{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Nicola |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/01/24/coronavirus-fears-rise-chinese-cover-up-40-million-lockdown/ |title=Coronavirus: Fears rise of Chinese cover-up as 56 million in lockdown and hospitals overwhelmed |date=26 January 2020 |work=The Telegraph |last2=Newey |first2=Sarah}}</ref>
{{Further|COVID-19#Prognosis| Long COVID}}
The severity of COVID-19 varies. It may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the ]. In 3–4% of cases (7.4% for those over age 65) symptoms are severe enough to cause hospitalisation.<ref name="pmid33087398">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Doshi P | title = Will covid-19 vaccines save lives? Current trials aren't designed to tell us | journal = BMJ | volume = 371 | pages = m4037 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 33087398 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m4037 | s2cid = 224817161 }}</ref> Mild cases typically recover within two weeks, while those with severe or critical diseases may take three to six weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from symptom onset to death has ranged from two to eight weeks. Prolonged ] time and elevated ] levels on admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID-19 and with a transfer to ]s (ICU).<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Baranovskii DS, Klabukov ID, Krasilnikova OA, Nikogosov DA, Polekhina NV, Baranovskaia DR, Laberko LA |title=Prolonged prothrombin time as an early prognostic indicator of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with COVID-19 related pneumonia. |journal=Current Medical Research and Opinion |date=January 2021 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=21–25 |doi=10.1080/03007995.2020.1853510 |pmid=33210948 |pmc=7738209 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Christensen B, Favaloro EJ, Lippi G, Van Cott EM | title = Hematology Laboratory Abnormalities in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | journal = Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis | volume = 46 | issue = 7 | pages = 845–849 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32877961 | pmc = 7645834 | doi = 10.1055/s-0040-1715458 }}</ref>


Between 5% and 50% of COVID-19 patients experience ],<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Ledford H |date=June 2022 |title=How common is long COVID? Why studies give different answers |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01702-2 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=606 |issue=7916 |pages=852–853 |bibcode=2022Natur.606..852L |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-01702-2 |pmid=35725828 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008182108/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01702-2 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |s2cid=249887289}}</ref> a condition characterised by long-term ]s persisting after the typical convalescence period of the disease.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Post-COVID Conditions |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/ |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=28 May 2024 |language=en-us |date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=6 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506182316/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||date=12 May 2022 |title=Researching long COVID: addressing a new global health challenge |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/themedreview/researching-long-covid-addressing-a-new-global-health-challenge/ |journal=NIHR Evidence |doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_50331 |s2cid=249942230}}</ref> The most commonly reported clinical presentations are ] and memory problems, as well as ], headaches, ], loss of smell, ], low fever and ].<ref name="ref1">{{#invoke:cite journal ||title=Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 |website=www.ecdc.europa.eu |date=10 June 2020 |url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/covid-19/latest-evidence/clinical |access-date=26 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Leviner S |date=7 May 2021 |title=Recognizing the Clinical Sequelae of COVID-19 in Adults: COVID-19 Long-Haulers |journal=The Journal for Nurse Practitioners |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=946–949 |doi=10.1016/j.nurpra.2021.05.003 |issn=1555-4155 |pmc=8103144 |pmid=33976591}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Nearly half of people infected with COVID-19 experienced some 'long COVID' symptoms, study finds |work=] |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-04-people-infected-covid-experienced-covid.html |access-date=15 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chen C, Haupert SR, Zimmermann L, Shi X, Fritsche LG, Mukherjee B |date=16 April 2022 |title=Global Prevalence of Post COVID-19 Condition or Long COVID: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review |journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=226 |issue=9 |pages=1593–1607 |doi=10.1093/infdis/jiac136 |pmc=9047189 |pmid=35429399}}</ref>
Due to quarantine measures, Wuhan residents rushed to stockpile essential goods, food, and fuel; prices rose significantly.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baker |first=Sinéad |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/wuhan-china-coronoavirus-city-sealed-cut-off-stockpile-food-2020-1 |title=Residents left in Wuhan – which China quarantined to stop the coronavirus – are desperately stockpiling food and fuel, leaving empty shelves and prices skyrocketing |access-date=24 January 2020 |website=Business Insider}}</ref><ref name="20200123reuters">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-wuhan-idUSKBN1ZM0JT |title=Residents of China's Wuhan rush to stock up as transport links severed |date=23 January 2020 |access-date=24 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124223111/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-wuhan-idUSKBN1ZM0JT |archive-date=24 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5609817 |website=澎湃新闻-The Paper |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:武汉一线 |trans-title=Wuhan First-line: Rising vegetable prices, napa cabbages 35 CNY each |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200123101757/https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5609817 |archive-date=23 January 2020 |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref> 5,000,000 people left Wuhan, with 9,000,000 left in the city.<ref name="abc11902378">{{Cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-27/coronavirus-strengthening-spread-infectious-during-incubation/11902378 |title=China warns coronavirus strengthening as Lunar New Year holiday extended three more days to discourage travel |date=27 January 2020 |work=ABC News |access-date=27 January 2020 |publisher=]}}</ref>


== Strategies ==
On 26 January, the city of ] in ] declared a partial lockdown,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/china-imposes-first-partial-lockdown-in-city-outside-virus-epicentre |title=Wuhan virus: China imposes partial lockdown in Shantou, the first city to face measure outside virus epicentre |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126065615/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/china-imposes-first-partial-lockdown-in-city-outside-virus-epicentre |archive-date=26 January 2020 |website=The Straits Times}}</ref> though this was reversed two hours later.<ref name="20200126reuters">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-shantou/chinas-shantou-city-will-not-ban-cars-ships-people-from-entering-state-media-reports-idUSKBN1ZP061 |title=China's Shantou city will not ban cars, ships, people from entering, state media reports |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126084712/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-shantou/chinas-shantou-city-will-not-ban-cars-ships-people-from-entering-state-media-reports-idUSKBN1ZP061 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref> Residents had rushed to supermarkets to stock food as soon as the lockdown was declared, until the authorities reversed their decision. '']'' said, that the wording of Shantou's initial declaration was "unprecedentedly strict" and will severely affect residents' lives, if implemented as-is. Shantou's Department for Outbreak Control later clarified, that they will not restrict travelling, and all they would do, is to sterilise vehicles used for transportation.<ref name="caixin101508610">{{Cite news |last=Zheng |first=Lichun |url=http://china.caixin.com/2020-01-26/101508610.html |date=26 January 2020 |work=Caixin |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126205951/http://china.caixin.com/2020-01-26/101508610.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:广东汕头撤回交通管制通告 市民一度抢购物资 |trans-title=Shantou, Guangdong's announcement on traffic restrictions was reversed; residents rushed to stockpile food and supplies for a while}}</ref>
{{Main|Public health mitigation of COVID-19}}
]'') and lessening overall cases and health impact.<ref name="Lancet2020Flatten" /><ref name="RnW59" /> Moreover, progressively greater increases in healthcare capacity ('']'') such as by increasing bed count, personnel, and equipment, help to meet increased demand<ref name="Vox_20200407">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Barclay E, Scott D, Animashaun A |title=The US doesn't just need to flatten the curve. It needs to "raise the line." |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/4/7/21201260/coronavirus-usa-chart-mask-shortage-ventilators-flatten-the-curve |work=Vox |date=7 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407155950/https://www.vox.com/2020/4/7/21201260/coronavirus-usa-chart-mask-shortage-ventilators-flatten-the-curve |archive-date=7 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Many countries attempted to slow or stop the spread of COVID-19 by recommending, mandating or prohibiting behaviour changes, while others relied primarily on providing information. Measures ranged from public advisories to stringent lockdowns. Outbreak control strategies are divided into elimination and mitigation. Experts differentiate between elimination strategies (known as "]") that aim to completely stop the spread of the virus within the community,<ref name=Barcelona >Anna Llupià, Rodríguez-Giralt, Anna Fité, Lola Álamo, Laura de la Torre, Ana Redondo, Mar Callau and Caterina Guinovart (2020) '''', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103205923/https://www.isglobal.org/documents/10179/7943094/26_ISGlobal+COVID19+y+COVIDCero+o+Maxima+Supresion+EN/0a4e83bb-6257-4f5d-8960-16c323b464b2 |date=3 January 2022 }}, Barcelona Institute for Global Health – COVID-19 & response strategy. "''The strategy of control and maximum suppression (zero-COVID) has been implemented successfully in a number of countries. The objective of this strategy is to keep transmission of the virus as close to zero as possible and ultimately to eliminate it entirely from particular geographical areas. The strategy aims to increase the capacity to identify and trace chains of transmission and to identify and manage outbreaks, while also integrating economic, psychological, social and healthcare support to guarantee the isolation of cases and contacts. This approach is also known as "Find, Test, Trace, Isolate and Support" (FTTIS)''"</ref> and mitigation strategies (commonly known as "]") that attempt to lessen the effects of the virus on society, but which still tolerate some level of transmission within the community.<ref name=Livermore >{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Livermore D |author-link=David Livermore (microbiologist)|url=https://www.hartgroup.org/zero-covid-an-impossible-dream/|title='Zero Covid' – an impossible dream|date=28 March 2021|publisher=HART – Health Advisory & Recovery Team|access-date=2 January 2022|archive-date=2 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102070601/https://www.hartgroup.org/zero-covid-an-impossible-dream/|url-status=live}}</ref> These initial strategies can be pursued sequentially or simultaneously during the ] through natural and ].<ref name="Bhopal2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bhopal RS | title = To achieve "zero covid" we need to include the controlled, careful acquisition of population (herd) immunity | journal = BMJ | volume = 370 | pages = m3487 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32907816 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m3487 | s2cid = 221538577 | url = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/164492854/To_achieve_zero_covid_.pdf | eissn = 1756-1833 }}</ref>


''Nature'' reported in 2021 that 90% of researchers who responded to a survey "think that the coronavirus will become ]".<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Phillips N | title = The coronavirus is here to stay – here's what that means | journal = Nature | volume = 590 | issue = 7846 | pages = 382–384 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33594289 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-00396-2 | s2cid = 231945680 | bibcode = 2021Natur.590..382P }}</ref>
<!-- "Expressway" and "highway" are official terms that should NOT be changed into corresponding British English wordings. • Beijing's underground transport is called a "subway", while ALL other Chinese cities' underground transport is called "metro". -->Local authorities in Beijing and several other major cities, including ], ], Shanghai, and ], announced on 26 January, that these cities will not impose a lockdown similar to those in Hubei province. Rumours of these potential lockdowns had spread widely prior to the official announcements.<ref name="bjnews680010">{{Cite news |last=Ying |first=Rui |url=http://www.bjnews.com.cn/news/2020/01/27/680010.html |date=27 January 2020 |work=The Beijing News |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126174754/http://www.bjnews.com.cn/news/2020/01/27/680010.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:北京、深圳、广州、南京，这些城市官宣"不封城" |trans-title=Beijing, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Nanjing – these cities officially announced they "will not lock down"}}</ref> A spokesperson of Beijing's Municipal Transportation Commission claimed, that the ] and ], as well as ] and buses were operating normally. To ease the residents' panic, the Hangzhou city government stressed that the city would not be locked down from the outside world, and both cities said that they would introduce precautions against potential risks.<ref name="chinadaily310128217273520">{{Cite news |last=Ma |first=Zhenhuan |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/26/WS5e2d598ea310128217273520.html |title=Authorities say no imminent lockdown of Beijing |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126184741/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/26/WS5e2d598ea310128217273520.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=China daily |location=People's Republic of China}}</ref>


=== Containment ===
On 2 February 2020, the city of ] in ] province also implemented a partial lockdown, closing 46 of the 54 highway checkpoints.<ref name="20200202wenzhou">{{cite web |url=http://www.wenzhou.gov.cn/art/2020/2/2/art_1219304_41867473.html |date=2 February 2020 |publisher=Wenzhou People's Government |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:温州市新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情防控工作领导小组通告(第7号) |access-date=3 February 2020}}</ref>
{{further|Zero-COVID}}
Containment is undertaken to stop an outbreak from spreading into the general population. Infected individuals are isolated while they are infectious. The people they have interacted with are contacted and isolated for long enough to ensure that they are either not infected or no longer contagious. Screening is the starting point for containment. Screening is done by checking for symptoms to identify infected individuals, who can then be isolated or offered treatment.<ref name="f4SpW">{{#invoke:cite news||title=Fever Screening|url=https://intellisec.co.za/fever-screening/|website=IntelliSEC &#124; Durban, Johannesburg, Cape Town}}</ref> The zero-COVID strategy involves using public health measures such as ], ], ], ]s, and ] to stop ] of COVID-19 as soon as it is detected, with the goal of getting the area back to zero detected infections and resuming normal economic and social activities.<ref name=Barcelona /><ref name="Lancet-Li-2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li Z, Chen Q, Feng L, Rodewald L, Xia Y, Yu H, Zhang R, An Z, Yin W, Chen W, Qin Y, Peng Z, Zhang T, Ni D, Cui J, Wang Q, Yang X, Zhang M, Ren X, Wu D, Sun X, Li Y, Zhou L, Qi X, Song T, Gao GF, Feng Z | title = Active case finding with case management: the key to tackling the COVID-19 pandemic | journal = Lancet | volume = 396 | issue = 10243 | pages = 63–70 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32505220 | pmc = 7272157 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31278-2 }}</ref> Successful containment or suppression reduces ] to less than 1.<ref name="ImpCollege16mar2020" />


=== Mitigation ===
On 4 February 2020, two more cities in Zhejiang province restricted the movement of residents. The city of ], three Hangzhou districts, and some in ] began to only allow one person per household to go outside every two days to buy necessities, city officials said. More than 12 million people are affected by the new restrictions.<ref name="ChannelNewsAsia">{{Cite news |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/hangzhou-and-taizhou-cities-far-from-virus-epicentre-implement-12388714 |title=Hangzhou and Taizhou, cities far from virus epicentre, implement travel restrictions |work=Channel News Asia |access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref>
{{further|Flattening the curve}}
Should containment fail, efforts focus on mitigation: measures taken to slow the spread and limit its effects on the healthcare system and society.
Successful mitigation delays and decreases the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the ]".<ref name="Lancet2020Flatten" /> This decreases the risk of overwhelming health services and provides more time for developing vaccines and treatments.<ref name="Lancet2020Flatten" /> Individual behaviour changed in many jurisdictions. Many people worked from home instead of at their traditional workplaces.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || author = US Census Bureau |title=Those Who Switched to Telework Have Higher Income, Education and Better Health |url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/03/working-from-home-during-the-pandemic.html |website=Census.gov |access-date=25 December 2021}}</ref>


==== Non-pharmaceutical interventions ====
By 6 February 2020, a total of four Zhejiang cities—Wenzhou, Hangzhou, Ningbo, and Taizhou—were under the "passport" system, allowing only one person per household to leave their home every two days. These restrictions apply to over 30 million people.<ref name="SCMP 20200206" />
]) reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2]]
]s that may reduce spread include personal actions such as wearing ]s, self-quarantine, and ]; community measures aimed at reducing interpersonal contacts such as closing workplaces and schools and cancelling large gatherings; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such as surface cleaning.<ref name="community mitigation" />


==== Other measures ====
Outside Mainland China, some ] were quarantined after passengers developed symptoms or tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. The '']'' was quarantined on 30 January off ] in Italy, after passengers developed flu-like symptoms – the quarantine was lifted when tests for the virus came back negative.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/30/asia/wuhan-coronavirus-update-china-spread-intl-hnk/index.html |title=7,000 held on cruise ship in Italy as global fears spread over coronavirus |first1=James |last1=Griffiths |first2=Angela |last2=Dewan |website=] |access-date=30 January 2020 |first3=Gianluca |last3=Mezzofiore |first4=Livia |last4=Borghese |first5=Ivana |last5=Kottasová}}</ref> Two further ships were quarantined on 5 February: '']'' in the ], Japan and '']'', which returned to Hong Kong after being refused entry to ], Taiwan. In both cases, passengers and crew tested positive.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McCurry |first=Justin |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/05/coronavirus-cruise-ship-carrying-3700-quarantined-in-japan-after-10-test-positive |title=Coronavirus: cruise ship carrying 3,700 quarantined in Japan after 10 test positive |date=5 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |last2=Ratcliffe |first2=Rebecca}}</ref><ref name="cnbcWD">{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/02/05/coronavirus-almost-2000-passengers-held-on-cruise-ship-in-hong-kong.html |title=Almost 2,000 passengers held on cruise ship in Hong Kong amid coronavirus scare |date=5 February 2020 |website=CNBC |access-date=5 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Passengers quarantined on cruise ship are desperate to escape coronavirus that infected 64 fellow travelers | website=] | date=7 February 2020 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/honeymooner-among-61-people-on-cruise-ship-confirmed-as-having-coronavirus/2020/02/07/30a980b4-4961-11ea-8a1f-de1597be6cbc_story.html | access-date=7 February 2020 |first1=Simon |last1=Denyer |first2=Siobhán |last2=O'Grady}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last1=Denyer | first1=Simon | last2=Brulliard | first2=Karin | last3=Taylor | first3=Adam | last4=Iati | first4=Marisa | title=Another 41 people test positive for coronavirus on quarantined cruise ship in Japan, health minister says | website=] | date=6 February 2020 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/coronavirus-china-live-updates/2020/02/06/104d0532-4869-11ea-8124-0ca81effcdfb_story.html | access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> On 10 February passengers were allowed to disembark the ''World Dream'' "without the need to self-quarantine after leaving."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51433079|date=10 February 2020|work=BBC News|title=Coronavirus: Thousands on cruise ship allowed to disembark after tests|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref> The ''Diamond Princess'' remains quaratined with 136 confirmed cases as of 10 February.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/02/10/national/japan-test-all-passengers-diamond-princess-cruise-ship-coronavirus/|date=10 February 2020|accessdate=10 February 2020|newspaper=Japan Times|title=Infection tally on Diamond Princess hits 130 as Japan mulls testing all passengers}}</ref> In addition, although not quarantined the ] has been ] by several ports after departing Hong Kong on 1 February.
More drastic actions, such as quarantining entire populations and strict travel bans have been attempted in various jurisdictions.<ref name="RwmYm" /> The ] and ]es have included many lockdowns and are widely considered the most strict. The ] included the most severe travel restrictions. As part of its ] program, South Korea introduced mass screening and localised quarantines, and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. The ] included so-called "]s" and financial support for those affected while also imposing large fines for those who broke quarantine.<ref name="shZdf" />
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Citizens of Wuhan lining up outside of a drug store to buy masks during the Wuhan coronavirus outbreak.jpg|People queueing outside a Wuhan pharmacy to buy face masks and medical supplies
File:Wuhan citizens rush to buy vegetables during Wuhan coronavirus outbreak.jpg|Residents of Wuhan wearing masks rushed out to nearby markets to buy vegetables and other food on 23 January during the outbreak
File:Last train of Wuhan metro before authorities lock down the city for the Wuhan coronavirus outbreak.jpg|Residents of Wuhan waiting for the last train of the city's metro on 10&nbsp;am, 22 January
</gallery>


=== Outdoor restrictions === ==== Contact tracing ====
{{See also|Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation|Public health mitigation of COVID-19#Information technology}}
On 1 February, ], Hubei implemented a measure whereby only one person from each household is permitted to go outside for provisions once every two days, except for medical reasons or to work at shops or pharmacies.<ref name=":20" /> Many cities, districts, and counties across mainland China implemented similar measures in the days following, including ], ], ], ], and the whole of ] Province.
] attempts to identify recent contacts of newly infected individuals, and to screen them for infection; the traditional approach is to request a list of contacts from infectees, and then telephone or visit the contacts.<ref name="web" /> Contact tracing was widely used during the ] in 2014.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Webb G, Browne C, Huo X, Seydi O, Seydi M, Magal P |title=A model of the 2014 ebola epidemic in west Africa with contact tracing |journal=PLOS Currents |date=30 January 2015 |volume=7 |pages=ecurrents.outbreaks.846b2a31ef37018b7d1126a9c8adf22a | doi = 10.1371/currents.outbreaks.846b2a31ef37018b7d1126a9c8adf22a | doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024 | doi-access = free |url=https://currents.plos.org/outbreaks/article/a-model-of-the-2014-ebola-epidemic-in-west-africa-with-contact-tracing-2/ |pmid=25685636 |pmc=4323422 |issn=2157-3999}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed sortable" style="font-size:10pt;text-align:right;"
|+class="nowrap" | '''Chinese administrative divisions with family outdoor restrictions'''
!Administrative<br />division
!Division<br />type
!Provincial<br />division
!Start date
!End date
!data-sort-type=number |Ordinary<br />population
!Population<br />year
!Notes
|-
|]<ref name=":20">{{cite web |url=http://news.jznews.com.cn/system/2020/02/02/011980880.shtml |title=湖北黄冈：每户家庭每两天可指派1人上街采购无关人员不得外出 |date=2 February 2020 |website=jznews.com.cn |url-status=live |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Hubei
|2020-02-01
|
|6,162,069
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guancha.cn/politics/2020_02_02_534119.shtml?s=zwyxgtjdt |title=浙江温州严控居民出行：每家每两天可指派1人出门采购 |website=www.guancha.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Zhejiang
|2020-02-02
|2020-02-08
|9,190,000
|2017
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.sina.com.cn/c/2020-02-02/doc-iimxyqvy9678941.shtml |title=浙江温岭出行管控：每户每两天可派1人出门采购 |last=政府网站 |date=2 February 2020 |website=news.sina.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Zhejiang
|2020-02-02
|
|1,366,800
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fcg.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20200202/newgx5e36d2ac-19227194.shtml |title=防城港：每家每两天可派一人出门采购 |website=gxnews.com.cn |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Guangxi
|2020-02-02
|2020-02-08
|860,100
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20200203/newgx5e37606f-19227562-2.shtml |title=广西3城市下文:每户家庭每两天可派1人出门采购！ |website=gxnews.com.cn |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Guangxi
|2020-02-02
|
|1,562,200<br />(Urban only)
|2010
|Urban districts only
|-
|],<ref name="auto6">{{cite web |url=http://www.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20200203/newgx5e37606f-19227562-3.shtml |title=广西3城市下文:每户家庭每两天可派1人出门采购！ |website=gxnews.com.cn |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> ]
|District
|Guangxi
|2020-02-02
|2020-02-09
|900,000
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref name=":19">{{cite web |url=http://sx.sina.com.cn/news/b/2020-02-05/detail-iimxxste9021808.shtml |title=西安多区、县实行居民出行管控：最多每两天可派1人外出采购 |website=sx.sina.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> ]
|County
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-02
|
|562,768
|2010
|One person per household every day
|-
|],<ref name=":19" /> ]
|District
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-03
|2020-02-09
|556,377
|2010
|One person per household every day
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5762893 |title=安徽蚌埠市管控居民出行：每户每两天可派1人出门_抗疫_澎湃新闻-The Paper |website=www.thepaper.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Anhui
|2020-02-03
|
|3,164,467
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sohu.com/a/370452915_428290 |title=安徽淮北：每户家庭每两天可指派1名成员出门_人员 |website=www.sohu.com |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Anhui
|2020-02-03
|
|2,114,276
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref name="auto6" /><br />]
|District
|Shandong
|2020-02-03
|2020-02-09
|682,717
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://finance.eastmoney.com/a/202002061374506042.html |title=温州台州严格控制人员进出 每户每两天可指派1名家庭成员外出采购 _ 东方财富网 |website=finance.eastmoney.com |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Zhejiang
|2020-02-03
|
|5,968,838
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sohu.com/a/370412774_123753 |title=杭州多地发"最严禁令" 每户每两天1人外出采购一次_防控 |website=www.sohu.com |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Zhejiang
|2020-02-04
|
|9,806,000
|2017
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2020/02-03/9076749.shtml |title=湖北鄂州：主城区家庭每户每两天指派1人上街采购生活物资-中新网 |website=www.chinanews.com |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Hubei
|2020-02-04
|
|1,048,668
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5792873 |title=深夜突发！南京、宁波、福州、哈尔滨…所有小区封闭管理！最狠这座城:每户5天只能1人外出采购1次_媒体_澎湃新闻-The Paper |website=www.thepaper.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Fujian
|2020-02-04
|
|7,660,000
|2017
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.xhby.net/xz/yw/202002/t20200204_6493508.shtml |title=今日12时至8日24时，徐州严格实行社区居民出行管控等措施_新华报业网 |website=www.xhby.net |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Jiangsu
|2020-02-04
|2020-02-08
|8,577,225
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guancha.cn/politics/2020_02_04_534547.shtml |title=江西景德镇严控居民出行：每户每2天限1人外出采购 |website=www.guancha.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Jiangxi
|2020-02-04
|(Superseded<br />2020-02-06)
|1,655,000
|2015
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.sina.com.cn/c/2020-02-04/doc-iimxxste8873987.shtml |title=哈尔滨所有小区封闭管理 每户每两天可1人外出 |last=北京日报客户端 |date=4 February 2020 |website=news.sina.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Heilongjiang
|2020-02-04
|
|10,635,971
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sohu.com/a/370748379_161795 |title=多地防控升级：驻马店一区限每户5天1人外出，宁波实名买退烧药 |date=5 February 2020 |website=sohu.com |url-status=live |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref><br />]
|District
|Henan
|2020-02-04
|
|721,723
|2010
|One person per household every five days
|-
|],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xiancity.cn/system/2020/02/06/030712285.shtml |title=西安多个区加强管控 小区封闭式管理外出采购仅限一人-新闻频道-西安网 |website=news.xiancity.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> ]
|District
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-04
|
|589,739
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref name=":19" /> ]
|District
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-04
|
|1,083,285
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref name=":19" /> ]
|District
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-05
|
|1,178,529
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.hsw.cn/system/2020/0205/1153102.shtml |title=西安市莲湖区发布关于实施疫情防控"十项规定"的通告 |website=news.hsw.cn |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> ]
|District
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-05
|
|712,300
|2015
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.sina.com.cn/o/2020-02-04/doc-iimxxste8882271.shtml |title=宁波疫情防控措施再升级：每户每两天可由1名成员外出采购 |last=一财资讯 |date=4 February 2020 |website=news.sina.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Zhejiang
|2020-02-05
|
|8,202,000
|2018
|
|-
|],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wxrb.com/news/ywtx/202002/t20200206_1515937.shtml |title=江苏各地实施小区封闭式管理 防控手段请了解 |website=www.wxrb.com |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> ]
|District
|Jiangsu
|2020-02-05
|
|594,656
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.takefoto.cn/viewnews-2037146.html |title=合肥实行封闭式管理，每两天1名家庭成员外出采购 |website=www.takefoto.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Anhui
|2020-02-05
|
|7,965,300
|2017
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://365jia.cn/news/2020-02-04/15FA94A8F64B6E99.html |title=刚刚！阜阳市发布严控村(居)民出行通告：每户每两天可派1人外出采购 |website=365jia.cn |url-status=live |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Anhui
|2020-02-05
|2020-02-08
|7,599,913
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.syd.com.cn/system/2020/02/05/011788506.shtml |title=本溪市居民小区每户家庭每两天可指派1名家庭成员外出釆购生活物资 |website=news.syd.com.cn |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Liaoning
|2020-02-05
|
|1,709,538
|2017
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sichuan.scol.com.cn/ggxw/202002/57470801.html |title=阿坝州：每户家庭每两天指派1名家庭成员外出采购_四川在线 |website=sichuan.scol.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|Autonomous<br />Prefecture
|Sichuan
|2020-02-05
|
|930,100
|2015
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sichuan.scol.com.cn/ggxw/202002/57472224.html |title=甘孜州发布公告 所有村组、居民小区、单位实行封闭式管理_四川在线 |website=sichuan.scol.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|Autonomous<br />Prefecture
|Sichuan
|2020-02-05
|
|1,164,900
|2015
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20200207/newgx5e3c3801-19241167.shtml |title=暂停外地居民接待、购买药品需实名……广西多地实行"最严管控"-广西新闻网 |website=www.gxnews.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Guangxi
|2020-02-05
|
|3,758,700
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://finance.eastmoney.com/a/202002061374161326.html |title=桂林市新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情防控工作领导小组 |website=eastmoney.com |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Guangxi
|2020-02-05
|
|4,961,600
|2015
|
|-
|],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20200207/newgx5e3c3801-19241167-2.shtml |title=暂停外地居民接待、购买药品需实名……广西多地实行"最严管控"-广西新闻网 |website=www.gxnews.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref><br />]
|District
|Guangxi
|2020-02-05
|
|330,131
|2010
|One person per household every day
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbd.com.cn/articles/2020-02-06/1405947.html |title=累计确诊新冠肺炎600例 江西全省所有村组小区一律封闭管理 |website=www.nbd.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|Province
| –
|2020-02-06
|
|45,200,000
|2013
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/sh/2020/02-06/9081041.shtml |title=咸阳出台疫情防控十条措施 每户每周可两次指派1人外采-中新网 |website=www.chinanews.com |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Shaanxi
|2020-02-06
|
|5,096,001
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.1m3d.com/thread-591947-1-1.html |title=锦州市新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎 疫情防控指挥部令 第4号 |last=锦州市新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情防控指挥部 |date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206172140/http://www.1m3d.com/thread-591947-1-1.html |archive-date=7 February 2020 |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Liaoning
|2020-02-06
|
|3,070,000
|2010
|
|-
|],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jl.sina.com.cn/news/b/2020-02-06/detail-iimxxste9261682.shtml |title=长春市宽城区：每户家庭每两天可派一人出门采购生活物资 |website=jl.sina.com.cn |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref><br />]
|District
|Jilin
|2020-02-06
|
|680,631
|2010
|
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/sh/2020/02-06/9081537.shtml |title=河北唐山对所有村庄、小区、单位实行封闭式管理 |website=www.chinanews.com |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref>
|City
|Hebei
|2020-02-07
|
|7,935,800
|2018
|
|-
|], ]
|District
|Tianjin
|2020-02-09
|
|799,057
|2010
|
|-
|]
|Province
| –
|2020-02-16
|
|59,020,000
|2018
|
|-
| colspan="3" |'''All'''
|
|
|233,441,748
|
|Sum of census data and population estimates above
|}
{{TOC limit}}


Another approach is to collect location data from mobile devices to identify those who have come in significant contact with infectees, which prompted privacy concerns.<ref name="IngramWard20200407">{{#invoke:cite web||date=7 April 2020|title=Behind the global efforts to make a privacy-first coronavirus tracking app|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/behind-global-efforts-make-privacy-first-coronavirus-tracking-app-n1177871|access-date=10 April 2020|publisher=NBC News|vauthors=Ingram D, Ward J}}</ref> On 10 April 2020, Google and ] announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing.<ref name="0DF25">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2020/04/10/apple-and-google-are-launching-a-joint-covid-19-tracing-tool/ |title=Apple and Google are launching a joint COVID-19 tracing tool for iOS and Android |website=TechCrunch |date=10 April 2020 |access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200410apple">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.apple.com/covid19/contacttracing/ |title=Privacy-Preserving Contact Tracing |date=10 April 2020 |website=Apple }}</ref> In Europe and in the US, ] initially provided COVID-19 tracking services.<ref name="0k3hR">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Palantir provides COVID-19 tracking software to CDC and NHS, pitches European health agencies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/04/01/palantir-coronavirus-cdc-nhs-gotham-foundry/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>
=== Evacuation of foreign citizens ===
{{also|Evacuations related to the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak}}
Due to the effective lockdown of public transport in Wuhan and Hubei, several countries have planned to evacuate their citizens and diplomatic staff from the area, primarily through ] of the home nation that have been provided clearance by Chinese authorities. Canada, the United States, Japan, India, France, Australia, Sri Lanka, Germany and Thailand were among the first to plan the evacuation of their citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/countries-evaluate-evacuation-of-citizens-amid-wuhan-coronavirus-panic/ |title=Countries Evaluate Evacuation of Citizens Amid Wuhan Coronavirus Panic |last=Press |first=Associated |website=thediplomat.com |access-date=31 January 2020}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/coronavirus-india-citizens-china-wuhan-air-india-second-flight-1642434-2020-02-01/ |title=Coronavirus: Second plane carrying 323 Indians from Wuhan to reach Delhi today |last=Press |first=ANI |website=indiatoday.in |access-date=2 February 2020}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2020/01/27/belgie-haalt-15-landgenoten-terug-uit-hubei-na-uitbraak-coronav/ |title=België haalt landgenoten terug uit Chinese provincie Hubei na uitbraak coronavirus |last=NWS |first=VRT |date=27 January 2020 |website=vrtnws.be}}
*{{cite web |url=https://jakartaglobe.id/news/lastminute-preparations-underway-to-evacuate-indonesian-citizens-from-coronavirusravaged-wuhan |title=Last-Minute Preparations Underway to Evacuate Indonesian Citizens From Coronavirus-Ravaged Wuhan |last=Nathalia |first=Telly |date=30 January 2020 |website=Jakarta Globe}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1844104/c130-aircraft-on-standby-for-wuhan-evacuation |title=C130 aircraft on standby for Wuhan evacuation |date=26 January 2020 |website=Bangkok Post |access-date=26 January 2020}}
*{{Cite news |last=Jiang |first=Steven |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/25/politics/coronavirus-us-evacuate-americans-china/index.html |title=US arranging charter flight to evacuate American diplomats and citizens out of China amid coronavirus outbreak, official says |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126100201/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/25/politics/coronavirus-us-evacuate-americans-china/index.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=CNN |last2=Stracqualursi |first2=Veronica}}
*{{Cite news |url=http://tempo.com.ph/2020/01/29/ph-sending-special-flights-to-get-pinoys-from-wuhan-hubei-in-china/ |title=PH sending special flights to get Pinoys from Wuhan, Hubei in China |date=29 January 2020 |work=Tempo |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Pakistan has said that it will not be evacuating any citizens from China.<ref name="20200131dialoguepakistan">{{cite web |url=https://www.dialoguepakistan.com/pakistan-cancels-flights-to-china-as-fears-of-coronavirus-spread/ |title=Pakistan cancels flights to China as fears of coronavirus spread |date=31 January 2020 |website=Dialogue Pakistan |access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref> On 7 February, Brazil evacuated 34 Brazilians or family members in addition to four Poles, a Chinese and an Indian citizen. The citizens of Poland, China and India got off the plane in ], where the Brazilian plane made a stopover before following its route to Brazil. Brazilian citizens who went to Brazil were quarantined at a military base near ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/government-economy/brazil-to-evacuate-citizens-stuck-in-wuhan |title=Brazil to evacuate citizens stuck in Wuhan |date=5 February 2020 |website=The Business Time |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2020/02/07/avioes-decolam-de-wuhan-na-china-com-40-passageiros-repatriados-ao-brasil-e-a-polonia.ghtml |title=Aviões decolam de Wuhan, na China, com 40 passageiros repatriados ao Brasil e à Polônia |date=7 February 2020 |website=] |access-date=9 February 2020|language= pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2020/02/09/world/americas/09reuters-china-health-brazil.html |title=Brazilians Evacuated From China amid coronavirus Land in Brazil |date=9 February 2020 |website= ] |author= Leonardo Benassatto |access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref> On 7 February 215 Canadians (176 from the first plane, and 39 from a second plane chartered by the U.S. government) were ] from ], China, to CFB Trenton to be ]d for two weeks. On 11 February, another plane of Canadians (185) from Wuhan landed at CFB Trenton. Australian authorities evacuated 277 citizens on 3 and 4 February to the ] ] which had been "repurposed" as a quarantine facility, where they remained for 14 days.<ref name=abc>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-05/coronavirus-evacuations-to-christmas-island-community-fears/11930284|title=Coronavirus fear remains on Christmas Island as authorities reassure locals they are safe from infection|first=James|last=Carmody|date=5 February 2020|accessdate=8 February 2020|publisher=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/08/a-hard-and-sad-decision-fleeing-coronavirus-in-wuhan-for-christmas-island|work=The Guardian|title='A hard and sad decision': fleeing coronavirus in Wuhan for Christmas Island|first=Naaman|last1=Zhou|first2=Ben|last2=Doherty|date=8 February 2020|accessdate=8 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=abc2>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-17/australian-evacuees-from-wuhan-to-christmas-island-arrive-home/11971174|title=Australians fly home from quarantine on Christmas Island after coronavirus evacuation from Wuhan|first=|last=|date=18 February 2020|accessdate=18 February 2020|publisher=ABC News}}</ref> United States announced that it will evacuate Americans currently aboard the cruise ship ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wang|first=Vivian|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/15/world/asia/japan-cruise-ship-coronavirus.html|title=Shifting Ground in Coronavirus Fight: U.S. Will Evacuate Americans From Cruise Ship|date=15 February 2020|work=The New York Times|access-date=15 February 2020|last2=Rich|first2=Motoko|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|last3=Bradsher|first3=Keith}}</ref>


=== Vaccine and therapy research === === Health care ===
{{Further|Flattening the curve|list of countries by hospital beds|Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
{{Main|Coronavirus_disease_2019#Research}}
WHO described increasing capacity and adapting healthcare as a fundamental mitigation.<ref name="WHOEuropeResponse">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov-technical-guidance/coronavirus-disease-covid-19-outbreak-technical-guidance-europe/hospital-readiness-checklist-for-covid-19 |title=Hospital readiness checklist for COVID-19 |date=25 March 2020 |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 March 2020}}</ref> The ECDC and WHO's European regional office issued guidelines for hospitals and ] services for shifting resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards testing, cancelling elective procedures, separating and isolating patients, and increasing ] capabilities by training personnel and increasing ]s and beds.<ref name="WHOEuropeResponse" /><ref name="ECDCresponse">{{#invoke:cite report ||url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/checklist-hospitals-preparing-reception-and-care-coronavirus-2019-covid-19 |title=Checklist for hospitals preparing for the reception and care of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) patients |date=26 February 2020 |publisher=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control |access-date=27 March 2020}}</ref> The pandemic drove widespread adoption of ].<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Smith AC, Thomas E, Snoswell CL, Haydon H, Mehrotra A, Clemensen J, Caffery LJ | title = Telehealth for global emergencies: Implications for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) | journal = Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 309–313 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32196391 | pmc = 7140977 | doi = 10.1177/1357633x20916567 }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Ohannessian R, Duong TA, Odone A | title = Global Telemedicine Implementation and Integration Within Health Systems to Fight the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Call to Action | journal = JMIR Public Health and Surveillance | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = e18810 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32238336 | pmc = 7124951 | doi = 10.2196/18810 |doi-access=free}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Keshvardoost S, Bahaadinbeigy K, Fatehi F | title = Role of Telehealth in the Management of COVID-19: Lessons Learned from Previous SARS, MERS, and Ebola Outbreaks | journal = Telemedicine Journal and e-Health | volume = 26 | issue = 7 | pages = 850–852 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32329659 | doi = 10.1089/tmj.2020.0105 | s2cid = 216111135 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


==== Improvised manufacturing ====
Several organisations around the world are developing ]s or testing ] medicine. In China, the ] (CCDC) has started developing vaccines against the novel coronavirus and is testing existing drug effectiveness for pneumonia.<ref name="xinhuanet138734908">{{cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/26/c_138734908.htm |title=China CDC developing novel coronavirus vaccine |date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126201658/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/26/c_138734908.htm |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref><ref name="scmp3047676">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3047676/number-coronavirus-cases-china-doubles-spread-rate-accelerates |title=Chinese scientists race to develop vaccine as coronavirus death toll jumps |date=26 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126073453/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3047676/number-coronavirus-cases-china-doubles-spread-rate-accelerates |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> Also, a team at the ] announced that a new vaccine is developed, but needs to be tested on animals before conducting clinical tests on humans.<ref name="scmp3047956">{{Cite news |last=Cheung |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047956/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-researchers-have |title=Hong Kong researchers have developed coronavirus vaccine, expert reveals |date=28 January 2020 |work=South China Morning Post |access-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128154002/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047956/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-researchers-have |archive-date=28 January 2020}}</ref>
] in the absence of ]]]
Due to ] capacity limitations, some manufacturers began ] material such as nasal swabs and ventilator parts.<ref name="technologyreview615420">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Temple J |title=How 3D printing could save lives in the coronavirus outbreak |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/615420/3d-printing-coronavirus-covid-19-medical-supplies-devices/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=MIT Technology Review}}</ref><ref name="aCPem">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Tibken S |title=3D printing may help supply more essential coronavirus medical gear |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/3d-printing-may-help-supply-more-essential-coronavirus-medical-gear/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |publisher=CNET}}</ref> In one example, an Italian startup received legal threats due to alleged ] after reverse-engineering and printing one hundred requested ventilator valves overnight.<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:cite news ||title= Italian hospital saves Covid-19 patients lives by 3D printing valves for reanimation devices |url=https://www.3dprintingmedia.network/covid-19-3d-printed-valve-for-reanimation-device/ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=3D Printing Media Network |date=14 March 2020}}
* {{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Peters J |title=Volunteers produce 3D-printed valves for life-saving coronavirus treatments |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/17/21184308/coronavirus-italy-medical-3d-print-valves-treatments |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=The Verge |date=17 March 2020}}
* {{#invoke:cite web || url=https://globalnews.ca/news/6695286/coronavirus-italy-3d-print-valves/ |title=Engineers 3D-print patented valves for free to save coronavirus patients in Italy |website=Global News}}</ref> Individuals and groups of ]s created and shared ] designs, and manufacturing devices using locally sourced materials, sewing, and 3D printing. Millions of ]s, protective gowns, and masks were made. Other ad hoc medical supplies included shoe covers, surgical caps, ]s, and ]. Novel devices were created such as ]s, ] helmets, and ventilator splitters.<ref>{{#invoke:cite book || vauthors = Cavalcanti G, Cocciole C, Cole C, Forgues A, Jaqua V, Jones-Davis D, Merlo S |title=Design, Make, Protect: A report on the Open Source Maker and Manufacturer Response to the COVID-19 PPE Crisis |date=2021 |publisher=Open Source Medical Supplies & Nation of Makers |pages=18–22 |url=https://opensourcemedicalsupplies.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Design-Make-Protect_21.01.27.pdf |access-date=17 June 2021}}</ref>


=== Herd immunity ===
In Western countries, the United States' ] (NIH) is hoping for human trials of a vaccine by April 2020;<ref name="20200124reuters-vaccines">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8 |title=With Wuhan virus genetic code in hand, scientists begin work on a vaccine |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125203723/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref><ref name="20200125nypost">{{cite web |url=https://nypost.com/2020/01/25/scientists-race-to-develop-vaccine-to-deadly-china-coronavirus/ |title=Scientists race to develop vaccine to deadly China coronavirus |last=Levine |first=Jon |date=25 January 2020 |website=New York Post |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126173701/https://nypost.com/2020/01/25/scientists-race-to-develop-vaccine-to-deadly-china-coronavirus/ |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> the Norwegian ] (CEPI) is funding three vaccine projects and hopes to have a vaccine in trials by June 2020, and approved and ready in a year.<ref name="20200123straitstimes">{{cite web|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/wuhan-virus-epidemic-response-group-says-starts-work-on-3-possible-vaccines|title=Wuhan virus: Work to start on three possible vaccines, says epidemic response group|last=hermesauto|date=23 January 2020|website=The Straits Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125111303/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/wuhan-virus-epidemic-response-group-says-starts-work-on-3-possible-vaccines|archive-date=25 January 2020|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> These projects are an ] developed by ], Massachusetts–based ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fiercepharma.com/vaccines/inovio-moderna-score-cepi-funding-for-vaccine-work-against-deadly-coronavirus|title=Inovio, Moderna score CEPI funding for vaccine work against deadly coronavirus|website=FiercePharma|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126172357/https://www.fiercepharma.com/vaccines/inovio-moderna-score-cepi-funding-for-vaccine-work-against-deadly-coronavirus|archive-date=26 January 2020|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.modernatx.com/pipeline/therapeutic-areas/infectious-diseases|title=Infectious Diseases|website=modernatx.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705235708/https://www.modernatx.com/pipeline/therapeutic-areas/infectious-diseases|archive-date=5 July 2019|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> a "]" vaccine platform the ] in Australia is developing after receiving AU$10.6&nbsp;million in funding from CEPI,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pharmalicensing.com/detail.php?uid=66499|title=Molecular Clamp: a Novel Protein Vaccine for Influenza, RSV, Ebola and Other Human and Veterinary Viruses|website=pharmalicensing.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128152433/https://www.pharmalicensing.com/detail.php?uid=66499|archive-date=28 January 2020|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cepi.net/news_cepi/cepi-to-fund-three-programmes-to-develop-vaccines-against-the-novel-coronavirus-ncov-2019/|title=CEPI to fund three programmes to develop vaccines against the novel coronavirus, nCoV-2019|website=CEPI-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126005411/https://cepi.net/news_cepi/cepi-to-fund-three-programmes-to-develop-vaccines-against-the-novel-coronavirus-ncov-2019/|archive-date=26 January 2020|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/australian-scientists-asked-to-make-coronavirus-vaccine-at-unprecedented-speed |title=Australia's Been Asked to Make a Coronavirus Vaccine at 'Unprecedented Speed' |last=Insider |first=James Hennessy, Business |website=ScienceAlert-gb |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126123036/https://www.sciencealert.com/australian-scientists-asked-to-make-coronavirus-vaccine-at-unprecedented-speed |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> and a vaccine Inovio Pharmaceuticals designed in two hours after receiving the gene sequence of the virus.<ref name="vacAn">{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/local-biotech-company-developing-coronavirus-vaccine/2250034/ |title=Local Biotech Company Developing Coronavirus Vaccine |website=NBC 7 San Diego-US |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126173641/https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/local-biotech-company-developing-coronavirus-vaccine/2250034/ |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> The latter vaccine is being manufactured so that it can be first tested on animals.<ref name="vacAn" /> By February 2020, ]' ] announced partnerships with ]'s ] and ] to develop vaccines and to screen for potential drugs in collaboration with the Belgium-based ].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/policy/healthcare/two-drug-companies-partner-with-us-government-for-coronavirus-treatment-and-vaccine |title=Two drug companies partner with US government for coronavirus treatment and vaccine |last=Leonard|first=Kimberly |date=18 February 2020|website=]|access-date=19 February 2020| name-list-format=vanc}}</ref>
In July 2021, several experts expressed concern that achieving ] may not be possible because Delta can transmit among vaccinated individuals.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Dyer O|date=August 2021|title=Covid-19: Delta infections threaten herd immunity vaccine strategy|journal=BMJ|volume=374|pages=n1933|doi=10.1136/bmj.n1933|pmid=34340962|s2cid=236778544}}</ref> CDC published data showing that vaccinated people could transmit Delta, something officials believed was less likely with other variants. Consequently, WHO and CDC encouraged vaccinated people to continue with non-pharmaceutical interventions such as masking, social distancing, and quarantining if exposed.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:cite news||date=13 August 2021|title=5 Things To Know About the Delta Variant|work=Yale Medicine News|url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/5-things-to-know-delta-variant-covid|access-date=18 August 2021|vauthors=Katella K}}</ref>


== Management == == History ==
{{For timeline}}
{{See also|Coronavirus disease 2019#Management}}
{{Further|Pandemic prevention|Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
] to check passengers' body temperature before they board the trains.]]
{{As of|2020|2|5|df=}}, there were no specific ] for or ]s against ], though development efforts were underway.<ref name="SkyNews21Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://news.sky.com/story/china-confirms-deadly-wuhan-coronavirus-can-be-transmitted-by-humans-11913560 |title=China confirms deadly Wuhan coronavirus can be transmitted by humans |publisher=Sky News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122124625/https://news.sky.com/story/china-confirms-deadly-wuhan-coronavirus-can-be-transmitted-by-humans-11913560 |archive-date=22 January 2020 |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200126cdc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/prevention-treatment.html |title=Prevention & Treatment |date=26 January 2020 |publisher=] (CDC) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124175525/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/prevention-treatment.html |archive-date=24 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref> On 18 February 2020, the Chinese ] (analogous to the U.S. FDA) approved the antiviral drug Favilavir (formerly Fapinavir) for use against COVID-19. The drug, previously approved for treatment of influenza, had shown early efficacy against COVID-19 in human trials in China. <ref>{cite web |url=https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/news/china-approves-favilavir-covid-19/}}</ref> Attempts to relieve the symptoms include taking regular (]) flu medications,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webmd.com/lung/coronavirus |title=Coronavirus |website=WebMD |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201075444/https://www.webmd.com/lung/coronavirus |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> drinking fluids, and resting.<ref name="cdc21Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/prevention.html |title=Prevention and Treatment |date=9 August 2019 |publisher=] (CDC) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215193934/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/prevention.html |archive-date=15 December 2019 |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> Depending on the severity, ], ], and breathing support may be required.<ref name="BMJ2020Best">{{cite web |url=https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000165?q=Coronavirus,%202019%20novel&c=suggested |title=Overview of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) – Summary of relevant conditions |website=BMJ |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131054900/https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000165?q=Coronavirus,%202019%20novel&c=suggested |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some countries require people to report ] symptoms to their doctor, especially if they have visited ].<ref name="scmp21Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3046634/wuhan-pneumonia-hong-kong-widens-net-suspected |title=Wuhan pneumonia: Hong Kong widens net but can hospitals cope? |date=17 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121085124/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3046634/wuhan-pneumonia-hong-kong-widens-net-suspected |archive-date=21 January 2020 |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref>


=== Domestic responses === === 2019 ===
{{Main|Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019}}
]]]
The ] was discovered in Wuhan in November 2019. It is possible that human-to-human transmission was happening before the discovery.<ref name="Hu2020natureReviews" /><ref name="Graham2020immunity" /> Based on a retrospective analysis starting from December 2019, the number of cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching 60 by 20 December and at least 266 by 31 December.<ref name="original_report" /> A ] cluster was observed on 26 December and treated by Chinese pulmonologist ]. She informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December.<ref name="D54YB">{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Lu|first1=Zikang (路子康)|script-title=zh:最早上报疫情的她，怎样发现这种不一样的肺炎|url=https://news.china.com/zw/news/13000776/20200209/37780703.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302165302/https://news.china.com/zw/news/13000776/20200209/37780703.html|archive-date=2 March 2020|access-date=11 February 2020|location=Beijing|language=zh-cn|script-website=zh:中国网新闻}}</ref> After analysing pneumonia patient samples, a genetic sequencing company named Vision Medicals reported the discovery of a ] to the ] (CCDC) on 28 December.<ref name="AP OR">{{#invoke:cite news|| url=https://apnews.com/article/3c061794970661042b18d5aeaaed9fae|title=China delayed releasing coronavirus info, frustrating WHO|date=2 June 2020|work=Associated Press|access-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025163939/https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-health-ap-top-news-virus-outbreak-public-health-3c061794970661042b18d5aeaaed9fae |archive-date=25 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="caixintrace">{{#invoke:cite news ||last1=Gao |first1=Yu (高昱) |script-title=zh:独家 {{!}} 新冠病毒基因测序溯源：警报是何时拉响的|trans-title=Exclusive {{!}} Tracing the New Coronavirus gene sequencing: when did the alarm sound|work=]|date=26 February 2020|language=zh|url=https://china.caixin.com/2020-02-26/101520972.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227094018/https://china.caixin.com/2020-02-26/101520972.html|archive-date=27 February 2020|access-date=1 March 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> Two days later, a test report from CapitalBio Medlab addressed to the ] reported an erroneous positive result for ], causing doctors there to alert authorities. Eight of those doctors, including ophthalmologist ] (1985–2020), were detained by police on 3 January for "spreading false rumours".<ref name="siStf" /> That evening, Wuhan Municipal Health Commission (WMHC) issued a notice about "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause".<ref name="promedmail6864153">{{#invoke:cite news || title=Undiagnosed pneumonia – China (HU): RFI |url=https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=6864153 |newspaper=Promed-Mail |publisher=ProMED |date=30 December 2019|access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref> The next day, WMHC made the announcement public, confirming 27 cases<ref name="AutoDW-69" /><ref name="AutoDW-68" />—enough to trigger an investigation.<ref name="bbc50984025" /> On 31 December, the WHO office in China was notified about the cluster of unknown pneumonia cases<ref name="WHO report">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) SITUATION REPORT – 1 |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200121-sitrep-1-2019-ncov.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=7 June 2021 |date=20 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="AutoDW-69" /> and immediately launched an investigation.<ref name="bbc50984025" />
]]]
] tickets to the mainland in ]]]
The first person known to have fallen ill due to the new virus was in Wuhan on 1 December 2019.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Jon |date=26 January 2020 |title=Wuhan seafood market may not be source of novel virus spreading globally |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/01/wuhan-seafood-market-may-not-be-source-novel-virus-spreading-globally |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.abb0611 |access-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127161200/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/01/wuhan-seafood-market-may-not-be-source-novel-virus-spreading-globally |archive-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> A public notice on the outbreak was released 30 days later by Wuhan health authority on 31 December 2019; the initial notice informed Wuhan residents that there was no clear evidence of human-to-human transmission of the virus, that the disease is preventable and controllable, and that people can wear masks when going out.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2019123108989 |title=武汉市卫健委关于当前我市肺炎疫情的情况通报 |date=31 December 2019 |website=Wuhan Municipal Health Commission |access-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109215413/http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2019123108989 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> WHO was informed of the outbreak on the same day.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/novel-coronavirus |title=Novel Coronavirus |website=www.who.int |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202151307/https://www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/novel-coronavirus |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Official Chinese sources claimed that the early cases were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals.<ref name="characteristicsZH" /> In May 2020, CCDC director George Gao initially ruled out the market as a possible origin, as animal samples collected there had tested negative.<ref name="ALmAQ">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-rules-out-animal-market-and-lab-as-coronavirus-origin-11590517508 |title=China Rules Out Animal Market and Lab as Coronavirus Origin | vauthors = Areddy JT |date=26 May 2020 |access-date=29 May 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref>
On 20 January 2020, ], a scientist at China's ] who played a prominent role in the SARS epidemic declared its potential for human-to-human transmission, after 2 cases emerged in ] province of infection by family members who had visited Wuhan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/who-is-holding-an-emergency-meeting-on-the-human-to-human-virus-spreading-in-asia |title=Officials Just Confirmed China's Mystery Virus Spreads by Human to Human Transmission |last=AFP |first=Laurent Thomet and Eva Xiao |website=ScienceAlert |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128150839/https://www.sciencealert.com/who-is-holding-an-emergency-meeting-on-the-human-to-human-virus-spreading-in-asia |archive-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> This was later confirmed by the Wuhan government, which announced a number of new measures such as cancelling the ] celebrations, in addition to measures such as checking the temperature of passengers at transport terminals first introduced on 14 January.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/01/19/asia/china-coronavirus-spike-intl-hnk/index.html |title=China confirms Wuhan virus can be spread by humans |work=CNN |first1= James|last1=Griffiths|first2= Nectar|last2= Gan|date=22 January 2020}}</ref> A ] was announced on 23 January 2020 stopping travel in and out of Wuhan.<ref name="channelnewsasia12306684"/>


=== 2020 ===
On 25 January, ] met to discuss novel coronavirus prevention and control. ] ] ] stated that the country is facing a "grave situation" as the number of infected people is accelerating.<ref name="Politburo meeting">{{Cite news |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/0125/c90000-9651799.html |title=CPC leadership meets to discuss novel coronavirus prevention, control |date=25 January 2020 |work=People's Daily |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125202946/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/0125/c90000-9651799.html |archive-date=25 January 2020 |quote=Xi Jinping, general secretary of the CPC Central Committee, chaired the meeting.}}</ref> In the evening, the authorities banned the use of private vehicles in ]. Only vehicles that are transporting critical supplies or emergency response vehicles are allowed to move within the city.<ref name="abc11902006">{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-26/australians-in-coronavirus-epicentre-wuhan-trying-to-get-out/11902006 |title='No-one in the family knows what to do': Over 100 Australian children trapped in Wuhan coronavirus area |last=Xiao |first=Bang |date=26 January 2020 |website=ABC News-AU |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>
{{Hatnote|Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 by month: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]}}
], March 2020]]
On 11 January, WHO was notified by the Chinese National Health Commission that the outbreak was associated with exposures in the market, and that China had identified a new type of coronavirus, which it isolated on 7 January.<ref name="WHO report" />


Initially, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days.<ref name="Qun29Jan2020" /> In early and mid-January, the virus spread to other ], helped by the ]. Wuhan was a transport hub and major rail interchange.<ref name="WHO report 28 February 2020" /> On 10 January, the virus' genome was shared publicly.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Enserink M |title=Dispute simmers over who first shared SARS-CoV-2's genome |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/dispute-simmers-over-who-first-shared-sars-cov-2-s-genome |access-date=20 May 2023 |work=Science |date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230330125412/https://www.science.org/content/article/dispute-simmers-over-who-first-shared-sars-cov-2-s-genome |archive-date=30 March 2023 }}</ref> A retrospective study published in March found that 6,174 people had reported symptoms by 20 January.<ref name="Epidemiology17Feb2020" /> A 24 January report indicated human transmission was likely occurring, and recommended ] for health workers. It also advocated testing, given the outbreak's "pandemic potential".<ref name="Huang24Jan2020" /><ref name="Horton 18 March" /> On 30 January, 7,818 infections had been confirmed, leading WHO to declare the outbreak a ] (PHEIC),<ref name="WHO_PHEICSR">{{#invoke:cite web || date=30 January 2020|title=Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV): Situation Report – 10|url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200130-sitrep-10-ncov.pdf|access-date=14 October 2020|publisher=] (WHO)}}</ref><ref name="WHO_PHEIC_decl2" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Durrheim DN, Gostin LO, Moodley K |title=When does a major outbreak become a Public Health Emergency of International Concern? |journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases |date=August 2020 |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=887–889 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30401-1 |pmid=32442526 |pmc=7237181 }}</ref> upgrading it to a pandemic on 11 March.<ref name="start" /> On 31 January, the first published modelling study warned of inevitable "independent self-sustaining outbreaks in major cities globally" and called for "large-scale public health interventions".<ref name="pmid32014114">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Wu JT, Leung K, Leung GM|title=Nowcasting and forecasting the potential domestic and international spread of the 2019-nCoV outbreak originating in Wuhan, China: a modelling study|journal=Lancet|volume=395|issue=10225|pages=689–697|date=February 2020|pmid=32014114|pmc=7159271|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30260-9}}</ref>
On 26 January, a leading group tasked with the prevention and control of the novel coronavirus outbreak was established, led by ] ]. Premier Li visited Wuhan to direct the epidemic prevention work on 27 January.<ref name="Premier leading">{{cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/26/c_138735589.htm |title=China to extend Spring Festival holiday to contain coronavirus outbreak |date=26 January 2020 |location=Beijing |agency=]}}</ref><ref name="Premier visiting">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-premier/chinese-premier-li-visits-wuhan-epicenter-of-virus-outbreak-idUSKBN1ZQ08G |title=Chinese Premier Li visits Wuhan, epicenter of virus outbreak |date=27 January 2020 |location=Beijing |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127113616/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-premier/chinese-premier-li-visits-wuhan-epicenter-of-virus-outbreak-idUSKBN1ZQ08G |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |agency=]}}</ref> The leading group has decided to extend ] ] to contain coronavirus outbreak.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/27/WS5e2e0f0ea31012821727356b.html |title=China's State Council extends Spring Festival holiday – Chinadaily.com.cn |last=李雪晴 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131133341/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/27/WS5e2e0f0ea31012821727356b.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


By 31 January, Italy indicated its first confirmed infections had occurred, in two tourists from China.<ref name="Corriere_20Jan" /> The WHO announced on 11 March its assessment that the situation could be characterised as a pandemic.<ref name="start" /> On 19 March, Italy overtook China as the country with the most reported deaths.<ref name="sky11960412">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Coronavirus: Number of COVID-19 deaths in Italy surpasses China as total reaches 3,405 |url=https://news.sky.com/story/coronavirus-number-of-covid-19-deaths-in-italy-surpasses-china-as-total-reaches-3-405-11960412 |publisher=Sky News |access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref>
China Customs started requiring that all passengers entering and exiting China fill in an extra health declaration form from 26 January. The health declaration form was mentioned in China's Frontier Health and Quarantine Law, granting the customs rights to require it if needed. The customs said it will "restart this system" as it was not a requirement before.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.customs.gov.cn/customs/302249/2480148/2852137/index.html |title=Archived copy |website=General Administration of Customs, P.R. China |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:海关总署公告2020年第16号（关于重新启动出入境人员填写健康申明卡制度的公告） |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126235436/http://www.customs.gov.cn/customs/302249/2480148/2852137/index.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="xinhuanet1125502381">{{Cite news |last=Liu |first=Hongxia |url=http://www.gd.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2020-01/26/c_1125502381.htm |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:海关总署宣布重新启动出入境人员填写健康申明卡制度 |trans-title=The General Administration of Customs announced they will restart the system for filling health declaration forms for passengers exit and enter the border}}</ref><ref name="20200126cgtn">{{Cite news |url=https://newsus.cgtn.com/news/2020-01-26/Border-health-declaration-form-re-launched-by-China-Customs-NymgFEktxe/index.html |title=China re-launches health declaration form requirement on border |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127122145/https://newsus.cgtn.com/news/2020-01-26/Border-health-declaration-form-re-launched-by-China-Customs-NymgFEktxe/index.html |archive-date=27 January 2020 |publisher=China Global Television Network}}</ref>


By 26 March, the United States had overtaken China and Italy as the country with the highest number of confirmed infections.<ref name="NYT-20200326" /> Genomic analysis indicated that the majority of ]'s confirmed infections came from Europe, rather than directly from Asia.<ref name="20200408nytimes">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Studies Show N.Y. Outbreak Originated in Europe |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/us/coronavirus-live-updates.html |work=] |date=8 April 2020}}</ref> Testing of prior samples revealed a person who was infected in France on 27 December 2019<ref name="France-retest">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=After retesting samples, French hospital discovers COVID-19 case from December |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-france-idUSKBN22G20L | vauthors = Irish J |date=4 May 2020 | veditors = Lough R, Graff P |work=Reuters |access-date=4 May 2020 }}</ref><ref name="Deslandes 2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Deslandes A, Berti V, Tandjaoui-Lambotte Y, Alloui C, Carbonnelle E, Zahar JR, Brichler S, Cohen Y | title = SARS-CoV-2 was already spreading in France in late December 2019 | journal = International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | volume = 55 | issue = 6 | page = 106006 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32371096 | pmc = 7196402 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106006 }}</ref> and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6{{nbsp}}February.<ref name="PBS-2wks">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Bean A |title=2 died with coronavirus weeks before 1st U.S. virus death |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/2-died-with-coronavirus-weeks-before-1st-u-s-virus-death |access-date=29 May 2023 |work=PBS NewsHour |date=22 April 2020 }}</ref>
On 27 January, the ] of China, one of the top governing bodies of the People's Republic, officially declared a nation-wide extension on the New Year holiday and the postponement of the coming spring semester. The Office extended the previously scheduled ] from 30 January to 2 February, while it said school openings for the spring semester will be announced in the future.<ref name="xinhuanet138735904">{{Cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/27/c_138735904.htm |title=China extends Spring Festival holiday to contain coronavirus outbreak |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127090720/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/27/c_138735904.htm |archive-date=27 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref> Some universities with open campuses also banned the public from visiting.<ref name="bjnews678863">{{Cite news |last=Luo |first=Xiaojing |url=http://www.bjnews.com.cn/news/2020/01/24/678863.html |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |publisher=The Beijing News |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:湖北这些学校推迟开学 北大等暂停参观 |trans-title=These Hubei schools delayed new semester; Peking Univ. halted public visits}}</ref> On 23 January, the education department in ], which neighbours the centre of the outbreak Hubei province, stated it will strictly ban off-school tutors and restrict student gatherings.<ref name="xinhuanet1125498917">{{Cite news |last=Yu |first=Rong |url=http://www.hn.xinhuanet.com/2020-01/24/c_1125498917.htm |date=23 January 2020 |work=Hunan Daily |access-date=25 January 2020 |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:严禁寒假补课提前开学 省教育厅部署新型冠状病毒肺炎疫情防控工作 |trans-title=Strictly ban winter break tutoring and schooling; Provincial Education Department deploy countermeasures against new coronavirus outbreak}}</ref> Education departments in Shanghai and ] also imposed bans on off-school tutoring and requested that schools track and report students who had been to Wuhan or Hubei province during the winter break.<ref name="xinhuanet138732282">{{Cite news |last=Xu |first=Qin |url=http://sh.xinhuanet.com/2020-01/25/c_138732282.htm |date=25 January 2020 |work=Jiefang Daily |access-date=25 January 2020 |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:市教委：疫情解除前严禁组织大型活动 中小学取消所有假期返校 |trans-title=City's Education Committee: Strictly forbid organizing large events before the outbreak dissolved; all middle and elementary schools to cancel school-returning during break}}</ref><ref name="people33743688">{{Cite news |last=Yao |first=Zhuowen |url=http://sz.people.com.cn/n2/2020/0125/c202846-33743688.html |access-date=25 January 2020 |publisher=Shenzhen Tequ Bao (Shenzhen Special Economic Zone Newspaper) |issue=25 January 2020 |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:深圳：高三初三也不得提前开学提前补课 |trans-title=Shenzhen: Junior students in middle schools and high schools shouldn't start school early or start tutoring early |website=People.com.cn Shenzhen}}</ref> The semi-autonomous regions of Hong Kong and ] also announced adjustments on schooling schedules. Hong Kong's ] ] declared an emergency at a press conference on 25 January, saying ] will close primary and secondary schools for two more weeks on top of the previously scheduled New Year holiday, pushing the date for school reopening to 17 February.<ref name="scmp3047645">{{Cite news |last=Lum |first=Alvin |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047645/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-students-get-two-more |title=China coronavirus: Hong Kong leader hits back at criticisms of being slow |date=25 January 2020 |work=South China Morning Post |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125085413/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047645/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-students-get-two-more |archive-date=25 January 2020 |last2=Sum |first2=Lok-kei}}</ref><ref name="apnews-b2810ce">{{Cite news |url=https://apnews.com/b2810cebad305f66112a0c68be0f8c9a |title=Wuhan bans cars, Hong Kong closes schools as virus spreads |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125083624/https://apnews.com/b2810cebad305f66112a0c68be0f8c9a |archive-date=25 January 2020 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> Macau closed several museums and libraries, and prolonged the New Year holiday break to 11 February for higher education institutions and 10 February for others.<ref name="xinhuanet1125500373">{{Cite news |last=Wang |first=Chenxi |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/2020-01/24/c_1125500373.htm |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:澳门关闭博物馆延期开学防控新型冠状病毒疫情 |trans-title=Macau closed museums and delayed school-openings to control coronavirus outbreak}}</ref> The ] said they would track the physical conditions of students who have been to Wuhan during the New Year break.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhao |first=Shi |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5623078 |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |publisher=Pengpai News |language=Chinese |script-title=zh:澳门高校延后开学，要求开学后主动报告假期去向 |trans-title=Universities and colleges in Macau delayed openings, to ask students to report where they've been to during the break}}</ref>


] in ], Italy, 19 March 2020]]
After the Chinese New Year on 25 January, there would be another peak of people travelling back from their hometowns to workplaces as a part of ]. Several provinces and cities encouraged people to stay in their hometowns and not travel back. Eastern China's ] also encouraged ] via the Internet and further prolonged the spring festival break.<ref name="CaixinJan26QianTong">{{Cite news |last=Qian |first=Tong |url=http://companies.caixin.com/2020-01-26/101508589.html |date=26 January 2020 |work=Caixin |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126174705/http://companies.caixin.com/2020-01-26/101508589.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |language=zh |script-title=zh:春节假期将延长 各地延迟返工返校政策陆续出台 |trans-title=Sping festival break to be extended; several places announced delayed work-returning and school-reopening policies}}</ref>
In October, WHO reported that one in ten people around the world may have been infected, or 780&nbsp;million people, while only 35&nbsp;million infections had been confirmed.<ref name="bbc_oneinten">{{#invoke:cite news||date=5 October 2020|title=One in 10 worldwide may have had Covid – WHO|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-54422023|access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref>


On 9 November, Pfizer released trial results for a candidate vaccine, showing a 90 per cent effectiveness in preventing infection. That day, Novavax submitted an FDA Fast Track application for their vaccine.<ref name="FEv4C">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Boseley S, Olterman P |date=9 November 2020|title=Covid-19 vaccine candidate is 90% effective, says Pfizer|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/09/covid-19-vaccine-candidate-effective-pfizer-biontech|access-date=9 November 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="NPZ5P">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Linnane C |title=Novavax wins FDA fast track designation for COVID-19 vaccine candidate|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/novavax-wins-fda-fast-track-designation-for-covid-19-vaccine-candidate-2020-11-09|access-date=9 November 2020|website=MarketWatch}}</ref> On 14 December, ] reported that a variant had been discovered in the UK's southeast, predominantly in ]. The variant, later named ], showed changes to the ] that could make the virus more infectious. As of 13 December, 1,108 infections had been confirmed in the UK.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || title=PHE investigating a novel strain of COVID-19|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/phe-investigating-a-novel-strain-of-covid-19|website=GOV.UK|date=14 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Le Page M, McNamara A |title=Alpha covid-19 variant (B.1.1.7) |url=https://www.newscientist.com/definition/uk-covid-19-variant-b-1-1-7/ |access-date=29 May 2023 |work=New Scientist}}</ref> On 4 February 2020, US Secretary of Health and Human Services ] waived liability for vaccine manufacturers in all cases except those involving "willful misconduct".<ref name="mXTUz">{{#invoke:cite web||date=4 February 2020|title=Notice of Declaration under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act for medical countermeasures against COVID-19|url=https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/legal/prepact/Pages/COVID19.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425015411/https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/legal/prepact/Pages/COVID19.aspx|archive-date=25 April 2020|access-date=22 April 2020|vauthors=Azar A}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Sigalos M |title=You can't sue Pfizer or Moderna if you have severe Covid vaccine side effects. The government likely won't compensate you for damages either |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/16/covid-vaccine-side-effects-compensation-lawsuit.html |access-date=29 May 2023 |work=CNBC |date=17 December 2020 }}</ref>
The ] and the ], which regulates China's civil aviation and operates rail services, announced on 24 January that passengers could have full refunds for their plane and train tickets without any additional surcharges, regardless of whether their flight or train will go through Wuhan or not. Some hotel chains and online travel agencies also allowed more flexibility in cancellations and changes.<ref name="20200124reuters-refunds">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-business-factbox/factbox-as-virus-spreads-hotels-airlines-offer-refunds-stores-close-idUSKBN1ZN0T2 |title=Factbox: As virus spreads, hotels, airlines offer refunds, stores close |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126180531/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-business-factbox/factbox-as-virus-spreads-hotels-airlines-offer-refunds-stores-close-idUSKBN1ZN0T2 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5622587 |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126180503/https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5622587 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=thepaper.cn / Pengpai News |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:今起全国飞机、火车免费退票 |trans-title=Free ticket refunds offer to planes and trains nation-wide from today}}</ref> ] ordered travel agencies and online tourism firms to suspend ]s and stop offering "flight+hotel" bundles.<ref name="20200124bloomberg">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-24/china-orders-travel-agencies-to-suspend-all-tour-sales |title=China Orders Travel Agencies to Suspend Tours to Contain Virus Outbreak |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126173703/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-24/china-orders-travel-agencies-to-suspend-all-tour-sales |archive-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=Bloomburg}}</ref><ref name="CaixinJan26QianTong" />


=== 2021 ===
Additional provinces and cities outside of Hubei imposed travel restrictions. Beijing suspended all ]s on 25 January,<ref name="chinadaily310128217273397">{{Cite news |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/25/WS5e2c30fea310128217273397.html |title=Beijing to suspend interprovincial road transport starting Sunday |work=China Daily |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> with several others following suit. Shanghai, Tianjin, ], ], and ] all announced suspension of intercity or inter-province bus services on 26 January.<ref name="CaixinJan26QianTong" />
{{Hatnote|Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021 by month: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]}}
On 2 January, the ] variant, first discovered in the UK, had been identified in 33 countries.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Hauck G |title=More contagious COVID-19 strain identified in 3 states and 33 countries: What to know |date= 15 January 2021 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2021/01/02/new-covid-strain-b-117-explained/4112125001/ |website=USA Today |access-date=2 January 2021}}</ref> On 6 January, the ] was first identified in Japanese travellers returning from Brazil.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || title=Genomic characterisation of an emergent SARS-CoV-2 lineage in Manaus: preliminary findings |url=https://virological.org/t/genomic-characterisation-of-an-emergent-sars-cov-2-lineage-in-manaus-preliminary-findings/586 |website=Virological |access-date=6 May 2021 |date=12 January 2021}}</ref> On 29 January, it was reported that the Novavax vaccine was 49 per cent effective against the ] variant in a clinical trial in South Africa.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Nedelman M |title=South Carolina detects first US cases of coronavirus strain first seen in South Africa |date=28 January 2021 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/28/health/south-carolina-variant-south-africa/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Johnson CY |title=Novavax vaccine protects against coronavirus in variant hot spots but proved less effective against strain in South Africa |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/01/28/covid-vaccine-variant-south-africa/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref> The ] was reported to be 50.4 per cent effective in a Brazil clinical trial.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||title=COVID variants test immunity, NIH chief and China's mixed vaccine data |journal=Nature |page=497 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00186-w |date=27 January 2021|volume=589 |issue=7843 |bibcode=2021Natur.589..497. |doi-access=free }}</ref>


], Brazil, in March 2021]]
]
On 12 March, several countries stopped using the ] due to blood clotting problems, specifically ] (CVST).<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || title=AstraZeneca defends COVID vaccine as handful of nations pause use over fear of blood clots |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/astrazeneca-defends-covid-vaccine-as-handful-of-nations-pause-use-over-fear-of-blood-clots/ |publisher=CBS News |access-date=14 March 2021}}</ref> On 20 March, the WHO and European Medicines Agency found no link to ], leading several countries to resume administering the vaccine.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=20 March 2021|title=WHO renews backing for AstraZeneca's COVID-19 jab as European countries resume vaccinations|work=]|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/who-renews-backing-for-astrazeneca-s-covid-19-jab-as-european-countries-resume-vaccinations|access-date=21 March 2021}}</ref> In March WHO reported that an animal host was the most likely origin, without ruling out other possibilities.<ref name="who-origins-20210330">{{#invoke:cite web||date=30 March 2021|title=WHO-convened global study of origins of SARS-CoV-2: China Part|url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-china-part|access-date=31 March 2021|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref><ref name="Maxmen2021whoReport" /> The ] was first identified in India. In mid-April, the variant was first detected in the UK and two months later it had become a full-fledged third wave in the country, forcing the government to delay reopening that was originally scheduled for June.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Callaway E | title = Delta coronavirus variant: scientists brace for impact | journal = Nature | volume = 595 | issue = 7865 | pages = 17–18 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34158664 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-01696-3 | bibcode = 2021Natur.595...17C | s2cid = 235609029 }}</ref> On 10 November, Germany advised against the ] for people under 30, due to a possible association with ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Germany Advises Against Moderna Covid Vaccine For People Under 30|url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/germany-advises-against-moderna-covid-vaccine-for-people-under-30-2605574|access-date=23 December 2021|website=NDTV.com}}</ref> On 24 November, the ] was detected in South Africa; a few days later the WHO declared it a VoC (variant of concern).<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Fink J |title=Omicron variant that may resist vaccines found in all U.S. states |url=https://www.newsweek.com/omicron-variant-that-may-resist-vaccines-found-all-us-states-1656826 |website=Newsweek |access-date=25 December 2021 |date=22 December 2021}}</ref> The new variant is more infectious than the Delta variant.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Karim SS, Karim QA | title = Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant: a new chapter in the COVID-19 pandemic | journal = Lancet | volume = 398 | issue = 10317 | pages = 2126–2128 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34871545 | pmc = 8640673 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02758-6 }}</ref>{{clear}}


=== 2022 ===
On 1 February 2020, Xinhua News reported that China's ] (SPP) has "asked procuratorates nationwide to fully play their role to create a favourable judicial environment in the fight against the novel coronavirus outbreak." This includes severe punishments for those found guilty of dereliction of duty and the withholding of information for officials. Tougher charges were proscribed for commercial criminal activities such as "the pushing up of prices, profiteering and severely disturbing market order" along with the "production and sale of fake and shoddy protective equipment and medicines." Prosecuting actions against patients who deliberately spread the infection or refuse examination or compulsory isolation along with threats of violence against medical personnel were also urged. The statement also included urging to prosecute those found "fabricating coronavirus-related information that may lead to panic among the public, making up and spreading rumors about the virus, sabotaging the implementation of the law and endangering public security" and also stressed harsh punishment for the illegal hunting of wildlife under state protection, as well as improving inspection and quarantine measures for fresh food and meat products."<ref name="xinhuanet138747853">{{cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-02/01/c_138747853.htm |title=Chinese prosecutors urged to toughen crackdown on epidemic-related crimes |access-date=2 February 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201232412/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-02/01/c_138747853.htm |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
]
{{Hatnote|Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022 by month: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]}}


On 1 January, Europe passed 100 million cases amidst a surge in the ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Europe Tops 100 Million Coronavirus Cases in Pandemic |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/omicron-coronavirus-variant-sweeps-across-the-globe/6377972.html |website=VOA |date=January 2022 |access-date=2 January 2022 }}</ref> Later that month, the WHO recommended the ] drug ] for severe or critical patients. It also recommended the monoclonal antibody ] in patients with non-severe disease, but only those who are at highest risk of hospitalisation.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kmietowicz Z |title=Covid-19: WHO recommends baricitinib and sotrovimab to treat patients |journal=BMJ |date=13 January 2022 |volume=376 |pages=o97 |doi=10.1136/bmj.o97 |pmid=35027362 |s2cid=245907930 |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/376/bmj.o97 |access-date=29 May 2023}}</ref>
Museums throughout China are temporarily closed.<ref name=":12">{{cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/chinas-museums-offer-online-exhibitions-amid-coronavirus-outbreak/ar-BBZEOr6 |title=China's museums offer online exhibitions amid coronavirus outbreak |publisher=MSN |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205071609/https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/chinas-museums-offer-online-exhibitions-amid-coronavirus-outbreak/ar-BBZEOr6 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecns.cn/news/2020-01-29/detail-ifzsyram6093862.shtml |title=China opens more online exhibitions amid virus outbreak |website=ecns.cn |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131010717/http://www.ecns.cn/news/2020-01-29/detail-ifzsyram6093862.shtml |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> To provide cultural and heritage seekers some form of service, the Chinese Nation Cultural Heritage Administration (NCHA) has asked museums around the country to move their exhibits and galleries temporarily online.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncha.gov.cn/art/2020/1/28/art_722_158541.html |title=关于向"博物馆网上展览平台"提供网上展览内容资源的倡议书 |website=ncha.gov.cn |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205071612/http://www.ncha.gov.cn/art/2020/1/28/art_722_158541.html |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> This is done via a specific program that the NCHA is launching.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13">{{cite web |url=http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2020-02/04/content_75670987.htm |title=At home with history – China.org.cn |website=china.org.cn |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204225021/http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2020-02/04/content_75670987.htm |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some museums are also putting the content on their own website, social media, or even social chat apps and rooms like WeChat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3920c9a310128217274cac.html |title=East China province launches online exhibitions amid epidemic – Chinadaily.com.cn |last=胡哲 |website=China Daily |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205071946/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3920c9a310128217274cac.html |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of the content will be available on a NCHA website web page, however it is only accessible inside of China.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /> However, there are a few excerpts from the main created exhibition website that are on the NCHA general information page that are linked too, that are accessible outside of China.<ref name=":12" />


On 24 January, the ] estimated that about 57% of the world's population had been infected by COVID-19.<ref name="57percent1">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID-19 Results Briefing |url=https://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/1_briefing_Global_5.pdf |website=healthdata.org |access-date=7 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="57percent2">{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID Evaluation Model Estimates 57 Percent of World Population Infected at Least Once |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/medical/covid-evaluation-model-estimates-57-percent-of-world-population-infected-at-least-once/ar-AAT6yyz?ocid=BingNewsSearch |website=MSN |access-date=7 February 2022}}</ref> By 6 March, it was reported that the total worldwide death count had surpassed 6&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = McPhillips D |title=Global Covid-19 deaths surpass 6 million |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/03/07/health/global-covid-deaths-surpass-six-million/index.html |website=CNN |date=7 March 2022 |access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref> By 6 July, Omicron subvariants ] and ] had spread worldwide.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=BA.5, now dominant U.S. variant, may pose the biggest threat to immune protection yet |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/omicron-ba5-ba4-covid-symptoms-vaccines-rcna36894 |website=NBC News |date=7 July 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 }}</ref> WHO Director-General Tedros Ghebreyesus stated on 14 September 2022, that " never been in a better position to end the pandemic", citing the lowest number of weekly reported deaths since March 2020. He continued, "We are not there yet. But the end is in sight—we can see the finish line".<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1126621 | title=The end of the COVID-19 pandemic is in sight: WHO | date=14 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/who-chief-says-end-sight-covid-19-pandemic-2022-09-14/ | title=End of COVID pandemic is 'in sight' – WHO chief | newspaper=Reuters | date=14 September 2022 | vauthors = Mishra M }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/covid-pandemic-who-says-end-in-sight-deaths-drop-rcna47680 | title=WHO says 'end is in sight' for the Covid pandemic as global deaths hit lowest since March 2020 | website=] }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/14/health/pandemic-end-in-sight-who/index.html | title=The end of the pandemic is in sight, WHO director-general says, 'so let's seize this opportunity' | website=] | date=14 September 2022 }}</ref>
==== Interprovincial medical aid ====


On 21 October, the United States surpassed 99 million cases of COVID-19, the most cases of any country.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Coronavirus Morning News Brief – Oct. 21: More Americans Are Getting the Updated Vaccine, BA.5 Continues Dominance in U.S. |url=https://www.frequentbusinesstraveler.com/2022/10/coronavirus-morning-news-brief-oct-21-more-americans-are-getting-the-updated-vaccine-ba-5-continues-dominance-in-u-s/ |website=Frequent Business Traveller |access-date=21 October 2022}}</ref> By 30 October, the worldwide daily death toll was 424, the lowest since 385 deaths were reported on 12 March 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID-19 world weekly cases down 19% but new subvariant spreading |url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2022/10/30/COVID-19-world-weekly-cases-down-19-but-new-subvariant-spreading/8241667141393/ |website=UPI |access-date=2 November 2022 }}</ref> 17 November marked the three-year anniversary since health officials in China first detected COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=What day is the real anniversary of the COVID-19 pandemic? |url=https://theweek.com/articles/971043/what-day-real-anniversary-covid19-pandemic |website=The Week |date=9 March 2021 |access-date=5 November 2022 }}</ref>
As of 16 February 2020, 217 teams of a total of 25,633 medical workers from across China went to Wuhan and other cities in Hubei to help open up more facilities and treat patients.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/16/content_5479534.htm|title=各地逾2.5万名医疗队员支援湖北|date=16 February 2020|author=People's Daily}}</ref>


On 11 November, the WHO reported that deaths since the month of February had dropped 90 per cent. Director-General Tedros said this was "cause for optimism".<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=WHO reports 90% drop in global COVID-19 deaths since February |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/medical/who-reports-90-25-drop-in-global-covid-19-deaths-since-february/ar-AA13ZU6n |website=MSN |access-date=11 November 2022}}</ref> On 3 December, the WHO indicated that, "at least 90% of the world's population has some level of immunity to Sars-CoV-2".<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=WHO estimates 90% of world have some resistance to Covid |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/03/who-estimates-90-of-world-have-some-resistance-to-covid |website=The Guardian |access-date=3 December 2022 |date=3 December 2022}}</ref> In early December, China began lifting some of its most stringent lockdown measures. Subsequent data from China's health authorities revealed that 248&nbsp;million people, nearly 18 per cent of its population, had been infected in the first 20 days of that month.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=China Estimates Covid Surge Is Infecting 37 Million People a Day |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-12-23/china-estimates-covid-surge-is-infecting-37-million-people-a-day |website=Bloomberg |date=23 December 2022}}</ref> On 29 December, the US joined Italy, Japan, Taiwan and India in requiring negative COVID-19 test results from all people travelling from China due to the new surge in cases. The EU refused similar measures, stating that the BF7 omicron variant had already spread throughout Europe without becoming dominant.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=US will require COVID-19 testing for travelers from China |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/health-news/us-will-require-covid-19-testing-for-travelers-from-china/ar-AA15KHjS |website=MSN |access-date=29 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=EU calls screening of travellers from China 'unjustified' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64119080 |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=BBC News |date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229164230/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64119080 |archive-date=29 December 2022}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="font-size:10pt;text-align:right;"
|+class="nowrap" | <u>List of interprovincial medical aid teams that went into Hubei</u>
! Date
!style="width:15%;" | ] / ] / ]
! City/Region
!style="width:15%;" | Hospital
! Batch
! Team size
!style="width:15%;" | Equipment
! Dst. City
!style="width:15%;" | Dst. Hospital
! Ref
|-
| 25 Jan
| Shanghai
|
|
| 1
| 136
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/25/content_5472195.htm#1|title=上海医疗队抵达武汉后进行培训_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 27 Jan
| Beijing
|
|
| 1
| 136
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/27/content_5472543.htm#1|title=北京市属医院医疗队驰援武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 27 Jan
| Jiangxi
|
|
| 1
| 138
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/27/content_5472504.htm#1|title=江西省第一批援助武汉医疗队启程出发_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 28 Jan
| Zhejiang
|
|
| 2
| 149
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/28/content_5472801.htm#1|title=浙江：第二批紧急医疗队驰援武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 28 Jan
| Heilongjiang
|
| Affiliated Hospitals of Harbin Medical University
| 1
| 137
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/28/content_5472642.htm#1|title=黑龙江省援助医疗队奔赴武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 29 Jan
| Shanghai
|
|
| 2
| 148
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/29/content_5472826.htm#1|title=上海第二批援鄂医疗队驰援武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 29 Jan
| Tianjin
|
|
| 2
| 138
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/29/content_5472825.htm#1|title=天津第二批医疗队出发驰援武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 29 Jan
| Inner Mongolia
|
|
| 1
| 139
|
|
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/29/content_5472820.htm#1|title=内蒙古自治区赴湖北首批医疗队启程_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 3 Feb
| Jilin
|
|
| 2
| 118
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/03/content_5474108.htm|title=吉林省第二批援鄂医疗队出发_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 4 Feb
| Xinjiang
| Karamay, Turpan, Kashgar
|
| 2
| 102
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/05/content_5474750.htm#1|title=新疆第二批援鄂医疗队整装出征_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 5 Feb
| Gansu
|
|
| 2
| 100
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/05/content_5474773.htm#1|title=甘肃省第二批援鄂护理专业医疗队出征_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 5 Feb
| Anhui
|
|
| 2
| 100
|
|
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/05/content_5474770.htm#1|title=安徽省第二批援鄂抗疫医疗队启程_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 5 Feb
| Xinjiang
| Karamay, Turpan, Kashgar
|
| 2
| 102
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref name=autogenerated2 />
|-
| 5 Feb
| Hainan
|
|
| 2
| 100
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/05/content_5474729.htm#1|title=海南援助湖北护理专业医疗队飞赴武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hainan.gov.cn/hainan/5309/202002/44235689e26b4ef3a22378b72facf96e.shtml|title=省援助湖北护理专业医疗队出发侧记_今日海南_海南省人民政府网|website=www.hainan.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 9 Feb
| Shanxi
|
|
| 4
| 300
|
|
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/10/content_5476658.htm#1|title=多地增派医疗队支援湖北_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 9 Feb
| Shanghai
| Shanghai
| Huashan Hospital of Fudan University
|
| 214
| Protective equipment, medicine and food, ventilator, defibrillator, central monitor, ECG monitor, etc.
| Wuhan
| Tongji Hospital Guanggu Branch
| <ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/09/content_5476593.htm|title=上海两支医疗队350名队员奔赴武汉_滚动新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 9 Feb
| Shanghai
| Shanghai
| Ruijin Hospital of Shanghai Jiaotong University
|
| 30+100+6
|
| Wuhan
| Tongji Hospital Guanggu Branch
| <ref name=autogenerated3 />
|-
| 9 Feb
| Jiangsu
| Nanjing, Wuxi, Suzhou
|
| 5
| 956+2
|
| Wuhan
| Severe wards of Tongji Hospital Guanggu Branch
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/09/content_5476591.htm|title=第五批江苏援湖北医疗队958人出发_滚动新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 9 Feb
| Liaoning
| Shanyang
| The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University
|
| 60
|
| Wuhan
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/10/content_5476947.htm#1|title=辽宁60人医疗队驰援武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 11 Feb
| Guizhou
| Guiyang
| The Hospital of Guizhou Medical University
| 4(to Hubei), 2(to Ezhou)
| 337
|
| Ezhou
| Leishan Hospital, Intensive Care Hospital
| <ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/12/content_5477555.htm|title=贵州福建山西医疗队驰援湖北_滚动新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 11 Feb
| Shanxi
|
| Shanxi Bethune Hospital and 6 others
| 5
| 12
|
| Wuhan
| Tongji Hospital Sino-French Xincheng Branch
| <ref name=autogenerated4 />
|-
| 11 Feb
| Shanxi
| Multiple
|
| 6
| 60
|
| Tianmen, Xiantao, Qianjiang
|
| <ref name=autogenerated4 />
|-
| 11 Feb
| Fujian
|
| The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University
| 1 (to Yichang)
| 158
|
| Yichang
| Multiple local hospitals
| <ref name=autogenerated4 />
|-
| 13 Feb
| Tianjin
| Tianjin
| TheTianjin Medical University Hospital System
|
| 160
|
| Wuhan
| Wuhan No.1 Hospital
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/14/content_5478524.htm#1|title=天津：医疗队启程支援武汉_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 14 Feb
| Liaoning
|
|
| 2 (to corr. city)
| 233
|
| Xiangyang
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/14/content_5478921.htm#1|title=辽宁省第二批对口支援湖北襄阳医疗队出征_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 14 Feb
| Hainan
|
|
| 4
| 124
|
|
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/14/content_5478992.htm#1|title=海南省第四批支援湖北医疗队出发_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 14 Feb
| Shanxi
| Taiyuan
| The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University
| 7
| 110
|
|
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/14/content_5478955.htm#1|title=山西省第七批支援湖北医疗队启程_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
| 15 Feb
| Inner Mongolia
| Hohhot, Wuhai, Alxa, Tongliao, Chifeng
|
| 5
| 100+2
|
|
|
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-02/16/content_5479530.htm#1|title=内蒙古第五批支援湖北医疗队启程_图片新闻_中国政府网|website=www.gov.cn}}</ref>
|}


=== 2023 ===
==== Censorship and police responses ====
{{Hatnote|]}}
] to stop "spreading rumours" about a possible 'SARS virus' dated 3 January.]]
On 4 January 2023, the WHO said the information shared by China during the recent surge in infections lacked data, such as hospitalisation rates.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=WHO worried about surge of COVID in China amid lack of info |url=https://apnews.com/article/health-china-covid-19-pandemic-world-organization-2576d9c8c1c1f75b76800edbb476894d |website=AP NEWS |access-date=6 January 2023 |date=4 January 2023}}</ref> On 10 January, the WHO's Europe office said the recent viral surge in China posed "no immediate threat."<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=WHO Europe: no immediate COVID-19 threat from China |url=https://apnews.com/article/health-covid-19-pandemic-china-europe-world-organization-2cead41e96c46b8027c26510bddb0873 |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=AP NEWS |date=10 January 2023 }}</ref> On 16 January, the WHO recommended that China monitor excess mortality to provide "a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of COVID-19".<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Tétrault-Farber G, Rigby J, Farge E |title=WHO recommends that China monitor excess COVID-19 mortality |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/who-recommends-that-china-monitor-excess-covid-19-mortality-2023-01-16/ |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=Reuters |date=16 January 2023 }}</ref>
The first known infection by a new virus was reported in Wuhan on 1 December 2019. The early response by city authorities was accused of prioritising a control of information on the outbreak. A group of eight medical personnel, including ], an ophthalmologist from Wuhan Central Hospital, who in late December posted warnings on a new coronavirus strain akin to SARS, were warned by Wuhan police for "spreading rumours" for likening it to SARS.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.worldjournal.com/6771702/article-新冠肺炎第一個吹哨者-李文亮醫師過世/ |title=新冠肺炎吹哨醫師 李文亮病逝 民眾激憤|date=7 February 2020|website=世界新聞網|language=zh-TW|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51403795|title=Coronavirus kills Chinese whistleblower doctor|date=7 February 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=10 February 2020
|language=en-GB}}</ref>


On 30 January, the three-year anniversary of the original declaration, the WHO determined that COVID-19 still met the criteria for a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC).<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Lasarte D, Sofia LP |title=China's covid cases loom over upcoming WHO meeting on state of the pandemic |url=https://qz.com/covid-pandemic-public-health-emergency-end-who-1850035035 |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=Quartz |date=26 January 2023 }}</ref>
By the time China had informed the ] of the new coronavirus on 31 December 2019, the '']'' reported that the government was still keeping "its own citizens in the dark".<ref name="auto9">{{Cite web |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/the-true-cost-of-chinas-coronavirus-cover-up-how-state-cthrallensorship-let-the-outbreak-spread |title=The true cost of China's coronavirus cover-up: How state censorship let the outbreak spread &#124; National Post |date=7 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/coronavirus-spreads-and-the-world-pays-for-china-s-dictatorship/ar-BBZssgk |title=Coronavirus Spreads, and the World Pays for China's Dictatorship |publisher=MSN |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203144603/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/coronavirus-spreads-and-the-world-pays-for-china-s-dictatorship/ar-BBZssgk |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/23/asia/wuhan-china-coronavirus-sars-response-intl-hnk/index.html |title=Wuhan is the latest crisis to face China's Xi, and it's exposing major flaws in his model of control |last=Griffiths |first=James |publisher=CNN |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208194710/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/23/asia/wuhan-china-coronavirus-sars-response-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=8 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> While by a number of measures, China's initial handling of the crisis was an improvement in relation to the SARS response in 2003, China has been criticised for cover-ups and downplaying the initial discovery and severity of the outbreak. This has been attributed to the censorship institutional structure of the country's press and internet, with the '']'' ] and CSIS's Jude Blanchette suggesting that it was exacerbated by China's ] ]'s crackdown on independent oversight such as journalism and social media that left senior officials with inaccurate information on the outbreak and "contributed to a prolonged period of inaction that allowed the virus to spread".<ref name="auto5">{{cite web |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2020/01/china-s-slow-response-coronavirus-has-shown-weakness-its-centralised-model |title=China's slow response to coronavirus has shown the weakness of its centralised model |website=New Statesman |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128134506/https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2020/01/china-s-slow-response-coronavirus-has-shown-weakness-its-centralised-model |archive-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto12"/><ref name="auto9"/>


On 19 March, WHO Director-General Tedros indicated he was "confident" the COVID-19 pandemic would cease to be a public health emergency by the end of the year.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID-19 pandemic expected to end this year 'as a public health emergency,' says World Health Organization |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/other/covid-19-pandemic-expected-to-end-this-year-as-a-public-health-emergency-says-world-health-organization/ar-AA18OUdE |website=MSN |access-date=20 March 2023}}</ref> On 5 May, the WHO downgraded COVID-19 from being a global health emergency, though it continued to refer to it as a pandemic.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/05/health/covid-who-emergency-end.html|title=W.H.O. Ends Global Health Emergency Designation for Covid|work=]| vauthors = Nolen S |date=5 May 2023|accessdate=5 May 2023}}</ref> The WHO does not make official declarations of when pandemics end.<ref name="reuters">{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Rigby J, Satija B |date=8 May 2023|title=WHO declares end to COVID global health emergency|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/covid-is-no-longer-global-health-emergency-who-2023-05-05/|website=Reuters|access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="guardian">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Gregory A |title=Covid-19 is no longer a global health emergency, says WHO |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/05/covid-19-no-longer-global-health-emergency-world-health-organization |access-date=9 May 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=5 May 2023}}</ref> The decision came after Tedros convened with the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee, wherein the Committee noted that due to the decrease in deaths and hospitalisations, and the prevalence of vaccinations and the level of general immunity, it was time to remove the emergency designation and "transition to long-term management".<ref name="WHO Statement 5 May 2023">{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.who.int/news/item/05-05-2023-statement-on-the-fifteenth-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-19)-pandemic|title=Statement on the fifteenth meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic|publisher=]|date=5 May 2023|accessdate=5 May 2023}}</ref> Tedros agreed, and the WHO reduced the classification to an "established and ongoing health issue".<ref name="WHO Statement 5 May 2023"/> In a press conference, Tedros remarked that the diminishing threat from COVID-19 had "allowed most countries to return to life as we knew it before COVID-19".<ref name="npr">{{#invoke:cite web||date=5 May 2023|title=WHO ends global health emergency declaration for COVID-19|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/05/05/1174269442/who-ends-global-health-emergency-declaration-for-covid-19|website=NPR| vauthors = Heyward G, Silver M |access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>
On 20 January, General Secretary Xi Jinping made his first public remark on the outbreak and spoke of "the need for the timely release of information".<ref name="Politburo meeting" /><ref name="xinhuanet138721535">{{Cite news |url=http://xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/20/c_138721535.htm |title=Xi orders resolute efforts to curb virus spread |date=20 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124174142/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/20/c_138721535.htm |archive-date=24 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref> ] ] also urged efforts to prevent and control the epidemic.<ref name="Premier urged2">{{cite news |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/21/WS5e26556ca31012821727269c.html |title=Chinese premier stresses curbing viral pneumonia epidemic |date=21 January 2020 |website=] |location=Beijing |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122124640/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/21/WS5e26556ca31012821727269c.html |archive-date=22 January 2020 |access-date=22 January 2020 |agency=]}}</ref> One day later, the CPC ], the most powerful political organ in China overseeing legal enforcement and the police, wrote "self-deception will only make the epidemic worse and turn a natural disaster that was controllable into a man-made disaster at great cost," and "only openness can minimise panic to the greatest extent." The commission then added, "anyone who deliberately delays and hides the reporting of cases out of self-interest will be nailed on a pillar of shame for eternity."<ref name="20200122washingtonpost">{{Cite news |last=Fifield |first=Anna |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-officials-urge-people-not-to-travel-in-and-out-of-city-at-center-of-virus-outbreak/2020/01/21/60680d3e-3c2d-11ea-afe2-090eb37b60b1_story.html |title=Chinese officials try to contain virus outbreak as first case confirmed in U.S. |date=22 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124175758/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-officials-urge-people-not-to-travel-in-and-out-of-city-at-center-of-virus-outbreak/2020/01/21/60680d3e-3c2d-11ea-afe2-090eb37b60b1_story.html |archive-date=24 January 2020 |last2=Sun |first2=Lina H. |last3=Bernstein |first3=Lenny}}</ref><ref name="scmp3046984">{{Cite news |last=Zheng |first=William |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3046984/china-warns-cadres-cover-spread-virus-and-be-nailed-pillar |title=China's credibility on the line as it tries to dispels fears it will cover up spread of Wuhan virus |date=21 January 2020 |work=South China Morning Post |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125014942/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3046984/china-warns-cadres-cover-spread-virus-and-be-nailed-pillar |archive-date=25 January 2020 |last2=Lau |first2=Mimi}}</ref> Also on the same day, Xi Jinping instructed authorities "to strengthen the guidance of public opinions", language which some view as a call for censorship after commentators on social media became increasingly pointedly critical and angry at the government due to the epidemic. Some view this as contradictory to the calls for "openness" that the central government had already declared.<ref name="WSJ">{{Cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-strains-to-stamp-out-coronavirus-criticisms-at-home-11580207403 |title=China Strains to Stamp Out Coronavirus Criticisms at Home |last=Wei |first=Lingling |date=28 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=29 January 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>


In September the WHO said it had observed "concerning" trends in COVID-19 case numbers and hospitalisations, although analysis was hampered because many countries were no longer recording COVID-19 case statistics.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||publisher=Al Jazeera |title=WHO sees 'concerning' COVID trends before winter as hospitalisations rise |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/6/who-sees-concerning-covid-trends-before-winter-as-hospitalisations |date=6 September 2023 |access-date=31 October 2023 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031093332/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/6/who-sees-concerning-covid-trends-before-winter-as-hospitalisations |url-status=live }}</ref>
Statements were issued by Xi Jinping on 3 February declaring the need for an emphasis by state media on "telling the moving stories of how people on the front line are preventing and fighting the virus," as a priority of coverage which led to allegations by international observers that positive press coverage in the state media was a tactic to protect Xi and the central government.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shih|first=Gerry|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-coronavirus-outbreak-chinas-leaders-scramble-to-avert-a-chernobyl-moment/2020/01/29/bc4eb52a-4250-11ea-99c7-1dfd4241a2fe_story.html|title=In coronavirus outbreak, China's leaders scramble to avert a Chernobyl moment|date=29 January 2020|access-date=12 February 2020|website=]}}</ref> Top official Zhang Xiaoguo, who directed governmental public relations, said that his department would "treat propaganda regarding the control and prevention measures of the virus as its top priority"<ref name="auto102">{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1798070/china-seeks-to-create-positive-media-coverage-about-coronavirus/|title=China is dispatching journalists to tell the coronavirus story it wants its people to hear|last=Li|first=Jane|website=Quartz|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207143412/https://qz.com/1798070/china-seeks-to-create-positive-media-coverage-about-coronavirus/|archive-date=7 February 2020|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="auto32">{{Cite news|last=Zhong|first=Raymond|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/27/technology/china-coronavirus-censorship-social-media.html|title=As Virus Spreads, Anger Floods Chinese Social Media|date=27 January 2020|access-date=10 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128115157/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/27/technology/china-coronavirus-censorship-social-media.html|archive-date=28 January 2020|website=]}}</ref> The ] (CAC) declared its intent to foster a "good online atmosphere," with CAC notices sent to video platforms encouraging them to "not to push any negative story, and not to conduct non-official livestreaming on the virus."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-censorship-idUSKBN2051BP|title=China's online censors tighten grip after brief coronavirus respite|date=11 February 2020|work=Reuters|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>


In November 2023, in response to viral mutations and changing characteristics of infection, the WHO adjusted its treatment guidelines. Among other changes, remdesivir and molnupiravir&nbsp;were now recommended only for the most severe cases, and ] and ivermectin were recommended against.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||journal=BMJ |type=Press release |date=9 November 2023 |title=WHO updates its guidance on treatments for COVID-19 |url=https://www.bmj.com/company/newsroom/who-updates-its-guidance-on-treatments-for-covid-19/}}</ref>
Censorship has been observed being applied on news articles and social media posts deemed to hold negative tones about the coronavirus and the governmental response, including posts mocking Xi Jinping for not visiting areas of the epidemic,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kuo|first=Lily|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/04/blame-xi-jinping-absence-coronavirus-frontline-china-crisis|title=Taking credit, avoiding blame? Xi Jinping's absence from coronavirus frontline|date=4 February 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=5 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204231032/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/04/blame-xi-jinping-absence-coronavirus-frontline-china-crisis|archive-date=4 February 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and an article that predicted negative effects of the epidemic on the economy, and calls to remove local government officials.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/31/asia/wuhan-virus-china-censorship-intl-hnk/index.html|title=China is waking up to the dangers of knee-jerk censorship in a crisis|last=Griffiths|first=James|publisher=CNN|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202033436/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/31/asia/wuhan-virus-china-censorship-intl-hnk/index.html|archive-date=2 February 2020|access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/g5xykx/you-can-now-go-to-jail-in-china-for-criticizing-beijings-coronavirus-response|title=You Can Now Go to Jail in China for Criticizing Beijing's Coronavirus Response|last=Gilbert|first=David|date=30 January 2020|website=Vice|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131082945/https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/g5xykx/you-can-now-go-to-jail-in-china-for-criticizing-beijings-coronavirus-response|archive-date=31 January 2020|access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref> Chinese citizens have reportedly used innovative methods to avoid censorship to express anger about how government officials have handled the initial outbreak response, such as using the word 'Trump' to refer to Xi Jinping, or 'Chernobyl' to refer to the outbreak as a whole.<ref name="auto3"/> While censorship had been briefly relaxed giving a "window of about two weeks in which Chinese journalists were able to publish hard-hitting stories exposing the mishandling of the novel coronavirus by officials", since then private news outlets were reportedly required to use "planned and controlled publicity" with the authorities' consent.<ref name="auto3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thechronicleherald.ca/news/world/chinas-online-censors-tighten-grip-after-brief-coronavirus-respite-409652/|title=China's online censors tighten grip after brief coronavirus respite &#124; The Chronicle Herald|last=Inc|first=Reuters|website=www.thechronicleherald.ca}}</ref> Reports have described how police have detained people for online posts critical of authorities' response to the epidemic, with a case on 25 January in Tianjin where a man was detained for ten days for "maliciously publishing aggressive, insulting speech against medical personnel".<ref name="twitter12212680972">{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/watchwci/status/1221268097094553600|title=新悉 #网络政治犯 天津李某某（男，28岁）于2020.1.25被天津匪警处以行拘10日，理由是匪警发现李在微信朋友圈批评新非典肺炎的地区及医生。pic.twitter.com/9vKoo113Q3|last=墙国网络观察|date=25 January 2020|website=@watchwci|language=zh|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128235052/https://twitter.com/watchwci/status/1221268097094553600|archive-date=28 January 2020|access-date=2 February 2020}}{{Primary source inline|date=February 2020}}</ref>


== Responses ==
On 30 January, ], delivered a rare rebuke against the country's police forces, calling the "unreasonably harsh crackdown on online rumours" as undermining public trust. In what has been called a "highly unusual criticism" by observers, supreme court judge Tang Xinghua said that if police had been lenient against rumours and allowed the public to have taken heed of them, an earlier adoption of "measures like wearing masks, strictly disinfecting and avoiding wildlife markets" might have been useful in countering the spread of the epidemic.<ref name="20200130Guardian">{{Cite news |last=Gayle |first=Alison Rourke (now); Molly Blackall Damien |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/jan/30/coronavirus-live-updates-china-death-toll-wuhan-evacuation-foreign-nationals-citizens-latest-news |title=Virus death toll reaches 213 in China – as it happened |date=31 January 2020 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2 February 2020 |last2=Weaver |first2=Matthew |issn=0261-3077 |last3=Murray |first3=Jessica |last4=Rourke (earlier) |first4=Alison |last5=Doherty |first5=Ben |last6=Doherty |first6=Ben |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130002626/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/jan/30/coronavirus-live-updates-china-death-toll-wuhan-evacuation-foreign-nationals-citizens-latest-news |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] stated that "there is considerable misinformation on Chinese social media and authorities have legitimate reasons to counter false information that can cause public panic," but also noted censorship by the authorities on social media posted by families of infected people who were potentially seeking help as well as by people living in cordoned cities who were documenting their daily lives amidst the lockdown.<ref name="20200130hrw">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/30/china-respect-rights-coronavirus-response |title=China: Respect Rights in Coronavirus Response |date=30 January 2020 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=31 January 2020 |last3=t 1.212.290.4700 |first3=NY 10118-3299 USA {{!}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203095738/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/30/china-respect-rights-coronavirus-response |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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{{Main|COVID-19 lockdowns|COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory|National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
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{{Block indent|{{legend|#003380|National lockdown}}{{legend|#80b3ff|Subnational lockdown}}{{legend|silver|No lockdown}}|left=2}}]] -->
National reactions ranged from strict lockdowns to public education campaigns.<ref name="IVdfl" /> WHO recommended that curfews and lockdowns should be short-term measures to reorganise, regroup, rebalance resources, and protect the health care system.<ref name="58tIM">{{#invoke:cite news || url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-12/world-health-organization-coronavirus-lockdown-advice/12753688 | title =WHO doctor says lockdowns should not be main coronavirus defence | vauthors = Doyle M | date =11 October 2020 | newspaper =ABC News | access-date =25 October 2020}}</ref> As of 26 March 2020, 1.7&nbsp;billion people worldwide were under some form of lockdown.<ref name="theguardian500000">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Jones S, Kassam A |title=Spain defends response to coronavirus as global cases exceed 500,000 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/26/spanish-coronavirus-deaths-slow-as-world-nears-500000-cases |access-date=29 March 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=26 March 2020}}</ref> This increased to 3.9&nbsp;billion people by the first week of April—more than half the ].<ref name="20200403euronews">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Coronavirus: Half of humanity now on lockdown as 90 countries call for confinement |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/04/02/coronavirus-in-europe-spain-s-death-toll-hits-10-000-after-record-950-new-deaths-in-24-hou |work=] |date=3 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200328businessinsider">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=A third of the global population is on coronavirus lockdown – here's our constantly updated list of countries and restrictions |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/countries-on-lockdown-coronavirus-italy-2020-3 |work=Business Insider |date=28 March 2020}}</ref>


In several countries, ] such as lockdowns. A February 2021 study found that protests against restrictions were likely to directly increase the spread of the virus.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||date=9 February 2021 |title=German anti-lockdown protests led to more coronavirus cases, study finds |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/anti-corona-restrictions-protests-responsible-for-coronavirus-outbreak-study-shows/ |access-date=17 February 2021 |website=Politico}}</ref>
After the death of ], who was widely hailed as a whistleblower in China on 7 February, some of the trending hashtags on ] such as "Wuhan government owes Dr Li Wenliang an apology" and "We want freedom of speech" were blocked.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51409801|title=Li Wenliang: Coronavirus death of Wuhan doctor sparks outpouring of anger|date=7 February 2020|work=]|access-date=10 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207062254/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51409801|archive-date=7 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Graham-Harrison|first=Emma|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/07/coronavirus-chinese-rage-death-whistleblower-doctor-li-wenliang|title='Hero who told the truth': Chinese rage over coronavirus death of whistleblower doctor|date=6 February 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=10 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207062759/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/07/coronavirus-chinese-rage-death-whistleblower-doctor-li-wenliang|archive-date=7 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/27/technology/china-coronavirus-censorship-social-media.html |title=As Virus Spreads, Anger Floods Chinese Social Media |last=Zhong |first=Raymond |date=27 January 2020 |website=The New York Times |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128115157/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/27/technology/china-coronavirus-censorship-social-media.html |archive-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> While media outlets were allowed to report his death, the nature of the doctor's censorship which produced widespread public anger in the aftermath, in what has been described as "one of the biggest outpourings of online criticism of the government in years," was not a topic that was permitted for coverage.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/07/li-wenliangs-death-is-a-new-crisis-for-chinas-rulers|title=Li Wenliang's death is a new crisis for China's rulers|work=The Economist|access-date=12 February 2020|issn=0013-0613}}</ref> One such media outlet even sending notices to editors, and leaked to reporters, asking them to refrain from "commenting or speculating" and giving instructions to "not hashtag and let the topic gradually die out from the hot search list, and guard against harmful information."<ref name="auto13">{{cite web|url=https://nationalpost.com/opinion/terry-glavin-china-is-disappearing-coronavirus-truth-seekers|title=Terry Glavin: China is 'disappearing' coronavirus truth-seekers &#124; National Post|last=Comment|first=Full|date=12 February 2020}}</ref> After attempts to discourage the discussion on Dr. Li's death further escalated online anger, the central government has reportedly attempted to reshape the narrative by "cast Dr. Li's death as the nation's sacrifice — meaning, the Chinese Communist Party's own".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twnews.us/us-news/the-coronavirus-story-is-too-big-for-china-to-spin|title=The Coronavirus Story is Too Big for China to Spin|website=The Coronavirus Story is Too Big for China to Spin}}</ref> A group of Chinese academics including ] of ] signed an open letter calling for the central government to issue an apology to Dr. Li and to protect freedom of speech.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/11/coronavirus-outspoken-academic-blames-xi-jinping-for-catastrophe-sweeping-china|title=Coronavirus: outspoken academic blames Xi Jinping for 'catastrophe' sweeping China|first=Lily|last=Kuo|date=11 February 2020|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref> Professor Zhou Lian of ] has observed that the epidemic has “allowed more people to see the institutional factors behind the outbreak and the importance of freedom of speech”.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-as-the-coronavirus-spreads-china-is-losing-control-online/|title=As the coronavirus spreads, China is losing its control online|via=The Globe and Mail}}</ref>


=== International responses === === Asia ===
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Asia}}
{{See also|Timeline of the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak in December 2019 – January 2020#Reactions and measures outside Mainland China|Timeline of the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak in February 2020#Reactions and measures outside Mainland China}}
As of the end of 2021, Asia's peak had come at the same time and at the same level as the world as a whole, in May 2021.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=COVID-19 Data Explorer|url=https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer?zoomToSelection=true&time=2020-04-11..latest&facet=none&pickerSort=asc&pickerMetric=location&Metric=Confirmed+cases&Interval=7-day+rolling+average&Relative+to+Population=true&Align+outbreaks=false&country=USA~South+America~Asia~Europe~Africa~OWID_WRL|url-status=live|access-date=9 December 2021|website=Our World in Data|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209081315/https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer?zoomToSelection=true&time=2020-04-11..latest&facet=none&pickerSort=asc&pickerMetric=location&Metric=Confirmed+cases&Interval=7-day+rolling+average&Relative+to+Population=true&Align+outbreaks=false&country=USA~South+America~Asia~Europe~Africa~OWID_WRL |archive-date=9 December 2021 }}</ref> However, cumulatively they had experienced only half of the global average in cases.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=COVID-19 Data Explorer|url=https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer?zoomToSelection=true&time=2020-04-11..latest&facet=none&pickerSort=asc&pickerMetric=location&Metric=Confirmed+cases&Interval=Cumulative&Relative+to+Population=true&Align+outbreaks=false&country=USA~South+America~Asia~Europe~Africa~OWID_WRL|url-status=live|access-date=9 December 2021|website=Our World in Data|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209081315/https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer?zoomToSelection=true&time=2020-04-11..latest&facet=none&pickerSort=asc&pickerMetric=location&Metric=Confirmed+cases&Interval=Cumulative&Relative+to+Population=true&Align+outbreaks=false&country=USA~South+America~Asia~Europe~Africa~OWID_WRL |archive-date=9 December 2021 }}</ref>
]
] in ], advising students not to travel to China]]
Since 31 December 2019, some regions and countries near China tightened their screening of selected travellers.<ref name="Parry20Jan2020" /> The ] (CDC) of the United States later issued a Level 1 travel watch.<ref name="CDC6Jan2020">{{cite web|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/watch/pneumonia-china|title=Pneumonia of Unknown Cause in China – Watch – Level 1, Practice Usual Precautions – Travel Health Notices|date=6 January 2020|website=]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108143634/https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/watch/pneumonia-china|archive-date=8 January 2020|access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Schnirring6Jan20">{{cite web |url=http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/questions-still-swirl-over-chinas-unexplained-pneumonia-outbreak |title=Questions still swirl over China's unexplained pneumonia outbreak |last=Schnirring |first=Lisa |date=6 January 2020 |website=CIDRAP |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106222635/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/questions-still-swirl-over-chinas-unexplained-pneumonia-outbreak |archive-date=6 January 2020 |access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref> Guidances and risk assessments were shortly posted by others including the ] and ].<ref name="PHE23Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-and-avian-flu-advice-for-travel-to-china |title=Wuhan novel coronavirus and avian flu: advice for travel to China |date=23 January 2020 |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200120181905/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-and-avian-flu-advice-for-travel-to-china |archive-date=20 January 2020 |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref> In China, airports, railway stations and coach stations installed infrared thermometers. Travellers with a measured fever are taken to medical institutions after being registered and given masks.<ref name="Guardian19Jan2020">{{cite web | last=Sample | first=Ian | title=Coronavirus: China reports 17 new cases of Sars-like mystery virus | website=] | date=19 January 2020 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/19/coronavirus-china-reports-17-new-cases-of-sars-like-mystery-virus | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213215417/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/19/coronavirus-china-reports-17-new-cases-of-sars-like-mystery-virus | archive-date=13 February 2020 | url-status=live | access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> Real time Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (rRT-PCR) test was used to confirm new cases of coronavirus infection.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai4c.com/2020/01/24/rrt-pcr-a-method-to-confirm-wuhan-coronavirus-case/ |title=rRT-PCR, a method to confirm Wuhan coronavirus case – Artificial Intelligence for Chemistry-US |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>


] constructed in ] in February 2020]]
An analysis of air travel patterns was used to map out and predict patterns of spread and was published in the '']'' in mid-January 2020. Based on information from the ] (2018), ], Hong Kong, Tokyo, and ] had the largest volume of travellers from Wuhan. ], Sydney and ] were also reported as popular destinations for people travelling from Wuhan. Using the validated tool, the Infectious Disease Vulnerability Index (IDVI), to assess the ability to manage a disease threat, ] was reported as least able in preparedness, while cities in Australia were considered most able.<ref name="Schnirring14Jan2020">{{cite web |url=http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/report-thailands-coronavirus-patient-didnt-visit-outbreak-market |title=Report: Thailand's coronavirus patient didn't visit outbreak market |last=Schnirring |first=Lisa |date=14 January 2020 |website=CIDRAP |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114230152/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/01/report-thailands-coronavirus-patient-didnt-visit-outbreak-market |archive-date=14 January 2020 |access-date=15 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Bagoch2020">{{Cite journal |last=Bogoch |first=Isaac I. |last2=Watts |first2=Alexander |last3=Thomas-Bachli |first3=Andrea |last4=Huber |first4=Carmen |last5=Kraemer |first5=Moritz U. G. |last6=Khan |first6=Kamran |date=14 January 2020 |title=Pneumonia of Unknown Etiology in Wuhan, China: Potential for International Spread Via Commercial Air Travel |journal=Journal of Travel Medicine |doi=10.1093/jtm/taaa008 |pmid=31943059}}</ref>
China opted for containment, instituting strict lockdowns to eliminate viral spread.<ref name=":02">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Burki T | title = China's successful control of COVID-19 | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 11 | pages = 1240–1241 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33038941 | pmc = 7544475 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30800-8 }}</ref><ref>Multiple sources:
* {{#invoke:Cite magazine|| vauthors = Hessler P |title=How China Controlled the Coronavirus|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/08/17/how-china-controlled-the-coronavirus|access-date=4 January 2021|magazine=The New Yorker}}
* {{#invoke:cite web || title=China's response shows how bold decision-making can contain coronavirus|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/chinas-response-shows-how-bold-decision-making-can-contain-coronavirus/|access-date=4 January 2021|website=World Economic Forum|date=11 March 2020 }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kupferschmidt K, Cohen J |date=2 March 2020|title=China's aggressive measures have slowed the coronavirus. They may not work in other countries|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/china-s-aggressive-measures-have-slowed-coronavirus-they-may-not-work-other-countries|journal=Science|doi=10.1126/science.abb5426|s2cid=216508232}}</ref> The vaccines distributed in China included the ], ], and ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||vauthors=Pike LL |title=In China, nearly 1 million people have reportedly already gotten a coronavirus vaccine |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/11/25/21612338/does-china-have-a-covid-19-vaccine-1-million-sinopharm-sinovac |website=Vox |access-date=26 November 2020 |date=25 November 2020}}</ref> It was reported on 11 December 2021, that China had vaccinated 1.162&nbsp;billion of its citizens, or 82.5% of the total population of the country against COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=China vaccinates over 80% of its people against COVID-19 |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/china-vaccinates-over-80-its-people-against-covid-19-2021-12-11/ |website=Reuters |access-date=11 December 2021 |date=11 December 2021}}</ref> China's large-scale adoption of ] had largely contained the first waves of infections of the disease.<ref name=":02"/><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=China's response shows how bold decision-making can contain coronavirus|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/chinas-response-shows-how-bold-decision-making-can-contain-coronavirus/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104204702/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/chinas-response-shows-how-bold-decision-making-can-contain-coronavirus/|archive-date=4 January 2021|access-date=4 January 2021|website=World Economic Forum|date=11 March 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Kupferschmidt K, Cohen J |date=2 March 2020|title=China's aggressive measures have slowed the coronavirus. They may not work in other countries|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/china-s-aggressive-measures-have-slowed-coronavirus-they-may-not-work-other-countries|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215013608/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/03/china-s-aggressive-measures-have-slowed-coronavirus-they-may-not-work-other-countries|archive-date=15 February 2021|access-date=4 January 2021|website=Science {{!}} AAAS}}</ref> When the waves of infections due to the ] followed, China was almost alone in pursuing the strategy of zero-Covid to combat the spread of the virus in 2022.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/59882774 |title=China: How is its zero-Covid strategy changing? | vauthors = Wang K, Song W |date=4 April 2022 |work=BBC }}</ref> Lockdown continued to be employed in November to combat a new wave of cases;<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Mcdonald J |title=China Returns to Lockdowns as Cases of COVID-19 Surge |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/national-international/china-returns-to-lockdowns-as-cases-of-covid-19-surge/3953615/ |website=NBC New York |date=12 November 2022 |access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=World stocks on back foot as China COVID cases rise |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/markets/world-stocks-on-back-foot-as-china-covid-cases-rise/ar-AA14mFDG |website=MSN |access-date=21 November 2022}}</ref> however, ] over the country's stringent measures,<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Magramo K |title=China's Covid cases hit record as dissent grows over tough restrictions |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/24/asia/china-covid-highest-daily-case-number-intl-hnk/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=25 November 2022 |date=24 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Gan N, Wang P |title=China's security apparatus swings into action to smother Covid protests |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/29/china/china-protest-crackdown-intl-hnk/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=29 November 2022 |date=29 November 2022}}</ref> and in December that year, the country relaxed its zero-COVID policy.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-63855508 |title=China abandons key parts of zero-Covid strategy after protests|date=7 December 2022|work=BBC}}</ref> On 20 December 2022, the Chinese State Council narrowed its definition of what would be counted as a COVID-19 death to include solely respiratory failure, which led to scepticism by health experts of the government's total death count<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Bradsher K, Chien AC, Dong J |date=23 December 2022 |title=As Cases Explode, China's Low Covid Death Toll Convinces No One |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/23/world/asia/china-covid-death-toll.html |access-date=23 December 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||date=20 December 2022 |title=China's low covid death count is being criticized as implausible |newspaper=] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/12/20/china-covid-coronavirus-low-numbers/ |access-date=23 December 2022}}</ref> at a time when hospitals reported being overwhelmed with cases following the abrupt discontinuation of zero-COVID.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Some hospitals in China overwhelmed in national COVID-19 wave |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/china-covid-19-icus-emergency-wards-1.6697978 |website=CBC |access-date=26 December 2022}}</ref>


The first case in India was reported on 30 January 2020. India ordered a nationwide lockdown starting 24 March 2020,<ref name="mrGsK">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Gettleman J, Schultz K |date=24 March 2020|title=Modi Orders 3-Week Total Lockdown for All 1.3 Billion Indians|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/24/world/asia/india-coronavirus-lockdown.html|access-date=2 August 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> with a phased unlock beginning 1 June 2020. Six cities accounted for around half of reported cases—], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="sHMHJ">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Infections over 1 lakh, five cities with half the cases: India's coronavirus story so far|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/05/19/infections-coronavirus-1-lakh-five-cities-with-half-the-cases.html|access-date=20 May 2020|website=The Week}}</ref> Post-lockdown, the Government of India introduced a contact tracking app called ] to help authorities manage contact tracing and vaccine distribution.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=India's Aarogya Setu becomes world's most downloaded contact-tracing app |url=https://www.wionews.com/india-news/indias-aarogya-setu-becomes-worlds-most-downloaded-contact-tracing-app-313748 |access-date=25 March 2022 |website=WION |date=16 July 2020 }}</ref> India's vaccination program was considered to be the world's largest and most successful with over 90% of citizens getting the first dose and another 65% getting the second dose.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=India's Covid vaccination programme one of world's most successful: Govt |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/indias-covid-vaccination-programme-one-of-worlds-most-successful-govt/articleshow/88648882.cms |access-date=25 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=India rolls out the world's largest COVID-19 vaccination drive |url=https://www.who.int/india/news/feature-stories/detail/india-rolls-out-the-world-s-largest-covid-19-vaccination-drive |access-date=25 March 2022 |website=www.who.int }}</ref> A second wave hit India in April 2021, straining healthcare services.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Yeung J, Sud V |title=India's second Covid wave hits like a 'tsunami' as hospitals buckle under weight|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/21/india/india-covid-hospital-shortage-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=26 April 2021|publisher=CNN}}</ref> On 21 October 2021, it was reported that the country had surpassed 1&nbsp;billion vaccinations.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=India Has Hit The 100-crore Vaccination Mark |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/india-has-hit-the-100-crore-vaccination-mark-7607041.html |website=Moneycontrol |date=21 October 2021 |access-date=28 December 2021 }}</ref>
As a result of the outbreak many countries including most of the ],<ref name="20200201schengenvisainfo">{{cite web |url=https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/confirmed-all-schengen-countries-but-france-have-suspended-visa-issuance-in-china/ |title=Confirmed: All Schengen Countries, but France, Have Suspended Visa Issuance in China |date=1 February 2020 |website=Schengen Visa Info |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201222317/https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/confirmed-all-schengen-countries-but-france-have-suspended-visa-issuance-in-china/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Armenia,<ref name="20200131reutersA">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-health-armenia-idUSR4N29R01Z |title=Armenia suspends visa-free travel for Chinese citizens over virus fears -deputy PM |date=31 January 2020 |agency=Reuters |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131224329/https://www.reuters.com/article/china-health-armenia-idUSR4N29R01Z |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Australia,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abf.gov.au/news-media/archive/article?itemId=354 |title=Novel coronavirus |date=1 February 2020 |website=abf.gov.au |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206081115/https://www.abf.gov.au/news-media/archive/article?itemId=354 |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> India,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/coronavirus-outbreak-govt-bans-airlines-from-boarding-passengers-from-china-to-india-1643176-2020-02-04 |title=Coronavirus outbreak: Govt bans airlines from boarding passengers from China to India |date=4 February 2020 |website=indiatoday.in |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205174500/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/coronavirus-outbreak-govt-bans-airlines-from-boarding-passengers-from-china-to-india-1643176-2020-02-04 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Iraq,<ref name="20200131reutersB">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-iraq-idUSKBN1ZU2U5 |title=Iraq's Basra airport to deny entry to travellers from China and Chinese citizens over coronavirus – state news agency |date=31 January 2020 |agency=Reuters |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203170236/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-iraq-idUSKBN1ZU2U5 |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="20200201reutersA">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-iraq-idUSKBN1ZV3LJ |title=Kurdistan's Erbil airport denies entry to three Chinese over coronavirus |date=1 February 2020 |agency=Reuters |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202163911/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-iraq-idUSKBN1ZV3LJ |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Indonesia,<ref name="20200203thejakartapostA">{{cite web |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/03/indonesia-closes-doors-to-travelers-from-china.html |title=Indonesia closes doors to travelers from China |date=3 February 2020 |website=The Jakarta Post |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208143919/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/03/indonesia-closes-doors-to-travelers-from-china.html |archive-date=8 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kazakhstan,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.trend.az/casia/kazakhstan/3182640.html |title=Kazakh prime minister orders to suspend visa-free entry for Chinese transit passengers |date=26 January 2020 |website=Trend.Az |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127141522/https://en.trend.az/casia/kazakhstan/3182640.html |archive-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuwait,<ref name="aa1719723">{{cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/kuwait-suspends-china-hong-kong-flights/1719723 |title=Kuwait suspends China, Hong Kong flights |website=aa.com.tr |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201175758/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/kuwait-suspends-china-hong-kong-flights/1719723 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan,<ref name="TWCDC06Feb2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Bulletin/Detail/KMAEC24Yf_5cm94oNL4Jxg?typeid=158 |title=Starting from February 6, 2020, China (including Hong Kong, Macau) to be listed as Level 2 Area or above; Chinese residents to be prohibited from entering Taiwan |date=6 February 2020 |website=Taiwan Centers for Disease Control |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206182531/https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Bulletin/Detail/KMAEC24Yf_5cm94oNL4Jxg?typeid=158 |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vietnam<ref name="20200130reuters">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vietnam-visa-idUSKBN1ZT203 |title=Vietnam to stop issuing visas for Chinese tourists over coronavirus concerns |date=30 January 2020 |agency=Reuters |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201181407/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vietnam-visa-idUSKBN1ZT203 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the United States<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/proclamation-suspension-entry-immigrants-nonimmigrants-persons-pose-risk-transmitting-2019-novel-coronavirus/ |title=Proclamation on Suspension of Entry as Immigrants and Nonimmigrants of Persons who Pose a Risk of Transmitting 2019 Novel Coronavirus |website=The White House |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206080550/https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/proclamation-suspension-entry-immigrants-nonimmigrants-persons-pose-risk-transmitting-2019-novel-coronavirus/ |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> have imposed temporary entry bans on Chinese citizens or recent visitors to China, or have ceased issuing visas and reimposed visa requirements on Chinese citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arab.news/ye79v |title=Countries ban China arrivals as coronavirus death toll hits 213 |date=31 January 2020 |website=Arab News}}</ref> Samoa even started refusing entry to its own citizens who had previously been to China, attracting widespread condemnation over the legality of such decision.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/13/samoa-turns-away-eight-of-its-own-citizens-over-coronavirus-fears|title=Samoa turns away eight of its own citizens over coronavirus fears|first=Lagipoiva Cherelle|last=Jackson|date=13 February 2020|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fijisun.com.fj/2020/02/12/something-is-terribly-wrong-when-samoa-turns-away-its-own-citizens/|title=Something Is Terribly Wrong When Samoa Turns Away Its Own Citizens}}</ref>


]
In Asia, Hong Kong, Mongolia, Nepal, North Korea, Russia and Vietnam have also responded with border tightening/closures with mainland China.<ref name="newsweek1484978">{{cite web |url=https://www.newsweek.com/china-neighbors-close-borders-coronavirus-sars-1484978 |title=China's neighbors close borders as country's coronavirus cases surpass SARS |last=O'Connor |first=Tom |date=30 January 2020 |website=Newsweek |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209125342/https://www.newsweek.com/china-neighbors-close-borders-coronavirus-sars-1484978 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 22 January 2020, North Korea closed its borders to international tourists to prevent the spread of the virus into the country. Chinese visitors make up the bulk of foreign tourists to North Korea.<ref name="20200121reuters">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-pneumonia-northkorea/north-korea-to-suspend-foreign-tourism-over-coronavirus-fears-tour-company-idUSKBN1ZK1PK |title=North Korea suspends foreign tourism over coronavirus fears: tour companies |last=Smith |first=Josh |last2=Zhang |first2=Lusha |date=21 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref>
Iran reported its first confirmed cases on 19 February 2020, in ].<ref name="wHBRB" /><ref name="4yrqM" /> Early measures included the cancellation/closure of concerts and other cultural events,<ref name="Xm5nq" /> Friday prayers,<ref name="Urdn6" /> and school and university campuses.<ref name="2YX6a" /> Iran became a centre of the pandemic in February 2020.<ref name="HHOnl" /><ref name="New Yorker" /> More than ten countries had traced their outbreaks to Iran by 28 February, indicating a more severe outbreak than the 388 reported cases.<ref name="New Yorker" /><ref name="D2Xpc" /> The ] closed, after 23 of its 290 members tested positive on 3{{nbsp}}March 2020.<ref name="fXv2K" /> At least twelve sitting or former Iranian politicians and government officials had died by 17 March 2020.<ref name="oxtUC" /> By August 2021, the pandemic's fifth wave peaked, with more than 400 deaths in 1 day.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=5 August 2021|title=Iranian Hospitals Overflow As Number Of Reported COVID-19 Cases Passes 4 Million|newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-covid-4-million/31393785.html|access-date=6 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805130006/https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-covid-4-million/31393785.html|archive-date=5 August 2021}}</ref>


COVID-19 was confirmed in South Korea on 20 January 2020. Military bases were quarantined after tests showed three infected soldiers.<ref name="b82186" /> South Korea introduced what was then considered the world's largest and best-organised screening programme, isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining contacts.<ref name="science20200317" /> Screening methods included mandatory self-reporting by new international arrivals through mobile application,<ref name="nbcnews1167376">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/how-south-korea-flattened-its-coronavirus-curve-n1167376 |title=This is how South Korea flattened its coronavirus curve | vauthors = Moon G |date=24 March 2020 |publisher=NBC News |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref> combined with ] testing,<ref name="CvyZS" /> and increasing testing capability to 20,000 people/day.<ref name="fdhQW" /> Despite some early criticisms,<ref name="imx38" /> South Korea's programme was considered a success in controlling the outbreak without quarantining entire cities.<ref name="science20200317" /><ref name="Wypis" /><ref name="joins23778577">{{#invoke:cite web || script-title=ko:'K방역 극찬' 빌 게이츠, KT 손잡고 제2 코로나 막을 연구에 60억 투자 |url=https://news.joins.com/article/23778577 |date=17 May 2020 |script-website=ko:중앙일보 |language=ko |access-date=17 May 2020}}</ref>
Also on 22 January, the ] (AFC) announced that it would be moving the matches in the third round of the ] from Wuhan to ], affecting the women's national team squads from ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://n.dongqiudi.com/webapp/tops.html |title=Archived copy |website=n.dongqiudi.com |script-title=zh:懂球帝 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124225317/https://n.dongqiudi.com/webapp/tops.html |archive-date=24 January 2020 |access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> A few days later, the AFC announced that together with ] they would be moving the matches to Sydney.<ref name="brisbanetimes20200126">{{Cite news |last=Colangelo |first=Anthony |url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/sport/soccer/virus-fears-force-move-for-matildas-olympic-qualifiers-20200126-p53ux8.html |title=Matildas' Olympic qualifiers switched to Sydney after virus fears |date=26 January 2020 |work=] |last2=Wicks |first2=Kathryn}}</ref> The ], which were originally set to be held in Wuhan from 3–14 February, were also cancelled and moved to ], Jordan to be held between 3–11 March.<ref name="20200124olympic">{{Cite news |url=https://www.olympic.org/news/ioc-boxing-task-force-asian/oceanian-tokyo-2020-boxing-qualifying-event-to-be-held-in-jordan-in-march |title=IOC Boxing Task Force: Asian/Oceanian Tokyo 2020 boxing qualifying event to be held in Jordan in March |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref name="20200125japantimes">{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2020/01/25/more-sports/boxing-2/olympic-boxing-qualifiers-moved-jordan/ |title=Olympic boxing qualifiers moved to Jordan |date=25 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125123315/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2020/01/25/more-sports/boxing-2/olympic-boxing-qualifiers-moved-jordan/#.Xiv6YTIzbIU |archive-date=25 January 2020 |agency=]}}</ref>


=== Europe ===
On 27 January 2020, the United States CDC issued updated travel guidance for China, recommending that travellers avoid all nonessential travel to all of the country. The CDC has directed ] to check individuals for symptoms of the coronavirus.<ref name="20200130cdc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/summary.html |title=2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Summary |date=30 January 2020 |website=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126210549/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/summary.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Europe}}
]
The COVID-19 pandemic arrived in Europe with its first confirmed case in ], ], on 24 January 2020, and subsequently spread widely across the continent. By 17 March 2020, every country in Europe had confirmed a case,<ref>{{#invoke:cite tweet ||author=Government of Montenegro |author-link=Government of Montenegro |user=MeGovernment |number=1239992049350447104 |date=17 March 2020 |title=PM @DuskoMarkovicCG: #Montenegro confirmes first two #COVID19 cases #CoronaInfoCG https://t.co/Jxkrm4AMwK |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512133308/https://twitter.com/MeGovernment/status/1239992049350447104 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> and all had reported at least one death, with the exception of ]. Italy was the first European nation to experience a major outbreak in early 2020, becoming the first country worldwide to introduce a national ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Saglietto A, D'Ascenzo F, Zoccai GB, De Ferrari GM | title = COVID-19 in Europe: the Italian lesson | journal = Lancet | volume = 395 | issue = 10230 | pages = 1110–1111 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32220279 | pmc = 7118630 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30690-5 }}</ref> By 13 March 2020, the WHO declared Europe the epicentre of the pandemic<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Nebehay S |date=13 March 2020|title=Europe is epicenter of coronavirus pandemic: WHO|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-who/europe-is-epicenter-of-coronavirus-pandemic-who-idUSKBN2102Q0|work=Reuters|access-date=8 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=13 March 2020|title=Coronavirus: Europe now epicentre of the pandemic, says WHO|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51876784|publisher=BBC|access-date=8 May 2021}}</ref> and it remained so until the WHO announced it had been overtaken by ] on 22 May.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Feuer W |date=22 May 2020|title=South America is a 'new epicenter' of the coronavirus pandemic, WHO says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/22/south-america-is-a-new-epicenter-of-the-coronavirus-pandemic-who-says.html}}</ref> By 18 March 2020, more than 250&nbsp;million people were in ] in Europe.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Henley J |date=18 March 2020|title=More than 250m in lockdown in EU as Belgium and Germany adopt measures|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/18/coronavirus-lockdown-eu-belgium-germany-adopt-measures|url-status=live|access-date=4 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401085742/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/18/coronavirus-lockdown-eu-belgium-germany-adopt-measures|archive-date=1 April 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Despite ], Europe became the pandemic's epicentre once again in late 2021.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=COVID-19's epicentre again: Europe faces fresh reckoning|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/12/covid-19s-epicentre-again-europe-faces-fresh-reckoning|access-date=19 November 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=With Covid cases rising, Europe is back at the epicenter of the pandemic |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/who-says-europe-back-epicenter-covid-pandemic-despite-vaccines-n1283263 |website=NBC News |date=4 November 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 }}</ref>


The ] began on 31 January 2020, when two Chinese tourists tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in Rome.<ref name="Corriere_20Jan">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Severgnini C |title=Coronavirus, primi due casi in Italia: sono due turisti cinesi |url=https://www.corriere.it/cronache/20_gennaio_30/coronavirus-italia-corona-9d6dc436-4343-11ea-bdc8-faf1f56f19b7.shtml |access-date=29 May 2023 |work=Corriere della Sera |date=30 January 2020 |language=it}}</ref> Cases began to rise sharply, which prompted the government to suspend flights to and from China and declare a state of emergency.<ref name="thelocal-flight" /> On 22 February 2020, the Council of Ministers announced a new decree-law to contain the outbreak, which quarantined more than 50,000 people in northern Italy.<ref name="AutoDW-201" /> On 4 March, the Italian government ordered schools and universities closed as Italy reached a hundred deaths. Sport was suspended completely for at least one month.<ref name="Kv4Ld" /><!-- We should summarise restrictions generally for Europe as a continent, not for various individual countries. At a high level, restrictions can be categorised into broadly similar groups. --> On 11 March, Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte closed down nearly all commercial activity except supermarkets and pharmacies.<ref name="To26Y" /><ref name="ClzT6" /> On 19 April, the first wave ebbed, as 7-day deaths declined to 433.<ref name="thehill493586">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Coleman J |title=Italy sees fewest coronavirus deaths in a week |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/europe/493586-italy-sees-fewest-coronavirus-deaths-in-a-week |website=The Hill |access-date=20 April 2020 |date=19 April 2020 }}</ref> On 13 October, the Italian government again issued restrictive rules to contain the second wave.<ref name="KhaW7">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Conte firma il dpcm: stop a movida e gite, niente didattica a distanza |url=https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/politica/2020/10/12/coronavirus-conte-dpcm-nuove-misure-anti-covid-stretta_f39a3a5d-1412-48eb-9e73-c2c0009fd90b.html |access-date=13 October 2020 |agency=ansa.it |date=13 October 2020}}</ref> On 10 November, Italy surpassed 1&nbsp;million confirmed infections.<ref name="8XEwk">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Italy passes 1 million Covid-19 cases, France overtakes Russia |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3109462/coronavirus-italy-passes-1-million-cases-joining-10-worst-hit |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=13 November 2020 |date=12 November 2020}}</ref> On 23 November, it was reported that the second wave of the virus had led some hospitals to stop accepting patients.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || title=Coronavirus: Clinics in Naples, Italy, on the brink of collapse | date=23 November 2020 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-clinics-in-naples-italy-on-the-brink-of-collapse/a-55703503 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref>
On 29 January 2020, ], ], ], and ] cancelled all their flights to mainland China in reaction to the spread of the virus.<ref name="20200129reuters">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-britain-ba-idUSKBN1ZS0OJ |title=British Airways, Iberia suspend direct flights to mainland China amid virus fears |date=29 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/china-coronavirus-lufthansa-101.html |title=Coronavirus: Lufthansa setzt alle China-Flüge aus |website=tagesschau.de}}</ref><ref name="sfchronicle15012658">{{cite web |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/news/world/article/Alert-British-Airways-Lion-Air-and-Seoul-Air-15012658.php |title=Alert: British Airways, Lion Air and Seoul Air suspend all flights to China; others cut back service as virus fears grow |date=29 January 2020 |website=San Francisco Chronicle |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129211016/https://www.sfchronicle.com/news/world/article/Alert-British-Airways-Lion-Air-and-Seoul-Air-15012658.php |archive-date=29 January 2020 |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> The same day, the Czech Republic stopped issuing ]s to Chinese citizens.<ref name="20200130schengenvisainfo">{{cite web |url=https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/coronavirus-czech-republic-becomes-first-schengen-country-to-stop-granting-visas-in-china/ |title=Coronavirus: Czech Republic Becomes First Schengen Country to Stop Granting Visas in China |date=30 January 2020 |website=Schengen Visa Info |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201220756/https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/coronavirus-czech-republic-becomes-first-schengen-country-to-stop-granting-visas-in-china/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


] in ], Spain on 12 December 2020|alt=Elderly woman rolls up sleeve as two nurses administer a vaccine.]]
On 30 January 2020, Belgium, Greece and Italy closed all Schengen Visa application centres in China.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://china.diplomatie.belgium.be/en/news/closure-30-31-jan-2020 |title=Closure 30–31 jan 2020 |date=29 January 2020 |website=Belgium in China |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203020111/https://china.diplomatie.belgium.be/en/news/closure-30-31-jan-2020 |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="20200131schengenvisainfo">{{cite web |url=https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/after-czech-republic-greece-halts-visa-issuance-in-china-amid-coronavirus/ |title=After Czech Republic, Greece Halts Visa Issuance in China Amid Coronavirus Epidemic |date=31 January 2020 |website=Schengen Visa Info |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201220748/https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/after-czech-republic-greece-halts-visa-issuance-in-china-amid-coronavirus/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Italy flights">{{cite web |url=https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/italy-suspends-visa-issuance-and-all-air-traffic-from-china/ |title=Italy Suspends Visa Issuance and All Air Traffic From China |date=31 January 2020 |website=Schengen Visa Info |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201220756/https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/italy-suspends-visa-issuance-and-all-air-traffic-from-china/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The same day, ] announced suspension of flights between Egypt and ] starting 1 February 2020 while those to Beijing and ] will be suspended starting 4 February 2020 until further notice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/81128/Egypt's-flag-carrier-suspends-China-flights-staring-Feb-over-coronavirus |title=Egypt's flag carrier suspends China flights staring Feb. over coronavirus |website=Egypt Today |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131200900/https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/81128/Egypt%E2%80%99s-flag-carrier-suspends-China-flights-staring-Feb-over-coronavirus |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Spain on 31 January 2020, when a German tourist tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 on ] in the Canary Islands.<ref name="SanidadConfirmaEnLaGomera">{{#invoke:cite news||title=Sanidad confirma en La Gomera el primer caso de coronavirus en España|url=https://elpais.com/sociedad/2020/01/31/actualidad/1580509404_469734.html|website=]|access-date=31 January 2020|date=31 January 2020|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131225909/https://elpais.com/sociedad/2020/01/31/actualidad/1580509404_469734.html|archive-date=31 January 2020|url-status=live | vauthors = Linde P }}</ref> Post-hoc genetic analysis has shown that at least 15 strains of the virus had been imported, and ] began by mid-February.<ref name="genetic analysis">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Ansede M |title=El análisis genético sugiere que el coronavirus ya circulaba por España a mediados de febrero |url=https://elpais.com/ciencia/2020-04-22/el-analisis-genetico-sugiere-que-el-coronavirus-ya-circulaba-por-espana-a-mediados-de-febrero.html |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=El País |date=22 April 2020 |language=es}}</ref> On 29 March, it was announced that, beginning the following day, all non-essential workers were ordered to remain at home for the next 14 days.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.msn.com/en-nz/news/world/spain-poised-to-tighten-coronavirus-lockdown-after-record-daily-toll/ar-BB11S9Gj|title=Spain poised to tighten coronavirus lockdown after record daily toll|publisher=MSN|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref> The number of cases increased again in July in a number of cities including ], ] and ], which led to reimposition of some restrictions but no national lockdown.<ref name=bbc25july>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-53539015 |title=Coronavirus: Spain drives fears of European 'second wave' |date=25 July 2020 |publisher=BBC }}</ref><ref name="elpais6aug">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://english.elpais.com/spanish_news/2020-08-06/spains-basque-region-admits-to-second-wave-of-covid-19.html |title=Spain's Basque region admits to second wave of Covid-19 |work=El País |date=6 August 2020 }}</ref><ref name="telegraph aug16">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/08/14/spain-shuts-nightlife-amid-fears-major-second-wave-coronavirus/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/08/14/spain-shuts-nightlife-amid-fears-major-second-wave-coronavirus/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Spain shuts down nightlife amid fears of major second wave of coronavirus| vauthors = Badcock J |date=14 August 2020 |work=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/coronavirus/news/spain-wont-declare-another-national-state-of-alarm-allows-regions-to-lockdown-if-necessary/ |title=Spain won't declare another national state of alarm, allows regions to lockdown if necessary |date=26 August 2020 |work=Euroactiv }}</ref> By September 2021, Spain was one of the countries with the highest percentage of its population vaccinated (76% fully vaccinated and 79% with the first dose).<ref name="auto2">{{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors = Ritchie H, Mathieu E, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Ortiz-Ospina E, Hasell J, Macdonald B, Beltekian D, Roser M |date=5 March 2020|title=Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)|url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations|journal=Our World in Data}}</ref> Italy is ranked second at 75%.<ref name="auto2"/><!-- We should summarise vaccination status for Europe as a continent, not for dozens of individual countries. -->


Sweden differed from most other European countries in that it mostly remained open.<ref name="NYT20200515">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Leatherby L |title=Sweden Stayed Open. A Deadly Month Shows the Risks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/05/15/world/europe/sweden-coronavirus-deaths.html |access-date=18 May 2020 |newspaper=] |date=15 May 2020}}</ref> Per the ], the ] has autonomy that prevents political interference and the agency favoured remaining open. The Swedish strategy focused on longer-term measures, based on the assumption that after lockdown the virus would resume spreading, with the same result.<ref name="7ys2k">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Milne R |date=8 May 2020|title=Architect of Sweden's no-lockdown strategy insists it will pay off|url=https://www.ft.com/content/a2b4c18c-a5e8-4edc-8047-ade4a82a548d|access-date=16 August 2020|website=]}}</ref><ref name="I06mN">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Sverige diskuterar inte exitstrategier: "Vår strategi är hållbar, vi kan ligga kvar med den en väldigt lång tid"|url=https://svenska.yle.fi/artikel/2020/04/22/sverige-diskuterar-inte-exitstrategier-var-strategi-ar-hallbar-vi-kan-ligga-kvar|access-date=16 August 2020|website=svenska.yle.fi| date=22 April 2020|language=sv-FI}}</ref> By the end of June, Sweden no longer had ].<ref name="HEUrz">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Inte längre någon överdödlighet i Sverige|url=https://www.dagensmedicin.se/artiklar/2020/06/25/inte-langre-nagon-overdodlighet-i-sverige/|access-date=16 August 2020|website=Dagens Medicin|language=sv}}</ref>
On 31 January 2020, Italy closed all passenger air traffic between Italy and China and Taiwan. The ] ] says that effective 31 January, all passenger flights from China, including the ] of Hong Kong and ], and Taiwan are suspended until further notice, on request of the Italian health authorities. Aircraft that were flying to Italy when the NOTAM was published, were cleared to land.<ref name="Italy flights" /><ref name="20200131enac">{{cite web |url=https://www.enac.gov.it/news/coronavirus-sospesi-tutti-collegamenti-aerei-tra-italia-cina-courtesy-translation-available |title=Sospesi tutti i collegamenti aerei tra Italia e Cina |date=31 January 2020 |website=Ente Nazionale per l'Aviazione Civile |language=Italian |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203012030/https://www.enac.gov.it/news/coronavirus-sospesi-tutti-collegamenti-aerei-tra-italia-cina-courtesy-translation-available |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


] meant that each of its four ] developed its own response. England's restrictions were shorter-lived than the others.<ref name="8VnMf">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.economist.com/britain/2020/06/06/devolution-has-become-less-dysfunctional-during-the-pandemic |title=Ignore the squabbling Devolution has become less dysfunctional during the pandemic |newspaper=The Economist |date=6 June 2020 |access-date=22 July 2020}}</ref> The ] started enforcing social distancing and quarantine measures on 18 March 2020.<ref name="PkWGD" /><ref name="Pkx25" /> On 16 March, Prime Minister ] advised against non-essential travel and social contact, praising ] and avoiding venues such as pubs, restaurants, and theatres.<ref name="5Q93q" /><ref name="hYdUy" /> On 20 March, the government ordered all leisure establishments to close,<ref name="dmBNt" /> and promised to prevent unemployment.<ref name="mV2p3" /> On 23 March, Johnson banned gatherings and restricted non-essential travel and outdoor activity. Unlike previous measures, these restrictions were enforceable by police through fines and dispersal of gatherings. Most non-essential businesses were ordered to close.<ref name="bbc-pm-2403" /> On 24 April 2020, it was reported that a promising vaccine trial had begun in England; the government pledged more than £50&nbsp;million towards research.<ref name="vKeXC">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Large-scale human trial of potential COVID-19 vaccine kicks off at Oxford |date=24 April 2020 |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-vaccine-covid-19-human-clinical-trial-oxford-england/ |publisher=CBS News |access-date=24 April 2020}}</ref> On 16 April 2020, it was reported that the UK would have first access to the Oxford vaccine, due to a prior contract; should the trial be successful, some 30&nbsp;million doses would be available.<ref name="Lbt4o">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Coronavirus updates: Texas reports single highest daily rate increase of infections |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/coronavirus-updates-texas-reports-single-highest-daily-rate-increase-of-infections/ar-BB14cpOY?ocid=spartan-dhp-feeds |publisher=MSN |access-date=17 May 2020}}</ref> On 2 December 2020, the UK became the first developed country to approve the Pfizer vaccine; 800,000 doses were immediately available for use.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mueller B |title=U.K. Approves Pfizer Coronavirus Vaccine, a First in the West |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/02/world/europe/pfizer-coronavirus-vaccine-approved-uk.html |website=] |access-date=2 December 2020 |date=2 December 2020}}</ref> In August 2022 it was reported that viral infection cases had declined in the UK.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection Survey, UK: 19 August 2022|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveypilot/19august2022 |publisher=UK Office for National Statistics |access-date=6 July 2023 |date=19 August 2022}}</ref>
As of 1 February 2020, France was the only remaining ] still issuing visas to Chinese citizens.<ref name=20200201schengenvisainfo />


=== North America ===
] took the decision to suspend flights to mainland China from 3 February until further notice, due to significant operational challenges caused by entry restrictions imposed by several countries.<ref name="Qatar Airways suspends flights">{{cite web |url=https://business.financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/qatar-air-suspends-flights-to-china-as-cases-jump-virus-update |title=Qatar Air Suspends Flights to China as Cases Jump: Virus Update |date=1 February 2020 |website=Financial Post |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202125324/https://business.financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/qatar-air-suspends-flights-to-china-as-cases-jump-virus-update |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Qatar Airways is the first carrier in the Middle East to do so. An ongoing review of operations will be conducted weekly with the intention to reinstate flights as soon as the restrictions are lifted.<ref name="Qatar Airways suspends flights" />
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in North America}}
The virus arrived in the ] on 13 January 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Second Travel-related Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Detected in United States |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/p0124-second-travel-coronavirus.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=18 February 2020}}</ref> Cases were reported in all North American countries after ] confirmed a case on 25 March, and in all North American territories after ] confirmed a case on 16 April.<ref name="FirstBonaire_local">{{#invoke:cite web|| url=https://www.infobonaire.com/update-on-coronavirus-covid-19-by-bonaires-lt-governor/| title=Update on Coronavirus (COVID-19) by Bonaire's Lt. Governor InfoBonaire | website=The Bonaire Information Site| date=16 April 2020 |access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>


] arrives in ] on 30 March 2020]]
Though some of the airlines cancelled flights to ] as well, British Airways, Finnair and Lufthansa have not, and American Airlines continues operating a limited service to the area. Hong Kong's four airlines halved the flights to mainland China.<ref name="20200129cnn">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/29/business/british-airways-coronavirus/index.html |title=Airlines around the world are suspending flights to China as the coronavirus spreads |date=29 January 2020 |access-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130210431/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/29/business/british-airways-coronavirus/index.html |archive-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> A large number of airlines have reduced or cancelled flights to and from China.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/airlines-canceling-changing-flights-to-china-amid-coronavirus-fears-2020-1 |title=34 airlines have canceled flights to China amid coronavirus fears – here's the full list |last=Pallini |first=Thomas |website=Business Insider |access-date=30 January 2020}}
Per ''Our World in Data'', {{COVID-19 data/Text|US|cases}} confirmed cases have been reported in the United States with {{COVID-19 data/Text|US|deaths}} deaths, the most of any country, and ] per capita worldwide.<ref name="JH Mortality">{{#invoke:cite web||url= https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/data/mortality|title=Mortality Analyses|publisher=]|access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref> COVID-19 is the ];<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=21 September 2021|title=COVID-19 surpasses 1918 flu as deadliest pandemic in U.S. history|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/covid-19-is-now-the-deadliest-pandemic-in-us-history|access-date=2 October 2021|website=National Geographic}}</ref> it was the third-leading cause of death in the US in 2020, behind heart disease and cancer.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://apnews.com/article/us-coronavirus-deaths-top-3-million-e2bc856b6ec45563b84ee2e87ae8d5e7|title=US deaths in 2020 top 3 million, by far most ever counted| vauthors = Stobbe M |date=21 December 2020|access-date=22 December 2020|work=Associated Press }}</ref> From 2019 to 2020, US life expectancy dropped by 3{{nbsp}}years for Hispanic Americans, 2.9{{nbsp}}years for African Americans, and 1.2{{nbsp}}years for white Americans.<ref name=Bosman>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/21/us/american-life-expectancy-report.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/21/us/american-life-expectancy-report.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|title=U.S. Life Expectancy Plunged in 2020, Especially for Black and Hispanic Americans| vauthors = Bosman J, Kasakove S, Victor D |date=21 July 2021|access-date=21 July 2021|work=]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> These effects have persisted as US deaths due to COVID-19 in 2021 exceeded those in 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Shapiro E, Pereira I, Deliso M |date=6 October 2021|title=COVID-19 live updates: More Americans died of COVID this year than all of 2020|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/live-updates/covid-delta-surge/?id=80391228|access-date=6 October 2021|website=ABC News }}</ref> In the United States, COVID-19 vaccines became available under emergency use in December 2020, beginning the ]. The first COVID-19 vaccine was officially approved by the ] on 23 August 2021.<ref>{{#invoke:cite press release || title=FDA Approves First COVID-19 Vaccine | website=U.S. ] (FDA) | date=23 August 2021 | url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-covid-19-vaccine | access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref> By 18 November 2022, while cases in the U.S. had declined, COVID variants BQ.1/BQ.1.1 had become dominant in the country.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID variants BQ.1/BQ.1.1 make up nearly half of U.S. cases – CDC |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/covid-variants-bq1bq11-make-up-nearly-half-us-cases-cdc-2022-11-18/ |website=Reuters |access-date=19 November 2022 |date=18 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||date=14 October 2022 | vauthors = Schnirring L |title=US COVID levels decline as new subvariants rise steadily |url=https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2022/10/us-covid-levels-decline-new-subvariants-rise-steadily |website=CIDRAP |access-date=19 November 2022 }}</ref>
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/business/china-flights-suspended.html |title=Coronavirus Travel: 3 Major U.S. Airlines Suspend China Flights |last=Chokshi |first=Niraj |date=31 January 2020 |website=] |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201184619/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/business/china-flights-suspended.html |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite news |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/wuhan-virus-singapore-airlines-sia-scoot-china-flights-12372562 |title=Wuhan virus: Scoot to suspend flights between Singapore and 11 Chinese cities, SIA to reduce capacity |date=31 January 2020 |work=CNA |access-date=1 February 2020 |ref=sq-sc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131124129/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/wuhan-virus-singapore-airlines-sia-scoot-china-flights-12372562 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite news |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/1848369/vietnam-suspends-all-china-flights |title=China travel bans spread despite WHO advice |date=1 February 2020 |work=Bangkok Post |access-date=2 February 2020 |ref=sq-sc}}
* {{Cite news |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/02/01/20/cebu-pacific-halts-china-flights-until-march-over-coronavirus-scare |title=PAL, Cebu Pacific suspend flights between Philippines, China |date=2 February 2020 |work=ABS-CBN News |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202052524/https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/02/01/20/cebu-pacific-halts-china-flights-until-march-over-coronavirus-scare |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/03/garuda-indonesia-to-halt-flights-to-china-amid-new-coronavirus-fear.html |title=Garuda Indonesia to halt flights to China amid new coronavirus fear |date=3 February 2020 |website=The Jakarta Post |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204164748/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/03/garuda-indonesia-to-halt-flights-to-china-amid-new-coronavirus-fear.html |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |url=https://travel.detik.com/travel-news/d-4883790/citilink-ikut-setop-semua-penerbangan-ke-dan-dari-china |title=Citilink Ikut Setop Semua Penerbangan ke dan dari China |last=Khoiri |first=Ahmad Masaul |website=detikTravel |language=id |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203092730/https://travel.detik.com/travel-news/d-4883790/citilink-ikut-setop-semua-penerbangan-ke-dan-dari-china |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.telemetro.com/nacionales/2020/02/03/air-china-anuncia-suspension-ruta/2523190.html |title=Air China anuncia la suspensión de su ruta Houston-Panamá para febrero |date=3 February 2020 |website=Telemetro |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205110001/https://www.telemetro.com/nacionales/2020/02/03/air-china-anuncia-suspension-ruta/2523190.html |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 31 January 2020, the United States declared the virus a ]. Starting 2 February, all inbound passengers who have been to Hubei in the previous 14 days will be put under quarantine for up to 14 days. Any US citizen who has travelled to the rest of mainland China will be allowed to continue their travel home if they are asymptomatic, but will be monitored by local health departments.<ref name="nbcnews1127856">{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/u-s-declares-public-health-emergency-over-coronavirus-n1127856 |title=U.S. declares public health emergency over coronavirus |publisher=NBC News |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201084446/https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/u-s-declares-public-health-emergency-over-coronavirus-n1127856 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


In March 2020, as cases of community transmission were confirmed across ], all of its provinces and territories declared states of emergency. Provinces and territories, to varying degrees, implemented school and daycare closures, prohibitions on gatherings, closures of non-essential businesses and restrictions on entry. Canada severely restricted its border access, barring travellers from all countries with some exceptions.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = McQuigge M |date=25 March 2020|title=The Quarantine Act explained, as isolation becomes mandatory for some|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/the-quarantine-act-explained-as-isolation-becomes-mandatory-for-some-1.4868457|access-date=4 April 2021|publisher=CTV News}}</ref> Cases surged across Canada, notably in the provinces of ], ], ] and ], with the formation of the ], a ] area of the country (formed of the four ]).<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://vocm.com/2020/12/23/covid-cases-in-atlantic-bubble-remain-low-as-cases-grow-across-canada/|title=COVID Cases in Atlantic Bubble Remain Low as Cases Grow Across Canada| vauthors = Grimes J }}</ref> Vaccine passports were adopted in all provinces and two of the territories.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/covid-nl-sept-7-2021-1.6166699 |title=Vaccine passports coming, Furey says, as N.L. reports 5 new cases |publisher=CBC News |date=7 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/03/world/canada/vaccine-passports-protests.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903220325/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/03/world/canada/vaccine-passports-protests.html |archive-date=3 September 2021 |url-access=limited|title=Vaccine Passports Roll Out, and So Do Unruly Anti-Vaccine Protests| vauthors = Austen I |date=3 September 2021|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Per a report on 11 November 2022, Canadian health authorities saw a surge in influenza, while COVID-19 was expected to rise during winter.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Canada is seeing an early rise in flu cases. Is a 'tidal wave' of infection coming? |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/early-flu-cases-canada-1.6647860 |website=cbc |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref>
On 2 February 2020, India issued a travel advisory that warned all people residing in India to not travel to China, suspended E-visas from China, and further stated anyone who has travelled to China starting 15 January (to an indefinite point in the future) could be quarantined.<ref name="twitter1224015130">{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/PiyushGoyal/status/1224015130029150210/photo/1 |title=Cabinet Secretary holds review meeting on Novel Coronavirus |last=Goyal |first=Piyush |date=2 February 2020 |website=Twitter |publisher=Press Information Bureau Government of India |location=New Delhi |access-date=2 February 2020}}{{Primary source inline|date=February 2020}}</ref> New Zealand announced that it will deny entry to all travellers from China and that it will order its citizens to self-isolate for 14 days if they are returning from China.<ref name="WP">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/china-coronavirus-live-updates/2020/02/02/090d75d8-453d-11ea-99c7-1dfd4241a2fe_story.html |title=Coronavirus infections predicted to grow exponentially; first death outside China; outbreak becomes political |date=2 February 2020 |website=] |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206163312/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/china-coronavirus-live-updates/2020/02/02/090d75d8-453d-11ea-99c7-1dfd4241a2fe_story.html |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Indonesia and Iraq followed by also banning all travellers that visited China within the past 14 days.<ref name="WP" />


=== South America ===
On 3 February 2020, Indonesia announced it would ban passenger flights and also sea freight from and to China starting on 5 February and until further notice. Live animal imports and other products were banned as well. ] Agus Suparmanto "We will obviously stop live animals imports from China and are still considering banning other products"<ref name="detik4884030">{{cite web |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4884030/antisipasi-corona-penundaan-penerbangan-dari-ke-china-tanpa-batas-waktu |title=Antisipasi Corona, Penundaan Penerbangan Dari-Ke China Tanpa Batas Waktu |last=Berutu |first=Sachril Agustin |website=detiknews |language=id-ID |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203100841/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4884030/antisipasi-corona-penundaan-penerbangan-dari-ke-china-tanpa-batas-waktu |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://finance.detik.com/berita-ekonomi-bisnis/d-4884581/tengah-malam-nanti-penerbangan-ri-china-resmi-disetop |title=Tengah Malam Nanti, Penerbangan RI-China Resmi Disetop |last=Sugianto |first=Danang |website=detikfinance |language=id-ID |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204000450/https://finance.detik.com/berita-ekonomi-bisnis/d-4884581/tengah-malam-nanti-penerbangan-ri-china-resmi-disetop |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/03/indonesia-set-to-ban-live-animal-imports-from-china-as-coronavirus-fears-grow.html |title=Indonesia set to ban live animal imports from China as coronavirus fears grow |last=Post |first=The Jakarta |website=The Jakarta Post |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204164404/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/02/03/indonesia-set-to-ban-live-animal-imports-from-china-as-coronavirus-fears-grow.html |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey announced it would suspend all flights from China till the end of February and begin scanning passengers coming from South Asian countries at airports.<ref name="gazeteduvar">{{cite web |url=https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/politika/2020/02/03/cinden-turkiyeye-ucuslara-gecici-yasak/ |title=Çin'den Türkiye'ye tüm uçuşlar durduruluyor |website=Gazete Duvar |language=tr-TR |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203152228/https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/politika/2020/02/03/cinden-turkiyeye-ucuslara-gecici-yasak/ |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="aa1722860">{{cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/health/turkey-to-suspend-flights-from-china-until-end-of-month/1722860 |title=Turkey to suspend flights from China until end of month |last=Tosun |first=Mehmet |date=3 February 2020 |publisher=Anadolu Agency |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203152226/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/health/turkey-to-suspend-flights-from-china-until-end-of-month/1722860 |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in South America}}
], Brazil, in April 2020]]
The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached South America on 26 February 2020, when Brazil confirmed a case in ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.as-coa.org/articles/where-coronavirus-latin-america |title=Where Is the Coronavirus in Latin America? | vauthors = orwitz L, Nagovitch P, Sonneland HK, Zissis C |website=AS/COA|access-date=22 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322095058/https://www.as-coa.org/articles/where-coronavirus-latin-america|archive-date=22 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> By 3 April, all countries and territories in South America had recorded at least one case.<ref name="Stuff/Fairfax">{{#invoke:cite web ||url= https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/120818001/uncollected-bodies-lie-for-days-in-the-streets-of-ecuador-the-emerging-epicenter-of-the-coronavirus-in-latin-america |title=Uncollected bodies lie for days in the streets of Ecuador the emerging epicentre of the coronavirus in Latin America |publisher= Stuff/Fairfax |date=4 April 2020}}</ref> On 13 May 2020, it was reported that Latin America and the ] had reported over 400,000 cases of COVID-19 infection with 23,091 deaths. On 22 May 2020, citing the rapid increase of ], the WHO declared South America the epicentre of the pandemic.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=WHO declares that South America is the new coronavirus epicenter |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/05/22/coronavirus-update-us/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Ward A |title=How South America became a coronavirus epicenter |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/5/26/21270376/south-america-covid-19-coronavirus-brazil-peru-chile |website=Vox |date=26 May 2020 |access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> As of 16 July 2021, South America had recorded 34,359,631 confirmed cases and 1,047,229 deaths from COVID-19. Due to a shortage of testing and medical facilities, it is believed that the outbreak is far larger than the official numbers show.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Ankel S |title=How Brazil went from carnival floats to mass graves. Photos show what it's like in the world's latest coronavirus hotspot. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-show-brazil-emerging-as-new-global-coronavirus-hotspot-2020-5#in-early-april-brazilian-health-officials-confirmed-that-covid- |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=Business Insider}}</ref>


The virus was confirmed to have spread to Brazil on 25 February 2020,<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.saude.gov.br/noticias/agencia-saude/46435-brasil-confirma-primeiro-caso-de-novo-coronavirus|title=Brasil confirma primeiro caso da doença|date=26 February 2020|publisher=] |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306155723/https://www.saude.gov.br/noticias/agencia-saude/46435-brasil-confirma-primeiro-caso-de-novo-coronavirus|archive-date=6 March 2020|access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref> when a man from ] who had travelled to Italy tested positive for the virus.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Oliveira E, Ortiz B |title=Ministério da Saúde confirma primeiro caso de coronavírus no Brasil |url=https://g1.globo.com/ciencia-e-saude/noticia/2020/02/26/ministerio-da-saude-fala-sobre-caso-possivel-paciente-com-coronavirus.ghtml |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=G1 |date=26 February 2020 |language=pt-br}}</ref> The disease had spread to every ] by 21 March. On 19 June 2020, the country reported its one millionth case and nearly 49,000 reported deaths.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Charner F |date=19 June 2020|title=Brazil tops 1 million Covid-19 cases. It may pass the US next, becoming the worst-hit country on the planet|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/19/americas/brazil-one-million-coronavirus-jair-bolsonaro-cases-intl/index.html|access-date=19 June 2020|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Painel Coronavírus|url=https://covid.saude.gov.br/|access-date=12 June 2020|website=}}</ref> One estimate of ] was 22.62% of total reported COVID-19 mortality in 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kupek E | title = How many more? Under-reporting of the COVID-19 deaths in Brazil in 2020 | journal = Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume = 26 | issue = 9 | pages = 1019–1028 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34008266 | pmc = 8242696 | doi = 10.1111/tmi.13628 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Ibrahim NK | title = Epidemiologic surveillance for controlling Covid-19 pandemic: types, challenges and implications | journal = Journal of Infection and Public Health | volume = 13 | issue = 11 | pages = 1630–1638 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 32855090 | pmc = 7441991 | doi = 10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.019 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Santos AM, Souza BF, Carvalho CA, Campos MA, Oliveira BL, Diniz EM, Branco MD, Queiroz RC, Carvalho VA, Araújo WR, Silva AA | title = Excess deaths from all causes and by COVID-19 in Brazil in 2020 | journal = Revista de Saúde Pública | volume = 55 | page = 71 | date = 2021 | pmid = 34730751 | pmc = 8522736 | doi = 10.11606/s1518-8787.2021055004137 }}</ref> As of {{COVID-19 data/Date|format=d F Y}}, Brazil, with {{COVID-19 data/Text|BR|cases}} confirmed cases and {{COVID-19 data/Text|BR|deaths}} deaths, has the third-highest number of confirmed cases and second-highest death toll from COVID-19 in the world, behind only ] and ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Brazil "falls" to third place among covid-19 affected countries behind the U.S. and now India |url=https://en.mercopress.com/2021/04/12/brazil-falls-to-third-place-among-covid-19-affected-countries-behind-the-u.s.-and-now-india |website=MercoPress |access-date=5 September 2022 }}</ref>
==== International aid ====
On 5 February, the Chinese foreign ministry stated that 21 countries (including ], Pakistan, ], Egypt, and Iran) had sent aid to China.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1003716/|title=21 countries send aid to coronavirus-hit China|website=armenpress.am|language=en|access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref> ] in Tokyo, Japan on 10 February.]]
The United States city of ] announced plans to promptly send aid to Wuhan, with ] ] stating that "Our office has reached out to the mayor of Wuhan, which is our ]" and promising that "over the next two days we should be able to have a care package that has been put together." He speculated that the contents of such a package will be coordinated with the consultation of medical experts, but that it will likely consist of "face masks, rubber gloves and other material that could be hard to find in the future".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-planning-aid-for-sister-city-of-wuhan-china-stricken-with-coronavirus/ |title=Pittsburgh planning aid for sister city of Wuhan, China, stricken with coronavirus |website=triblive.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128195206/https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-planning-aid-for-sister-city-of-wuhan-china-stricken-with-coronavirus/ |archive-date=28 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Additionally, the ] (UPMC) announced plans to provide help, with UPMC spokesman Paul Wood stating that "UPMC has a significant presence in China and has been in contact with our partners there", also declaring that "we stand ready to assist them and others in China with their unmet humanitarian needs."<ref name="wtae30681548">{{cite web |url=https://www.wtae.com/article/pittsburgh-reaches-out-to-help-its-chinese-sister-city-deal-with-coronavirus-looks-at-its-own-preps/30681548 |title=Pittsburgh reaches out to help its Chinese sister city deal with coronavirus, looks at its own preps |last=Mayo |first=Bob |date=27 January 2020 |publisher=WTAE |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201050202/https://www.wtae.com/article/pittsburgh-reaches-out-to-help-its-chinese-sister-city-deal-with-coronavirus-looks-at-its-own-preps/30681548 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some Chinese students at other American universities have also joined together to help send aid to virus-stricken parts of China, with a joint group in the Greater Chicago Area reportedly managing to send 50,000 N95 masks and 1,500 protection suits to hospitals in the Hubei province on 30 January.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dailynorthwestern.com/2020/02/02/campus/chinese-students-react-to-coronavirus-outbreak/|title=Chinese students react to coronavirus outbreak|last=Song|first=Rayna|date=3 February 2020|website=The Daily Northwestern|access-date=17 February 2020}}
*{{cite web|url=https://tuftsdaily.com/news/2020/02/05/students-mobilize-aid-hubei-province-china-following-coronavirus-outbreak/|title=Students mobilize aid for Hubei province in China following coronavirus outbreak|date=5 February 2020|website=The Tufts Daily|language=en|access-date=17 February 2020}}
*{{cite web|url=https://news.psu.edu/story/607202/2020/02/06/campus-life/student-organizations-penn-state-rally-help-wuhan|title=Student organizations at Penn State rally to help Wuhan {{!}} Penn State University|website=news.psu.edu|language=en|access-date=17 February 2020}}
*{{cite web|url=http://dailyorange.com/2020/02/chinese-international-students-watch-coronavirus-outbreak-afar/|title=Chinese international students watch coronavirus outbreak from afar|date=11 February 2020|website=The Daily Orange – The Independent Student Newspaper of Syracuse, New York|language=en-US|access-date=17 February 2020}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.stanforddaily.com/2020/02/06/stanford-for-wuhan-sends-medical-supplies-to-coronavirus-victims/|title=Stanford for Wuhan sends medical supplies to coronavirus victims|date=7 February 2020|website=The Stanford Daily|access-date=17 February 2020}}
*{{cite web|url=https://ndsmcobserver.com/2020/01/chinese-students-respond-to-supply-shortages-throughout-hospitals-in-wuhei-providence-in-the-midst-of-coronavirus-outbreak/|title=Chinese students respond to supply shortages throughout hospitals in Wuhan City in the midst of coronavirus outbreak|last=|first=|date=31 January 2020|website=The Observer|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref>


=== Africa ===
The humanitarian aid organisation ], in co-ordination with ] transportation and logistics support, sent 200,000 face masks along with other personal protective equipment, including gloves and gowns, by emergency airlift to arrive in ], who requested the supplies by 30 January.<ref name="20200128directrelief">{{cite web |url=https://www.directrelief.org/2020/01/direct-relief-rushes-facial-masks-to-china-to-fight-coronavirus-spread/ |title=Direct Relief Rushes Facial Masks to China to Fight Coronavirus Spread |last=Staff |date=28 January 2020 |website=Direct Relief |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> The ] stated on 26 January that it would donate US$5&nbsp;million in aid to support the response in China that will be aimed at assisting "emergency funds and corresponding technical support to help front-line responders".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/gates-foundation-10-million-to-fight-wuhan-coronavirus-2020-1 |title=The Gates Foundation is spending $10&nbsp;million to fight the coronavirus outbreak in China and Africa. Bill Gates has warned about a pandemic for years. |last=Secon |first=Holly |website=Business Insider |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> On 5 February, Bill and Melinda further announced a $100 million donation to the World Health Organization, who made an appeal for funding contributions to the international community the same day. The donation will be used to fund vaccine research and treatment efforts along with protecting "at-risk populations in Africa and South Asia."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lisettevoytko/2020/02/05/bill-and-melinda-gates-donate-100-million-to-coronavirus-vaccine-research/|title=Bill And Melinda Gates Donate $100 Million To Coronavirus Vaccine Research And Treatment|last=Voytko|first=Lisette|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Africa}}
] personnel unload a ] aircraft carrying medical supplies in ], Niger, in April 2020.]]
The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Africa on 14 February 2020, with the first confirmed case announced in ].<ref name="bbc_51509248">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Beijing orders 14-day quarantine for all returnees |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51509248 |access-date=24 March 2020 |work=] |date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214210032/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51509248 |archive-date=14 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Egypt announces first Coronavirus infection |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/81641/Egypt-announces-first-Coronavirus-infection |access-date=24 March 2020 |work=EgyptToday |date=14 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215092410/https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/81641/Egypt-announces-first-Coronavirus-infection |archive-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> The first confirmed case in ] was announced in ] at the end of February 2020.<ref name="bbc_51671834">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Nigeria confirms first coronavirus case |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51671834 |access-date=24 March 2020 |work=BBC News |date=28 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302181240/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51671834 |archive-date=2 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Within three months, the virus had spread throughout the continent; ], the last African sovereign state to have remained free of the virus, reported its first case on 13 May 2020.<ref name=reuters_idUSKBN22P1R4>{{#invoke:cite news||date=13 May 2020|title=Remote Lesotho becomes last country in Africa to record COVID-19 case|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-lesotho-idUSKBN22P1R4|url-status=live|access-date=13 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514053312/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-lesotho-idUSKBN22P1R4|archive-date=14 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="latimes.com">{{#invoke:cite web||title=Coronavirus live updates: Lesotho becomes last African nation to report a coronavirus case|url=https://www.latimes.com/california/liveblog/coronavirus-live-updates-wednesday-may-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513141447/https://www.latimes.com/california/liveblog/coronavirus-live-updates-wednesday-may-13|archive-date=13 May 2020|access-date=13 May 2020|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> By 26 May, it appeared that most African countries were experiencing community transmission, although testing capacity was limited.<ref name=theguardian_20200526_africa>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Akinwotu E |date=26 May 2020|title=Experts sound alarm over lack of Covid-19 test kits in Africa|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/may/26/africa-concerned-over-lack-of-coronavirus-testing-kits|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529155322/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/may/26/africa-concerned-over-lack-of-coronavirus-testing-kits|archive-date=29 May 2020|access-date=29 May 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> Most of the identified imported cases arrived from Europe and the United States rather than from China where the virus originated.<ref name="Africa Braces">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Maclean R |title=Africa Braces for Coronavirus, but Slowly |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/world/africa/coronavirus-africa-burkina-faso.html |access-date=25 March 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325014602/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/world/africa/coronavirus-africa-burkina-faso.html |archive-date=25 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many preventive measures ] by different countries in Africa including travel restrictions, flight cancellations, and event cancellations.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Adebayo B, Busari S |title=Here are the African countries with confirmed coronavirus cases |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/09/africa/nigeria-coronavirus-cases-intl/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=2 June 2023 |date=9 March 2020}}</ref> Despite fears, Africa reported lower death rates than other, more economically developed regions.<ref name="NYT Africa deaths">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Nolen S |title=Trying to Solve a Covid Mystery: Africa's Low Death Rates |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/23/health/covid-africa-deaths.html |access-date=13 June 2023 |work=] |date=23 March 2022}}</ref>


In early June 2021, Africa faced a third wave of COVID infections with cases rising in 14 countries.<ref name=theguardian_20210607_third>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Burke J |title=Third wave sweeps across Africa as Covid vaccine imports dry up |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/07/third-wave-sweeps-across-africa-as-covid-vaccine-imports-dry-up |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=7 June 2021}}</ref> By 4 July the continent recorded more than 251,000 new COVID cases, a 20% increase from the prior week and a 12% increase from the January peak. More than sixteen African countries, including ] and ], recorded an uptick in new cases.<ref name="Mendez">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Mendez R |date=8 July 2021 |title=Africa suffers worst surge in Covid cases as delta variant spurs third wave of pandemic |url= https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/08/delta-variant-africa-suffers-worst-surge-in-covid-cases-officials-brace-for-third-wave.html |access-date=9 July 2021|website=CNBC}}</ref> The WHO labelled it Africa's 'Worst Pandemic Week Ever'.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Dahir AL |date=8 July 2021|title=Africa marks its 'worst pandemic week' yet, with cases surging and vaccine scarce, the W.H.O. says.|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/08/world/africa-coronavirus-cases-who.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/08/world/africa-coronavirus-cases-who.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|access-date=9 July 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In October 2022, WHO reported that most countries on the African continent will miss the goal of 70 per cent vaccination by the end of 2022.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Schlein L |title=Africa Lags Behind Rest of World in COVID-19 Vaccination Coverage |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa-lags-behind-rest-of-world-in-covid-19-vaccination-coverage/6798185.html |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=VOA |date=20 October 2022 }}</ref>
Japan, in the process of co-ordinating a plane flight to Wuhan to pick up Japanese nationals in the city, has promised that the plane will first carry into Wuhan aid supplies that Japanese foreign minister ] stated will consist of "masks and protective suits for Chinese people as well as for Japanese nationals".<ref name="20200128reuters">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-japan-idUSKBN1ZR0BZ |title=Japan sends plane to fly citizens home from China's virus-hit Wuhan |date=28 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128102644/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-japan-idUSKBN1ZR0BZ |archive-date=28 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref> On 26 January, the plane arrived in Wuhan, donating its supply of one million face masks to the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guancha.cn/internation/2020_01_26_533209.shtml |date=26 January 2020 |website=guancha.cn |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:日本民间捐100万口罩驰援武汉 |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Also among the aid supplies were 20,000 protective suits for medical staff across Hubei donated by the ].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/29/national/japan-support-for-coronavirus-hit-wuhan/ |title=Support efforts begin across Japan to help coronavirus-hit Wuhan |work=Japan Times |access-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Oceania ===
Support efforts have sprung across Japan to help aid residents in Wuhan. On 27 January, the city of ], a sister city to Wuhan for 40 years, sent 30,000 masks from its own disaster relief stockpile to its sister city through the ] network with boxes labelled "Wuhan ]", meaning "Hang in there, Wuhan!" in Chinese. Its International Affairs Office division head, Soichiro Hayashi, said that "The people of Wuhan are like family" and expressed hopes that "people can return to their ordinary lives as quickly as possible".
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania}}
] grocery store in ], Australia, in April 2020]]
The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached Oceania on 25 January 2020, with the first confirmed case reported in ], ].<ref name="AustraliaCase1">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-greg-hunt-mp/media/first-confirmed-case-of-novel-coronavirus-in-australia|title=First confirmed case of novel coronavirus in Australia|date=25 January 2020|website=Australian Government Department of Health |access-date=3 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215171557/https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-greg-hunt-mp/media/first-confirmed-case-of-novel-coronavirus-in-australia|archive-date=15 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brisbane2021">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Lynch L |title=Going viral: Timeline shows how COVID-19 infected Queensland |url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/queensland/going-viral-timeline-shows-how-covid-19-infected-queensland-20210112-p56tj7.html |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=Brisbane Times |date=27 January 2021 }}</ref> It has since spread elsewhere in the region.<ref name="WHO Dashboard">{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO COVID-19 Dashboard|date=24 April 2020|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=16 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416183953/https://covid19.who.int/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brisbane2021"/> ] and ] were praised for their handling of the pandemic in comparison to other Western nations, with New Zealand and each state in Australia wiping out all community transmission of the virus several times even after re-introduction into the community.<ref name="reuters-oz-10days">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Pandey S |title=Australia records 10th day of no local COVID-19 cases |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-australia/update-1-australia-set-for-10th-day-of-no-local-covid-19-cases-idUSL1N2K201P |access-date=28 June 2021 |work=Reuters |date=27 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="bloomberg-oz-tassie-price">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Scott J |title= Australia's Island State Pays High Price for Virus Victory |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-24/the-high-price-of-beating-the-virus-on-one-pristine-island |access-date=28 June 2021 |work=www.bloomberg.com |date=24 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Cave D |title=One Case, Total Lockdown: Australia's Lessons for a Pandemic World |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/01/world/australia/perth-lockdown.html |access-date=15 April 2021 |work=] |date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331200902/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/01/world/australia/perth-lockdown.html |archive-date=31 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>


As a result of the high transmissibility of the Delta variant, however, by August 2021, the Australian states of ] and ] had conceded defeat in their eradication efforts.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Briggs C |date=1 September 2021|title=Another state has given up on COVID zero. It shows Delta is a formidable foe|work=ABC News|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-02/victoria-and-nsw-abandon-covid-zero-analysis/100426124|access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> In early October 2021, New Zealand also abandoned its elimination strategy.<ref name="The Guardian NZ abandons elimination">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Corlett E |title=New Zealand Covid elimination strategy to be phased out, Ardern says |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/04/new-zealand-covid-strategy-in-transition-ardern-says-as-auckland-awaits-lockdown-decision |access-date=4 October 2021 |work=] |date=4 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004002428/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/04/new-zealand-covid-strategy-in-transition-ardern-says-as-auckland-awaits-lockdown-decision |archive-date=4 October 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> In November and December, following vaccination efforts, the remaining states of Australia, excluding Western Australia, voluntarily gave up ] to open up state and international borders.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Dayman I |title=SA opened its borders to COVID-19 this week. Here's what we've learned |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-11-27/sa-borders-open-what-we-have-learnt-so-far/100655534 |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=ABC News |date=27 November 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Lewin R |title=Everything you need to know as Queensland's border FINALLY reopens to Australia |url=https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/health-wellbeing/everything-you-need-to-know-as-queenslands-border-finally-reopens-to-australia-c-4914002 |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=7NEWS |date=12 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Humphries A |title=5,000 arrivals in a day: Hobart Airport predicted to have busiest day on record |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-12-15/tasmania-open-again-after-almost-two-years-shut-due-to-covid-19/100699854 |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=ABC News |date=14 December 2021 }}</ref> The open borders allowed the Omicron variant of COVID-19 to enter quickly, and cases subsequently exceeded 120,000 a day.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Truu M |title=Hitting the Omicron peak is just the beginning: This is what's in store next for Australia |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-30/covid-whats-next-after-omicrons-peak/100786176 |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=ABC News |date=29 January 2022 }}</ref> By early March 2022, with cases exceeding 1,000 a day, Western Australia conceded defeat in its eradication strategy and opened its borders.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mercer P |title=Western Australia Finally Opens Border After COVID-19 Closure |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/western-australia-finally-opens-border-after-covid-19-closure-/6468095.html |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=VOA |date=3 March 2022 }}</ref> Despite record cases, Australian jurisdictions slowly removed restrictions such as close contact isolation, mask wearing, and density limits by April 2022.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = McNeill H |date=26 April 2022 |title=WATCH LIVE: WA to ditch masks, proof of vaccination and capacity limits |url=https://www.watoday.com.au/national/western-australia/wa-health-minister-to-make-covid-19-announcement-20220426-p5ag8v.html |access-date=26 April 2022 |website=WAtoday }}</ref>
]'s ] lights in colours of ] in support of them against coronavirus.]]
On 28 January, the city of ] donated 50,000 masks to its sister-city of ], and on 6 February, the city of ] sent 22,000 masks to ], its own sister-city. The ruling ] on 10 February made a symbolic deduction of 5,000 yen from the March salary of every LDP parliamentarian, a total of 2 million yen, to donate to China, with the party's secretary-general, ], stating that "For Japan, when it sees a virus outbreak in China, it is like seeing a relative or neighbour suffering. Japanese people are willing to help China and hope the outbreak will pass as soon as possible."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-02/13/c_138780000.htm|title=Feature: Japan offers warm support to China in battle against virus outbreak – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|website=www.xinhuanet.com|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref>


On 9 September 2022, restrictions were significantly relaxed. The aircraft mask mandate was scrapped nationwide, and daily reporting transitioned to weekly reporting.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Young E |date=2 September 2022 |title=WA public health rules to change as COVID-19 case numbers drop |url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/western-australia/wa-to-drop-public-transport-taxi-and-rideshare-mask-requirements-20220902-p5bevh.html |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=The Age }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVID-19 update 9 September 2022 |url=https://ww2.health.wa.gov.au/Media-releases/2022/September/COVID19-update-9-September-2022 |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=ww2.health.wa.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Australia to move away from reporting daily COVID-19 case numbers |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-09-07/covid-19-statistics-to-be-reported-weekly-health-ministers-say/101414964 |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=ABC News |date=7 September 2022 }}</ref> On 14 September, COVID-19 disaster payment for isolating persons was extended for mandatory isolation.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Brown A |title=Paid pandemic leave extended while mandatory isolation continues |url=https://indaily.com.au/news/2022/09/14/paid-pandemic-leave-extended-while-mandatory-isolation-continues/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=InDaily |date=14 September 2022 }}</ref> By 22 September, all states had ended mask mandates on public transport, including in Victoria, where the mandate had lasted for approximately 800 days.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Taylor H |title=Victoria becomes final state to scrap COVID mask rule |url=https://7news.com.au/news/coronavirus-vic/final-australian-state-scraps-public-transport-mask-mandate-c-8314730 |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=7NEWS |date=21 September 2022 }}</ref> On 30 September 2022, all Australian leaders declared the emergency response finished and announced the end of isolation requirements. These changes were due in part to high levels of 'hybrid immunity' and low case numbers.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Jose R, Jackson L |title=As Australia calls end to COVID emergency response, doctors warn of risk to public |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/australia-end-mandatory-home-isolation-covid-patients-2022-09-30/ |website=Reuters |date=30 September 2022}}</ref>
Peace Winds Japan has declared it will send a staff member to China to help distribute the face masks and other goods that the NGO will send to the country.<ref name=":5" />


=== Antarctica ===
A number of other countries have also announced aid efforts. Malaysia announced a donation of 18 million ] to China,<ref name="20200131thestarB">{{Cite news |last=Kaos, Jr. |first=Joseph |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/01/31/coronavirus-malaysia-to-donate-18-million-medical-gloves-to-china |title=Coronavirus: Malaysia to donate 18 million medical gloves to China |date=31 January 2020 |work=The Star |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131091938/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/01/31/coronavirus-malaysia-to-donate-18-million-medical-gloves-to-china |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] also donated $1.4&nbsp;million worth of Philippine-made face masks, which were shipped to Wuhan.<ref name="gmanetwork724357">{{Cite news |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/724357/will-gov-t-give-free-masks-palace-says-how-can-we-give-free-masks-when-there-s-none/story/ |title=Will gov't give free masks? Palace says, 'How can we give when there's none' |date=31 January 2019 |work=GMA News |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202161238/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/724357/will-gov-t-give-free-masks-palace-says-how-can-we-give-free-masks-when-there-s-none/story/ |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey dispatched medical equipment,<ref name="trt33408">{{Cite news |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-plane-carrying-wuhan-evacuees-lands-in-ankara-33408 |title=Turkish plane carrying Wuhan evacuees lands in Ankara |date=1 February 2020 |work=TRT World |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203152227/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-plane-carrying-wuhan-evacuees-lands-in-ankara-33408 |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and Germany delivered various medical supplies including 10,000 ].<ref name="scmp3048521">{{Cite news |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3048521/coronavirus-german-air-force-evacuates-citizens-wuhan-gives-china |title=Coronavirus: German air force evacuates citizens from Wuhan; gives China 10,000 protective suits |date=1 February 2020 |work=South China Morning Post |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201031719/https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3048521/coronavirus-german-air-force-evacuates-citizens-wuhan-gives-china |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 19 February, Singapore Red Cross announced that they will send $2.26 million worth of aid to China, which they declared would consist of "purchasing and distributing protective equipment like surgical masks for hospital staff and other healthcare workers." It will also be used to "buy and distribute hygiene items and conduct health education in seven welfare homes in Tianjin and Nanning."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/singapore-red-cross-to-send-23m-worth-of-aid-to-china-steps-up-local-outreach-to-seniors|title=Coronavirus: Singapore Red Cross to send $2.3m worth of aid to China, steps up local outreach to seniors|last=hermesauto|date=19 February 2020|website=The Straits Times|language=en|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica}}
Due to its remoteness and sparse population, ] was the last continent to have confirmed cases of COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Taylor A, Pitrelli S |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/03/24/one-continent-remains-untouched-by-coronavirus-antarctica/|title=One continent remains untouched by the coronavirus: Antarctica|date=24 March 2020|newspaper=]|access-date=3 April 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401225655/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/03/24/one-continent-remains-untouched-by-coronavirus-antarctica/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Torres E |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/life-antarctica-continent-case-coronavirus/story?id=69716325|title=What life is like on Antarctica, the only continent without a case of coronavirus|date=20 March 2020|work=ABC News|access-date=3 April 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401135314/https://abcnews.go.com/International/life-antarctica-continent-case-coronavirus/story?id=69716325|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||agency=Agence France-Presse|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/australasia/article/3077724/pacific-islands-antarctic-bases-coronavirus-free-living-some|title=Pacific islands, Antarctic bases: coronavirus-free living in some of Earth's most isolated places|date=31 March 2020|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=3 April 2020|archive-date=3 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403015046/https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/australasia/article/3077724/pacific-islands-antarctic-bases-coronavirus-free-living-some|url-status=live}}</ref> The first cases were reported in December 2020, almost a year after the first cases of COVID-19 were detected in China. At least 36 people were infected in the first outbreak in 2020,<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Ramos Miranda NA |title=Coronavirus reaches end of earth as first outbreak hits Antarctica |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/coronavirus-reaches-end-earth-first-outbreak-hits-antarctica-2020-12-22/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |work=Reuters |date=22 December 2020 }}</ref> with several other outbreaks taking place in 2021 and 2022.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/08/antarcticas-biggest-covid-outbreak-yet-puts-us-station-mcmurdo-on-pause |title=Antarctica's biggest Covid outbreak yet puts US station McMurdo on pause | vauthors = McClure T |date=8 November 2022 |work=The Guardian |access-date=12 June 2023}}</ref>


=== Speciality hospitals === === United Nations ===
{{Main|United Nations response to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
]
The ] (UNSC) was criticised for its slow response, especially regarding the UN's ], which aimed to open up humanitarian access to conflict zones.<ref name=":22">{{#invoke:cite web ||date=9 April 2020 |title=Global Ceasefire Call Deserves UN Security Council's Full Support |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/global-ceasefire-call-deserves-un-security-councils-full-support |access-date=1 August 2020 |website=Crisis Group}}</ref><ref name="Krm4a">{{#invoke:cite web ||date=25 June 2020 |title=UN tallies action so far to fight COVID-19, and roadmap out of the pandemic |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1067132 |access-date=4 August 2020 |website=UN News}}</ref> The United Nations Security Council was criticised due to the inadequate manner in which it dealt with the COVID-19 pandemic, namely the poor ability to create international collaboration during this crisis.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Charbonneau B |title=The COVID-19 test of the United Nations Security Council |journal=International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis |date=March 2021 |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=6–16 |doi=10.1177/0020702020986897 |s2cid=233202171 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0020702020986897 |access-date=5 June 2023 |issn=0020-7020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Gladstone R |title=U.N. Security Council 'Missing In Action' in Coronavirus Fight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/americas/coronavirus-united-nations-guterres.html |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=The New York Times |date=2 April 2020}}</ref>
] as it appeared on 24 January.]]
A speciality hospital named ] has been constructed as a countermeasure against the outbreak and to better quarantine the patients. Wuhan City government had demanded that a state-owned enterprise construct such a hospital "at the fastest speed" comparable to that of the ].<ref name="Outbreak">{{cite news |url=https://www.cna.com.tw/news/firstnews/202001230201.aspx |date=23 January 2020 |language=zh |script-title=zh:比照SARS集中醫治 武漢擬6天建千床醫療站 – 兩岸 – 重點新聞 |access-date=23 January 2020 |agency=]}}</ref> On 24 January, Wuhan authorities specified its planning, saying they planned to have Huoshenshan Hospital built within six days of the announcement and it will be ready to use on 3 February. Upon opening, the speciality hospital has 1,000 beds<ref name="20200128www">{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-01/28/content_5472565.htm |title=李克强督战武汉"小汤山"医院建设：把这里建成遏制疫情蔓延的"安全岛" |date=28 January 2020 |website=gov.cn}}</ref> and takes up 30,000 square metres. The hospital is modelled after the {{ill|Xiaotangshan Hospital|2=zh|3=小汤山医院|preserve=1}}, which was fabricated for the SARS outbreak of 2003, itself built in only seven days.<ref name="Xinhua Huoshenshan">{{Cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-01/24/c_138731107.htm |title=Wuhan to follow Beijing's SARS treatment model in new coronavirus control |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=24 January 2020 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref><ref name="20200124theguardian-plans">{{cite news | last=Siddique | first=Haroon | title=Chinese city plans to build coronavirus hospital in days | website=] | date=24 January 2020 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jan/24/chinese-city-wuhan-plans-to-build-coronavirus-hospital-in-six-days | access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> State media reported that there were 7,000 workers and nearly 300 units of construction machinery on the site at peak.<ref name="chinanews9069083">{{Cite news |last=Xu |first=Jinbo |url=http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2020/01-25/9069083.shtml |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125151457/http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2020/01-25/9069083.shtml |archive-date=25 January 2020 |agency=China News Service |language=zh |script-title=zh:特别的除夕：武汉吹响建设火神山医院"集结号" |trans-title=A special Lunar New Year's Eve: Wuhan sound the rally for building Huoshenshan hospital}}</ref>


On 23 March 2020, United Nations Secretary-General ] appealed for a global ];<ref name="tFb4N">{{#invoke:cite web || date=23 March 2020|title=Transcript of the Secretary-General's virtual press encounter on the appeal for global ceasefire|url=https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/press-encounter/2020-03-23/transcript-of-the-secretary-generals-virtual-press-encounter-the-appeal-for-global-ceasefire|access-date=1 August 2020|website=United Nations Secretary-General}}</ref><ref name="lzoeV">{{#invoke:cite web || date=23 March 2020|title=COVID-19: UN chief calls for global ceasefire to focus on 'the true fight of our lives'|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059972|access-date=1 August 2020|website=UN News}}</ref> 172 UN member states and observers signed a non-binding supporting statement in June,<ref name="AGhvz">{{#invoke:cite web || date=24 June 2020|title=170 signatories endorse UN ceasefire appeal during COVID crisis|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1066982|access-date=1 August 2020|website=UN News}}</ref> and the ] passed a ] supporting it in July.<ref name="9rN79">{{#invoke:cite web || title=S/RES/2532(2020) – E – S/RES/2532(2020)|url=https://undocs.org/en/S/RES/2532(2020)|access-date=1 August 2020|website=undocs.org}}</ref><ref name="nJTuX">{{#invoke:cite news || date=1 July 2020|title=Stalled Security Council resolution adopted, backing UN's global humanitarian ceasefire call|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/07/1067552|access-date=1 August 2020|website=UN News}}</ref>
On 25 January authorities announced plans for ], a second speciality hospital, with a capacity of 1,600 beds;<ref name="bjnews681160">{{cite web |url=http://www.bjnews.com.cn/feature/2020/01/29/681160.html |title=雷神山医院病床增至1600张 |date=29 January 2020 |website=bjnews.com.cn |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129091625/http://www.bjnews.com.cn/feature/2020/01/29/681160.html |archive-date=29 January 2020 |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> operations are scheduled to start by 6 February.<ref name="yicai20190131">{{cite web |url=https://m.yicai.com/news/100484980.html |title=火神山、雷神山医院将于2月3日和2月6日收治病人 |date=31 January 2019 |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202000801/https://m.yicai.com/news/100484980.html |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="people33744294">{{Cite news |last=He |first=Guanghua |url=http://hb.people.com.cn/n2/2020/0125/c192237-33744294.html |date=25 January 2020 |work=People's Daily |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |last2=Tian |first2=Doudou |language=zh |script-title=zh:武汉将再建一个"小汤山"医院 |trans-title=Wuhan to build another "Xiaotangshan" hospital}}</ref> Some people voiced their concerns through social media services, saying the authorities' decision to build yet another hospital in such little time showed the severity of the outbreak could be a lot worse than expected.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://hk.on.cc/hk/bkn/cnt/cnnews/20200125/bkn-20200125070552541-0125_00952_001.html |date=25 January 2020 |work=Oriental Daily News |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |language=zh |script-title=zh:武漢肺炎︰火神山首階段施工近完成　當局再建雷神山 |trans-title=Wuhan Pneumonia: First stage of Huoshenshan Hospital construction nearing completion, authorities to build Leishenshan Hospital}}</ref>


On 29 September 2020, Guterres urged the ] to help certain countries via debt relief and also call for countries to increase contributions to develop vaccines.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=U.N. chief urges increase in funding for IMF to help pandemic-hit countries |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-un-idUSKBN26K2VK |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=Reuters |date=29 September 2020 }}</ref>
On 24 January 2020, the authority announced that they would convert an empty building in ], ] to a 1,000-bed hospital named ]. Works began the next day by 500 personnel and the building began accepting patients on 28 January 2020 at 10:30&nbsp;pm.<ref name="metro12142899">{{Cite news |last=Hartley-Parkinson |first=Richard |url=https://metro.co.uk/2020/01/29/china-opens-1000-bed-coronavirus-hospital-just-48-hours-construction-12142899/ |title=China completes 1,000-bed coronavirus hospital in just 48 hours |date=29 January 2020 |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>


=== WHO ===
In Wuhan, authorities have seized dormitories, offices and hospitals to create more beds for patients.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/cf24d4b2-4d5a-11ea-95a0-43d18ec715f5|title=Subscribe to read &#124; Financial Times|website=www.ft.com}}</ref>
{{Main|World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic|l1 = World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
] representatives holding joint meeting with ] city administrators in March 2020]]
The WHO spearheaded initiatives such as the ] to raise money for the pandemic response, the ], and the ] for investigating potential treatment options for the disease. The ] program, co-led by the WHO, ], and the ] (CEPI), aimed to accelerate the development, manufacture, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, and to guarantee fair and equitable access across the world.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=COVAX |url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/act-accelerator/covax |access-date=9 December 2021 |website=www.who.int}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Factbox: Vaccines delivered under COVAX sharing scheme for poorer countries |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/vaccines-delivered-under-covax-sharing-scheme-poorer-countries-2022-01-03/ |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=Reuters |date=25 November 2022 }}</ref>


== Restrictions ==
== Reactions to prevention efforts ==
{{Further|Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic|International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
=== WHO response measures ===
]
{{See also|World Health Organization#Reactions to WHO response in 2019-20 novel coronavirus outbreak (COVID19)}}
The pandemic shook the world's economy, with especially severe economic damage in the United States, Europe and Latin America.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.imf.org/en/About/FAQ/imf-response-to-covid-19|title=The IMF's Response to COVID-19|author=IMF}}</ref><ref name="Effect of COVID-19 on food security">{{#invoke:cite book || vauthors = Kakaei H, Nourmoradi H, Bakhtiyari S, Jalilian M, Mirzaei A |chapter=Effect of COVID-19 on food security, hunger, and food crisis |title=COVID-19 and the Sustainable Development Goals |date=2022 |pages=3–29 | publisher = Elsevier |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-91307-2.00005-5 |pmc=9335023 |isbn=9780323913072 }}</ref> A consensus report by American intelligence agencies in April 2021 concluded, "Efforts to contain and manage the virus have reinforced nationalist trends globally, as some states turned inward to protect their citizens and sometimes cast blame on marginalised groups". COVID-19 inflamed partisanship and polarisation around the world as bitter arguments exploded over how to respond. International trade was disrupted amid the formation of no-entry enclaves.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Barnes JE | title=U.S. Intelligence Report Warns of Global Consequences of Social Fragmentation | website=] | date=8 April 2021 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/08/us/politics/intelligence-global-trends-report-pandemic.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/08/us/politics/intelligence-global-trends-report-pandemic.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited | access-date=8 May 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
The ] (WHO) has commended the efforts of Chinese authorities in managing and containing the epidemic, with Director-General ] expressing "confidence in China's approach to controlling the epidemic" and calling for the public to "remain calm".<ref name="wsj1158022764">{{Cite news |last=Yang |first=Stephanie |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-chief-praises-beijings-coronavirus-response-as-travel-barriers-rise-11580227640 |title=WHO Chief Praises Beijing's Coronavirus Response as Travel Barriers Rise |date=28 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128201740/https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-chief-praises-beijings-coronavirus-response-as-travel-barriers-rise-11580227640 |archive-date=28 January 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The WHO noted the contrast between the ], where Chinese authorities were accused of secrecy that impeded prevention and containment efforts, and the current crisis where the central government "has provided regular updates to avoid panic ahead of Lunar New Year holidays".<ref name="auto">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-who-idUSKBN1ZM1G9 |title=Wuhan lockdown 'unprecedented', shows commitment to contain virus: WHO representative in China |date=23 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124203401/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-who-idUSKBN1ZM1G9 |archive-date=24 January 2020 |work=Reuters}}</ref>


=== Travel restrictions ===
The WHO and Chinese authorities have also received criticism for their reporting and handling of the epidemic.<ref name="auto9">{{Cite web |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/the-true-cost-of-chinas-coronavirus-cover-up-how-state-cthrallensorship-let-the-outbreak-spread |title=The true cost of China's coronavirus cover-up: How state censorship let the outbreak spread &#124; National Post |date=7 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/coronavirus-spreads-and-the-world-pays-for-china-s-dictatorship/ar-BBZssgk |title=Coronavirus Spreads, and the World Pays for China's Dictatorship |publisher=MSN |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203144603/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/coronavirus-spreads-and-the-world-pays-for-china-s-dictatorship/ar-BBZssgk |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/23/asia/wuhan-china-coronavirus-sars-response-intl-hnk/index.html |title=Wuhan is the latest crisis to face China's Xi, and it's exposing major flaws in his model of control |last=Griffiths |first=James |publisher=CNN |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208194710/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/23/asia/wuhan-china-coronavirus-sars-response-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=8 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> John Mackenzie of the WHO's emergency committee and Anne Schuchat of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Washington suggested that China's official tally of cases and deaths was an underestimation, while others noted that China lumped Taiwan with the semi-autonomous regions of Hong Kong and Macao when reporting outbreak data.<ref name="auto7">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/8ede7e92-4749-11ea-aeb3-955839e06441 |title=Subscribe to read |website=Financial Times |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205170154/https://www.ft.com/content/8ede7e92-4749-11ea-aeb3-955839e06441 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="auto9"/><ref name="auto13"/> ], for refusing the adhere to the "]" policy, was only granted participation at the WHO for this outbreak after "lobbying by countries including the U.S."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/02/14/world/asia/ap-as-taiwan-outbreak-pathogens-and-politics.html|title=Health Concerns Meet Politics Amid Taiwan's WHO Exclusion|first=The Associated|last=Press|date=14 February 2020|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Coronavirus/With-nod-from-China-Taiwan-gets-seat-at-WHO-coronavirus-forum|title=With nod from China, Taiwan gets seat at WHO coronavirus forum|website=Nikkei Asian Review}}</ref> An unnamed ] diplomat said that the "] is so much in thrall to China's influence, they have felt compelled to stay close to China's line on this crisis...to downplay this virus...until its position became untenable".<ref name="auto9"/> Some attacked WHO director-general Tedros for his apparent appeasement to avoid "antagoniz the notoriously touchy Chinese government", however others defended this strategy in order "to ensure Beijing’s co-operation in mounting an effective global response to the outbreak", leading to further criticism that such a stance "puts WHO’s moral authority at risk". Tedros also drew criticism for delaying the declaration that the outbreak was a global emergency, leaving to an online petition calling for his resignation.<ref name="auto13"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theindependent.sg/more-than-350000-sign-petition-calling-for-resignation-of-who-chief/|title=More than 350,000 sign petition calling for resignation of WHO chief – The Independent News}}</ref><ref name="auto8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/mission-impossible-who-director-fights-prevent-pandemic-without-offending-china|title=Mission impossible? WHO director fights to prevent a pandemic without offending China|date=10 February 2020|website=Science &#124; AAAS}}</ref>
{{Main|Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
The pandemic led many countries and regions to impose quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions, either for citizens, recent travellers to affected areas,<ref name="20200326nytimes">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/coronavirus-travel-restrictions.html |title=Coronavirus Travel Restrictions, Across the Globe |date=26 March 2020 |work=]}}</ref> or for all travellers.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Menon P |title=New Zealand sets date for reopening to tourists after nearly two years |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/new-zealand-reopen-foreign-travellers-april-30-2021-11-24/ |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=Reuters |date=24 November 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Travel to Australia during Covid-19: What you need to know before you go |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/australia-travel-covid-19/index.html |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=CNN |date=11 March 2021 }}</ref> Travel collapsed worldwide, damaging the travel sector. The effectiveness of travel restrictions was questioned as the virus spread across the world.<ref name="20200224nationalgeographic">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Nsikan A |title=Coronavirus spikes outside China show travel bans aren't working |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/02/why-travel-restrictions-are-not-stopping-coronavirus-covid-19/ |access-date=2 April 2020 |work=National Geographic |date=24 February 2020}}</ref> One study found that travel restrictions only modestly affected the initial spread, unless combined with other ] measures.<ref name="DJYtB">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chinazzi M, Davis JT, Ajelli M, Gioannini C, Litvinova M, Merler S, Pastore Y, Piontti A, Mu K, Rossi L, Sun K, Viboud C, Xiong X, Yu H, Halloran ME, Longini IM, Vespignani A | title = The effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak | journal = Science | volume = 368 | issue = 6489 | pages = 395–400 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32144116 | pmc = 7164386 | doi = 10.1126/science.aba9757 | author-link15 = Ira M. Longini, Jr. | author-link16 = Alessandro Vespignani | bibcode = 2020Sci...368..395C }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kim KE |title=Ten Takeaways from the COVID-19 Pandemic for Transportation Planners |journal=Transportation Research Record |date=April 2023 |volume=2677 |issue=4 |pages=517–530 |doi=10.1177/03611981221090515 |pmid=37153166 |pmc=10149348 |issn=0361-1981}}</ref> Researchers concluded that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late".<ref name="283GD">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=COVID-19: Study shows that travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic |url=https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/news/covid-19-travel-restrictions-study/ |work=Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford |date=25 March 2020}}</ref> The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the ].<ref name="dw52497811">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-eu-rules-out-schengen-border-closures-amid-italy-outbreak/a-52497811 |title=Coronavirus: EU rules out Schengen border closures amid Italy outbreak |date=24 February 2020 |publisher=Deutsche Welle}}</ref><ref name="20200313euractiv">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Commission chief warns against unilateral virus travel bans |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/commission-chief-warns-against-unilateral-virus-travel-bans/ |work=] |date=13 March 2020}}</ref>


=== Repatriation of foreign citizens ===
In reaction to the central authorities' decision to implement a ], WHO representative Gauden Galea remarked that while it was "certainly not a recommendation the WHO has made", it was also "a very important indication of the commitment to contain the epidemic in the place where it is most concentrated" and called it "unprecedented in public health history".<ref name="auto" /> Unlike the recommendations of other agencies,<ref name="BMJ2020Best" /> Tedros stated that "there is no reason for measures that unnecessarily interfere with international travel and trade" and that "WHO doesn't recommend limiting trade and movement".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov) |title=IHR Emergency Committee on Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) |website=who.int |access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
], China.]]
Several countries repatriated their citizens and diplomatic staff from Wuhan and surrounding areas, primarily through ]s. Canada, the United States, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany and Thailand were among the first to do so.<ref name="AutoDW-169" /> Brazil and New Zealand evacuated their own nationals and others.<ref name="AutoDW-171" /><ref name="6l9jG" /> On 14 March, South Africa repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative, while four who showed symptoms were left behind.<ref name="auto3">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/repatriated-citizens-be-reunited-families |title=Repatriated citizens to be reunited with families |website=SANews.gov.zanews24.com |date=29 March 2020 |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref> Pakistan declined to evacuate its citizens.<ref name="20200131dialoguepakistan" />


On 15 February, the US announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the '']'' cruise ship,<ref name="AutoDW-174" /> and on 21 February, Canada evacuated 129 Canadians from the ship.<ref name="AutoDW-175" /> In early March, the Indian government began repatriating its citizens from Iran.<ref name="czjOG" /><ref name="indiatimes74647353">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/4th-batch-of-53-indians-evacuated-from-iran-s-jaishankar/articleshow/74647353.cms |title=4th batch of 53 Indians evacuated from Iran: S Jaishankar |date=16 March 2020 |work=] |access-date=28 March 2020}}</ref> On 20 March, the United States began to withdraw some troops from Iraq.<ref name="USWithdraw">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://thehill.com/policy/defense/488618-us-led-coalition-in-iraq-drawing-down-over-coronavirus-concerns |title=US-led coalition in Iraq drawing down over coronavirus concerns |website=] |date=20 March 2020 | vauthors = Kheel R |access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref>
On 30 January 2020, following confirmation of human-to-human transmission outside of China and the increase in number of cases in other countries, the WHO declared the outbreak a ] (PHEIC), the sixth PHEIC since the measure was first invoked during the ]. Tedros clarified that the PHEIC, in this case, was "not a vote of no confidence in China", but because of the risk of global spread, especially to low- and middle-income countries without robust health systems.<ref name="WHO_PHEIC_decl2" /><ref name="WHODeclaration">{{cite web | title=Coronavirus declared global health emergency | website=] | date=31 January 2020 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51318246 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213214801/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51318246 | archive-date=13 February 2020 | url-status=live | access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref>


== Impact ==
On 5 February, the WHO appealed to the global community for a $675 million contribution to fund strategic preparedness in low-income countries, citing the urgency to develop those countries which "do not have the systems in place to detect people who have contracted the virus, even if it were to emerge." Tedros further made statements declaring that "We are only as strong as our weakest link" and urged the international community to "invest today or pay more later."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/02/1056772|title=$675 million appeal to stop coronavirus in its tracks, as deaths rise|date=5 February 2020|website=UN News|language=en|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.healthpolicy-watch.org/who-calls-for-us-675-million-to-combat-coronavirus-china-experiences-largest-24-hour-increase-in-cases-since-outbreak-began/|title=WHO Calls for US $675 million To Combat Coronavirus; China Experiences Largest 24-Hour Increase In Cases Since Outbreak Began|date=5 February 2020|website=Health Policy Watch|language=en-US|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic}}
{{Further|Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic}}


=== Economics ===
On 11 February, the WHO in a press conference established COVID-19 as the name of the disease. In a further statement on the same day, Tedros stated that he had briefed with UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres who agreed to provide the "power of the entire UN system in the response." A UN Crisis Management Team was activated as a result, allowing coordination of the entire United Nations response, which the WHO states will allow them to "focus on the health response while the other agencies can bring their expertise to bear on the wider social, economic and developmental implications of the outbreak"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-2019-ncov-on-11-february-2020|title=WHO Director-General's remarks at the media briefing on 2019-nCoV on 11 February 2020|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic}}
{{See also|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation|l1=Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology|l2=on science and technology|Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|l3=on financial markets|2020 stock market crash|COVID-19 recession}}
] chart shows the ].]]
The pandemic and responses to it damaged the global economy. On 27 February 2020, worries about the outbreak crushed US stock indexes, which posted their sharpest falls since 2008.<ref name="U7teI" />


Tourism collapsed due to travel restrictions, closing of public places including travel attractions, and advice of governments against travel. Airlines cancelled flights, while British regional airline ] collapsed.<ref name="z2VrM" /> The cruise line industry was hard hit,<ref name="smh20200227">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Turner B |url=https://www.smh.com.au/business/the-economy/most-significant-crisis-in-the-history-of-travel-where-to-now-for-tourism-20200227-p5450j.html |title='Most significant crisis in the history of travel': where to now for tourism? |date=4 April 2020 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=5 April 2020}}</ref> and train stations and ferry ports closed.<ref name="wnn7L" /> International mail stopped or was delayed.<ref name="wsj1158868721">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/another-coronavirus-business-problem-skyrocketing-cost-of-air-cargo-11588687216 |title=You've Got Mail ... Finally: The Pandemic Is Jamming Up the World's Post |access-date=15 May 2020 |date=5 May 2020 | vauthors = Cherney M, Craymer L |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal }}</ref>
On 14 February, a WHO-led Joint Mission Team with China was activated to provide international and WHO experts to touch ground in China to assist in the domestic management and evaluate "the severity and the transmissibility of the disease" by hosting workshops and meetings with key national-level institutions to conduct field visits to assess the "impact of response activities at provincial and county levels, including urban and rural settings."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-2019-outbreak-on-14-february-2020|title=WHO Director-General's remarks at the media briefing on COVID-2019 outbreak on 14 February 2020|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>


The retail sector faced reductions in store hours or closures.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||vauthors = Tyko K |title=How COVID permanently changed shopping and restaurants |url=https://www.axios.com/2023/03/17/stores-restaurants-covid-changes |access-date=5 June 2023 |date=17 March 2023}}</ref> Retailers in Europe and Latin America faced traffic declines of 40 per cent. North America and Middle East retailers saw a 50–60 per cent drop.<ref name="20200402aislelabs">{{#invoke:citation/CS2 ||url=https://www.aislelabs.com/blog/2020/04/02/how-retailers-globally-are-responding-to-coronavirus-updated-frequently/ |title=How Retailers Globally are Responding to Coronavirus by Aislelabs |newspaper=Aislelabs |date=2 April 2020|access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref> Shopping centres faced a 33–43 per cent drop in foot traffic in March compared to February. Mall operators around the world coped by increasing sanitation, installing thermal scanners to check the temperature of shoppers, and cancelling events.<ref name="J6Y6Z" />
=== International reactions ===
] received a briefing on the coronavirus in China.]]
China's response to the virus, in comparison to the ], has been praised by some foreign leaders.<ref name="20200125business-standard">{{Cite news |last=AFP |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/trump-praises-china-efforts-and-transparency-on-virus-120012500107_1.html |title=Trump praises China 'efforts and transparency' on virus |date=25 January 2020 |work=Business Standard India |access-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125151634/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/trump-praises-china-efforts-and-transparency-on-virus-120012500107_1.html |archive-date=25 January 2020}}</ref> US president ] thanked ] Xi Jinping "on behalf of the American People" on 24 January 2020 on Twitter, stating that "China has been working very hard to contain the Coronavirus. The United States greatly appreciates their efforts and transparency" and declaring that "It will all work out well."<ref name="20200125straitstimes">{{cite web |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/trump-praises-china-efforts-and-transparency-on-wuhan-virus |title=Trump praises China 'efforts and transparency' on Wuhan virus |last=hermesauto |date=25 January 2020 |website=The Straits Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127163253/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/trump-praises-china-efforts-and-transparency-on-wuhan-virus |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> Germany's health minister ], in an interview on ], said with comparison to the Chinese response to SARS in 2003: "There's a big difference to SARS. We have a much more transparent China. The action of China is much more effective in the first days already." He also praised the international co-operation and communication in dealing with the virus.<ref name="dw52145333">{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-reaches-europe-as-france-confirms-3-cases/a-52145333 |title=Coronavirus reaches Europe as France confirms 3 cases |date=24 January 2020 |website=DW.COM |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:tThjZC8ZDxsJ:https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-24/china-doing-good-job-in-combating-virus-german-minister-says+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ca |title=China Doing Good Job in Combating Virus, German Minister Says – Bloomberg |website=webcache.googleusercontent.com |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref>


Hundreds of millions of jobs were lost,<ref name="aljazeera2004271718">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Half the world's workers face losing their jobs, says ILO |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/ajimpact/world-workers-face-losing-jobs-ilo-200427171840169.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=29 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200506csmonitor">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Temko N |title=No jobs, so what future? Half the world's workforce on the edge. |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/2020/0506/No-jobs-so-what-future-Half-the-world-s-workforce-on-the-edge |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> including more than 40&nbsp;million jobs in the US.<ref name="20200528WaPo">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Americans have filed more than 40 million jobless claims in past 10 weeks, as another 2.1 million filed for benefits last week | vauthors = Romm T |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/05/28/unemployment-claims-coronavirus/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=28 May 2020}}</ref> According to a report by ], about 60% of US businesses that closed will stay shut permanently.<ref name="vLHxV">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Sundaram A |title=Yelp data shows 60% of business closures due to the coronavirus pandemic are now permanent |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/16/yelp-data-shows-60percent-of-business-closures-due-to-the-coronavirus-pandemic-are-now-permanent.html |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=CNBC |date=16 September 2020 }}</ref> The ] (ILO) reported that the income generated in the first nine months of 2020 from work across the world dropped by 10.7%, or $3.5&nbsp;trillion.<ref name="rd8bm">{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-ilo/pandemic-slashes-worldwide-income-from-work-by-a-tenth-ilo-idUSKCN26E1SM|title=Pandemic slashes worldwide income from work by a tenth: ILO|access-date=23 September 2020|work=Reuters|date=23 September 2020| vauthors = Nebehay S }}</ref>
At a Sunday mass at ] in Vatican City on 26 January 2020, ] praised "the great commitment by the Chinese community that has already been put in place to combat the epidemic" and commenced a closing prayer for "the people who are sick because of the virus that has spread through China".<ref name="20200126reuters-pope">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-pope-idUSKBN1ZP0EP |title=Pope Francis praises China's efforts to contain coronavirus |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref>


=== Criticism of local response === ==== Supply shortages ====
{{Main|Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
Local officials in Wuhan and the province of Hubei have faced criticism, both domestically and internationally, for mishandling the initial outbreak.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Griffiths |first=James |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/27/asia/china-wuhan-coronavirus-reaction-intl-hnk/index.html |title=China's unprecedented reaction to the Wuhan virus probably couldn't be pulled off in any other country |access-date=28 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128015515/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/27/asia/china-wuhan-coronavirus-reaction-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=28 January 2020 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> Allegations included insufficient medical supplies, lack of transparency to the press and ] during the initial weeks of the outbreak.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/24/world/asia/china-coronavirus.html#link-46c299c1 |title=Toll From Outbreak Climbs in China as Infections Reach Europe and Australia (Anger and mistrust spill over online) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127134953/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/24/world/asia/china-coronavirus.html#link-46c299c1 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |website=]}}</ref><ref name="20200121nytimes">{{Cite news |last=Hernández |first=Javier C. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/21/world/asia/china-coronavirus-wuhan.html |title=The Test a Deadly Coronavirus Outbreak Poses to China's Leadership |date=21 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126020853/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/21/world/asia/china-coronavirus-wuhan.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On 1 January 2020, the Wuhan police interviewed eight residents for "spreading false information" (characterising the new infection as SARS-like).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.sina.cn/gn/2020-01-22/detail-iihnzhha4048890.d.html |date=22 January 2020 |publisher=Sina Corp |script-title=zh:8人散布不实消息被武汉公安查处 胡锡进透露内情 |access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref><ref name=20200126telegraph /> The Wuhan police had originally stated through a post on its official Weibo account that "eight people had been dealt with according to the law",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guancha.cn/politics/2020_01_01_530191.shtml?s=zwyxgtjdt |website=guancha.cn |language=zh-cn |script-title=zh:8名散布武汉肺炎谣言者被依法查处 |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="bbc50984025">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50984025 |title=Mystery pneumonia virus probed in China |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105051949/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50984025 |archive-date=5 January 2020 |publisher=]}}</ref> later clarifying through Weibo that they had only given out "education and criticism" and refrained from harsher punishments such as "warnings, fines, or detention".<ref name="auto5" /> One of the eight, a doctor named ] who informed his former medical school classmates of the coronavirus in a ] group after examining a patient's medical report with symptoms of the illness, was warned by the police on 3 January for "making untrue comments" that had "severely disturbed the social order" and made to sign a statement of acknowledgment.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chris Buckley |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/01/world/asia/china-coronavirus.html |title=As New Coronavirus Spread, China's Old Habits Delayed Fight |date=1 February 2020 |work=] |last2=Steven Lee Myers |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209224329/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/01/world/asia/china-coronavirus.html |archive-date=9 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1005150/rumormonger-doctor-who-raised-the-alarm-says-he-has-coronavirus |title='Rumormonger' Doctor Who Raised the Alarm Says He Has Coronavirus |last=Wang |first=Lianzhang |date=1 February 2020 |website=Sixth Tone |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206214529/https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1005150/rumormonger-doctor-who-raised-the-alarm-says-he-has-coronavirus |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/03/asia/coronavirus-doctor-whistle-blower-intl-hnk/index.html |title=This Chinese doctor tried to save lives, but was silenced. Now he has coronavirus |first2=Nectar |last2=Gan |first1=Yong |last1=Xiong |publisher=CNN |date=4 February 2020 |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204040246/https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/03/asia/coronavirus-doctor-whistle-blower-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> It was reported on 7 February 2020 Li had died after contracting the disease from a patient in January 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tom Phillips, Emma Graham-Harrison and Justin McCurry |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/06/whistleblower-chinese-doctor-dies-from-coronavirus |title=Doctor who blew whistle over coronavirus has died, hospital says |date=6 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209051539/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/06/whistleblower-chinese-doctor-dies-from-coronavirus |archive-date=9 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> His death triggered grief and anger on the social media, which became extended to demands for freedom of speech in China.<ref name="auto11">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51409801 |title=Li Wenliang: Coronavirus death of Wuhan doctor sparks outpouring of anger |date=7 February 2020 |work=BBC |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207062254/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-51409801 |archive-date=7 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Graham-Harrison |first=Emma |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/07/coronavirus-chinese-rage-death-whistleblower-doctor-li-wenliang |title='Hero who told the truth': Chinese rage over coronavirus death of whistleblower doctor |date=6 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207062759/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/07/coronavirus-chinese-rage-death-whistleblower-doctor-li-wenliang |archive-date=7 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> China's anti-corruption body, the ], has initiated an investigation into the issues involving Li.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cao |first=Yin |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/07/WS5e3cf988a310128217275cc5.html |title=Supervisory Commission to probe issues involving Dr Li |date=7 February 2020 |work=China Daily |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209000834/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/07/WS5e3cf988a310128217275cc5.html |archive-date=9 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
]
Pandemic fears led to ], emptying groceries of essentials such as food, toilet paper, and bottled water. Panic buying stemmed from perceived threat, perceived scarcity, fear of the unknown, coping behaviour and social psychological factors (e.g. ] and trust).<ref name="cSvA4">{{#invoke:cite journal||vauthors=Yuen KF, Wang X, Ma F, Li KX|date=May 2020|title=The Psychological Causes of Panic Buying Following a Health Crisis|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=17|issue=10|page=3513|doi=10.3390/ijerph17103513|pmc=7277661|pmid=32443427|doi-access=free|s2cid=218856048}}</ref>


Supply ]s were due to disruption to factory and logistic operations; shortages were worsened by ] disruptions from factory and port shutdowns, and labour shortages.<ref name="XvcU9" />
Local officials were criticised for hiding evidence of human-to-human transmission in early January, and suppressing reports about the disease during ] meetings for political reasons.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/2/4/21122072/china-coronavirus-healthcare |title=China's draconian response to the new coronavirus, explained by a China expert |last=Belluz |first=Julia |date=4 February 2020 |website=Vox |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210034141/https://www.vox.com/2020/2/4/21122072/china-coronavirus-healthcare |archive-date=10 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Criticism was directed at ] Governor ] after he twice claimed at a press conference that 10.8&nbsp;billion face masks were produced each year in the province, rather than the accurate number of 1.8&nbsp;million.<ref name="20200126reuters-provincialpress">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-governor-idUSKBN1ZP0RU |title=Chinese provincial press conference on coronavirus inspires anger, criticism |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |agency=Reuters}}</ref>


Shortages continued as managers underestimated the speed of economic recovery after the initial economic crash. The technology industry, in particular, warned of delays from underestimates of ] demand for vehicles and other products.<ref name="AutoDW-263" />
Wuhan Police detained several ] correspondents for over an hour when they were conducting interviews at Wuhan's Jinyintan Hospital on 14 January. Reports said the police brought the correspondents to a police station, where the police checked their travel documents and belongings, then asked them to delete video footage taken in the hospital before releasing them.<ref name="hkej2353633">{{Cite news |url=https://www2.hkej.com/instantnews/current/article/2353633/ |date=14 January 2020 |work=Hong Kong Economic Journal |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114070110/https://www2.hkej.com/instantnews/current/article/2353633/ |archive-date=14 January 2020 |language=zh |script-title=zh:多名本港記者武漢採訪被帶到派出所 |trans-title=Several Hong Kong correspondents were brought to a police station when interviewing in Wuhan}}</ref><ref name="NYTChinaSilencesCritics">{{Cite news |last=Yuan |first=Li |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/22/health/virus-corona.html |title=China Silences Critics Over Deadly Virus Outbreak |date=22 January 2020 |work=] |access-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124235622/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/22/health/virus-corona.html |archive-date=24 January 2020}}</ref>


According to WHO Secretary-General Tedros Ghebreyesus, demand for ] (PPE) rose one hundredfold, pushing prices up twentyfold.<ref name="AutoDW-275" /><ref name="AutoDW-276" /> PPE stocks were exhausted everywhere.<ref name="Mycfo" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Lewis AC |title=The hustlers and scammers behind the pandemic supply chain nightmare |url=https://www.theverge.com/c/23010055/pandemic-ppe-supply-chain-gloves-coronavirus |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=The Verge |date=19 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bauchner H, Fontanarosa PB, Livingston EH |title=Conserving Supply of Personal Protective Equipment—A Call for Ideas |journal=JAMA |date=19 May 2020 |volume=323 |issue=19 |pages=1911 |doi=10.1001/jama.2020.4770 |pmid=32196543 |s2cid=214600902 |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2763590 |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref>
Authorities in Wuhan and Hubei provinces have been criticised for downplaying the severity of the outbreak and responding slower than they could have. The Beijing-based media journal, '']'' noted that Hubei did not roll out the first level of "public health emergency response mechanism" until 24 January, while several other provinces and cities outside of the centre of the outbreak have already done so the day before.<ref name="CaixinJan26Zhang">{{Cite news |last=Zhang |first=Fan |url=http://www.caixin.com/2020-01-26/101508442.html |date=26 January 2020 |work=Caixin |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126090804/http://www.caixin.com/2020-01-26/101508442.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |language=zh |script-title=zh:湖北抗击肺炎疫情这一周：防控措施如何升级 |trans-title=The one week of Hubei fighting pneumonia outbreak: How preventive measures upgrade}}</ref> John Mackenzie, a senior expert at WHO, accused them of keeping "the figures quiet for a while because of some major meeting they had in Wuhan", alleging that there was a "period of very poor reporting, or very poor communication" in early January.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-wuhan-virus-cost-economy-impact-tourism-exports-ubs-2020-1|title=The Wuhan coronavirus will hurt these Australian companies and cost the economy billions, according to global bank UBS|last=Derwin|first=Jack|date=31 January 2020|website=Business Insider Australia|access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref>


In September 2021, the ] reported that food prices remained generally stable and the supply outlook remained positive. However, the poorest countries witnessed a sharp increase in food prices, reaching the highest level since the pandemic began.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Ventura L |title=Global Finance Magazine – Poorest Countries in the World 2023 |url=https://www.gfmag.com/global-data/economic-data/the-poorest-countries-in-the-world |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=Global Finance Magazine |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref><ref name="auto4">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Anyanwu JC, Salami AO |title=The impact of COVID-19 on African economies: An introduction |journal=African Development Review |date=April 2021 |volume=33 |issue=S1 |pages=S1–S16 |doi=10.1111/1467-8268.12531 |pmid=34149237 |pmc=8207010 }}</ref> The Agricultural Commodity Price Index stabilised in the third quarter but remained 17% higher than in January 2021.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Food Security and COVID-19|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/food-security-and-covid-19|access-date=23 December 2021|website=World Bank}}</ref><ref name="auto4"/>
On 19 January, four days before the city's ], a ''wan jia yan'' ({{zh|s=万家宴 |l=ten-thousand family banquet}}) was held in Wuhan, with over 40,000 families turning out; this attracted retrospective criticism. The domestic '']'' argued that the local authorities should not have held such a public assembly while attempting to control the outbreak. The paper also stated that when their journalists visited the ] where the coronavirus likely originated, most residents and merchants there were not wearing face masks.<ref name="BJNewsJan21She">{{Cite news |last=She |first=Zongming |url=http://www.bjnews.com.cn/opinion/2020/01/21/677335.html |date=21 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=The Beijing News |language=zh |script-title=zh:武汉"万家宴"：他们的淡定让人没法淡定 |trans-title=Wuhan's "Wanjiayan": Their chillness make others chill-less}}</ref> ], the mayor of Wuhan, later spoke to ], explaining that the banquet was held annually, that it is a "sample of the people's self-autonomy", and that the decision was made based on the fact that scientists then wrongly believed that the virus's ability to spread between humans was limited.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5597393 |date=22 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126235542/https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_5597393 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=thepaper.cn / Pengpai News |language=zh |script-title=zh:19日为何还办万家宴？武汉市长回应 |trans-title=Why holding the "Wanjiayan" on 19th? Wuhan's major responded}}</ref><ref name="dwnews60165812">{{Cite news |last=Su |first=Zimu |url= https://www.dwnews.com/中国/60165812/武汉肺炎疫情武汉社区还在举办万家宴市长回应 |date=22 January 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200126235550/https://www.dwnews.com/中国/60165812/武汉肺炎疫情武汉社区还在举办万家宴市长回应 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=Duowei News |language=zh |script-title=zh:武汉社区还在举办万家宴 市长回应 |trans-title=Wuhan's community still holds Wanjiayan; mayor responded}}</ref> Meanwhile, on 20 January, Wuhan's municipal department for culture and tourism gave out 200,000 tickets valid for visiting all tourist attractions in Wuhan to its citizens for free. The department was later criticised for disregarding the outbreak.<ref name="BJNewsJan21She" />


By contrast, petroleum products were in surplus at the beginning of the pandemic, as demand for gasoline and other products collapsed due to reduced commuting and other trips.<ref name="BBC, US oil prices, 21 April 2020">, BBC, 21 April 2020.</ref> The ] was driven by a global surge in demand as the world economy recovered. Energy demand was particularly strong in Asia.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Energy crunch: How high will oil prices climb? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/9/27/energy-crunch-how-high-will-oil-prices-climb |work=Al-Jazeera |date=27 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Smith A |title=Cascade of problems fuels world energy crisis as another winter looms |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/covid-center-world-energy-crunch-cascade-problems-fuel-rcna2688 |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=NBC News |date=8 October 2021 }}</ref>
In contrast to the widespread criticism of the local response, the central government has been praised by international experts for its handling of the crisis,<ref name="wsj1157982583">{{Cite news |last=Deng |first=Lingling Wei and Chao |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-contends-with-questions-over-response-to-viral-outbreak-11579825832 |title=China's Coronavirus Response Is Questioned: 'Everyone Was Blindly Optimistic' |date=24 January 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=2 February 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201231500/https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-contends-with-questions-over-response-to-viral-outbreak-11579825832 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and especially by state media.<ref name="people31559122">{{cite web |url=http://opinion.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0121/c1003-31559122.html |title=人民网评：面对疫情，任何侥幸都可能夺人性命--观点--人民网 |website=People's Daily |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125022634/http://opinion.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0121/c1003-31559122.html |archive-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> This has led to suggestions, in particular by the international media, that it is an attempt by the official press to shift public anger away from the central government and towards local authorities.<ref name="thehindu30705616">{{Cite news |last=Aneja |first=Atul |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/xis-authoritarian-leadership-in-countering-coronavirus-crisis-draws-flak/article30705616.ece |title=Xi's 'authoritarian' leadership in countering coronavirus crisis draws flak |date=31 January 2020 |work=The Hindu |access-date=3 February 2020 |issn=0971-751X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202120523/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/xis-authoritarian-leadership-in-countering-coronavirus-crisis-draws-flak/article30705616.ece |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> It has been noted historically that the tendency of provincial governments to minimise reporting local incidents have been because of the central government directing a large proportion of the blame onto them.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/wuhan-coronavirus-china-plays-the-blame-game/ |title=Wuhan Coronavirus: China Plays the Blame Game |last=Kim |first=Jo |website=thediplomat.com |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202061554/https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/wuhan-coronavirus-china-plays-the-blame-game/ |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Critics, such as Wu Qiang, a former professor at ], and ], director of the China Institute at the ], have further argued the same point, with the latter suggesting that it was also exacerbated through local officials being "apprehensive about taking sensible preventive measures without knowing what Xi and other top leaders wanted as they feared that any missteps would have serious political consequences", a sentiment that Tsang argued was difficult to avoid when "power is concentrated in the hands of one top leader who is punitive to those who make mistakes".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/d9420a26-419a-11ea-a047-eae9bd51ceba |title=Coronavirus outbreak poses challenge to Xi ... |website=Financial Times |url-access=subscription |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202232356/https://www.ft.com/content/d9420a26-419a-11ea-a047-eae9bd51ceba |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.todayonline.com/world/chinas-credibility-line-it-tries-dispels-fears-it-will-cover-spread-wuhan-virus |title=China's credibility on the line as it tries to dispels fears it will cover up spread of Wuhan virus |website=TODAYonline |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202061601/https://www.todayonline.com/world/chinas-credibility-line-it-tries-dispels-fears-it-will-cover-spread-wuhan-virus |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thehindu30705616" /> Wuhan mayor ] defended himself, referring to those suggestions by publicly blaming regulatory requirements that require local governments to first seek Beijing's approval, which delayed disclosure of the epidemic. He stated in an interview that "as a local government, we may disclose information only after we are given permission to do so. That is something that many people do not understand."<ref name="20200127reuters">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-health-wuhan-mayor-idUSL4N29W185 |title=UPDATE 1-Mayor of China's Wuhan draws online ire for '80 out of 100' interview |date=27 January 2020 |agency=Reuters |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209131230/https://www.reuters.com/article/china-health-wuhan-mayor-idUSL4N29W185 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ejinsight.com/20200203-who-praises-beijing-but-criticisms-emerge-from-china-itself/ |title=WHO praises Beijing, but criticisms emerge from China itself |date=3 February 2020 |website=EJ Insight |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203182137/http://www.ejinsight.com/20200203-who-praises-beijing-but-criticisms-emerge-from-china-itself/ |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Chinese government has also been accused of rejecting help from the CDC and WHO.<ref>{{cite news|author=Zolan Kanno-Youngs |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/07/health/cdc-coronavirus-china.html |title=C.D.C. and W.H.O. Offers to Help China Have Been Ignored for Weeks – The New York Times |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=10 February 2020 |accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref>


=== Arts and cultural heritage ===
Tang Zhihong, the chief of the health department in ], was fired hours after she was unable to answer questions on how many people in her city were being treated.<ref name="20200130Guardian" />
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage}}
The performing arts and ]s were profoundly affected by the pandemic. Both organisations' and individuals' operations have been impacted globally. By March 2020, across the world and to varying degrees, museums, libraries, performance venues, and other cultural institutions had been indefinitely closed with their exhibitions, events and performances cancelled or postponed.<ref name="v5Qlx">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = McGivern H, Kenny N |url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/here-are-the-museums-that-have-closed-due-to-coronavirus |title=Here are the museums that have closed (so far) due to coronavirus |website=theartnewspaper.com |date=14 March 2020 |access-date=29 March 2020 |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329062120/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/here-are-the-museums-that-have-closed-due-to-coronavirus |url-status=dead }}</ref> A 2021 ] report estimated ten million job losses worldwide in the culture and creative industries.<ref name="Ottone">{{#invoke:cite book || vauthors = Ottone E |title=UNESCO The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity: Marking the 20th Anniversary |publisher=] |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-3999-1149-8 |location=London |pages=13–15 |chapter=Foreword |author-link=Ernesto Ottone}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=UNESCO: 10 million creative jobs lost in Covid crisis |url=https://www.thestage.co.uk/news/unesco-10-million-creative-jobs-lost-in-covid-crisis |access-date=5 June 2023 |work=The Stage }}</ref> Some services continued through digital platforms,<ref name="ZljIY">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://mcn.edu/a-guide-to-virtual-museum-resources/ |title=The Ultimate Guide to Virtual Museum Resources |date=15 March 2020 |website=MCN |access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Burke2020" /><ref name="SxIEK" /> such as live streaming concerts<ref name="SZ5Mc" /> or web-based arts festivals.<ref name="mYlLn" />


=== Misinformation === === Politics ===
{{Main|Misinformation related to the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak}} {{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics}}
{{See also|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations}}
After the initial outbreak, conspiracy theories and misinformation spread online regarding the origin and scale of the Wuhan coronavirus.<ref name="bbc_misinfo">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-51271037 |title=China coronavirus: Misinformation spreads online about origin and scale |date=30 January 2020 |work=] |author=BBC Monitoring, UGC Newsgathering|access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204163412/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-51271037 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Various social media posts claimed the virus was a ], a ] scheme, or the result of a ].<ref name="20200124factcheckA">{{cite web |url=https://www.factcheck.org/2020/01/social-media-posts-spread-bogus-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory/ |title=Social Media Posts Spread Bogus Coronavirus Conspiracy Theory |last=Jessica McDonald |date=24 January 2020 |website=factcheck.org |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206102802/https://www.factcheck.org/2020/01/social-media-posts-spread-bogus-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory/ |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/coronavirus-disinformation-spread |title=Here's A Running List Of Disinformation Spreading About The Coronavirus |website=Buzzfeed News|last1=Lytvynenko|first1=Jane|access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206212717/https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/coronavirus-disinformation-spread |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="vox_misinfo">{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/1/31/21115589/coronavirus-wuhan-china-myths-hoaxes-facebook-social-media-tiktok-twitter-wechat |title=How tech companies are scrambling to deal with coronavirus hoaxes |last=Ghaffary |first=Shirin |last2=Heilweil |first2=Rebecca |date=31 January 2020 |website=Vox |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208004124/https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/1/31/21115589/coronavirus-wuhan-china-myths-hoaxes-facebook-social-media-tiktok-twitter-wechat |archive-date=8 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Google, Facebook, and Twitter announced they will crack down on possible misinformation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Richtel |first=Matt |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/06/health/coronavirus-misinformation-social-media.html |title=W.H.O. Fights a Pandemic Besides Coronavirus: an 'Infodemic' |date=6 February 2020 |work=] |access-date=7 February 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206224226/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/06/health/coronavirus-misinformation-social-media.html |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> In a blogpost, Facebook stated they would remove content flagged by leading global health organisations and local authorities that violate its content policy on misinformation leading to "physical harm".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-facebook-idUSKBN1ZV388 |title=As coronavirus misinformation spreads on social media, Facebook removes posts|last1=Paul|first1=Katie|date=1 February 2020 |work=Reuters |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206071606/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-facebook-idUSKBN1ZV388 |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The pandemic affected political systems, causing suspensions of legislative activities,<ref name="20200313nationalpost">{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/canadian-parliament-suspended-until-april-due-to-coronavirus-crisis |title=Federal government announces aggressive measures to battle COVID-19 as parliament suspended until April | vauthors = Tumilty R |date=13 March 2020 |newspaper=Nationalpost |access-date=30 April 2020}}</ref> isolations or deaths of politicians,<ref name="20200318foreignpolicy">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/18/coronavirus-corridors-power-which-world-leaders-have-covid-19/ |title=Coronavirus in the Corridors of Power | vauthors = Mackinnon A, Palder D | date=18 March 2020 |website=Foreign Policy |access-date=30 April 2020}}</ref> and rescheduled elections.<ref name="20200427nytimes">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Corasaniti N, Saul S |url= https://www.nytimes.com/article/2020-campaign-primary-calendar-coronavirus.html |title=15 States Have Postponed Primaries During the Pandemic. One Has Canceled. |date=27 April 2020 |work=] |access-date=30 April 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Although they developed broad support among epidemiologists, NPIs (non-pharmaceutical interventions) were controversial in many countries. Intellectual opposition came primarily from other fields, along with heterodox epidemiologists.<ref name="74OHE">''The Economist'', 4 April 2020, p. 14.</ref>


==== Brazil ====
On 2 February, the WHO declared there was a "massive infodemic" accompanying the outbreak and response, citing an over-abundance of reported information, accurate and false, about the virus that "makes it hard for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable guidance when they need it." The WHO stated that the high demand for timely and trustworthy information has incentivised the creation of a direct WHO 24/7 myth-busting hotline where its communication and social media teams have been monitoring and responding to misinformation through its website and social media pages.<ref name=":3">{{cite report | vauthors=((World Health Organization)) |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/330778/nCoVsitrep02Feb2020-eng.pdf | year=2020 | title=Novel Coronavirus (&lrm;2019-nCoV)&lrm;: situation report, 13 | publisher=] | hdl=10665/330778 | hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/02/1056672 |title=Coronavirus: UN health agency moves fast to tackle 'infodemic'; Guterres warns against stigmatization |date=4 February 2020 |website=UN News |last1=Yi |first1=Man |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205080207/https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/02/1056672 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> A group of scientists from outside China have released a statement to "strongly condemn" rumors and conspiracy theories about the origin of outbreak.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/scientists-strongly-condemn-rumors-and-conspiracy-theories-about-origin-coronavirus |title=Scientists 'strongly condemn' rumors and conspiracy theories about origin of coronavirus outbreak|first= Jon |last=Cohen|date=9 February 2020 |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.abb3730}}</ref>
The pandemic (and the ] to it) led to widespread panic, confusion, and pessimism in Brazil.<ref name="BenderdaSilvaBaum2022">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sott MK, Bender MS, da Silva Baum K | title=Covid-19 Outbreak in Brazil: Health, Social, Political, and Economic Implications | journal=International Journal of Health Services | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=52 | issue=4 | date=4 September 2022 | issn=0020-7314 | doi=10.1177/00207314221122658 | pages=442–454| pmid=36062608 | pmc=9445630 }}</ref> When questioned regarding record deaths in the country in April 2020, Brazilian president ] said "So what? I'm sorry. What do you want me to do about it?"<ref name="Conde 2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Conde M | title=Brazil in the Time of Coronavirus | journal=Geopolítica(s). Revista de estudios sobre espacio y poder | publisher=Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) | volume=11 | issue=Especial | date=11 May 2020 | issn=2172-7155 | doi=10.5209/geop.69349 | pages=239–249| s2cid=219439973 }}</ref> Bolsonaro disregarded WHO-recommended mitigation techniques and instead ], promoted increased economic activity, spread ] about the efficacy of masks, vaccines and public health measures, and distributed unproven treatments including ] and ].<ref name="BenderdaSilvaBaum2022"/> A series of ] resigned or were dismissed after they refused to implement Bolsonaro's policies.<ref name="Londono2020">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Londoño E |title=Another Health Minister in Brazil Exits Amid Chaotic Coronavirus Response |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/15/world/americas/brazil-health-minister-bolsonaro.html |access-date=14 June 2023 |work=The New York Times |date=15 May 2020}}</ref>


Disagreements between federal and state governments led to a chaotic and delayed response to the rapid spread of the virus,<ref name="Dantas2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Dantas E | title=Brazilian report on the coronavirus crisis: A clash of pandemics | journal=Medicine and Law | date=2020 | pages=153–160 | url=https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/global-literature-on-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/resource/pt/covidwho-824117 | language=pt | access-date=14 June 2023}}</ref> exacerbated by preexisting social and economic disparities in the country.<ref name="BenderdaSilvaBaum2022"/><ref name="CarnutMendesGuerra2020">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Carnut L, Mendes Á, Guerra L | title=Coronavirus, Capitalism in Crisis and the Perversity of Public Health in Bolsonaro's Brazil | journal=International Journal of Health Services | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=51 | issue=1 | date=18 October 2020 | issn=0020-7314 | doi=10.1177/0020731420965137 | pages=18–30| pmid=33070682 | s2cid=224782017 }}</ref> Employment, investment and valuation of the ] plummeted to record lows.<ref name="BenderdaSilvaBaum2022"/><ref name="ReutersBrazil2020">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Brazil stocks post steepest fall since 1998, real hits historic low 5.00 per dollar |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-markets/brazil-stocks-post-steepest-fall-since-1998-real-hits-historic-low-5-00-per-dollar-idUSKBN20Z3J1 |work=Reuters |date=12 March 2020 }}</ref> Brazil was also heavily affected by the Delta and Omicron variants.<ref name="AlcantaraNogueiraShuabTosta2022">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Alcantara LC, Nogueira E, Shuab G, Tosta S, Fristch H, Pimentel V, Souza-Neto JA, Coutinho LL, Fukumasu H, Sampaio SC, Elias MC, Kashima S, Slavov SN, Ciccozzi M, Cella E, Lourenco J, Fonseca V, Giovanetti M | title=SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Brazil: how the displacement of variants has driven distinct epidemic waves | journal=Virus Research | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=315 | year=2022 | issn=0168-1702 | doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198785 | page=198785| pmid=35461905 | pmc=9022374 }}</ref> At the height of the outbreak in the spring of 2021, 3,000+ Brazilians were dying per day.<ref name="BBCBrazilMarch2021">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Covid: Brazil's daily deaths surpass 3,000 for first time |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-56260570 |access-date=14 June 2023 |work=BBC News |date=24 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="NPRBrazilApril2021">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Reeves P |title=Brazil COVID-19: 'Humanitarian Crisis' With More Than 3,000 Deaths A Day |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/04/15/987741403/brazil-covid-19-humanitarian-crisis-with-more-than-3-000-deaths-a-day |access-date=14 June 2023 |work=NPR |date=15 April 2021}}</ref> Bolsonaro's loss to ] in the ] is widely credited to the former's ].<ref name="ChomskyPolychroniou2023">{{#invoke:cite book || vauthors = Chomsky N, Polychroniou CJ | title=Illegitimate Authority | publisher=Haymarket Books | date=9 May 2023 | isbn=978-1-64259-934-3 | page=}}</ref><ref name="EconomistBolsonaroLoss2022">{{#invoke:cite news || title=Jair Bolsonaro is poised to lose the Brazilian election | newspaper=The Economist | date=8 September 2022 | url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2022/09/08/jair-bolsonaro-is-poised-to-lose-the-brazilian-election | access-date=14 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Milhorance2022October">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Milhorance F |title= Bolsonaro, in defeat, may now face charges. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/30/world/americas/bolsonaro-charges-lost.html |access-date=14 June 2023 |work=The New York Times |date=30 October 2022}}</ref>
=== Xenophobia and racism ===
{{main|Xenophobia and racism related to the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak}}
Since the outbreak of ], which originated in the city of ] in Hubei, China, heightened ], ] and ] against peoples of Chinese and East Asian descent having been observed to have arisen as a result, with incidents of fear, suspicion and hostility being noted across various countries.<ref name=":ma">{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/wuhan-coronavirus-racism-asians-experience-fears-outbreak-2020-1|title=The Wuhan coronavirus is causing increased incidents of racism and xenophobia at college, work, and supermarkets, according to Asian people|last=Ma|first=Alexandra|last2=McLaughlin|first2=Kelly|date=2 February 2020|website=Business Insider|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202204722/https://www.businessinsider.com/wuhan-coronavirus-racism-asians-experience-fears-outbreak-2020-1|archive-date=2 February 2020|access-date=3 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/01/31/top-european-music-school-suspended-students-east-asia-over-coronavirus-concerns-amid-rising-discrimination/|title=A top European music school suspended students from East Asia over coronavirus concerns, amid rising discrimination|author1=Stefano Pitrelli|author2=Rick Noack|date=31 January 2020|work=The Washington Post|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203131427/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/01/31/top-european-music-school-suspended-students-east-asia-over-coronavirus-concerns-amid-rising-discrimination/|archive-date=3 February 2020|access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="The Hill 20200130" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2020/2/7/21126758/coronavirus-xenophobia-racism-china-asians|title=The coronavirus exposes the history of racism and "cleanliness"|last=Burton|first=Nylah|date=7 February 2020|website=Vox|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207211942/https://www.vox.com/2020/2/7/21126758/coronavirus-xenophobia-racism-china-asians|archive-date=7 February 2020|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref> And although there has been support from Chinese both on and offline towards those in virus-stricken areas,<ref name="bbcdomestic">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51276496|title=Coronavirus: Tales of solidarity from China's virus-hit Wuhan|date=28 January 2020|website=BBC|access-date=11 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="fanshelp">{{Citation|title=How Taylor Swift's Chinese fans are helping fight the coronavirus|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/tech/tech-news/2020/02/03/how-taylor-swifts-chinese-fans-are-helping-fight-the-coronavirus|language=en|access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="nytdonate">{{Citation|title=How Residents in Wuhan Are Coping With Coronavirus (3:18 minutes in)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8QeqInTT4Cc|language=en|access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="cheeringfans">{{Citation|title=This Chinese Actor Cheered On A Terrified Wuhan Doctor; His Fans Then Raised Funds For The City|url=https://www.todayonline.com/8days/sceneandheard/entertainment/chinese-actor-cheered-terrified-wuhan-doctor-his-fans-then-raised|language=en|access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> many residents of Wuhan and Hubei have reported experiencing discrimination based on their regional origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/47822/1/life-under-lockdown-young-people-in-wuhan-china-tell-their-coronavirus-stories|title=Life under lockdown: Young people in Wuhan tell their coronavirus stories|last=Dazed|date=6 February 2020|website=Dazed|language=en|access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dw.com/en/sierens-china-coronavirus-an-epidemic-of-rumors/a-52288831|title=Sieren's China: Coronavirus — an epidemic of rumors|date=7 February 2020|work=Deutsche Welle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/china-desperate-to-stop-coronavirus-turns-neighbor-against-neighbor/articleshow/73922967.cms|title=China, desperate to stop coronavirus spread, turns neighbor against neighbor|date=4 February 2020|work=The Economic Times|access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref>


==== China ====
On 30 January, WHO's Emergency Committee issued a statement advising all countries to be mindful of the "principles of Article 3 of the IHR," which cautions against "actions that promote stigma or discrimination," when conducting national response measures to the outbreak.<ref name="WHO_PHEIC_decl2" />
{{Further|China–United States relations#COVID-19}}
Multiple provincial-level administrators of the ] (CCP) were dismissed over their handling of quarantine measures. Some commentators claimed this move was intended to protect CCP General Secretary ].<ref name="vLpPa" /> The ] claimed that China intentionally under-reported its COVID-19 caseload.<ref name="20200402nytimes">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Barnes J |title=C.I.A. Hunts for Authentic Virus Totals in China, Dismissing Government Tallies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/us/politics/cia-coronavirus-china.html |work=] |date=2 April 2020}}</ref> The Chinese government maintained that it acted swiftly and transparently.<ref name="hMc3w">{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-07/china-denies-cover-up-rejects-politicization-of-coronavirus?sref=nAHOTXiV |title=China Denies Cover-Up, Rejects 'Politicization' of Coronavirus |access-date=7 June 2020 |newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=7 June 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=China says there has never been a cover-up on coronavirus outbreak |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-china-mofa-idCAKBN21Z0XC |access-date=6 June 2023 |work=Reuters |date=17 April 2020 }}</ref> Journalists and activists in China who reported on the pandemic were detained by authorities,<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=24 September 2020|title=Chen Qiushi: Chinese journalist missing since February 'under state supervision'|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-54277439|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=23 April 2020|title=Li Zehua: Journalist who 'disappeared' after Wuhan chase reappears|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52392762|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref> including ], who was arrested and tortured.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=28 December 2020|title=Zhang Zhan: China jails citizen journalist for Wuhan reports|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-55463241|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web || date=10 December 2020| vauthors = Davidson H | title = Citizen journalist detained over Wuhan reporting 'restrained and fed by tube' |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/10/citizen-journalist-detained-over-wuhan-reporting-restrained-and-fed-by-tube|access-date=16 February 2021|website=The Guardian}}</ref>


==== Italy ====
=== Open access of scientific papers ===
]
Owing to the urgency of the epidemic, many scientific publishers have made scientific papers related to the outbreak ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wellcome.ac.uk/press-release/sharing-research-data-and-findings-relevant-novel-coronavirus-covid-19-outbreak|title=Sharing research data and findings relevant to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak {{!}} Wellcome|website=wellcome.ac.uk|author=Press Release|date=31 January 2020|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> Some scientists have chosen to share their results quickly on ] servers such as ],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/story/coronavirus-research-preprint-servers/|title=Coronavirus Research Is Moving at Top Speed—With a Catch|work=Wired|last1=Rogers|first1=Adam|date=31 January 2020|access-date=13 February 2020|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> while archivists have created an illegal open access database of over 5,000 papers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z3b3v5/archivists-are-bypassing-paywalls-to-share-studies-about-coronaviruses|title='It's a Moral Imperative:' Archivists Made a Directory of 5,000 Coronavirus Studies to Bypass Paywalls|last=Bender|first=Maddie|date=3 February 2020|website=Vice|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref>
In early March 2020, the Italian government criticised the EU's lack of solidarity with Italy.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Boffey D |title=Italy criticises EU for being slow to help over coronavirus epidemic |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/11/italy-criticises-eu-being-slow-help-coronavirus-epidemic |access-date=6 June 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=11 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Braw E |title=The EU Is Abandoning Italy in Its Hour of Need |url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/14/coronavirus-eu-abandoning-italy-china-aid/ |access-date=6 June 2023 |work=Foreign Policy |date=14 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="politico-corona">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Karnitschnig M |title=China is winning the coronavirus propaganda war |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-china-winning-propaganda-war/ |work=Politico |date=18 March 2020}}</ref> On 22 March 2020, after a phone call with Italian Prime Minister ], Russian president ] ordered the ] to send military medics, disinfection vehicles, and other medical equipment to Italy.<ref name="reuters219081">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Russian army to send coronavirus help to Italy after Putin phone call |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-russia-italy/russian-army-to-send-coronavirus-help-to-italy-after-putin-phone-call-idUSKBN219081 |work=Reuters |date=22 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200328insideover">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Vivaldelli R |title=Quelle polemiche infondate sugli aiuti russi all'Italia |url=https://it.insideover.com/politica/quelle-polemiche-infondate-sugli-aiuti-russi-allitalia.html |work={{Lang|it|]}} |date=28 March 2020}}</ref> In early April, Norway and EU states like Romania and Austria started to offer help by sending medical personnel and disinfectant,<ref name="eumedicalteams">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Coronavirus: EU Medical Teams deployed to Italy |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_613 |publisher=Europa (web portal) |date=1 July 2020}}</ref> and ] president ] offered an official apology to the country.<ref name="euapology">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=EU offers 'heartfelt apology' to Italy over coronavirus response |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/16/eu-offers-heartfelt-apology-italy-coronavirus-response-herd-immunity |work=] |date=1 July 2020}}</ref>


==== United States ====
==Socio-economic impact ==
] rallied at ] 20 April 2020.<ref name="Columbus Dispatch">{{#invoke:cite news ||vauthors=Rouan R |title=Protesters at Statehouse demand state reopen as DeWine announces schools to remain closed |url=https://www.dispatch.com/news/20200420/protesters-at-statehouse-demand-state-reopen-as-dewine-announces-schools-to-remain-closed |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=] |date=20 April 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425004821/https://www.dispatch.com/news/20200420/protesters-at-statehouse-demand-state-reopen-as-dewine-announces-schools-to-remain-closed |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
{{Expand section|1=impact on South Korea|small=no|date=February 2020}}
The epidemic coincided with the ], a major travel season associated with the ] holiday. A number of events involving large crowds were cancelled by national and regional governments, including annual New Year festivals, with private companies also independently closing their shops and tourist attractions such as ] and ].<ref name="apnews-10e22bef65">{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/10e22bef65d8e1a85ba0c1761c3ea711 |title=New virus mutes Lunar New Year celebrations worldwide |date=25 January 2020 |website=AP NEWS |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064331/https://apnews.com/10e22bef65d8e1a85ba0c1761c3ea711 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/24/shanghai-disney-shuts-to-prevent-spread-of-virus.html |title=Shanghai Disney shuts to prevent spread of virus |date=24 January 2020 |website=CNBC |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126022835/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/24/shanghai-disney-shuts-to-prevent-spread-of-virus.html |archive-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many ] events and tourist attractions have been closed to prevent mass gatherings, including the ] in Beijing and traditional temple fairs.<ref name="20200123dw">{{cite web|url=https://p.dw.com/p/3WhBc|title=China cancels Lunar New Year events over deadly virus fears|date=23 January 2020|publisher=Deutsche Welle|access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref> In 24 of China's 31 provinces, municipalities and regions, authorities extended the New Year's holiday to 10 February, instructing most workplaces not to re-open until that date.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3048780/china-goes-back-work-after-lunar-new-year-will-coronavirus|title=As China goes back to work, will the coronavirus spread even more rapidly?|date=4 February 2020|website=South China Morning Post|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206071612/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3048780/china-goes-back-work-after-lunar-new-year-will-coronavirus|archive-date=6 February 2020|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/02/01/coronavirus-more-of-china-extend-shutdown-accounting-for-80percent-of-gdp.html|title=More than half of China extends shutdown over virus|last=Cheng|first=Evelyn|date=1 February 2020|website=CNBC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205070134/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/02/01/coronavirus-more-of-china-extend-shutdown-accounting-for-80percent-of-gdp.html|archive-date=5 February 2020|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> These regions represented 80% of the country's GDP and 90% of exports.<ref name=":18" /> Hong Kong raised its infectious disease response level to the highest and declared an emergency, closing schools until March and cancelling its New Year celebrations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/see-do/events-festivals/highlight-events/chinese-new-year-celebrations.jsp|title=Hong Kong Chinese New Year|publisher=Hong Kong Tourism Board|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129175806/http://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/see-do/events-festivals/highlight-events/chinese-new-year-celebrations.jsp|archive-date=29 November 2019|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="SCMP25012020">{{Cite news|last=Lum|first=Alvin|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047645/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-students-get-two-more|title=China coronavirus: Hong Kong leader hits back at delay criticism as she suspends school classes, cancels marathon and declares city at highest level of emergency|date=25 January 2020|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=26 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125085413/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047645/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-students-get-two-more|archive-date=25 January 2020|last2=Sum|first2=Lok-kei}}</ref>


Beginning in mid-April 2020, protestors objected to government-imposed business closures and restrictions on personal movement and assembly.<ref name="5YqAF">"Coronavirus: Anti-Lockdown Protests Grow Across US". BBC News. 17 April 2020. from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 17 April 2020.</ref> Simultaneously, ] protested unsafe conditions and low wages by participating in a brief ].<ref name="c114M">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Russ H |title=Instacart, Amazon workers strike as labor unrest grows during coronavirus crisis |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-usa-instacart-idUSKBN21H3AV |work=Reuters |access-date=24 July 2020 |date=30 March 2020}}</ref> Some political analysts claimed that the pandemic contributed to US president ]'s ] defeat.<ref name="TrumpChances">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Haberman M, Martin M, Jonathan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/us/politics/trump-vs-biden.html |title=Trump's Re-election Chances Suddenly Look Shakier |date=12 March 2020 |work=] |access-date=15 March 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="AtlanticChances">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Lowrey A |title=The Economy Is Collapsing. So Are Trump's Reelection Chances. |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/04/most-important-number-trumps-re-election-chances/609376/ |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=The Atlantic |date=3 April 2020}}</ref>
As Mainland China is a major economy and a manufacturing hub, the viral outbreak has been seen to pose a major destabilising threat to the ]. Agathe Demarais of the ] has forecast that markets will remain volatile until a clearer image emerges on potential outcomes. Some analysts have estimated that the economic fallout of the epidemic on global growth could surpass that of the ].<ref name="dw52205088">{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/chinas-coronavirus-epidemic-threatens-global-economy/a-52205088 |title=China's coronavirus epidemic threatens global economy |date=30 January 2020 |website=DW.COM |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131070800/https://www.dw.com/en/chinas-coronavirus-epidemic-threatens-global-economy/a-52205088 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Dr. Panos Kouvelis, director of "The Boeing Center" at ], estimates a $300+ billion impact on world's supply chain that could last up to two years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://source.wustl.edu/2020/02/washu-expert-coronavirus-far-greater-threat-than-sars-to-global-supply-chain/|title=WashU Expert: Coronavirus far greater threat than SARS to global supply chain {{!}} The Source {{!}} Washington University in St. Louis|date=7 February 2020|website=The Source|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> ] reportedly "scrambled" after a steep decline in ] due to lower demand from China.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Reed|first=Stanley|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/03/business/energy-environment/china-oil-opec.html|title=OPEC Scrambles to React to Falling Oil Demand From China|date=3 February 2020|work=The New York Times|access-date=14 February 2020|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>


The ] prompted calls for the United States to adopt social policies common in other wealthy countries, including ], ], ], and higher levels of funding for public health.<ref name="NYT Calls">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Miller CC |title=Could the Pandemic Wind Up Fixing What's Broken About Work in America? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/upshot/coronavirus-future-work-america.html |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=] |date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="Hill5">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Swanson I |title=Five ways the coronavirus could change American politics |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/495761-five-ways-the-coronavirus-could-change-american-politics |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=The Hill |date=2 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="Ddn2P">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Cohen M | url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/03/13/opinion/americas-botched-response-coronavirus-is-problem-bigger-than-donald-trump/ |title=America's botched response to the coronavirus is a problem bigger than Donald Trump |website=]}}</ref> The ] estimated that preventable hospitalisations of unvaccinated Americans in the second half of 2021 cost US$13.8&nbsp;billion.<ref name="Amin">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Amin K, Cox C |title=Unvaccinated COVID-19 hospitalizations cost billions of dollars |journal=Peterson-KFF Health System Tracker |date=22 December 2021 |url=https://www.healthsystemtracker.org/brief/unvaccinated-covid-patients-cost-the-u-s-health-system-billions-of-dollars/#Preventable%20COVID-related%20hospitalization%20costs%20for%20unvaccinated%20adults%20in%20the%20U.S.,%20June-November%202021 |access-date=3 May 2022}}</ref>
The demand for personal protection equipment has risen 100-fold, according to WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom. This demand has lead to the increase in prices of up to twenty times the normal price and also induced delays on the supply of medical items for four to six months.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/por/reuters/procura-por-m%C3%A1scaras-aumenta-100-vezes-e-prejudica-luta-contra-o-coronav%C3%ADrus/45544672|title=Procura por máscaras aumenta 100 vezes e prejudica luta contra o coronavírus|last=swissinfo.ch|first=S. W. I.|last2=Corporation|first2=a branch of the Swiss Broadcasting|website=SWI swissinfo.ch|language=pt|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Boseley|first=Sarah|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/07/who-warns-global-shortage-face-masks-protective-suits-coronavirus|title=WHO warns of global shortage of face masks and protective suits|date=7 February 2020|work=]|access-date=12 February 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>


There were also protest in regards to vaccine mandates in the United States.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Hughes T |title=As Biden vaccine mandates loom, protests for personal freedoms swell. What happens next? |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2021/10/29/biden-vaccine-mandates-loom-protests-personal-freedoms-swell/8539853002/ |access-date=6 June 2023 |work=USA TODAY}}</ref> In January 2022, the US Supreme Court struck down an OSHA rule that mandated vaccination or a testing regimen for all companies with greater than 100 employees.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Kimball S |title=Biden administration withdraws Covid vaccine mandate for businesses after losing Supreme Court case |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/01/25/covid-vaccine-mandate-osha-withdraws-rule-for-businesses-after-losing-supreme-court-case.html |access-date=6 June 2023 |work=CNBC |date=25 January 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=National Federation of Independent Business v. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration |url=https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/national-federation-of-independent-business-v-osha/ |access-date=6 June 2023 |work=SCOTUSblog}}</ref>
=== Mainland China ===
{{Main|Mainland China during the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak}}
] has been hit hard by travel restrictions and fears of contagion, including a ban on both domestic and international tour groups.<ref name="20200128cnbc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/28/coronavirus-china-travel-restrictions-will-hit-asian-economies.html |title=China's travel restrictions amid coronavirus outbreak will hit other Asian economies |last=Tan |first=Huileng |date=28 January 2020 |publisher=CNBC |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129155229/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/28/coronavirus-china-travel-restrictions-will-hit-asian-economies.html |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many airlines have either cancelled or greatly reduced flights to China and several travel advisories now warn against travel to China. Many countries, including France, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, have evacuated their nationals from the Wuhan and Hubei provinces.<ref name="Hunter">{{Cite news |last=Hunter |first=Marnie |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/coronavirus-travel-advice/index.html |title=Everything travelers need to know about Wuhan coronavirus |access-date=31 January 2020 |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131011521/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/coronavirus-travel-advice/index.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


==== Other countries ====
The majority of schools and universities have extended their annual holidays to mid-February.<ref name="20200125pennlive">{{cite web |url=https://www.pennlive.com/nation-world/2020/01/china-virus-prompts-car-ban-school-closures-as-it-continues-to-spread.html |title=China virus prompts car ban, school closures as it continues to spread |last=Press |first=The Associated |date=25 January 2020 |website=pennlive |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064331/https://www.pennlive.com/nation-world/2020/01/china-virus-prompts-car-ban-school-closures-as-it-continues-to-spread.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Overseas students enrolled at Chinese universities have been returning home over fears of being infected—the first cases to be reported by Nepal and ], a southern state of India, were both of students who had returned home.<ref name="auto4">{{cite web |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/85632/ |title=China-returned Nepali student found infected with Coronavirus |last=Republica |website=My Republica |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064331/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/85632/ |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto4" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/current/economy-politics/breaking-coronavirus-reaches-india-first-confirmed-case-reported-in-kerala/story/394968.html |title=First case of coronavirus confirmed in India; student tested positive in Kerala |website=businesstoday.in |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064331/https://www.businesstoday.in/current/economy-politics/breaking-coronavirus-reaches-india-first-confirmed-case-reported-in-kerala/story/394968.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The number of journalists imprisoned or detained increased worldwide; some detentions were related to the pandemic.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|date=15 December 2020|title=Record number of journalists imprisoned in 2020 – report|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-global-rights-journalists-idUKKBN28P0DO|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=14 December 2020| vauthors = Berry A |title=Press freedom: Journalists end up in jail for reporting on coronavirus crisis|url=https://www.dw.com/en/press-freedom-journalists-end-up-in-jail-for-reporting-on-coronavirus-crisis/a-55929247|access-date=16 February 2021|publisher=Deutsche Welle}}</ref> The planned ] "]" military exercise in Germany, ] and the ], the largest NATO war exercise since the end of the ], was held on a reduced scale.<ref name="20200320spectator">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Simes D |title=How coronavirus derailed the largest Nato exercise in 25 years |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/how-coronavirus-derailed-the-largest-nato-exercise-in-25-years |work=The Spectator |date=20 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200319reuters">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Emmott R |title=NATO scales down exercises due to coronavirus |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-nato/nato-scales-down-exercises-due-to-coronavirus-idUSKBN21627V |access-date=21 October 2020 |work=Reuters |date=19 March 2020}}</ref>


The Iranian government was heavily affected by the virus, which infected some two dozen parliament members and political figures.<ref name="D2Xpc" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Berman I |title=Will Iran's Regime Survive Coronavirus? |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2020/03/will-irans-regime-survive-coronavirus/ |access-date=7 June 2023 |work=National Review |date=12 March 2020}}</ref> Iranian president ] wrote a public letter to world leaders asking for help on 14 March 2020, due to a lack of access to international markets.<ref name="u2rRX" /> Saudi Arabia, which had launched a ] in March 2015, declared a ceasefire.<ref name="20200409foreignpolicy">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Haverty D, Gramer R, Detsch J |title=Coronavirus Pandemic Forces a Cease-Fire in Yemen |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/09/coronavirus-pandemic-forces-cease-fire-yemen-humanitarian-crisis-saudi-arabia-houthis/ |access-date=21 October 2020 |work=Foreign Policy |date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
The ] announced it would fully subsidise personal medical cost incurred by patients.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://m.yicai.com/news/100478460.html |title=各地财政补助武汉肺炎治疗费用，个人有望实现全免费 |website=第一财经 |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203233212/https://m.yicai.com/news/100478460.html |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Diplomatic relations between ] worsened.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Sposato W |title=Japan and Korea Won't Let A Pandemic Stop Them Fighting |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/12/japan-and-korea-wont-let-a-pandemic-stop-them-fighting/ |access-date=7 June 2023 |work=Foreign Policy |date=12 March 2020}}</ref> South Korea criticised Japan's "ambiguous and passive quarantine efforts" after Japan announced travellers from South Korea must quarantine for two weeks.<ref name="HnqN4" /> South Korean society was initially polarised on president ]'s response to the crisis; many Koreans signed petitions calling for Moon's ] or praising his response.<ref name="imx38" />
CNN reported that some people from Wuhan "have become outcasts in their own country, shunned by hotels, neighbors and – in some areas – placed under controversial quarantine measures."<ref>{{cite news |title=Outcasts in their own country, the people of Wuhan are the unwanted faces of China's coronavirus outbreak |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/01/asia/coronavirus-wuhan-discrimination-intl-hnk/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=2 February 2020}}</ref> ], a Columbia-based epidemiologist<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mailman.columbia.edu/people/our-faculty/wil2001|title=W. Ian Lipkin {{!}} Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health|website=www.mailman.columbia.edu|access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref> advising the Chinese authorities on handling the outbreak, opined that the barricades and signs forbidden entry to people from Wuhan as well as neighborhood tips leading to involuntary quarantine were "probably" necessary due to the lack of other viable options.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/a-whole-country-locked-inside-china-struggles-with-coronavirus-and-a-new-normal-1.5460806|title='A whole country locked inside': China struggles with coronavirus, and a new normal|last=|first=|date=|website=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xs8tFL4fMZI|title=Coronavirus brings eerie emptiness to Beijing|last=|first=|date=|website=CBC|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>


Some countries passed emergency legislation. Some commentators expressed concern that it could allow governments to strengthen their grip on power.<ref name="20200331theguardian">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Walker S |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/31/coronavirus-is-a-chance-for-authoritarian-leaders-to-tighten-their-grip |title=Authoritarian leaders may use Covid-19 crisis to tighten their grip |website=The Guardian |date=31 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="20200330nytimes">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/30/world/europe/coronavirus-governments-power.html | vauthors = Gebrekidam S |title= For Autocrats, and Others, Coronavirus Is a Chance to Grab Even More Power |work=] |date=30 March 2020}}</ref> In Hungary, the parliament voted to allow Prime Minister ] to rule by decree indefinitely, suspend parliament and elections, and punish those deemed to have spread false information.<ref name="20200330cnn">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/30/europe/hungary-viktor-orban-powers-vote-intl/index.html | vauthors = Picheta R |title=Hungarian parliament votes to let Viktor Orban rule by decree in wake of coronavirus pandemic |publisher=CNN |date=30 March 2020}}</ref> In countries such as ],<ref name="dw53009293">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Michaelson R |title=Reporting on the coronavirus: Egypt muzzles critical journalists |url=https://www.dw.com/en/reporting-on-the-coronavirus-egypt-muzzles-critical-journalists/a-53009293 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=3 April 2020}}</ref> ],<ref name="20200401foreignpolicy">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mchangama J |title=Coronavirus Has Started a Censorship Pandemic |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/01/coronavirus-censorship-pandemic-disinformation-fake-news-speech-freedom/ |work=The Foreign Policy |date=1 April 2020}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Peck G |title=Some leaders use pandemic to sharpen tools against critics |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/coronavirus-crisis-provides-excuses-for-curbs-on-free-speech/ |access-date=7 June 2023 |work=The Seattle Times |date=16 April 2020}}</ref> opposition activists and government critics were ] for allegedly spreading ].<ref name="20200410straitstimes">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Asia cracks down on coronavirus 'fake news' |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/coronavirus-asia-cracks-down-on-virus-fake-news |work=The Straits Times |date=10 April 2020}}</ref> In ], journalists criticising the government's response were arrested or issued warnings by police and authorities.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || date=4 October 2020| vauthors = Bagri N |title=As COVID-19 spreads, India tries to control the narrative by targeting journalists|url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/india-targets-journalists-who-report-on-covid-19|access-date=16 February 2021|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>
=== Australia ===
] is expected to be one of three economies worst affected by the epidemic, along with Mainland China and Hong Kong.<ref name=":9" /> Early estimations have GDP contracting by 0.2% to 0.5%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ig.com/en-ch/news-and-trade-ideas/the-coronavirus--3-key-economic-and-financial-impacts-200204|title=Coronavirus: 3 potential economic and financial impacts in Australia|website=IG|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204063100/https://www.ig.com/en-ch/news-and-trade-ideas/the-coronavirus--3-key-economic-and-financial-impacts-200204|archive-date=4 February 2020|access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="auto15">{{Cite news|last=Doherty|first=Ben|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/12/australian-iron-ore-gas-and-lamb-exports-to-be-hit-hard-as-coronavirus-crisis-continues|title=Australian iron ore, gas and lamb exports to be hit hard as coronavirus crisis continues|date=12 February 2020|work=]|access-date=12 February 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and more than 20,000 Australian jobs being lost.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ausleisure.com.au/news/leading-consultants-suggest-coronavirus-impact-could-deal-significant-blow-to-australian-economy/|title=Leading consultants suggest Coronavirus impact could deal significant blow to Australian economy – Australasian Leisure Management|website=ausleisure.com.au|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202132608/https://www.ausleisure.com.au/news/leading-consultants-suggest-coronavirus-impact-could-deal-significant-blow-to-australian-economy/|archive-date=2 February 2020|access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref> The Australian ] said that the country would no longer be able to promise a ] due to the outbreak.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-01/australia-walks-back-surplus-promise-on-deadly-virus-wildfires |title=Bloomberg Are you a robot? |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202022029/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-01/australia-walks-back-surplus-promise-on-deadly-virus-wildfires |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] dropped to its lowest value since the ].<ref name="20200125businessinsider">{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-dollar-currency-bushfires-coronavirus-effect-unlucky-week-decline-wuhan-2020-1 |title=How bushfires and Wuhan virus fear have converged to drag down Australia's currency |last=Everett |first=Gwen |date=25 January 2020 |website=Business Insider Australia |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126075237/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-dollar-currency-bushfires-coronavirus-effect-unlucky-week-decline-wuhan-2020-1 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Food systems ===
The Australasian College for Emergency Medicine called for a calm and a fact-based response to the epidemic, asking people to avoid racism, "panic and division" and the spread of misinformation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msn.com/en-au/news/australia/australian-doctors-warn-of-rise-in-racist-abuse-over-coronavirus/ar-BBZCCdy|title=Australian doctors warn of rise in racist abuse over coronavirus|website=www.msn.com|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> A large amount of protective face masks were purchased by foreign and domestic buyers, which has sparked a nationwide face masks shortage.<ref name="9 Now">{{cite web|url=https://9now.nine.com.au/a-current-affair/coronavirus-sparks-face-mask-price-gouging-in-australia/c442730e-efaf-46e3-8f51-c2f338ece091|title=Pharmacies caught price gouging, capitalising on coronavirus panic|date=6 February 2020|website=9 Now|access-date=11 February 2020}}</ref> In response to price increases of nearly 2000%, the Pharmaceutical Society of Australia has called on these "unethical suppliers" to keep supplies affordable.<ref name="9 Now" />
{{Further|Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic}}
The pandemic disrupted food systems worldwide,<ref name=":9b">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Q&A: COVID-19 pandemic – impact on food and agriculture|url=https://www.fao.org/2019-ncov/q-and-a/impact-on-food-and-agriculture/en/|access-date=16 October 2020|website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Pryor S, Dietz W |title=The COVID-19, Obesity, and Food Insecurity Syndemic |journal=Current Obesity Reports |date=1 September 2022 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=70–79 |doi=10.1007/s13679-021-00462-w |pmid=35138590 |pmc=9399358 |issn=2162-4968}}</ref> hitting at a time when hunger and undernourishment were rising- an estimated 690&nbsp;million people lacked food security in 2019.<ref name=":10">{{#invoke:cite book ||title=The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020 |url=https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2020/en/|access-date=16 October 2020|year=2020|doi=10.4060/CA9692EN|isbn=978-92-5-132901-6 | author = FAO|author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization|author2=IFAD|author2-link=International Fund for Agricultural Development|author3=UNICEF|author3-link=UNICEF|author4=WFP|author4-link=World Food Programme|author5=WHO|author5-link=World Health Organization|s2cid=239729231}}</ref> Food access fell – driven by falling incomes, lost remittances, and disruptions to food production.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Swinnen J, Vos R |title=COVID-19 and impacts on global food systems and household welfare: Introduction to a special issue |journal=Agricultural Economics |date=May 2021 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=365–374 |doi=10.1111/agec.12623 |pmid=34149127 |pmc=8206861 |issn=0169-5150}}</ref> In some cases, food prices rose.<ref name=":9b" /><ref name=":10" /> The pandemic and its accompanying lockdowns and travel restrictions slowed movement of food aid. According to the WHO, 811 million people were undernourished in 2020, "likely related to the fallout of COVID-19".<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=UN report: Pandemic year marked by spike in world hunger |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/12-07-2021-un-report-pandemic-year-marked-by-spike-in-world-hunger |website=www.who.int |access-date=14 December 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Effect of COVID-19 on food security"/>


=== Education ===
Tourism bodies have suggested that the total economic cost to the sector, as of 11 February 2020, would be A$4.5bn. Casino earnings are expected to fall.<ref name="Guardian2020-02-12">{{Cite news|last=Butler|first=Ben|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/feb/05/coronavirus-threatens-australian-economy-reeling-from-drought-and-fires|title=Coronavirus threatens Australian economy reeling from drought and fires|date=5 February 2020|work=]|access-date=12 February 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> At least two localities in Australia, ] and the ], have reported already lost earnings of more that $600 million.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Taylor|first=Josh|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/11/completely-dropped-off-australias-tourism-industry-braces-for-coronavirus-crisis|title='Completely dropped off': Australia's tourism industry braces for coronavirus crisis|date=11 February 2020|work=]|access-date=12 February 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The Australian Tourism Industry Council (ATIC) called on the Government of Australia for financial support especially in light of the large number of small businesses affected.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ausleisure.com.au/news/atic-calls-for-government-support-to-counter-coronavirus-impact-on-tourism-industry/|title=ATIC calls for government support to counter coronavirus impact on tourism industry – Australasian Leisure Management|website=www.ausleisure.com.au|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education}}
], Iran, during the pandemic.]]
The pandemic impacted educational systems in many countries. Many governments temporarily closed educational institutions, often replaced by ]. Other countries, such as Sweden, kept their schools open. As of September 2020, approximately 1.077&nbsp;billion ]s were affected due to school closures. School closures impacted students, teachers, and families with far-reaching economic and societal consequences.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hoffman JA, Miller EA | title = Addressing the Consequences of School Closure Due to COVID-19 on Children's Physical and Mental Well-Being | journal = World Medical & Health Policy | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–310 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32904951 | pmc = 7461306 | doi = 10.1002/wmh3.365 }}</ref> They shed light on social and economic issues, including ], ], food insecurity, and ], as well as access to ], health care, housing, internet, and ]s. The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://comunicacion.senado.gob.mx/index.php/informacion/boletines/50929-covid-afecta-salud-educacion-y-entorno-familiar-de-ninas-y-ninos-senala-estudio-del-ibd.html|title=COVID afecta salud, educación y entorno familiar de niñas y niños, señala estudio del IBD|work=Senado de la República|date=1 May 2021|access-date=25 July 2021|language=es|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206184055/http://comunicacion.senado.gob.mx/index.php/informacion/boletines/50929-covid-afecta-salud-educacion-y-entorno-familiar-de-ninas-y-ninos-senala-estudio-del-ibd.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Higher Education Policy Institute reported that around 63% of students claimed worsened mental health as a result of the pandemic.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=31 March 2021|title=Covid: Many students say their mental health is worse due to pandemic|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-56570061|access-date=6 April 2021}}</ref>


=== Health ===
Mining companies are thought to be highly exposed to the outbreak, since sales to China constitute 93% of the sales of ], 55% of the sales of ], and 45% of the sales of ].<ref name="Guardian2020-02-12" /> The iron ore shipping gauge dropped 99.9% as a result of the outbreak,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mining.com/coronavirus-drops-iron-ore-shipping-gauge-99-9/ |title=Coronavirus drops iron ore shipping gauge 99.9% |date=31 January 2020 |website=MINING.COM |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205074711/https://www.mining.com/coronavirus-drops-iron-ore-shipping-gauge-99-9/ |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the virus has made shipping and logistic operations of mining companies more complicated.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2063117-coronavirus-to-complicate-australian-shipping |title=Coronavirus to complicate Australian shipping |date=4 February 2020 |website=argusmedia.com |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205074712/https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2063117-coronavirus-to-complicate-australian-shipping |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues|Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic}}
The pandemic impacted global health for many conditions. Hospital visits fell.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors= Yu S, Wan R, Bai L, Zhao B, Jiang Q, Jiang J, Li Y |title=Transformation of chronic disease management: Before and after the COVID-19 outbreak |journal=Frontiers in Public Health |date=29 March 2023 |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fpubh.2023.1074364 |pmid=37064686 |pmc=10090362 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Visits for heart attack symptoms declined by 38% in the US and 40% in Spain.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Garcia S, Albaghdadi MS, Meraj PM, Schmidt C, Garberich R, Jaffer FA, Dixon S, Rade JJ, Tannenbaum M, Chambers J, Huang PP, Henry TD | title = Reduction in ST-Segment Elevation Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory Activations in the United States During COVID-19 Pandemic | journal = Journal of the American College of Cardiology | volume = 75 | issue = 22 | pages = 2871–2872 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32283124 | pmc = 7151384 | doi = 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.04.011 }}</ref> The head of cardiology at the ] said, "My worry is some of these people are dying at home because they're too scared to go to the hospital".<ref name="Stat News, with serious heart symptoms away, April 23">, ''Stat News'', Usha Lee McFarling, 23 April 2020.</ref> People with strokes and ] were less likely to seek treatment.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Dula AN, Gealogo Brown G, Aggarwal A, Clark KL |title=Decrease in Stroke Diagnoses During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Where Did All Our Stroke Patients Go? |journal=JMIR Aging |date=21 October 2020 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=e21608 |doi=10.2196/21608 |pmid=33006936 |pmc=7581311 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Orthopoulos G, Santone E, Izzo F, Tirabassi M, Pérez-Caraballo AM, Corriveau N, Jabbour N |title=Increasing incidence of complicated appendicitis during COVID-19 pandemic |journal=The American Journal of Surgery |date=1 May 2021 |volume=221 |issue=5 |pages=1056–1060 |doi=10.1016/j.amjsurg.2020.09.026 |pmid=33012500 |pmc=7521886 |issn=0002-9610}}</ref><ref name="Stat News, with serious heart symptoms away, April 23" /> ]s impacted many people.<ref name="Atlantic Shortages">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Faust JS |title=Medication Shortages Are the Next Crisis |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/04/medication-shortages-are-next-crisis/610798/ |access-date=17 May 2020 |work=The Atlantic |date=28 April 2020}}</ref> The pandemic impacted ],<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/daily-life-coping/managing-stress-anxiety.html|date=11 February 2020|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=17 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="Stix_2021">{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Stix G |title=Pandemic Year 1 Saw a Dramatic Global Rise in Anxiety and Depression|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/pandemic-year-1-saw-a-dramatic-global-rise-in-anxiety-and-depression/|access-date=10 October 2021|website=Scientific American}}</ref> increasing ], depression, and ], affecting healthcare workers, patients and quarantined individuals.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Luo Y, Chua CR, Xiong Z, Ho RC, Ho CS | title = A Systematic Review of the Impact of Viral Respiratory Epidemics on Mental Health: An Implication on the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 11 | page = 565098 | date = 23 November 2020 | pmid = 33329106 | pmc = 7719673 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.565098 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Santomauro_2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Santomauro DF, Herrera AM, Shadid J, Zheng P, Ashbaugh C, Pigott DM, Abbafati C, Adolph C, Amlag JO, Aravkin AY, Bang-Jensen BL |date=8 October 2021|title=Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic |journal=The Lancet | volume = 398 | issue = 10312 | pages = 1700–1712 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02143-7 | pmid = 34634250 | pmc = 8500697 | s2cid = 238478261 }}</ref>


In late 2022, during the first northern hemisphere autumn and winter seasons following the widespread relaxation of global public health measures, North America and Europe experienced a surge in respiratory viruses and coinfections in both adults and children.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Principi N, Autore G, Ramundo G, Esposito S |title=Epidemiology of Respiratory Infections during the COVID-19 Pandemic |journal=Viruses |date=13 May 2023 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=1160 |doi=10.3390/v15051160 |pmid=37243246 |pmc=10224029 |issn=1999-4915 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This formed the beginning of the ] and what some experts termed a "]" of seasonal influenza, ] (RSV), and SARS-CoV-2 throughout North America.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Wu K |title=The Worst Pediatric-Care Crisis in Decades |url= https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2022/10/rise-of-rsv-flu-covid-infections-kids/671947/ |access-date=1 November 2022 |publisher=The Atlantic |date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031233050/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2022/10/rise-of-rsv-flu-covid-infections-kids/671947/ |archive-date=31 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mandavilli A |title=A 'Tripledemic'? Flu, R.S.V. and Covid May Collide This Winter, Experts Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/23/health/flu-covid-risk.html |access-date=5 November 2022 |work=] |date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028223843/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/23/health/flu-covid-risk.html |archive-date=28 October 2022}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, paediatric infections also began to spike beyond pre-pandemic levels, albeit with different illnesses, such as ] and resultant ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Turner CE |title=Can group A streptococcus infections be influenced by viruses in the respiratory tract? |journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases |date=February 2023 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=142–144 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00865-9 |pmid=36566769 |s2cid=255018859 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00865-9/fulltext |access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="United Kingdom">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mackintosh T, Durbin A |title=Father of girl, 4, fighting for life with Strep A infection is 'praying for a miracle' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-63844880 |access-date=4 December 2022 |publisher=BBC News |date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203125723/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-63844880 |archive-date=3 December 2022}}</ref> As of mid-December 2022, 19 children in the UK had died due to ] and the wave of infections had begun to spread into North America and Mainland Europe.<ref name="Strep A death">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Davis N |title=Strep A kills three more children as UK activates alternative medicines plan: At least 19 children have died and scarlet fever cases are more than treble what they were in previous high season |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/dec/15/strep-a-kills-three-more-children-as-uk-activates-new-medicines-plan|access-date=17 December 2022 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217040228/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/dec/15/strep-a-kills-three-more-children-as-uk-activates-new-medicines-plan |archive-date=17 December 2022}}</ref><ref name="Strep Expansion">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Wetsman N, McLean N |title=US children's hospitals are tracking increases in severe strep infections |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/us-childrens-hospitals-tracking-increases-severe-strep-infections/story?id=95388618 |access-date=17 December 2022 |publisher=ABC News |date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217100006/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/us-childrens-hospitals-tracking-increases-severe-strep-infections/story?id=95388618 |archive-date=17 December 2022}}</ref>
Agriculture is also experiencing negative effects from the outbreak,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://seekingalpha.com/article/4322526-agricultural-commodities-moving-february-wasde-report|title=Agricultural Commodities Moving Into The February WASDE Report|last=Hecht|first=Andrew|date=10 February 2020|website=Seeking Alpha|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref> including the Australian dairy industry,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gray|first=Jamie|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=12306045|title=Global dairy prices feel the coronavirus bite|date=4 February 2020|work=NZ Herald|access-date=10 February 2020|issn=1170-0777}}</ref> fishing industry,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-04/coronavirus-devastates-australian-export-businesses/11925536|title=Coronavirus devastates Australian export businesses|last=Pollard|first=Emma|last2=McKenna|first2=Kate|date=4 February 2020|website=ABC News|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref> wine producers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afr.com/companies/agriculture/wine-australia-warns-coronavirus-will-hit-china-exports-20200205-p53xv5|title=Wine sales to China up 12pc but coronavirus hit looms|date=4 February 2020|website=Australian Financial Review|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref> and meat producers.<ref name="auto15" /> On 13 February 2020 ], which specialises in agricultural banking, warned that the agricultural sector had eight weeks for the coronavirus to be contained before facing major losses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/am/australian-farmers-have-small-window-before-coronavirus-impact/11960528|title=Australian farmers have small window before coronavirus impact: expert|date=13 February 2020|website=ABC Radio|language=en-AU|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref>


The B/Yamagata lineage of ] might have become extinct in 2020/2021 due to COVID-19 pandemic measures.<ref name="Alhoufie2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Alhoufie ST, Alsharif NH, Alfarouk KO, Ibrahim NA, Kheyami AM, Aljifri AA |title=COVID-19 with underdiagnosed influenza B and parainfluenza-2 co-infections in Saudi Arabia: Two case reports |journal=Journal of Infection and Public Health |date=November 2021 |volume=14 |issue=11 |pages=1567–1570 |pmid=34627054 |doi=10.1016/j.jiph.2021.09.005|pmc=8442300 }}</ref><ref name="Koutsakos2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Koutsakos M, Wheatley AK, Laurie K, Kent SJ, Rockman S |title=Influenza lineage extinction during the COVID-19 pandemic? |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |date=December 2021 |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=741–742 |pmid=34584246 |doi=10.1038/s41579-021-00642-4 | pmc=8477979 }}</ref> There have been no naturally occurring cases confirmed since March 2020.<ref name="WHOflu2023"/><ref name="UMN2023"/> In 2023, the WHO concluded that protection against the Yamagata lineage was no longer necessary in the seasonal ], reducing the number of lineages targeted by the vaccine from four to three.<ref name="WHOflu2023">{{#invoke:cite web || title= Questions and Answers: Recommended composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the southern hemisphere 2024 influenza season and development of candidate vaccine viruses for pandemic preparedness | author = ] | url=https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/influenza/who-influenza-recommendations/vcm-southern-hemisphere-recommendation-2024/202309_qanda_recommendation.pdf?sfvrsn=7a6906d1_5 | date=29 September 2023 | access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="UMN2023">{{#invoke:cite web || title=WHO advisers recommend switch back to trivalent flu vaccines | author = Schnirring L | website=CIDRAP | date=29 September 2023 | url=https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/influenza-vaccines/who-advisers-recommend-switch-back-trivalent-flu-vaccines | access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref>
The education sector is expected to suffer a US$5 billion loss according to an early government estimate,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msn.com/en-au/news/australia/australian-universities-brace-for-financial-fallout-from-coronavirus/ar-BBZq3Rr |title=Australian universities brace for financial fallout from coronavirus |publisher=MSN |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205072613/http://www.msn.com/en-au/news/australia/australian-universities-brace-for-financial-fallout-from-coronavirus/ar-BBZq3Rr |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/economics/article/3048769/were-cash-cows-stranded-chinese-students-upset-after-australias |title='We're like cash cows': Chinese students angry after Australia travel ban |date=4 February 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205011205/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/economics/article/3048769/were-cash-cows-stranded-chinese-students-upset-after-australias |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> including costs due to "tuition fee refunds, free deferral of study, realignment of teaching calendars and student accommodation costs."<ref name=":10">{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.com/coronavirus-crisis-could-hurt-australian-economy-multiple-ways-2917249|title=Coronavirus Crisis Could Hurt Australian Economy In Multiple Ways|date=6 February 2020|website=International Business Times|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> The taxpayer is likely to be required to cover the shortfall in education budgets.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/our-china-dependent-universities-cannot-escape-the-financial-shock-of-coronavirus-20200131-p53wfy.html |title=Our China-dependent universities cannot escape the financial shock of coronavirus |last=Babones |first=Salvatore |date=30 January 2020 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205072613/https://www.smh.com.au/national/our-china-dependent-universities-cannot-escape-the-financial-shock-of-coronavirus-20200131-p53wfy.html |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> An estimated 100,000 students were not able to enroll at the start of the semester.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-04/coronavirus-scare-sees-chinese-students-miss-uniniversity/11929948 |title=Coronavirus travel ban locks out Chinese students, leaving Australian universities in chaos |last=Clarke |first=foreign affairs reporter Melissa |date=4 February 2020 |publisher=ABC News |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205074406/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-04/coronavirus-scare-sees-chinese-students-miss-uniniversity/11929948 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nearly two-thirds of Chinese students were forced to remain overseas due to visa restrictions on travellers from Mainland China.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/two-thirds-australias-chinese-students-stuck-home |title=Two-thirds of Australia's Chinese students 'stuck at home' |date=4 February 2020 |website=Times Higher Education (THE) |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205072614/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/two-thirds-australias-chinese-students-stuck-home |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Salvatore Babones, associate professor at the University of Sydney, stated that "Australia will remain an attractive study destination for Chinese students, but it may take several years for Chinese student numbers to recover".<ref name=":10" />


=== Brazil === === Environment ===
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment}}
Two Brazilian banks predicted the deceleration of economic growth in China. ] has reviewed its estimations from 6% to 5.4%, while ] stated a reduction to 5.8%.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-51452527|title=Da indústria de celulares à soja, os impactos do coronavírus na economia brasileira|last1=Veras Mota|first1=Camilla|date=12 February 2020|publisher=BBC News Brasil|location=São Paulo|language=PT-PT|accessdate=12 February 2020}}</ref>
] show a stark drop in pollution in ], when comparing ] levels in early 2019 (top) and early 2020 (bottom).<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146362/airborne-nitrogen-dioxide-plummets-over-china |title=Earth Observatory |date=28 February 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402162640/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146362/airborne-nitrogen-dioxide-plummets-over-china |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The pandemic and the reaction to it positively affected the ] and ] as a result of reduced human activity. During the "]", fossil fuel use decreased, resource consumption declined, and waste disposal improved, generating less pollution.<ref name=":9">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Rume T, Islam SM | title = Environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic and potential strategies of sustainability | journal = Heliyon | volume = 6 | issue = 9 | pages = e04965 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32964165 | pmc = 7498239 | doi = 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04965 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020Heliy...604965R }}</ref> ] and vehicle transportation declined. In China, ]s and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxides emissions.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Hotle S, Mumbower S |title=The impact of COVID-19 on domestic U.S. air travel operations and commercial airport service |journal=Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives |date=1 March 2021 |volume=9 |pages=100277 |doi=10.1016/j.trip.2020.100277 |bibcode=2021TrRIP...900277H |s2cid=230597573 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590198220301883 |access-date=9 June 2023 |issn=2590-1982}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/air-cleaner-2020-coronavirus-pandemic-pollution/|title=The air got cleaner in 2020, thanks to the pandemic|website=] |date=19 November 2020}}</ref>


In 2020, a worldwide study on mammalian wildlife responses to human presence during COVID lockdowns found complex patterns of animal behaviour. Carnivores were generally less active when humans were around, while herbivores in developed areas were more active. Among other findings, this suggested that herbivores may view humans as a shield against predators, highlighting the importance of location and human presence history in understanding wildlife responses to changes in human activity in a given area.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Main D |title=How Wild Animals Actually Responded to Our COVID Lockdowns |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-wild-animals-actually-responded-to-our-covid-lockdowns/ |access-date=20 March 2024 |publisher=Scientific American |date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319030256/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-wild-animals-actually-responded-to-our-covid-lockdowns/ |archive-date=19 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
A representative of some of the bigger Brazilian companies of the electronics sector, Eletros, stated that the current stock for the supply of components is enough for around 10 to 15 days.<ref name=":02"/>


A ] of largely mammalian species, both captive and wild, have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, with some encountering a particularly high degree of fatal outcomes.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Pappas G, Vokou D, Sainis I, Halley JM |title=SARS-CoV-2 as a Zooanthroponotic Infection: Spillbacks, Secondary Spillovers, and Their Importance |journal=Microorganisms |date=31 October 2022 |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=2166 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms10112166 |pmid=36363758 |pmc=9696655 |issn=2076-2607 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In particular, both ] have developed highly symptomatic and severe COVID-19 infections, with a mortality rate as high as 35–55% according to one study.<ref name="Frontiers Spread">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Devaux CA, Pinault L, Delerce J, Raoult D, Levasseur A, Frutos R|title=Spread of Mink SARS-CoV-2 Variants in Humans: A Model of Sarbecovirus Interspecies Evolution |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |date=20 September 2021 |volume=12 |page=675528 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2021.675528 |pmid=34616371 |pmc=8488371 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Eckstrand CD, Baldwin TJ, Rood KA, Clayton MJ, Lott JK, Wolking RM, Bradway DS, Baszler T |title=An outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 with high mortality in mink (Neovison vison) on multiple Utah farms |journal=PLOS Pathogens |date=12 November 2021 |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=e1009952 |doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009952 |pmid=34767598 |pmc=8589170 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ], on the other hand, have largely avoided severe outcomes but have effectively become ]s of the virus, with large numbers of free-ranging deer infected throughout the US and Canada, including approximately 80% of ]'s wild deer herd.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Jacobs A |title=Widespread Coronavirus Infection Found in Iowa Deer, New Study Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/02/science/deer-covid-infection.html |access-date=5 November 2021 |work=] |date=2 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102164643/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/02/science/deer-covid-infection.html |archive-date=2 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="Nature April">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Mallapaty S |title=COVID is spreading in deer. What does that mean for the pandemic? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01112-4 |access-date=26 April 2022 |publisher=Nature |date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426133110/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01112-4 |archive-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> An August 2023 study appeared to confirm the status of white-tailed deer as a disease reservoir, noting that the viral evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in deer occurs at triple the rate of its evolution in humans and that infection rates remained high, even in areas rarely frequented by humans.<ref name="Triple Evolution">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = McBride DS, Garushyants SK, Franks J, Magee AF, Overend SH, Huey D, Williams AM, Faith SA, Kandeil A, Trifkovic S, Miller L, Jeevan T, Patel A, Nolting JM, Tonkovich MJ, Genders JT, Montoney AJ, Kasnyik K, Linder TJ, Bevins SN, Lenoch JB, Chandler JC, DeLiberto TJ, Koonin EV, Suchard MA, Lemey P, Webby RJ, Nelson MI, Bowman AS |title=Accelerated evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in free-ranging white-tailed deer |journal=Nature Communications |date=28 August 2023 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=5105 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-40706-y |pmid=37640694 |pmc=10462754 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.5105M }}</ref>
The prices of soy-beans, oil and iron ore have been falling. These three goods represent 30%, 24% and 21% of the Brazilian exports to China, respectively.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://economia.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,vendas-paradas-e-precos-em-queda,70003190650|title=Vendas paradas e preços em queda – Economia|website=Estadão|language=pt-BR|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://exame.abril.com.br/economia/soja-petroleo-e-ferro-coronavirus-derruba-preco-de-commodities-do-brasil/|title=Soja, petróleo e ferro: coronavírus derruba valor de commodities do Brasil|website=EXAME|language=pt-BR|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>


=== Europe === === Discrimination and prejudice ===
{{Main|Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic}}
In the United Kingdom, digger manufacturer ] announced that it plans to reduce working hours and production due to shortages in their supply chain caused by the outbreak.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51486719|title=JCB cuts production because of coronavirus|date=13 February 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref>
] |date=7 February 2022 }}</ref>]]
Heightened prejudice, ], and racism toward people of ] were documented around the world.<ref name="AutoDW-251" /><ref name="zogcf" /> Reports from February 2020, when most confirmed cases were confined to China, cited racist sentiments about Chinese people 'deserving' the virus.<ref name="bangkokpost1854094">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Wangkiat P |title=Virus-induced racism does no one any good |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1854094/virus-induced-racism-does-no-one-any-good |date=10 February 2020 |work=Bangkok Post}}</ref><ref name="psychologytoday202002">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Bartholomew R |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/its-catching/202002/the-coronavirus-and-the-search-scapegoats |title=The Coronavirus and the Search for Scapegoats |date=6 February 2020 |work=Psychology Today}}</ref><ref name="20200201telegraph">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Smith N |title=Anti-Chinese racism spikes as virus spreads globally |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/02/01/anti-chinese-racism-spikes-virus-spreads-globally/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/02/01/anti-chinese-racism-spikes-virus-spreads-globally/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-status=live |date=1 February 2020 |work=The Daily Telegraph |url-access=subscription |quote='Some Muslims were claiming the disease was "divine retribution" for China's oppression of the Uighur minority. The problem lay in confusing the Chinese population with the actions of an authoritarian government known for its lack of transparency,' he said.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Individuals of Asian descent in Europe and North America reported increasing instances of racially-motivated abuse and assaults as a result of the pandemic.<ref name="NYT Racism">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Tavernise S, Oppel Jr RA |title=Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese-Americans Fear for Their Safety |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/us/chinese-coronavirus-racist-attacks.html |access-date=23 March 2020 |work=] |date=23 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="05O7n" /><ref name="NYT_April_Racism">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = La Gorce T |title=Chinese-Americans, Facing Abuse, Unite to Aid Hospitals in Coronavirus Battle |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/05/nyregion/coronavirus-chinese-americans-supplies.html |access-date=29 April 2020 |work=] |date=5 April 2020}}</ref> US president ] was criticised for referring to SARS-CoV-2 as the "Chinese Virus" and "Kung Flu", terms which were condemned as being racist and xenophobic.<ref name="trumpnyt">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Rogers K, Jakes L, Swanson A |title=Trump Defends Using 'Chinese Virus' Label, Ignoring Growing Criticism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/18/us/politics/china-virus.html |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=] |date=18 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320001747/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/18/us/politics/china-virus.html |archive-date=20 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="20200320BI">{{#invoke:cite web || url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-using-racism-against-china-to-distract-from-coronavirus-failures-2020-3 | vauthors = Haltiwanger J |title=Republicans are using racism against China to try to distract from Trump's disastrous coronavirus response |work=Business Insider |date=20 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="MNCw4">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Lee BY |title=Trump Once Again Calls Covid-19 Coronavirus The 'Kung Flu' |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/brucelee/2020/06/24/trump-once-again-calls-covid-19-coronavirus-the-kung-flu/ |access-date=9 July 2020 |website=Forbes}}</ref>


] against older adults increased during the pandemic. This was attributed to their perceived vulnerability and subsequent physical and social isolation measures, which, coupled with their reduced social activity, increased dependency on others. Similarly, limited digital literacy left the elderly more vulnerable to isolation, depression, and loneliness.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Silva MF, Silva DS, Bacurau AG, Francisco PM, Assumpção D, Neri AL, Borim FS | title = Ageism against older adults in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: an integrative review | journal = Revista de Saúde Pública | volume = 55 | page = 4 | year = 2021 | pmid = 33886953 | pmc = 8023321 | doi = 10.11606/s1518-8787.2021055003082 }}</ref>
In Spain, a large number of exhibitors (including Chinese firms ] and ]) announced plans to pull out of or reduce their presence at ], a ] industry trade show in ], Spain, due to concerns over coronavirus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2020/02/12/nokia-pulls-out-of-mwc-over-coronavirus-concerns/|title=MWC hangs by a thread after Nokia, DT and other big names back out|website=TechCrunch|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Kleinman|first=Zoe|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51458997|title=Coronavirus: Facebook and Intel ditch MWC tech show|date=11 February 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-pares-back-mwc-presence-on-coronavirus-concerns/|title=Samsung pares back MWC presence on coronavirus concerns|last=Tibken|first=Shara|website=CNET|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> On 12 February 2020, ] CEO John Hoffman announced that the event had been cancelled, as the concerns had made it "impossible" to host.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/12/21127754/mwc-2020-canceled-coronavirus-trade-show-phone-mobile-world-congress-gsma-statement|title=The world's biggest phone show has been canceled due to coronavirus concerns|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=12 February 2020|website=The Verge|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>


In a correspondence published in ] in 2021, German epidemiologist Günter Kampf described the harmful effects of "inappropriate stigmatisation of unvaccinated people, who include our patients, colleagues, and other fellow citizens", noting the evidence that vaccinated individuals play a large role in transmission.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal||title=COVID-19: stigmatising the unvaccinated is not justified| vauthors = Kampf G |date=20 November 2021|journal=The Lancet|volume=398|issue=10314|pages=1871|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02243-1|pmid=34801101|pmc=8601682 }}</ref> American bioethicist Arthur Caplan responded to Kampf, writing "Criticising who... wind up in hospitals and morgues in huge numbers, put stress on finite resources, and prolong the pandemic... is not stigmatising, it is deserved moral condemnation".<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Caplan AL |title=Stigma, vaccination, and moral accountability |journal=The Lancet |date=February 2022 |volume=399 |issue=10325 |pages=626–627 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00189-1 |pmid=35151392 |pmc=8830899 }}</ref>
In Germany, according to the ] the outbreak of the novel coronavirus may contribute to a recession in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://expresso.pt/economia/2020-02-12-Deutsche-Bank-diz-que-coronavirus-pode-contribuir-para-recessao-na-Alemanha-E-um-risco-para-a-recuperacao-global|title=Deutsche Bank diz que coronavírus pode contribuir para recessão na Alemanha: "É um risco para a recuperação global"|author1=LUSA|date=12 February 2020|website=Expresso|publisher=Expresso|language=PT-PT|accessdate=12 February 2020}}</ref>


In January 2022, ] urged ] to change their anti-COVID-19 restrictions to avoid discrimination against unvaccinated people, saying that "the government must continue to ensure that the entire population can enjoy its fundamental rights". The restrictions included mandatory vaccination over the age of 50, and mandatory vaccination to use public transport.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/dont-discriminate-against-unvaccinated-amnesty-international-tells-italy-2022-01-16/ | title=Don't discriminate against the unvaccinated, Amnesty International tells Italy | newspaper=Reuters | date=16 January 2022 }}</ref>
Owing to an increase in the demand for masks,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tsf.pt/portugal/sociedade/coronavirus-causa-corrida-as-mascaras-farmacias-tentam-responder-a-procura-11757493.html|title=Corrida às máscaras em Portugal por causa do coronavírus|date=28 January 2020|website=TSF Rádio Notícias|language=pt|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> on 1 February most masks were sold out in Portuguese pharmacies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dn.pt/pais/mascaras-esgotam-nas-farmacias-das-mais-simples-as-mais-elaboradas-11775973.html|title=Máscaras esgotam nas farmácias, das mais simples às mais elaboradas – DN|website=www.dn.pt|language=pt|access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> On 4 February, ] ] admitted that the epidemic of the new coronavirus in China "affects the economic activity of a very powerful economy and thus affects the world's economic activity or could affect". He also admitted the possibility of economic upheavals due to the break in production."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dinheirovivo.pt/economia/coronavirus-marcelo-admite-efeitos-na-economia-global/|title=Coronavírus: Marcelo admite efeitos na economia global|date=4 February 2020|website=Dinheiro Vivo|publisher=Dinheiro Vivo|language=PT-PT|accessdate=12 February 2020}}</ref>


=== Japan === === Lifestyle changes ===
], Scotland, was given a face mask during the pandemic.]]
]
The pandemic triggered massive changes in behaviour, from increased Internet commerce to cultural changes in the workplace. Online retailers in the US posted $791.70&nbsp;billion in sales in 2020, an increase of 32.4% from $598.02&nbsp;billion the year before.<ref name="DDCV1ECMR">{{#invoke:cite web || title=Data dive: How COVID-19 impacted ecommerce in 2020|url=https://www.digitalcommerce360.com/article/coronavirus-impact-online-retail/|access-date=27 March 2021 |website=Digital Commerce 360}}</ref> Home delivery orders increased, while indoor restaurant dining shut down due to lockdown orders or low sales.<ref name="Fo18zrty783">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Kats R | title=More Consumers Are Turning to Food Delivery Apps amid Indoor Dining Restrictions|url=https://www.emarketer.com/content/more-consumers-turning-food-delivery-apps-amid-indoor-dining-restrictions|access-date=28 March 2021 |publisher=eMarketer.com}}</ref><ref name="Fo18zrty784">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Scotto M | title=NYC Indoor Dining To Shut Down Monday, Cuomo Announces|url=https://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2020/12/11/cuomo--indoor-dining-to-be-suspended-starting-monday/|access-date=28 March 2021 |publisher=Spectrum News NY1}}</ref> Hackers, ]s and scammers took advantage of the changes to launch new online attacks.<ref name="Fo18zrty787">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = DeLisi B | title=The future of hacking: COVID-19 shifting the way hackers work and who they target|url=https://www.securitymagazine.com/articles/93086-the-future-of-hacking-covid-19-shifting-the-way-hackers-work-and-who-they-target|access-date=28 March 2021 |website=SECURITY magazine}}</ref>
] ] has said that "the new coronavirus is having a major impact on tourism, the economy and our society as a whole".<ref name="20200201japantimesA">{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/02/01/national/shinzo-abe-combat-coronavirus-outbreak-japan/ |title=Japan reports 20th case of coronavirus as Abe vows new steps to combat outbreak |date=1 February 2020 |work=Japan Times |access-date=1 February 2020 |issn=0447-5763 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201160519/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/02/01/national/shinzo-abe-combat-coronavirus-outbreak-japan/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="20200201japantimesB">{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/02/01/asia-pacific/science-health-asia-pacific/south-korea-says-chinese-tour-guide-arriving-japan-found-infected-coronavirus/ |title=South Korea says Chinese tour guide arriving from Japan found to be infected with coronavirus |date=1 February 2020 |work=Japan Times |access-date=1 February 2020 |issn=0447-5763 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201134136/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/02/01/asia-pacific/science-health-asia-pacific/south-korea-says-chinese-tour-guide-arriving-japan-found-infected-coronavirus/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Face masks have sold out across the nation and stocks of face masks are depleted within a day of new arrivals.<ref name="20200131japantimes">{{Cite news|last=Takahashi|first=Ryusei|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/31/national/coronavirus-japan-surgical-masks/|title=Amid virus outbreak, Japan stores scramble to meet demand for face masks|date=31 January 2020|work=Japan Times|access-date=1 February 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201141824/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/31/national/coronavirus-japan-surgical-masks/|archive-date=1 February 2020|issn=0447-5763}}</ref> There has been pressure placed on the healthcare system as demands for ] increase.<ref name="20200201reutersB">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-japan-idUSKBN1ZV3GZ |title=Japan seeks to contain economic impact of virus, new measures come into effect |date=1 February 2020 |access-date=1 February 2020 |agency=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201133549/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-japan-idUSKBN1ZV3GZ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese people have reported increasing discrimination.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pfanner |first=Eric |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/30/world/chinese-tourists-finding-no-longer-welcome-fear-coronavirus-takes-hold/ |title=Chinese tourists finding they are no longer welcome as fear over coronavirus takes hold |date=30 January 2020 |work=Japan Times |access-date=31 January 2020 |issn=0447-5763 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064332/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/30/world/chinese-tourists-finding-no-longer-welcome-fear-coronavirus-takes-hold/ |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] has pointed out that the situation has not reached a point where mass gatherings must be called off.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://japantoday.com/category/national/3-Japanese-returnees-from-Wuhan-test-positive-for-new-coronavirus |title=3 Japanese returnees from Wuhan test positive for new coronavirus |website=Japan Today |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130140241/https://japantoday.com/category/national/3-Japanese-returnees-from-Wuhan-test-positive-for-new-coronavirus |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Education in some countries temporarily shifted from physical attendance to video conferencing.<ref name="Fo18zrty790">{{#invoke:cite web || title=The COVID-19 pandemic has changed education forever. This is how|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-education-global-covid19-online-digital-learning/|access-date=28 March 2021 |website=World Economic Forum|date=29 April 2020 }}</ref> Massive layoffs shrank the airline, travel, hospitality, and other industries.<ref name="Fo18zrty6966">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Benshoff L |title=Pandemic Threatens Long-Term Job Security After Hospitality Industry Layoffs |publisher=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/09/29/917756656/pandemic-threatens-long-term-job-security-after-hospitality-industry-layoffs|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="Fo18zrty9999">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Woodyard C | title=Travel industry layoffs begin as Congress fails to come up with new relief package|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/2020/09/30/covid-19-travel-industry-layoffs-could-start-congress-fails-act/5868989002/|access-date=28 March 2021 |website=USA Today}}</ref> Despite most corporations implementing measures to address COVID-19 in the workplace, a poll from ] found that as many as 68% of employees around the world felt that these policies were only performative and "not genuine".<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||date=30 June 2022 | vauthors = Chong J |title=Workers feel corporate COVID-19, equity policies 'not genuine,' study says |work=The Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/business/2022/06/28/workers-feel-corporate-covid-19-equity-policies-not-genuine-study-says.html |access-date=30 June 2022 |issn=0319-0781}}</ref>
Aviation, retail and tourism sectors have reported decreased sales and some manufactures have complained about disruption to Chinese factories, logistics and supply chains.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/will-japans-economy-buckle-under-the-coronavirus-outbreak/|title=Will Japan's Economy Buckle Under the Coronavirus Outbreak?|last=Siripala|first=Thisanka|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref> Prime Minister Abe has considered using emergency funds to mitigate the outbreak's impact on tourism, of which Chinese nationals account for 40%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/japan-considers-extra-spending-over-coronavirus-e2-80-99s-impact-on-tourism/ar-BBZvrUa |title=Japan Considers Extra Spending Over Coronavirus's Impact on Tourism |publisher=MSN |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131083426/http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/japan-considers-extra-spending-over-coronavirus-e2-80-99s-impact-on-tourism/ar-BBZvrUa |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> S&P Global noted that the worst hit shares were from companies spanning travel, cosmetics and retail sectors which are most exposed to Chinese tourism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spglobal.com/en/research-insights/articles/chinese-coronavirus-fear-spreads-over-luxury-retail-sectors |title=Chinese coronavirus fear spreads over luxury, retail sectors |website=spglobal.com |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201140526/https://www.spglobal.com/en/research-insights/articles/chinese-coronavirus-fear-spreads-over-luxury-retail-sectors |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nintendo announced that they would delay shipment of the ], which is manufactured in China, to Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/daily-briefs/2020-02-06/coronavirus-delays-nintendo-switch-production-shipments-for-japan/.156176|title=Coronavirus Delays Nintendo Switch Production, Shipments for Japan|website=Anime News Network}}</ref>


The pandemic led to a surge in ]. According to a ], only 4% of US employees were fully remote before the pandemic, compared to 43% in May 2020. Among white collar workers, that shift was more pronounced, with 6% increasing to 65% in the same period.<ref name="The New York Times 2022">{{#invoke:cite web || title=After Two Years of Remote Work, Workers Question Office Life | website=The New York Times | date=10 March 2022 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/10/business/remote-work-office-life.html | access-date=13 June 2023}}</ref> That trend continued in later stages of the pandemic, with many workers choosing to remain remote even after workplaces reopened.<ref name="Mitchell 2022">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Mitchell T | title=COVID-19 Pandemic Continues To Reshape Work in America | website=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project | date=16 February 2022 | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2022/02/16/covid-19-pandemic-continues-to-reshape-work-in-america/ | access-date=13 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kagubare 2023">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Kagubare I | title=Nearly 30 percent of work remains remote as workers dig in | website=The Hill | date=20 February 2023 | url=https://thehill.com/policy/technology/3862069-nearly-30-percent-of-work-remains-remote-as-workers-dig-in/ | access-date=13 June 2023}}</ref> Many Nordic, European, and Asian companies increased their recruitment of international remote workers even as the pandemic waned, partially to save on labour costs.<ref name="ComputerWeekly.com 2023">{{#invoke:cite web || title=As Covid fades away, what's the future of remote work in Europe? | website=ComputerWeekly.com | date=14 March 2023 | url=https://www.computerweekly.com/feature/As-Covid-fades-away-whats-the-future-of-remote-work-in-Europe | access-date=14 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Braesemann Stephany Teutloff Kässi 2022 p=e0274630">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Braesemann F, Stephany F, Teutloff O, Kässi O, Graham M, Lehdonvirta V | title=The global polarisation of remote work | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=17 | issue=10 | date=20 October 2022 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0274630 | page=e0274630 | pmid=36264859 | pmc=9584402 | arxiv=2108.13356 | bibcode=2022PLoSO..1774630B | doi-access=free }}</ref> This also led to a talent drain in the global south and in remote areas in the global north.<ref name="Braesemann Stephany Teutloff Kässi 2022 p=e0274630"/><ref name="EuropeanStingWEF2023">{{#invoke:cite web || title=What does remote working look like around the world? | website=The European Sting | date=13 February 2023 | url=https://europeansting.com/2023/02/13/what-does-remote-working-look-like-around-the-world/ | access-date=14 June 2023}}</ref> High cost of living and dense urban areas also lost office real estate value due to remote worker exodus.<ref name="Economist2022Jan">{{#invoke:cite news || title=Will remote work stick after the pandemic? | newspaper=The Economist | date=15 January 2022 | url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2022/01/15/will-remote-work-stick-after-the-pandemic | access-date=14 June 2023}}</ref> By May 2023, due to increasing layoffs and concerns over productivity, some white collar workplaces in the US had resorted to performance review penalties and indirect incentives (e.g. donations to charity) to encourage workers to return to the office.<ref name="Peck 2023">{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Peck E | title=Companies get aggressive on return-to-office | website=Axios | date=13 June 2023 | url=https://www.axios.com/2023/06/13/companies-aggressive-return-to-office | access-date=13 June 2023}}</ref>
The outbreak itself has been a concern for the ] which is scheduled to take place in Tokyo starting at the end of July. The ] has thus been taking extra precautions to help minimise the outbreak's impact.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory/abe-brushes-worries-virus-impact-tokyo-olympics-68719487 |title=Abe brushes aside worries of virus impact on Tokyo Olympics |last=News |first=A. B. C. |publisher=ABC News |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204122420/https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory/abe-brushes-worries-virus-impact-tokyo-olympics-68719487 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/01/tokyo-2020-organisers-fight-false-rumours-olympics-cancelled-over-coronavirus-crisis |title=Tokyo 2020 organizers fight false rumors Olympics cancelled over coronavirus crisis |last=McCurry |first=Justin |date=1 February 2020 |website=The Guardian |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206150540/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/01/tokyo-2020-organisers-fight-false-rumours-olympics-cancelled-over-coronavirus-crisis |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Tokyo organising committee and the ] have been monitoring the outbreak's impact in Japan.<ref name="auto1" />


=== Hong Kong === === Historiography ===
A 2021 study noted that the COVID-19 pandemic had increased interest in epidemics and infectious diseases among both historians and the general public. Prior to the pandemic, these topics were usually overlooked by "general" history and only received attention in the ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Fonzo E |date=18 July 2021 |title=Historiography and Covid-19. Some considerations |url=https://www.mediterraneanknowledge.org/publications/index.php/journal/article/view/205 |journal=Journal of Mediterranean Knowledge |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=129–158 |issn=2499-930X}}</ref> Many comparisons were made between the COVID-19 and ]s,<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Tambolkar S, Pustake M, Giri P, Tambolkar I |title=Comparison of public health measures taken during Spanish flu and COVID-19 pandemics: A Narrative Review. |journal=Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care |date=May 2022 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=1642–1647 |doi=10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1612_21 |pmid=35800503 |pmc=9254789 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Beach B, Clay K, Saavedra M |title=The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Its Lessons for COVID-19 |journal=Journal of Economic Literature |date=March 2022 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=41–84 |doi=10.1257/jel.20201641 |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jel.20201641 |issn=0022-0515}}</ref> including the development of anti-mask movements,<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||journal=Health Affairs Forefront| vauthors = Ewing T |title=Flu Masks Failed In 1918, But We Need Them Now |date=12 May 2020 |doi=10.1377/forefront.20200508.769108 |url=https://www.healthaffairs.org/content/forefront/flu-masks-failed-1918-but-we-need-them-now |access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Mask Resistance During a Pandemic Isn't New – in 1918 Many Americans Were 'Slackers' |url=https://www.michiganmedicine.org/health-lab/mask-resistance-during-pandemic-isnt-new-1918-many-americans-were-slackers |website=www.michiganmedicine.org |access-date=9 June 2023 |date=29 October 2020}}</ref> the widespread promotion of misinformation<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Devega C |title=Fake news, conspiracy theories and a deadly global pandemic — and that was in 1918 |url=https://www.salon.com/2021/05/08/fake-news-conspiracy-theories-and-a-deadly-global-pandemic--and-that-was-in-1918/ |access-date=9 June 2023 |work=Salon |date=8 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Cohut M |title=What the COVID-19 pandemic and the 1918 flu pandemic have in common |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/the-flu-pandemic-of-1918-and-early-conspiracy-theories |access-date=9 June 2023 |work=www.medicalnewstoday.com |date=29 September 2020 }}</ref> and the impact of ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Krishnan L, Ogunwole SM, Cooper LA |title=Historical Insights on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), the 1918 Influenza Pandemic, and Racial Disparities: Illuminating a Path Forward |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |date=15 September 2020 |volume=173 |issue=6 |pages=474–481 |doi=10.7326/M20-2223 |pmid=32501754 |pmc=7298913 |issn=0003-4819}}</ref>
Hong Kong has seen ] that saw tourist arrivals from Mainland China plummet over an eight-month period. The viral epidemic put additional pressure on the travel sector to withstand a prolonged period of downturn.<ref name="wsj1158011318" /> A drop in arrivals from third countries more resilient during the previous months has also been cited as a concern.<ref name="Hunter" /> The city is already in recession<ref name="wsj1158011318">{{Cite news |last=Wang |first=Chuin-Wei Yap and Joyu |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/virus-hits-hong-kong-as-economy-is-still-catching-its-breath-after-unrest-11580113183 |title=Coronavirus Hits Hong Kong as Economy Reels From Protests |date=27 January 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=31 January 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131004050/https://www.wsj.com/articles/virus-hits-hong-kong-as-economy-is-still-catching-its-breath-after-unrest-11580113183 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and Moody has lowered the city's credit rating.<ref name="wsj1157953437">{{Cite news |last=Russolillo |first=Steven |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/moodys-downgrades-protest-torn-hong-kong-citing-weak-government-11579534372 |title=Moody's Downgrades Protest-Torn Hong Kong |date=21 January 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=31 January 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131012621/https://www.wsj.com/articles/moodys-downgrades-protest-torn-hong-kong-citing-weak-government-11579534372 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/wuhan-virus-compounds-hong-kongs-economic-woes/ar-BBZci9z |title=Wuhan virus compounds Hong Kong's economic woes |publisher=MSN |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131090635/http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/wuhan-virus-compounds-hong-kongs-economic-woes/ar-BBZci9z |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The worst economic effects from the outbreak are expected for Australia, Hong Kong and China.<ref name=":9">{{cite web |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/economic-impact-of-the-wuhan-virus-12365216 |title=Commentary: As it stands, the economic impact of the Wuhan virus will be limited |website=CNA |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131090633/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/economic-impact-of-the-wuhan-virus-12365216 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Religion ===
There has also been a renewed increase in protest activity as hostile sentiment against Mainland Chinese strengthened over fears of viral transmission from Mainland China, with many calling for the border ports to be closed and for all Mainland Chinese travellers to be refused entry. Incidents have included a number of petrol bombs being thrown at police stations,<ref name="scmp3048133">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3048133/hong-kong-protests-petrol-bombs-thrown-kwai-chung |title=Hong Kong protests: radicals in bomb threat against police living quarters |date=29 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064332/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3048133/hong-kong-protests-petrol-bombs-thrown-kwai-chung |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> a homemade bomb exploding in a toilet,<ref name="scmp3047898">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3047898/unexploded-ied-found-shenzhen-border-control-point |title=IED found at border point, after another suspected toilet bomb |date=28 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129195236/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3047898/unexploded-ied-found-shenzhen-border-control-point |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and foreign objects being thrown onto transit rail tracks between Hong Kong and the Mainland Chinese border.<ref name="scmp3047983">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047983/hong-kong-protesters-disrupt-mtr-rail-services |title=Hong Kong protesters disrupt railway, declare 'dawn of anti-epidemic' action |date=29 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130183251/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3047983/hong-kong-protesters-disrupt-mtr-rail-services |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Political issues raised have included concerns that Mainland Chinese may prefer to travel to Hong Kong to seek free medical help (which has since been addressed by the Hong Kong government).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/one-coronavirus-two-systems-new-epidemic-hits-at-hong-kongs-political-divide/ |title=One Coronavirus, Two Systems: New Epidemic Hits at Hong Kong's Political Divide |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |website=thediplomat.com |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129121645/https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/one-coronavirus-two-systems-new-epidemic-hits-at-hong-kongs-political-divide/ |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="20191115google">{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ching Kwan |url=https://books.google.com/?id=B72tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=Mainland+Chinese+Hong+Kong+virus+sanitation+manners |title=Take Back Our Future: An Eventful Sociology of the Hong Kong Umbrella Movement |last2=Sing |first2=Ming |date=15 November 2019 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-4093-0}}</ref>
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion}}
] in an empty chapel at ] in March 2020]]
In some areas, religious groups exacerbated the spread of the virus, through large gatherings and the dissemination of misinformation.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lee M, Lim H, Xavier MS, Lee EY |title="A Divine Infection": A Systematic Review on the Roles of Religious Communities During the Early Stage of COVID-19 |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |date=1 February 2022 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=866–919 |doi=10.1007/s10943-021-01364-w |pmid=34405313 |pmc=8370454 |issn=1573-6571}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kalocsányiová E, Essex R, Fortune V |title=Inequalities in Covid-19 Messaging: A Systematic Scoping Review |journal=Health Communication |date=19 July 2022 |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=2549–2558 |doi=10.1080/10410236.2022.2088022 |pmid=35850593 |s2cid=250642415 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10410236.2022.2088022 |access-date=9 June 2023 |issn=1041-0236}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Lee Rogers R, Powe N |title=COVID-19 Information Sources and Misinformation by Faith Community |journal=INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing |date=January 2022 |volume=59 |pages=004695802210813 |doi=10.1177/00469580221081388 |pmid=35634989 |pmc=9152626 |issn=0046-9580}}</ref> Some religious leaders decried what they saw as violations of religious freedom.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web || vauthors = Majumdar S |title=Key findings about COVID-19 restrictions that affected religious groups around the world in 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/11/29/key-findings-about-covid-19-restrictions-that-affected-religious-groups-around-the-world-in-2020/ |website=Pew Research Center |date=29 November 2022 |access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref> In other cases, religious identity was a beneficial factor for health, increasing compliance with public health measures and protecting against the negative effects of isolation on mental wellbeing.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Li H, Cao Y |title=Rules We Live by: How Religious Beliefs Relate to Compliance with Precautionary Measures Against COVID-19 in Tibetan Buddhists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |date=1 April 2022 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=1671–1683 |doi=10.1007/s10943-022-01512-w |pmid=35122555 |pmc=8817637 |issn=1573-6571}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Syed U, Kapera O, Chandrasekhar A, Baylor BT, Hassan A, Magalhães M, Meidany F, Schenker I, Messiah SE, Bhatti A |title=The Role of Faith-Based Organizations in Improving Vaccination Confidence & Addressing Vaccination Disparities to Help Improve Vaccine Uptake: A Systematic Review |journal=Vaccines |date=February 2023 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=449 |doi=10.3390/vaccines11020449 |pmid=36851325 |pmc=9966262 |issn=2076-393X |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Sisti LG, Buonsenso D, Moscato U, Costanzo G, Malorni W |title=The Role of Religions in the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=January 2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=1691 |doi=10.3390/ijerph20031691 |pmid=36767057 |pmc=9914292 |issn=1660-4601 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


== Information dissemination ==
Since the outbreak of the virus, a significant number of products have been sold out across the city, including face masks and disinfectant products (such as alcohol and bleach).<ref name="scmp3048097">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3048097/long-queues-outlets-across-hong-kong-selling |title=Hundreds queue for masks amid virus crisis, with some in line at 7&nbsp;am |date=29 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130183327/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3048097/long-queues-outlets-across-hong-kong-selling |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> An ongoing period of panic buying has also caused many stores to be cleared of non-medical products such as bottled water, vegetables and rice.<ref name="scmp3048121">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3048121/china-coronavirus-shelves-cleared-essentials-spread-sparks |title=Shelves cleared as coronavirus spread sparks Hong Kong panic buying |date=29 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130185856/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3048121/china-coronavirus-shelves-cleared-essentials-spread-sparks |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] had its imports of face masks cancelled as global face mask stockpiles decline.<ref name="scmp3048332">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3048332/china-coronavirus-hongkongers-online-orders-masks |title=Mask orders cancelled as Hongkongers face overseas supply issues amid virus |date=31 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131031715/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3048332/china-coronavirus-hongkongers-online-orders-masks |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Further|Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism}}
Some news organisations removed their online paywalls for some or all of their pandemic-related articles and posts.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Jerde S |title=Major Publishers Take Down Paywalls for Coronavirus Coverage |url=https://www.adweek.com/performance-marketing/major-publishers-take-down-paywalls-for-coronavirus-coverage/ |access-date=9 June 2023 |work=www.adweek.com}}</ref> Many scientific publishers provided pandemic-related journal articles to the public free of charge as part of the National Institutes of Health's COVID-19 Public Health Emergency Initiative.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Call to Make COVID-19 Data/Research Publicly Available |url=https://www.imagwiki.nibib.nih.gov/sites/default/files/COVID19%20Open%20Access%20Letter%20from%20CSAs.Equivalents_0.pdf |website=NIH |publisher=imagwiki.nibib.nih.gov |access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=PMC COVID-19 Collection |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/about/covid-19/ |website=PubMed Central (PMC) |access-date=9 June 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=Coronavirus (COVID-19): sharing research data |url=https://wellcome.org/press-release/sharing-research-data-and-findings-relevant-novel-coronavirus-ncov-outbreak |website=Wellcome |access-date=9 June 2023 |date=31 January 2020}}</ref> According to one estimate from researchers at the University of Rome, 89.5% of COVID-19-related papers were open access, compared to an average of 48.8% for the ten most deadly human diseases.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Capocasa M, Anagnostou P, Bisol GD |title=A light in the dark: open access to medical literature and the COVID-19 pandemic |journal=Information Research: An International Electronic Journal |date=15 June 2022 |volume=27 |issue=2 |doi=10.47989/irpaper929 |s2cid=249615157 |url=https://informationr.net/ir/27-2/paper929.html |access-date=9 June 2023 }}</ref> The share of papers published on preprint servers prior to peer review increased dramatically.<ref>{{#invoke:cite magazine || vauthors = Rogers A |title=Coronavirus Research Is Moving at Top Speed—With a Catch |url=https://www.wired.com/story/coronavirus-research-preprint-servers/ |access-date=9 June 2023 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>


=== Misinformation<span class="anchor" id="Disinformation"></span> ===
In view of the coronavirus outbreak, the ] closed all kindergartens, primary schools, secondary schools and special schools until 17 February.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/sch-admin/admin/about-sch/diseases-prevention/edb_20200127_eng.pdf |title=Extension of Chinese New Year Holidays |website=Education Bureau |access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref> This was later extended to 1 March due to further development of the epidemic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/sch-admin/admin/about-sch/diseases-prevention/edb_20200131_eng.pdf |title=Arrangements on Deferral of Class Resumption for All Schools |website=Education Bureau |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202125307/https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/sch-admin/admin/about-sch/diseases-prevention/edb_20200131_eng.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The disruption has raised concerns over the situation of students who are due to take examinations at the end of the year, especially in light of the protest-related disruption that happened in 2019.<ref name="scmp3047662">{{cite web |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education/article/3047662/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-students-face-exam-crunch |title=First protests, now virus: schools suspension could hurt those facing exams |date=26 January 2020 |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203063457/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education/article/3047662/china-coronavirus-hong-kong-students-face-exam-crunch |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Main|COVID-19 misinformation}}
] and ] about the pandemic have been widespread; they travel through ], ] and text messaging.<ref name="FTTextMsg">{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Murphy H, Di Stefano M, Manson K |url=https://www.ft.com/content/34b6df5a-ea4a-471f-8ac9-606580480049|title=Huge text message campaigns spread coronavirus fake news|date=20 March 2020|work=Financial Times}}</ref> In March 2020, WHO declared an "]" of incorrect information.<ref name="Lowy">{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Kassam N |date=25 March 2020|title=Disinformation and coronavirus|work=The Interpreter|publisher=Lowy Institute|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/disinformation-and-coronavirus }}</ref> ]es, such as ], are linked to conspiracy beliefs, including ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kuhn SA, Lieb R, Freeman D, Andreou C, Zander-Schellenberg T | title = Coronavirus conspiracy beliefs in the German-speaking general population: endorsement rates and links to reasoning biases and paranoia | journal = Psychological Medicine | pages = 4162–4176 | date = March 2021 | volume = 52 | issue = 16 | pmid = 33722315 | pmc = 8027560 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291721001124 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


== Culture and society ==
On 5 February, flag carrier ] requested its 27,000 employees to voluntarily take three weeks of unpaid leave by the end of June. The airline had previously reduced flights to mainland China by 90% and to overall flights by 30%.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Riley |first=Charles |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/05/business/cathay-pacific-coronavirus/index.html |title=Cathay Pacific asks workers to take 3 weeks off without pay as the coronavirus decimates travel |date=5 February 2020 |work=CNN |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206100340/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/05/business/cathay-pacific-coronavirus/index.html |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Further|COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture}}
The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on popular culture. It was included in the narratives of ongoing pre-pandemic television series and become a central narrative in new ones, with mixed results.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.augustman.com/my/culture/film-tv/how-the-covid-19-pandemic-is-affecting-popular-culture/|title=How The Covid-19 Pandemic Is Affecting Popular Culture|author=<!-- Not stated -->|date=24 November 2020|website=augustman.com|publisher=]|access-date=18 December 2020|quote=In addition to existing shows, streaming platforms and cable channels have tried putting together new series centred on coronavirus, like HBO's "Coastal Elites" or Netflix's "Social Distance" – but with no real success.}}</ref> Writing for '']'' about the then-upcoming ] sitcom '']'' on 16 December 2020, ] asked, "Are we ready to laugh about Covid-19? Or rather, is there anything amusing, or recognizable in a humorous way, about life during a plague, with all of its indignities and setbacks, not to mention its rituals and rules".<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Segal D |author-link=David Segal (journalist)|date=16 December 2020|title=Are We Ready to Laugh About Covid-19? A British Sitcom Hopes So|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/16/business/media/pandemonium-bbc-coronavirus.html|access-date=18 December 2020|website=]|quote=Are we ready to laugh about Covid-19? Or rather, is there anything amusing, or recognizable in a humorous way, about life during a plague, with all of its indignities and setbacks, not to mention its rituals (clapping for ]s) and rules (]s, please).}}</ref>


The pandemic had driven some people to seek peaceful ] in media, while others were drawn towards fictional pandemics (e.g. ]s) as an alternate form of escapism.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| vauthors = Nobel E |date=13 April 2020|title=COVID-19 will shape pop culture for years to come, but for now we love pandemic stories|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-13/why-we-read-pandemic-stories-in-a-pandemic/12138290|access-date=18 December 2020|website=abc.net.au|publisher=]|quote=Fictitious stories about pandemics give us a way to experience the horror in a controlled way, with the pacing we've grown to expect, where resolution is always possible, and where we can always turn off the TV if it gets a bit too much.}}</ref> Common themes have included ], ] and loss of ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite magazine|| vauthors = McCluskey M |date=7 October 2020|title=Horror Films Have Always Tapped Into Pop Culture's Most Urgent Fears. COVID-19 Will Be Their Next Inspiration|url=https://time.com/5891305/horror-movies-coronavirus-history-genre/|magazine=]|access-date=19 December 2020|quote=}}</ref> Many drew comparisons to the fictional film '']'' (2011),<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Rogers K |title='Contagion' vs. coronavirus: The film's connections to a real life pandemic|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/02/movies/contagion-movie-versus-coronavirus-scn-wellness/index.html|access-date=9 June 2023|work=CNN|date=2 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Kritz F |title=Fact-Checking 'Contagion' — In Wake Of Coronavirus, The 2011 Movie Is Trending|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/02/16/802704825/fact-checking-contagion-in-wake-of-coronavirus-the-2011-movie-is-trending|access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref> praising its accuracies while noting some differences,<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||title=I've seen 'Contagion' four times. No, the coronavirus outbreak isn't the same|url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-03-11/coronavirus-contagion-outbreak-movie-comparison|access-date=9 June 2023|work=Los Angeles Times|date=11 March 2020}}</ref> such as the lack of an orderly vaccine rollout.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal|| vauthors = McGuire K |title=COVID-19, Contagion, and Vaccine Optimism|journal=Journal of Medical Humanities|date=March 2021|volume=42|issue=1|pages=51–62|doi=10.1007/s10912-021-09677-3|pmid=33587203|pmc=7882858}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| vauthors = Freyne P |title=The things my movie Contagion got wrong: The slow vaccine, the damaging president|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/film/the-things-my-movie-contagion-got-wrong-the-slow-vaccine-the-damaging-president-1.4276784|access-date=9 June 2023|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref>
=== Macau ===
On 4 February 2020, all ]s in Macau were ordered to shut down for 15 days.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Stevenson |first=Alexandra |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/04/business/coronavirus-macau-gambling.html |title=Coronavirus Shuts Macau, the World's Gambling Capital |date=4 February 2020 |work=] |access-date=4 February 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204121004/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/04/business/coronavirus-macau-gambling.html |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Yang |first=Joyu Wang and Jing |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/deadly-coronavirus-forces-chinas-gambling-hub-to-shut-its-casinos-11580816447 |title=Coronavirus: Bad Luck Hits Macau Casinos With 15-Day Shutdown |date=4 February 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=4 February 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206113014/https://www.wsj.com/articles/deadly-coronavirus-forces-chinas-gambling-hub-to-shut-its-casinos-11580816447 |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


As people turned to music to relieve emotions evoked by the pandemic, ] listenership showed that classical, ] and ] genres grew, while pop, ] and dance remained relatively stable.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=23 April 2020| vauthors = Jason J |title=How the Coronavirus Pandemic Affects Music Genres on Spotify|url=https://blog.chartmetric.com/covid-19-effect-on-the-global-music-business-part-1-genre/|access-date=10 April 2021|website=How Music Charts}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:Cite magazine|| vauthors = Chow A |title=The Pandemic Could Have Hurt Country Music. Instead, the Genre Is Booming|url=https://time.com/5898001/country-music-streaming-numbers-coronavirus/|magazine=Time|access-date=10 April 2021}}</ref>
=== Southeast Asia ===
Among ] countries, the city-state of Singapore was forecast to be one of the worst hit countries by ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msn.com/en-sg/money/topstories/singapores-economy-likely-to-be-amongst-the-worst-hit-by-wuhan-virus/ar-BBZv4Ws?li=AAaGkVj |title=Singapore's economy likely to be amongst the worst-hit by Wuhan virus |publisher=MSN |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201132634/http://www.msn.com/en-sg/money/topstories/singapores-economy-likely-to-be-amongst-the-worst-hit-by-wuhan-virus/ar-BBZv4Ws%3Fli%3DAAaGkVj |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The tourism sector was considered to be an "immediate concern" along with the effects on production lines due to disruption to factories and logistics in mainland China.<ref name="channelnewsasia12361746">{{cite web |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/wuhan-virus-singapore-tourism-economy-12361746 |title=Wuhan virus to hit Singapore's tourism sector, but too soon to assess impact on overall economy: Experts |website=CNA |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064340/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/wuhan-virus-singapore-tourism-economy-12361746 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Singapore has witnessed panic buying of essential groceries,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/wuhan-virus-coronavirus-groceries-supplies-ntuc-sheng-siong-12406906|title=No need to rush for supplies, says Chan Chun Sing, amid reports of surge in demand|website=CNA|access-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208143949/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/wuhan-virus-coronavirus-groceries-supplies-ntuc-sheng-siong-12406906|archive-date=8 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> and of masks, thermometers and sanitation products despite being advised against doing so by the ].<ref name="orlandosentinel20200130">{{cite web |url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/nationworld/ct-nw-nyt-coronavirus-anti-chinese-sentiment-20200130-j4boabbb45e5va2wxjshujx6zi-story.html |title=The spread of coronavirus has unleashed a wave of panic and, in some cases, outright anti-Chinese sentiment across the globe |last=Rich |first=Motoko |website=Orlando Sentinel |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201122505/https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/nationworld/ct-nw-nyt-coronavirus-anti-chinese-sentiment-20200130-j4boabbb45e5va2wxjshujx6zi-story.html |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="channelnewsasia12364268">{{cite web |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/singapore-wuhan-virus-coronavirus-first-7-days-12364268 |title=Wuhan virus in Singapore: The first 7 days |website=CNA |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130122120/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/singapore-wuhan-virus-coronavirus-first-7-days-12364268 |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> ] ] said that a recession in the country is a possibility, and that the country's economy "would definitely take a hit".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/covid19-significant-impact-economy-lee-hsien-loong-12435256|title=COVID-19 to have 'significant' impact on economy: PM Lee Hsien Loong|website=CNA|access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>


== Transition to later phases ==
Maybank economists rated Thailand as being most at risk, with the threat of the viral outbreak's impact on tourism causing the ] to fall to a seven-month low.<ref name="bangkokpost1847089">{{cite web |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1847089/baht-hits-7-month-low-as-china-virus-threatens-tourism |title=Baht hits 7-month low as China virus threatens tourism |last=Limited |first=Bangkok Post Public Company |website=Bangkok Post |access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref>
{{Main|Endemic COVID-19}}


A March 2022 review declared a transition to endemic status to be "inevitable".<ref>{{#invoke:Cite journal || vauthors = Koelle K, Martin MA, Antia R, Lopman B, Dean NE |date=11 March 2022 |title=The changing epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Science |volume=375 |issue=6585 |pages=1116–1121 |doi=10.1126/science.abm4915 |issn=1095-9203 |pmc=9009722 |pmid=35271324|bibcode=2022Sci...375.1116K }}</ref> In June 2022, an article in '']'' said that the pandemic was still "raging", but that "now is the time to explore the transition from the pandemic to the endemic phase".<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal||doi=10.1186/s40246-022-00392-1|title=COVID-19 2022 update: Transition of the pandemic to the endemic phase|year=2022| vauthors = Biancolella M, Colona VL, Mehrian-Shai R, Watt JL, Luzzatto L, Novelli G, Reichardt JK |journal=Human Genomics|volume=16|issue=1|page=19|pmid=35650595|pmc=9156835|s2cid=249274308 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another review that month predicted that the virus that causes COVID-19 would become the fifth endemic seasonal coronavirus, alongside four other ]es.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Cohen LE, Spiro DJ, Viboud C |date=30 June 2022 |title=Projecting the SARS-CoV-2 transition from pandemicity to endemicity: Epidemiological and immunological considerations |journal=PLOS Pathogens |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=e1010591 |doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1010591 |issn=1553-7374 |pmid=35771775 |pmc=9246171 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In Malaysia, economists predicted that the outbreak would affect the country's GDP, trade and investment flows, commodity prices and tourist arrivals.<ref name="20200201thestar">{{Cite news |last=Kana |first=Ganeshwaran |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2020/02/01/wuhan-virus-fears-infect-malaysian-economy |title=Wuhan virus fears infect Malaysian economy |date=1 February 2020 |work=The Star |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201084410/https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2020/02/01/wuhan-virus-fears-infect-malaysian-economy |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Initially, the ] ] was rumoured to be cancelled, but the organiser stated that it would continue to be held as usual. Despite this, two cycling teams, the ] and the ], both from China, were pulled from participating in this race due to fear of the coronavirus outbreak.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Long
| first = Jonny
| date = 3 February 2020
| title = Coronavirus sees Chinese teams pull out of Tour de Langkawi and all riders subjected to health-screenings
| url = https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/racing/coronavirus-sees-chinese-teams-pull-out-of-tour-de-langkawi-as-riders-subjected-to-health-screenings-448278
| work = ]
| location =
| access-date = 13 February 2020
}}</ref> As the outbreak situation has worsened, some of the upcoming concerts held in ], such as ], ], ], ], Rockaway Festival and ], were postponed to a future date, and the upcoming ] concert was cancelled.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Chaw
| first = Kenneth
| date = 12 February 2020
| title = List of KL concerts postponed due to Covid-19
| url = https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/entertainment/2020/02/12/list-of-kl-concerts-postponed-due-to-covid-19
| work = ]
| location = ]
| access-date = 13 February 2020
}}</ref>


A February 2023 review of the four ] coronaviruses concluded that the virus would become seasonal and, like the common cold, cause less severe disease for most people.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Harrison CM, Doster JM, Landwehr EH, Kumar NP, White EJ, Beachboard DC, Stobart CC |title=Evaluating the Virology and Evolution of Seasonal Human Coronaviruses Associated with the Common Cold in the COVID-19 Era |journal=Microorganisms |date=10 February 2023 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=445 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms11020445 |pmid=36838410 |pmc=9961755 |issn=2076-2607 |quote=After evaluating the biology, pathogenesis, and emergence of the human coronaviruses that cause the common cold, we can anticipate that with increased vaccine immunity to SARS-CoV-2, it will become a seasonal, endemic coronavirus that causes less severe disease in most individuals. Much like the common cold CoVs, the potential for severe disease will likely be present in those who lack a protective immune response or are immunocompromised. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another 2023 review stated that the transition to endemic COVID-19 may take years or decades.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Markov PV, Ghafari M, Beer M, Lythgoe K, Simmonds P, Stilianakis NI, Katzourakis A |title=The evolution of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Nat Rev Microbiol |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=361–379 |date=June 2023 |pmid=37020110 |doi=10.1038/s41579-023-00878-2 |s2cid=257983412 |type=Review|doi-access=free }}</ref>
In Indonesia, over 10,000 Chinese tourists were restricted trips and flights to major destinations such as ], ], ], etc. are cancelled over coronavirus fears. Many of existing Chinese visitors are queuing up with the Indonesian authority appealing for extended stay.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/01/31/10000-chinese-tourists-cancel-trips-to-bali-over-coronavirus-fears-travel-group.html |title=10,000 Chinese tourists cancel trips to Bali over coronavirus fears: Travel group |last=Mufti |first=Riza Roidila |date=31 January 2020 |website=The Jakarta Post |access-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201130012/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/01/31/10000-chinese-tourists-cancel-trips-to-bali-over-coronavirus-fears-travel-group.html |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


On 5 May 2023, the WHO declared that the pandemic was no longer a ].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=WHO declares end to Covid global health emergency|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/who-ends-covid-global-health-emergency-rcna83046|access-date=6 May 2023|website=NBC News|date=5 May 2023}}</ref> This led several media outlets to incorrectly report that this meant the pandemic was "over". The WHO commented to ] that it was unlikely to declare the pandemic over "in the near future" and mentioned ], which it considers to have been a ] (i.e., continuously for the last {{Time ago|1961-05|ago=}}).<ref name="ff">{{#invoke:cite web ||publisher=FullFact.org |date=12 May 2023 |url=https://fullfact.org/health/who-covid-pandemic-over/ | vauthors = Brown F |title=The WHO has not declared the Covid-19 pandemic over}}</ref> The WHO does not have an official category for pandemics or make declarations of when pandemics start or end.<ref name="reuters" /><ref name="guardian" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Nebehay S |title=WHO says it no longer uses 'pandemic' category, but virus still emergency |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-china-health-who-idUKKCN20I0PD |access-date=5 August 2023 |work=Reuters |date=24 February 2020 |quote="There is no official category (for a pandemic)," WHO spokesman Tarik Jasarevic said.}}</ref><ref name=timemarch2024/>
] ] of ] made a special visit to China with an aim to showcase Cambodia's support to China in fighting the outbreak of the epidemic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/china-and-cambodia-love-in-the-time-of-coronavirus/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206005246/https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/china-and-cambodia-love-in-the-time-of-coronavirus/ |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


In June 2023, ], director of the WHO in Europe, commented that "While the international public health emergency may have ended, the pandemic certainly has not". The WHO in Europe launched a transition plan to manage the public health response to COVID-19 in the coming years and prepare for possible future emergencies.<ref name="kluge">{{#invoke:cite web ||date=12 June 2023 |title=With the international public health emergency ending, WHO/Europe launches its transition plan for COVID-19 |url=https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/12-06-2023-with-the-international-public-health-emergency-ending--who-europe-launches-its-transition-plan-for-covid-19 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>
=== South Asia ===
In India, economists expect the near-term impact of the outbreak to be limited to the supply chains of major conglomerates, especially pharmaceuticals, fertilisers, automobiles, textiles and electronics. A severe impact on global trade logistics is also expected due to disruption of logistics in Mainland China, but due to the combined risk with regional geopolitical tensions, wider trade wars and Brexit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/-how-coronavirus-outbreak-can-impact-india-world-economy/limited-room-for-action/slideshow/74114825.cms|title=How coronavirus outbreak can impact India, world economy – Near-term impact on India Inc|website=The Economic Times|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref>


Epidemics and pandemics usually end when the disease becomes ], and when the disease becomes "an accepted, manageable part of normal life in a given society".<ref name=charters2021>{{#invoke:cite journal || pmc=8014506 | date=2021 | title=How epidemics end | journal=Centaurus; International Magazine of the History of Science and Medicine | volume=63 | issue=1 | pages=210–224 | doi=10.1111/1600-0498.12370 | pmid=33821019 | vauthors = Charters E, Heitman K }}</ref> As of March 2024, there was no widely agreed definition of when a disease is or is not a pandemic, though efforts at a formal definition were underway. Experts asked by '']'' that month noted that COVID-19 continued to circulate and cause disease, but expressed uncertainty as to whether it should still be described as a pandemic.<ref name=timemarch2024>{{#invoke:cite magazine || vauthors = Ducharme J |title=Experts Can't Agree If We're Still in a Pandemic |url=https://time.com/6898943/is-covid-19-still-pandemic-2024/ |access-date=31 May 2024 |magazine=TIME |date=11 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
In Sri Lanka, research houses expect the economic impact to be limited to a short term impact on the tourism and transport sectors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ips.lk/talkingeconomics/2020/02/13/coronavirus-epidemic-and-chinas-slowdown-economic-impact-on-sri-lanka/|title=talkingeconomics – Coronavirus Epidemic and China's Slowdown: Economic Impact on Sri Lanka|language=en-US|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref>


=== Taiwan === == Long-term effects ==
=== Economic ===
]
Despite strong economic rebounds following the initial lockdowns in early 2020, towards the latter phases of the pandemic, many countries began to experience long-term economic effects. Several countries saw high ]s which had global impacts, particularly in developing countries.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web ||date=16 May 2023 |title=Post-pandemic world economy still feeling COVID-19's sting |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/05/1136727 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=UN News }}</ref> Some economic impacts such as ] and trade operations were seen as more permanent as the pandemic exposed major weaknesses in these systems.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite news ||date=23 June 2023 |title=Not Everything Is Getting Back to Normal In the Post-Pandemic Economy |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-23/podcast-not-everything-is-getting-back-to-normal-in-the-post-pandemic-economy |access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>
]
On 24 January, the ] announced a temporary ban on the export of face masks for a month, in order to secure a supply of masks for its own citizens.<ref name="BBCTW06Feb2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51363132 |title=Coronavirus: Does China have enough face masks to meet its needs? |date=6 February 2020 |website=] |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209150926/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51363132 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Reuters27Jan2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-taiwan/taiwan-ups-chinese-visitor-curbs-to-stop-mask-exports-idUSKBN1ZQ1C6 |title=Taiwan ups Chinese visitor curbs, to stop mask exports |date=27 January 2020 |website=Reuters |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206141642/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-taiwan/taiwan-ups-chinese-visitor-curbs-to-stop-mask-exports-idUSKBN1ZQ1C6 |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 2 February 2020, Taiwan's Central Epidemic Command Center postponed the opening of primary and secondary schools until 25 February.<ref name="TWCDC02Feb2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Bulletin/Detail/ZXg7cwUw7JlpVwftHatGKw?typeid=158 |title=In response to the outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in China, Central Epidemic Command Center (CECC) decides that all primary and secondary schools postpone first day of spring semester until 2 weeks later |date=2 February 2020 |website=Centres for Disease Control}}</ref><ref name="FTW02Feb2020">{{cite web |url=https://focustaiwan.tw/society/202002020016 |title=School opening postponed to Feb. 25 due to coronavirus |date=2 February 2020 |website=Focus Taiwan |access-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207021103/https://focustaiwan.tw/society/202002020016 |archive-date=7 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Taiwan has also announced a ban of cruise ships from entering all Taiwanese ports.<ref name="1TWCDC06Feb2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Bulletin/Detail/91k5k7M3AjnFGHnYsArIFw?typeid=158 |title=Central Epidemic Command Center (CECC) announces international cruise ships will be banned from calling at ports of Taiwan starting from February 6F |date=6 February 2020 |website=Taiwan Centres for Disease Control}}</ref> In January, Italy has banned flights from Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. On 10 February, the Philippines announced it will ban the entry of Taiwanese citizens due to the ].<ref name=CNNPH10Feb2020>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2020/2/10/Taiwan-included-in-coronavirus-travel-ban.html|title= Taiwan included in coronavirus travel ban – DOH|date=10 February 2020|work=CNN Philippines}}</ref> Later on 14 February, Presidential Spokesperson of Philippines, ], announced the lifting of the temporary ban on Taiwan.<ref name=CNNPH14Feb2020>{{cite web|url=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2020/2/14/Taiwan-travel-ban-lifted.html|title=Taiwan travel ban lifted – Palace|date=14 February 2020|work=CNN Philippines}}</ref> In early February 2020 Taiwan's Central Epidemic Command Center requested the mobilization of the ] in order to contain the spread of the virus and to build up the defenses against it. Soldiers were dispatched to the factory floors of major mask manufacturers in order to help staff the 62 additional mask production lines being set up at the time.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tzu-ti |first1=Huang |title=Taiwan pledges military aid to boost mask supply |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3869320 |website=www.taiwannews.com.tw |publisher=Taiwan News |accessdate=20 February 2020}}</ref>


In Australia, the pandemic caused an increase in ] in 2022.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web || vauthors = Churchill B, Bissell D, Ruppanner L |date=19 March 2023 |title=The 'great resignation' didn't happen in Australia, but the 'great burnout' did |url=http://theconversation.com/the-great-resignation-didnt-happen-in-australia-but-the-great-burnout-did-201173 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=The Conversation }}</ref>
In the aviation industry, Taiwanese carrier ]'s direct flights to ] have been rejected and cancelled since Italy has announced the ban on Taiwanese flights.<ref name=Reuters05Feb2020>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-health-taiwan-italy/italy-says-taiwan-flight-resumption-request-noted-after-virus-ban-idUSL4N2A52YR<=|title=Italy says Taiwan flight resumption request 'noted' after virus ban|date=5 February 2020|work=Reuters}}</ref> On the other hand, the second-largest Taiwanese carrier, ], has also postponed the launch of ] and ] flights.<ref name=FTW06Feb2020>{{cite web|url=https://focustaiwan.tw/business/202002060022|title=EVA Air postpones new routes to Milan, Phuket due to epidemic|date=6 February 2020|work=Focus Taiwan|access-date=10 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208142053/https://focustaiwan.tw/business/202002060022|archive-date=8 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Both Taiwanese airlines have cut numerous ] destinations, leaving just three Chinese cities still served.<ref name=TWaviation12Feb2020>{{cite web|url=https://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/289492/china-taiwan-feb-apr-2020-cross-strait-service-changes-as-of-11feb20/|title= China / Taiwan Feb – Apr 2020 Cross-Strait service changes as of 11FEB20|date=12 February 2020|work=Routesonline}}</ref> Filipino carriers such as ], ], and ] have suspended flights to Taiwan because of the entry ban from the Philippines.<ref name=TWaviation11Feb2020>{{cite web|url=https://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/289484/filipino-carriers-suspends-taiwan-service-from-11feb20/?highlight=taiwan|title=Filipino carriers suspends Taiwan service from 11FEB20|date=11 February 2020|work=Routesonline}}</ref>


During the pandemic, a large percentage of workers in Canada came to prefer working from home, which had an impact on the traditional work model. Some corporations made efforts to force workers to return to work on-site, while some embraced the idea.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web || vauthors = Granja AD, Champagne E, Choinière O |date=27 April 2023 |title=Post-pandemic work in the public sector: A new way forward or a return to the past? |url=http://theconversation.com/post-pandemic-work-in-the-public-sector-a-new-way-forward-or-a-return-to-the-past-204008 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=The Conversation }}</ref>
=== United States ===
{{main|2020 coronavirus outbreak in the United States}}
The viral outbreak was cited by many companies in their briefings to shareholders, but several maintained confidence that they would not be too adversely affected by short-term disruption due to "limited" exposure to the Chinese consumer market. Those with manufacturing lines in mainland China warned about possible exposure to supply shortages.<ref name="20200129cnbc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/29/us-companies-warn-about-the-impact-of-coronavirus-on-earnings-calls.html |title=Major US companies are warning about the potential impact of the coronavirus on earnings calls |last=Fitzgerald |first=Maggie |date=29 January 2020 |publisher=CNBC |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131064332/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/29/us-companies-warn-about-the-impact-of-coronavirus-on-earnings-calls.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Travel ===
Silicon Valley representatives expressed worries about serious disruption to production lines, as much of the technology sector relies on factories in Mainland China. Since there had been a scheduled holiday over Lunar New Year, the full effects of the outbreak on the tech sector were considered to be unknown {{as of|2020|01|31|lc=yes}}, according to '']''.<ref name="wsj1158048418">{{Cite news |last=Strumpf |first=Dan |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/tech-sector-fears-supply-delays-as-effects-of-virus-ripple-through-china-11580484181 |title=Tech Sector Fears Supply Delays as Effects of Virus Ripple Through China |date=31 January 2020 |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=1 February 2020 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131223159/https://www.wsj.com/articles/tech-sector-fears-supply-delays-as-effects-of-virus-ripple-through-china-11580484181 |archive-date=31 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
There was a "travel boom" causing air travel to recover at rates faster than anticipated, and the aviation industry became profitable in 2023 for the first time since 2019, before the pandemic.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web ||date=5 June 2023 |title=IATA says airline industry is rapidly returning to profitability |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/06/05/iata-says-air-passenger-numbers-have-almost-recovered-to-pre-covid-19-levels |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=euronews }}</ref> However, economic issues meant some predicted that the boom would begin to slow down.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web || vauthors = Sutherland B |date=28 July 2023 |title=Post-pandemic travel boom is running out of steam |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/commentary/2023/07/28/world/covid-travel-boom/ |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=The Japan Times }}</ref> Business travel on airlines was still below pre-pandemic levels and is predicted not to recover.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite news || vauthors = Sugiura E, Wright R |date=7 July 2023 |title=Can the post-pandemic travel boom endure? |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/f9cb24f5-8da8-4956-966b-a1348b79e151 |access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>


=== Health ===
Cities with high populations of Chinese residents have seen an increase in demand for face masks to protect against the virus;<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-usa-masks-idUSKBN1ZN2H4 |title=Coronavirus worries have surgical masks flying off shelves in New York's Chinatown |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=5 February 2020 |agency=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205013307/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-usa-masks-idUSKBN1ZN2H4 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> many are purchasing masks to mail to relatives in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau, where there is a shortage of masks.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |last=Paolicelli |first=Alyssa |url=https://www.ny1.com/nyc/queens/news/2020/02/03/coronavirus-new-york-city-second-and-third-person-being-tested |title=With No Confirmed Cases of Coronavirus in New York City, Surgical Masks Fly Off Shelves |date=3 February 2020 |work=Spectrum News NY1 |access-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live |publisher=Charter Specturm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205003902/https://www.ny1.com/nyc/queens/news/2020/02/03/coronavirus-new-york-city-second-and-third-person-being-tested |archive-date=5 February 2020}}</ref>
An increase in excess deaths from underlying causes not related to COVID-19 has been largely blamed on systematic issues causing delays in health care and screening during the pandemic, which has resulted in an increase of non-COVID-19 related deaths.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web ||title='Excess' Deaths Surging, but Why? |url=https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/989530 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Medscape }}</ref>


=== Immunisations ===
{{as of|2020|2|}}, many stores in the United States had sold out of masks.<ref name=":11" /> This mask shortage has caused an increase in prices.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/wuhan-coronavirus-mask-shortage-causing-price-increase-2020-1 |title=The Wuhan coronavirus has led to a face mask shortage, with sellers now offering masks at up to $7 apiece |last=Miller |first=Anna Medaris |website=Business Insider |access-date=5 February 2020 |date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205015224/https://www.businessinsider.com/wuhan-coronavirus-mask-shortage-causing-price-increase-2020-1 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
During the pandemic, millions of children missed out on vaccinations as countries focused efforts on combating COVID-19. Efforts were made to increase vaccination rates among children in ]. These efforts were successful in increasing vaccination rates for some diseases, though the UN noted that post-pandemic ]s were still falling behind.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web ||date=17 July 2023 |title=Global immunisation rates show sign of post-pandemic rebound |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/07/1138767 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=UN News }}</ref>


Some of the decrease in immunisation was driven by an increase in mistrust of public health officials. This was seen in both low-income and high-income countries. Several ] saw a decline in vaccinations due to misinformation around the pandemic flowing into other areas.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web ||title=COVID pandemic created immunisation gaps in Africa. Over half a million children are at risk |url=https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/covid-pandemic-created-immunisation-gaps-africa-over-half-million-children-are-risk |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance }}</ref> Immunisation rates have yet to recover in the United States<ref>{{#invoke:Cite web || vauthors = Joseph A |date=12 January 2023 |title=Routine vaccinations drop among U.S. kindergartners for the third year in a row |url=https://www.statnews.com/2023/01/12/routine-vaccinations-kindergartners/ |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=STAT }}</ref> and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{#invoke:Cite news ||date=24 April 2023 |title=Teenagers at risk after drop in vaccine take-up |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-65372941 |access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>
Universities in the United States have warned about a significant impact to their financial income due to the large number of Chinese international students potentially unable to attend classes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/02/13/longer-coronavirus-crisis-persists-bigger-likely-impact-chinese-student-enrollments|title=The longer the coronavirus crisis persists, the bigger the likely impact on Chinese student enrollments|website=www.insidehighered.com|language=en|access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref>

== Environmental impacts ==
{{Expand section|date=February 2020}}
The outbreak can lead to a decrease in ] because of its effect on the economy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Geman |first1=Ben |title=The coronavirus is infecting everything in the energy sector |url=https://www.axios.com/coronavirus-china-energy-sector-impact-f89cd7b8-6605-470f-8338-70af44e4aaf1.html |accessdate=18 February 2020 |agency=Axios |date=7 February 2020}}</ref>


== See also == == See also ==
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
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== Notes ==
<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" /><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"><references group="lower-alpha" /></div>


== References == == References ==
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</references>


== Further reading ==
<ref name="CDC2020Over2">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/symptoms.html|title=Symptoms of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) |date=10 February 2020|website=U.S. ] (CDC)|access-date=11 February 2020}}</ref>
<templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">

* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = | title = Progress report on the coronavirus pandemic | journal = Nature | volume = 584 | issue = 7821 | page = 325 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32814893 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-020-02414-1 | doi-access = free }}
<ref name="WHO_PHEIC_decl2">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/30-01-2020-statement-on-the-second-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-the-outbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)|title=Statement on the second meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)|date=30 January 2020|publisher=World Health Organization|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131005904/https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/30-01-2020-statement-on-the-second-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-the-outbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)|archive-date=31 January 2020|access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Tay MZ, Poh CM, Rénia L, MacAry PA, Ng LF | title = The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention | journal = Nature Reviews. Immunology | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 363–374 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32346093 | pmc = 7187672 | doi = 10.1038/s41577-020-0311-8 | doi-access = free }}

* {{#invoke:cite report || title=COVID-19 infection prevention and control measures for primary care, including general practitioner practices, dental clinics and pharmacy settings: first update | website=] (ECDC) | url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/covid-19-infection-prevention-and-control-primary-care | date=October 2020 }}
}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bar-On YM, Flamholz A, Phillips R, Milo R | title = SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) by the numbers | journal = eLife | volume = 9 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32228860 | pmc = 7224694 | doi = 10.7554/eLife.57309 | ref = none | arxiv = 2003.12886 | bibcode = 2020arXiv200312886B |doi-access=free}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Brüssow H | title = The Novel Coronavirus - A Snapshot of Current Knowledge | journal = Microbial Biotechnology | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 607–612 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32144890 | pmc = 7111068 | doi = 10.1111/1751-7915.13557 | ref = none }}
* {{#invoke:cite book || vauthors = Cascella M, Rajnik M, Aleem A, Dulebohn S, Di Napoli R |chapter=Features, Evaluation, and Treatment of Coronavirus |title=StatPearls |date=2020 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32150360 | chapter-url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554776/ }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Funk CD, Laferrière C, Ardakani A | title = A Snapshot of the Global Race for Vaccines Targeting SARS-CoV-2 and the COVID-19 Pandemic | journal = Frontiers in Pharmacology | volume = 11 | page = 937 | year = 2020 | pmid = 32636754 | pmc = 7317023 | doi = 10.3389/fphar.2020.00937 | doi-access = free }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || title=Development and Licensure of Vaccines to Prevent COVID-19 | url=https://www.fda.gov/media/139638/download | format=PDF | website=U.S. ] (FDA) | date=June 2020 }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || title = COVID-19 Vaccine Breakthrough Infections Reported to CDC – United States, January 1 – April 30, 2021 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume = 70 | issue = 21 | pages = 792–793 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 34043615 | pmc = 8158893 | doi = 10.15585/mmwr.mm7021e3 | vauthors = Birhane M, Bressler S, Chang G, Clark T, Dorough L, Fischer M, Watkins LF, Goldstein JM, Kugeler K, Langley G, Lecy K, Martin K, Medalla F, Mitruka K, Nolen L, Sadigh K, Spratling R, Thompson G, Trujillo A }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Bieksiene K, Zaveckiene J, Malakauskas K, Vaguliene N, Zemaitis M, Miliauskas S | title = Post COVID-19 Organizing Pneumonia: The Right Time to Interfere | journal = Medicina | volume = 57 | issue = 3 | page = 283 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33803690 | pmc = 8003092 | doi = 10.3390/medicina57030283 | doi-access = free }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Chen Q, Allot A, Lu Z | title = LitCovid: an open database of COVID-19 literature | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 49 | issue = D1 | pages = D1534–D1540 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33166392 | pmc = 7778958 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkaa952 }}
* {{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Aghagoli G, Gallo Marin B, Katchur NJ, Chaves-Sell F, Asaad WF, Murphy SA | title = Neurological Involvement in COVID-19 and Potential Mechanisms: A Review | journal = Neurocritical Care | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 1062–1071 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 32661794 | pmc = 7358290 | doi = 10.1007/s12028-020-01049-4 }}
</div>


== External links == == External links ==
{{Scholia}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikisourcelang|id|Informasi Virus Korona Baru 2019 (CDC)|Information about 2019-nCoV}}
{{Wiktionary|Wuhan pneumonia}}
International health authorities:


=== Health agencies ===
* by ]
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* () by the US ] (CDC)
* by the US ] (NIOSH)


Data and maps: === Data and graphs ===
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* published by ]
* from ]
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=== Medical journals ===
* by ] (official numbers of confirmed cases by country)
<!-- PLEASE LIST IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
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* from the Wolfram data repository.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924195411/https://novel-coronavirus.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ |date=24 September 2020 }} by ]
* by
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* – Coronavirus news aggregator and tracking portal
* , a curated collection of publications and preprints by ] (NIH)
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{{Epidemics}}<!-- If the template include size is too large, this template can be commented out until the page is brought back under control. It is a lower priority than the COVID-19 one. -->
{{History of infectious disease}}<!-- If the template include size is too large, this template can be commented out until the page is brought back under control. It is a lower priority than both the Epidemics one and the COVID-19 one. -->
{{2020s}}
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]
*{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/23-01-2020-statement-on-the-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-the-outbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov) |title=Statement on the meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) on 23&nbsp;January 2020 |website=] (WHO)}}
]
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Patel A, Jernigan DB, ((2019-nCoV CDC Response Team)) |date=7 February 2020 |title=Initial Public Health Response and Interim Clinical Guidance for the 2019 Novel Coronavirus Outbreak — United States, December 31, 2019 – February 4, 2020 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/pdfs/mm6905e1-H.pdf |journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=140–146 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6905e1 |pmid=32027631 |pmc= |issn=0149-2195}}
]

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Latest revision as of 00:42, 16 December 2024

Pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2

COVID-19 pandemic
Medical professionals treating a COVID-19 patient in critical condition in an intensive care unit in São Paulo in May 2020
Confirmed deaths per 100,000 population
as of 20 December 2023
Cases per capita
Cumulative percentage of population infected
as of 19 March 2022
  •   >10%
  •   3–10%
  •   1–3%
  •   0.3–1%
  •   0.1–0.3%
  •   0.03–0.1%
  •   0–0.03%
  •   None or no data
DiseaseCoronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Virus strainSevere acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)
SourceBats, indirectly
LocationWorldwide
Index caseWuhan, China
30°37′11″N 114°15′28″E / 30.61972°N 114.25778°E / 30.61972; 114.25778
DatesAssessed by WHO as pandemic: 11 March 2020 (4 years and 9 months ago)
Public health emergency of international concern: 30 January 2020 – 5 May 2023 (3 years, 3 months and 5 days)
Confirmed cases777,025,779 (true case count is expected to be much higher)
Deaths7,078,473 (reported)
18.2–33.5 million (estimated)
Fatality rateAs of 10 March 2023: 1.02%
Part of a series on the
COVID-19 pandemic
Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom.
Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom.
Timeline
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Locations
By country and territory
By conveyance
International response
National responses
Medical response
Vaccines
Current vaccines
Variants
Variants of concern
Other variants
Economic impact and recession
By country
By sport
Impacts
Long COVID
Society
Politics
virus icon COVID-19 portal

The COVID-19 pandemic (also known as the coronavirus pandemic and COVID pandemic), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began with an outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. It spread to other areas of Asia, and then worldwide in early 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, and assessed the outbreak as having become a pandemic on 11 March.

COVID-19 symptoms range from asymptomatic to deadly, but most commonly include fever, sore throat, nocturnal cough, and fatigue. Transmission of the virus is often through airborne particles. Mutations have produced many strains (variants) with varying degrees of infectivity and virulence. COVID-19 vaccines were developed rapidly and deployed to the general public beginning in December 2020, made available through government and international programs such as COVAX, aiming to provide vaccine equity. Treatments include novel antiviral drugs and symptom control. Common mitigation measures during the public health emergency included travel restrictions, lockdowns, business restrictions and closures, workplace hazard controls, mask mandates, quarantines, testing systems, and contact tracing of the infected.

The pandemic caused severe social and economic disruption around the world, including the largest global recession since the Great Depression. Widespread supply shortages, including food shortages, were caused by supply chain disruptions and panic buying. Reduced human activity led to an unprecedented temporary decrease in pollution. Educational institutions and public areas were partially or fully closed in many jurisdictions, and many events were cancelled or postponed during 2020 and 2021. Telework became much more common for white-collar workers as the pandemic evolved. Misinformation circulated through social media and mass media, and political tensions intensified. The pandemic raised issues of racial and geographic discrimination, health equity, and the balance between public health imperatives and individual rights.

The WHO ended the PHEIC for COVID-19 on 5 May 2023. The disease has continued to circulate, but as of 2024, experts were uncertain as to whether it was still a pandemic. Pandemics and their ends are not well-defined, and whether or not one has ended differs according to the definition used. As of 22 December 2024, COVID-19 has caused 7,078,473 confirmed deaths. The COVID-19 pandemic ranks as the fifth-deadliest pandemic or epidemic in history.

Terminology

Further information: COVID-19 naming
Chinese medics in Huanggang, Hubei, in 2020

Pandemic

In epidemiology, a pandemic is defined as "an epidemic occurring over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries, and usually affecting a large number of people". During the COVID-19 pandemic, as with other pandemics, the meaning of this term has been challenged.

The end of a pandemic or other epidemic only rarely involves the total disappearance of a disease, and historically, much less attention has been given to defining the ends of epidemics than their beginnings. The ends of particular epidemics have been defined in a variety of ways, differing according to academic field, and differently based on location and social group. An epidemic's end can be considered a social phenomenon, not just a biological one.

Time reported in March 2024 that expert opinions differ on whether or not COVID-19 is considered endemic or pandemic, and that the WHO continued to call the disease a pandemic on its website.

Virus names

During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, the virus and disease were commonly referred to as "coronavirus", "Wuhan coronavirus", "the coronavirus outbreak" and the "Wuhan coronavirus outbreak", with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan pneumonia". In January 2020, the WHO recommended 2019-nCoV and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease as interim names for the virus and disease per 2015 international guidelines against using geographical locations (e.g. Wuhan, China), animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names in part to prevent social stigma. WHO finalised the official names COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 on 11 February 2020. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus explained: CO for corona, VI for virus, D for disease and 19 for when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019). WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public communications.

WHO named variants of concern and variants of interest using Greek letters. The initial practice of naming them according to where the variants were identified (e.g. Delta began as the "Indian variant") is no longer common. A more systematic naming scheme reflects the variant's PANGO lineage (e.g., Omicron's lineage is B.1.1.529) and is used for other variants.

Epidemiology

For country-level data, see:
COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory
732-bar-chart
Cases
777,025,779Deaths
7,078,473 As of 22 December 2024

Background

Main articles: Origin of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei

SARS-CoV-2 is a virus closely related to bat coronaviruses, pangolin coronaviruses, and SARS-CoV. The first known outbreak (the 2019–2020 COVID-19 outbreak in mainland China) started in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019. Many early cases were linked to people who had visited the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market there, but it is possible that human-to-human transmission began earlier. Molecular clock analysis suggests that the first cases were likely to have been between October and November 2019.

The scientific consensus is that the virus is most likely of a zoonotic origin, from bats or another closely related mammal. While other explanations such as speculations that SARS-CoV-2 was accidentally released from a laboratory have been proposed, as of 2021 these were not supported by evidence.

Cases

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory and COVID-19 pandemic cases

Official "case" counts refer to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19 and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols whether or not they experienced symptomatic disease. Due to the effect of sampling bias, studies which obtain a more accurate number by extrapolating from a random sample have consistently found that total infections considerably exceed the reported case counts. Many countries, early on, had official policies to not test those with only mild symptoms. The strongest risk factors for severe illness are obesity, complications of diabetes, anxiety disorders, and the total number of conditions.

During the start of the COVID-19 pandemic it was not clear whether young people were less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop symptoms and be tested. A retrospective cohort study in China found that children and adults were just as likely to be infected.

Among more thorough studies, preliminary results from 9 April 2020 found that in Gangelt, the centre of a major infection cluster in Germany, 15 per cent of a population sample tested positive for antibodies. Screening for COVID-19 in pregnant women in New York City, and blood donors in the Netherlands, found rates of positive antibody tests that indicated more infections than reported. Seroprevalence-based estimates are conservative as some studies show that persons with mild symptoms do not have detectable antibodies.

Initial estimates of the basic reproduction number (R0) for COVID-19 in January 2020 were between 1.4 and 2.5, but a subsequent analysis claimed that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95 per cent confidence interval of 3.8 to 8.9).

In December 2021, the number of cases continued to climb due to several factors, including new COVID-19 variants. As of that 28 December, 282,790,822 individuals worldwide had been confirmed as infected. As of 14 April 2022, over 500 million cases were confirmed globally. Most cases are unconfirmed, with the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation estimating the true number of cases as of early 2022 to be in the billions.

Semi-log plot of weekly new cases of COVID-19 in the world and the top six countries in 2022

Test positivity rate

One measure that public health officials and policymakers have used to monitor the pandemic and guide decision-making is the test positivity rate ("percent positive"). According to Johns Hopkins in 2020, one benchmark for a "too high" per cent positive is 5%, which was used by the WHO in the past.

Deaths

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic deaths and COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country Further information: List of deaths due to COVID-19
The deceased in a refrigerated "mobile morgue" outside a hospital in Hackensack, New Jersey, US, in April 2020
Gravediggers bury the body of a man suspected of having died of COVID-19 in the cemetery of Vila Alpina in eastern São Paulo, 3 April 2020
Global excess and reported COVID-19 deaths and deaths per 100,000, according to the WHO study

As of 10 March 2023, more than 6.88 million deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. The first confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020. These numbers vary by region and over time, influenced by testing volume, healthcare system quality, treatment options, government response, time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health.

Multiple measures are used to quantify mortality. Official death counts typically include people who died after testing positive. Such counts exclude deaths without a test. Conversely, deaths of people who died from underlying conditions following a positive test may be included. Countries such as Belgium include deaths from suspected cases, including those without a test, thereby increasing counts.

Official death counts have been claimed to underreport the actual death toll, because excess mortality (the number of deaths in a period compared to a long-term average) data show an increase in deaths that is not explained by COVID-19 deaths alone. Using such data, estimates of the true number of deaths from COVID-19 worldwide have included a range from 18.2 to 33.5 million (≈27.4 million) by 18 November 2023 by The Economist, as well as over 18.5 million by 1 April 2023 by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and ≈18.2 million (earlier) deaths between 1 January 2020, and 31 December 2021, by a comprehensive international study. Such deaths include deaths due to healthcare capacity constraints and priorities, as well as reluctance to seek care (to avoid possible infection). Further research may help distinguish the proportions directly caused by COVID-19 from those caused by indirect consequences of the pandemic.

In May 2022, the WHO estimated the number of excess deaths by the end of 2021 to be 14.9 million compared to 5.4 million reported COVID-19 deaths, with the majority of the unreported 9.5 million deaths believed to be direct deaths due the virus, rather than indirect deaths. Some deaths were because people with other conditions could not access medical services.

A December 2022 WHO study estimated excess deaths from the pandemic during 2020 and 2021, again concluding ≈14.8 million excess early deaths occurred, reaffirming and detailing their prior calculations from May as well as updating them, addressing criticisms. These numbers do not include measures like years of potential life lost and may make the pandemic 2021's leading cause of death.

The time between symptom onset and death ranges from 6 to 41 days, typically about 14 days. Mortality rates increase as a function of age. People at the greatest mortality risk are the elderly and those with underlying conditions.

  • Semi-log plot of weekly deaths due to COVID-19 in the world and top six current countries (mean with cases) Semi-log plot of weekly deaths due to COVID-19 in the world and top six current countries (mean with cases)
  • Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (the patterns indicate the quality of the all-cause mortality data that were available for each respective country) Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (The patterns indicate the quality of the all-cause mortality data that were available for each respective country)
  • Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (global and WHO region) Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (global and WHO region)
  • The 25 countries with the highest total estimated COVID-19 pandemic excess deaths between January 2020 and December 2021 The 25 countries with the highest total estimated COVID-19 pandemic excess deaths between January 2020 and December 2021
  • The 25 countries with the highest mean P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths) The 25 countries with the highest mean P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths)

Infection fatality ratio (IFR)

See also: List of human disease case fatality rates
IFR estimate per
age group
Age group IFR
0–34 0.004%
35–44 0.068%
45–54 0.23%
55–64 0.75%
65–74 2.5%
75–84 8.5%
85 + 28.3%

The infection fatality ratio (IFR) is the cumulative number of deaths attributed to the disease divided by the cumulative number of infected individuals (including asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections and excluding vaccinated infected individuals). It is expressed in percentage points. Other studies refer to this metric as the infection fatality risk.

In November 2020, a review article in Nature reported estimates of population-weighted IFRs for various countries, excluding deaths in elderly care facilities, and found a median range of 0.24% to 1.49%. IFRs rise as a function of age (from 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25, to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4% at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85). These rates vary by a factor of ≈10,000 across the age groups. For comparison, the IFR for middle-aged adults is two orders of magnitude higher than the annualised risk of a fatal automobile accident and much higher than the risk of dying from seasonal influenza.

In December 2020, a systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population-weighted IFR was 0.5% to 1% in some countries (France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in other countries (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and about 2.5% in Italy. This study reported that most of the differences reflected corresponding differences in the population's age structure and the age-specific pattern of infections. There have also been reviews that have compared the fatality rate of this pandemic with prior pandemics, such as MERS-CoV.

For comparison the infection mortality rate of seasonal flu in the United States is 0.1%, which is 13 times lower than COVID-19.

Case fatality ratio (CFR)

Another metric in assessing death rate is the case fatality ratio (CFR), which is the ratio of deaths to diagnoses. This metric can be misleading because of the delay between symptom onset and death and because testing focuses on symptomatic individuals.

Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global CFR was 1.02 percent (6,881,955 deaths for 676,609,955 cases) as of 10 March 2023. The number varies by region and has generally declined over time.

Disease

Main article: COVID-19

Variants

Main article: Variants of SARS-CoV-2

Several variants have been named by WHO and labelled as a variant of concern (VoC) or a variant of interest (VoI). Many of these variants have shared the more infectious D614G. As of May 2023, the WHO had downgraded all variants of concern to previously circulating as these were no longer detected in new infections. Sub-lineages of the Omicron variant (BA.1 – BA.5) were considered separate VoCs by the WHO until they were downgraded in March 2023 as no longer widely circulating. As of 24 September 2024, the variants of interest as specified by the WHO are BA.2.86 and JN.1, and the variants under monitoring are JN.1.7, KP.2, KP.3, KP.3.1.1, JN.1.18, LB.1, and XEC.

World Health Organization video which describes how variants proliferate in unvaccinated areas
Variants of concern (past and present)
Name Lineage Detected Countries Priority
Alpha B.1.1.7 United Kingdom 190 VoC
Beta B.1.351 South Africa 140 VoC
Delta B.1.617.2 India 170 VoC
Gamma P.1 Brazil 90 VoC
Omicron B.1.1.529 Botswana 149 VoC

Signs and symptoms

Main article: Symptoms of COVID-19
Symptoms of COVID-19

Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness. Common symptoms include headache, loss of smell and taste, nasal congestion and runny nose, cough, muscle pain, sore throat, fever, diarrhoea, and breathing difficulties. People with the same infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, sputum, shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea. In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss of smell is associated with COVID-19 and is reported in as many as 88% of cases.

Transmission

Main article: Transmission of COVID-19

The disease is mainly transmitted via the respiratory route when people inhale droplets and small airborne particles (that form an aerosol) that infected people exhale as they breathe, talk, cough, sneeze, or sing. Infected people are more likely to transmit COVID-19 when they are physically close to other non-infected individuals. However, infection can occur over longer distances, particularly indoors.

Cause

Main article: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
Illustration of SARS-CoV-2 virion

SARS‑CoV‑2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as coronaviruses. It is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species.

Human coronaviruses are capable of causing illnesses ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS, fatality rate ≈34%). SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh known coronavirus to infect people, after 229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1, MERS-CoV, and the original SARS-CoV.

Diagnosis

Main article: COVID-19 § Diagnosis
A nurse at McMurdo Station sets up the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing equipment, in September 2020

The standard method of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 is a nucleic acid test, which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments. As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited". The test is typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a nasopharyngeal swab; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample may also be used. The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.

Prevention

Further information: COVID-19 § Prevention, Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic, and Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Common measures implemented to prevent the spread of the virus

Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include getting vaccinated, staying at home or spending more time outdoors, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, wearing a mask in public, ventilating indoor spaces, managing potential exposure durations, washing hands with soap and water often and for at least twenty seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.

Those diagnosed with COVID-19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by healthcare authorities to stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal household items.

Vaccines

Main article: COVID-19 vaccine See also: History of COVID-19 vaccine development and Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines
An elderly woman receiving a COVID-19 vaccination in Slovakia

A COVID-19 vaccine is intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, an established body of knowledge existed about the structure and function of coronaviruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). This knowledge accelerated the development of various vaccine platforms during early 2020. The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic and severe illness. The COVID-19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the severity and death caused by COVID-19.

As of March 2023, more than 5.5 billion people had received one or more doses (11.8 billion in total) in over 197 countries. The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine was the most widely used. According to a June 2022 study, COVID-19 vaccines prevented an additional 14.4 million to 19.8 million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021.

On 8 November 2022, the first recombinant protein-based COVID-19 vaccine (Novavax's booster Nuvaxovid) was authorised for use in adults in the United Kingdom. It has subsequently received endorsement/authorisation from the WHO, US, European Union, and Australia.

On 12 November 2022, the WHO released its Global Vaccine Market Report. The report indicated that "inequitable distribution is not unique to COVID-19 vaccines"; countries that are not economically strong struggle to obtain vaccines.

On 14 November 2022, the first inhalable vaccine was introduced, developed by Chinese biopharmaceutical company CanSino Biologics, in the city of Shanghai, China.

Treatment

Main article: Treatment and management of COVID-19
A critically ill patient receiving invasive ventilation in the intensive care unit of the Heart Institute, University of São Paulo in July 2020. Due to a shortage of mechanical ventilators, a bridge ventilator is being used to automatically actuate a bag valve mask

For the first two years of the pandemic, no specific and effective treatment or cure was available. In 2021, the European Medicines Agency's (EMA) Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) approved the oral antiviral protease inhibitor, Paxlovid (nirmatrelvir plus the HIV antiviral ritonavir), to treat adult patients. FDA later gave it an EUA.

Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such as paracetamol or NSAIDs to relieve symptoms (fever, body aches, cough), adequate intake of oral fluids and rest. Good personal hygiene and a healthy diet are also recommended.

Supportive care in severe cases includes treatment to relieve symptoms, fluid therapy, oxygen support and prone positioning, and medications or devices to support other affected vital organs. More severe cases may need treatment in hospital. In those with low oxygen levels, use of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone is recommended to reduce mortality. Noninvasive ventilation and, ultimately, admission to an intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to address the issue of respiratory failure.

Existing drugs such as hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, and ivermectin are not recommended by US or European health authorities, as there is no good evidence they have any useful effect. The antiviral remdesivir is available in the US, Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions; however, it is not recommended for use with mechanical ventilation, and is discouraged altogether by the WHO, due to limited evidence of its efficacy.

Prognosis

Further information: COVID-19 § Prognosis, and Long COVID

The severity of COVID-19 varies. It may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the common cold. In 3–4% of cases (7.4% for those over age 65) symptoms are severe enough to cause hospitalisation. Mild cases typically recover within two weeks, while those with severe or critical diseases may take three to six weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from symptom onset to death has ranged from two to eight weeks. Prolonged prothrombin time and elevated C-reactive protein levels on admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID-19 and with a transfer to intensive care units (ICU).

Between 5% and 50% of COVID-19 patients experience long COVID, a condition characterised by long-term consequences persisting after the typical convalescence period of the disease. The most commonly reported clinical presentations are fatigue and memory problems, as well as malaise, headaches, shortness of breath, loss of smell, muscle weakness, low fever and cognitive dysfunction.

Strategies

Main article: Public health mitigation of COVID-19
Goals of mitigation include delaying and reducing peak burden on healthcare (flattening the curve) and lessening overall cases and health impact. Moreover, progressively greater increases in healthcare capacity (raising the line) such as by increasing bed count, personnel, and equipment, help to meet increased demand

Many countries attempted to slow or stop the spread of COVID-19 by recommending, mandating or prohibiting behaviour changes, while others relied primarily on providing information. Measures ranged from public advisories to stringent lockdowns. Outbreak control strategies are divided into elimination and mitigation. Experts differentiate between elimination strategies (known as "zero-COVID") that aim to completely stop the spread of the virus within the community, and mitigation strategies (commonly known as "flattening the curve") that attempt to lessen the effects of the virus on society, but which still tolerate some level of transmission within the community. These initial strategies can be pursued sequentially or simultaneously during the acquired immunity phase through natural and vaccine-induced immunity.

Nature reported in 2021 that 90% of researchers who responded to a survey "think that the coronavirus will become endemic".

Containment

Further information: Zero-COVID

Containment is undertaken to stop an outbreak from spreading into the general population. Infected individuals are isolated while they are infectious. The people they have interacted with are contacted and isolated for long enough to ensure that they are either not infected or no longer contagious. Screening is the starting point for containment. Screening is done by checking for symptoms to identify infected individuals, who can then be isolated or offered treatment. The zero-COVID strategy involves using public health measures such as contact tracing, mass testing, border quarantine, lockdowns, and mitigation software to stop community transmission of COVID-19 as soon as it is detected, with the goal of getting the area back to zero detected infections and resuming normal economic and social activities. Successful containment or suppression reduces Rt to less than 1.

Mitigation

Further information: Flattening the curve

Should containment fail, efforts focus on mitigation: measures taken to slow the spread and limit its effects on the healthcare system and society. Successful mitigation delays and decreases the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the epidemic curve". This decreases the risk of overwhelming health services and provides more time for developing vaccines and treatments. Individual behaviour changed in many jurisdictions. Many people worked from home instead of at their traditional workplaces.

Non-pharmaceutical interventions

The CDC and WHO advise that masks (such as worn here by Taiwanese president Tsai Ing-wen) reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2

Non-pharmaceutical interventions that may reduce spread include personal actions such as wearing face masks, self-quarantine, and hand hygiene; community measures aimed at reducing interpersonal contacts such as closing workplaces and schools and cancelling large gatherings; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such as surface cleaning.

Other measures

More drastic actions, such as quarantining entire populations and strict travel bans have been attempted in various jurisdictions. The Chinese and Australian government approaches have included many lockdowns and are widely considered the most strict. The New Zealand government response included the most severe travel restrictions. As part of its K-Quarantine program, South Korea introduced mass screening and localised quarantines, and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. The Singaporean government's response included so-called "circuit breaker lockdowns" and financial support for those affected while also imposing large fines for those who broke quarantine.

Contact tracing

See also: Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation and Public health mitigation of COVID-19 § Information technology

Contact tracing attempts to identify recent contacts of newly infected individuals, and to screen them for infection; the traditional approach is to request a list of contacts from infectees, and then telephone or visit the contacts. Contact tracing was widely used during the Western African Ebola virus epidemic in 2014.

Another approach is to collect location data from mobile devices to identify those who have come in significant contact with infectees, which prompted privacy concerns. On 10 April 2020, Google and Apple announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing. In Europe and in the US, Palantir Technologies initially provided COVID-19 tracking services.

Health care

Further information: Flattening the curve, list of countries by hospital beds, and Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic

WHO described increasing capacity and adapting healthcare as a fundamental mitigation. The ECDC and WHO's European regional office issued guidelines for hospitals and primary healthcare services for shifting resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards testing, cancelling elective procedures, separating and isolating patients, and increasing intensive care capabilities by training personnel and increasing ventilators and beds. The pandemic drove widespread adoption of telehealth.

Improvised manufacturing

A patient in Ukraine in 2020 wearing a scuba mask in the absence of artificial ventilation

Due to supply chain capacity limitations, some manufacturers began 3D printing material such as nasal swabs and ventilator parts. In one example, an Italian startup received legal threats due to alleged patent infringement after reverse-engineering and printing one hundred requested ventilator valves overnight. Individuals and groups of makers created and shared open source designs, and manufacturing devices using locally sourced materials, sewing, and 3D printing. Millions of face shields, protective gowns, and masks were made. Other ad hoc medical supplies included shoe covers, surgical caps, powered air-purifying respirators, and hand sanitiser. Novel devices were created such as ear savers, non-invasive ventilation helmets, and ventilator splitters.

Herd immunity

In July 2021, several experts expressed concern that achieving herd immunity may not be possible because Delta can transmit among vaccinated individuals. CDC published data showing that vaccinated people could transmit Delta, something officials believed was less likely with other variants. Consequently, WHO and CDC encouraged vaccinated people to continue with non-pharmaceutical interventions such as masking, social distancing, and quarantining if exposed.

History

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic. Further information: Pandemic prevention and Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to the COVID-19 pandemic

2019

Main article: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019

The outbreak was discovered in Wuhan in November 2019. It is possible that human-to-human transmission was happening before the discovery. Based on a retrospective analysis starting from December 2019, the number of cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching 60 by 20 December and at least 266 by 31 December. A pneumonia cluster was observed on 26 December and treated by Chinese pulmonologist Zhang Jixian. She informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December. After analysing pneumonia patient samples, a genetic sequencing company named Vision Medicals reported the discovery of a novel coronavirus to the China CDC (CCDC) on 28 December. Two days later, a test report from CapitalBio Medlab addressed to the Wuhan Central Hospital reported an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing doctors there to alert authorities. Eight of those doctors, including ophthalmologist Li Wenliang (1985–2020), were detained by police on 3 January for "spreading false rumours". That evening, Wuhan Municipal Health Commission (WMHC) issued a notice about "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause". The next day, WMHC made the announcement public, confirming 27 cases—enough to trigger an investigation. On 31 December, the WHO office in China was notified about the cluster of unknown pneumonia cases and immediately launched an investigation.

Official Chinese sources claimed that the early cases were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals. In May 2020, CCDC director George Gao initially ruled out the market as a possible origin, as animal samples collected there had tested negative.

2020

Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 by month: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December
A highway sign discouraging travel in Toronto, March 2020

On 11 January, WHO was notified by the Chinese National Health Commission that the outbreak was associated with exposures in the market, and that China had identified a new type of coronavirus, which it isolated on 7 January.

Initially, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days. In early and mid-January, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration. Wuhan was a transport hub and major rail interchange. On 10 January, the virus' genome was shared publicly. A retrospective study published in March found that 6,174 people had reported symptoms by 20 January. A 24 January report indicated human transmission was likely occurring, and recommended personal protective equipment for health workers. It also advocated testing, given the outbreak's "pandemic potential". On 30 January, 7,818 infections had been confirmed, leading WHO to declare the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), upgrading it to a pandemic on 11 March. On 31 January, the first published modelling study warned of inevitable "independent self-sustaining outbreaks in major cities globally" and called for "large-scale public health interventions".

By 31 January, Italy indicated its first confirmed infections had occurred, in two tourists from China. The WHO announced on 11 March its assessment that the situation could be characterised as a pandemic. On 19 March, Italy overtook China as the country with the most reported deaths.

By 26 March, the United States had overtaken China and Italy as the country with the highest number of confirmed infections. Genomic analysis indicated that the majority of New York's confirmed infections came from Europe, rather than directly from Asia. Testing of prior samples revealed a person who was infected in France on 27 December 2019 and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6 February.

An exhausted anesthesiologist in Pesaro, Italy, 19 March 2020

In October, WHO reported that one in ten people around the world may have been infected, or 780 million people, while only 35 million infections had been confirmed.

On 9 November, Pfizer released trial results for a candidate vaccine, showing a 90 per cent effectiveness in preventing infection. That day, Novavax submitted an FDA Fast Track application for their vaccine. On 14 December, Public Health England reported that a variant had been discovered in the UK's southeast, predominantly in Kent. The variant, later named Alpha, showed changes to the spike protein that could make the virus more infectious. As of 13 December, 1,108 infections had been confirmed in the UK. On 4 February 2020, US Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar waived liability for vaccine manufacturers in all cases except those involving "willful misconduct".

2021

Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021 by month: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

On 2 January, the Alpha variant, first discovered in the UK, had been identified in 33 countries. On 6 January, the Gamma variant was first identified in Japanese travellers returning from Brazil. On 29 January, it was reported that the Novavax vaccine was 49 per cent effective against the Beta variant in a clinical trial in South Africa. The CoronaVac vaccine was reported to be 50.4 per cent effective in a Brazil clinical trial.

A temporary hospital for COVID-19 patients in Santo André, Brazil, in March 2021

On 12 March, several countries stopped using the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine due to blood clotting problems, specifically cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST). On 20 March, the WHO and European Medicines Agency found no link to thrombosis, leading several countries to resume administering the vaccine. In March WHO reported that an animal host was the most likely origin, without ruling out other possibilities. The Delta variant was first identified in India. In mid-April, the variant was first detected in the UK and two months later it had become a full-fledged third wave in the country, forcing the government to delay reopening that was originally scheduled for June. On 10 November, Germany advised against the Moderna vaccine for people under 30, due to a possible association with myocarditis. On 24 November, the Omicron variant was detected in South Africa; a few days later the WHO declared it a VoC (variant of concern). The new variant is more infectious than the Delta variant.

2022

Scanning electron micrograph (colorised) of cell infected with the Omicron strain of SARS-CoV-2 virus particles green
Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022 by month: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

On 1 January, Europe passed 100 million cases amidst a surge in the Omicron variant. Later that month, the WHO recommended the rheumatoid arthritis drug Baricitinib for severe or critical patients. It also recommended the monoclonal antibody Sotrovimab in patients with non-severe disease, but only those who are at highest risk of hospitalisation.

On 24 January, the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation estimated that about 57% of the world's population had been infected by COVID-19. By 6 March, it was reported that the total worldwide death count had surpassed 6 million people. By 6 July, Omicron subvariants BA.4 and BA.5 had spread worldwide. WHO Director-General Tedros Ghebreyesus stated on 14 September 2022, that " never been in a better position to end the pandemic", citing the lowest number of weekly reported deaths since March 2020. He continued, "We are not there yet. But the end is in sight—we can see the finish line".

On 21 October, the United States surpassed 99 million cases of COVID-19, the most cases of any country. By 30 October, the worldwide daily death toll was 424, the lowest since 385 deaths were reported on 12 March 2020. 17 November marked the three-year anniversary since health officials in China first detected COVID-19.

On 11 November, the WHO reported that deaths since the month of February had dropped 90 per cent. Director-General Tedros said this was "cause for optimism". On 3 December, the WHO indicated that, "at least 90% of the world's population has some level of immunity to Sars-CoV-2". In early December, China began lifting some of its most stringent lockdown measures. Subsequent data from China's health authorities revealed that 248 million people, nearly 18 per cent of its population, had been infected in the first 20 days of that month. On 29 December, the US joined Italy, Japan, Taiwan and India in requiring negative COVID-19 test results from all people travelling from China due to the new surge in cases. The EU refused similar measures, stating that the BF7 omicron variant had already spread throughout Europe without becoming dominant.

2023

Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023

On 4 January 2023, the WHO said the information shared by China during the recent surge in infections lacked data, such as hospitalisation rates. On 10 January, the WHO's Europe office said the recent viral surge in China posed "no immediate threat." On 16 January, the WHO recommended that China monitor excess mortality to provide "a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of COVID-19".

On 30 January, the three-year anniversary of the original declaration, the WHO determined that COVID-19 still met the criteria for a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC).

On 19 March, WHO Director-General Tedros indicated he was "confident" the COVID-19 pandemic would cease to be a public health emergency by the end of the year. On 5 May, the WHO downgraded COVID-19 from being a global health emergency, though it continued to refer to it as a pandemic. The WHO does not make official declarations of when pandemics end. The decision came after Tedros convened with the International Health Regulations Emergency Committee, wherein the Committee noted that due to the decrease in deaths and hospitalisations, and the prevalence of vaccinations and the level of general immunity, it was time to remove the emergency designation and "transition to long-term management". Tedros agreed, and the WHO reduced the classification to an "established and ongoing health issue". In a press conference, Tedros remarked that the diminishing threat from COVID-19 had "allowed most countries to return to life as we knew it before COVID-19".

In September the WHO said it had observed "concerning" trends in COVID-19 case numbers and hospitalisations, although analysis was hampered because many countries were no longer recording COVID-19 case statistics.

In November 2023, in response to viral mutations and changing characteristics of infection, the WHO adjusted its treatment guidelines. Among other changes, remdesivir and molnupiravir were now recommended only for the most severe cases, and deuremidevir and ivermectin were recommended against.

Responses

Main articles: COVID-19 lockdowns, COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory, and National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic

National reactions ranged from strict lockdowns to public education campaigns. WHO recommended that curfews and lockdowns should be short-term measures to reorganise, regroup, rebalance resources, and protect the health care system. As of 26 March 2020, 1.7 billion people worldwide were under some form of lockdown. This increased to 3.9 billion people by the first week of April—more than half the world's population.

In several countries, protests rose against restrictions such as lockdowns. A February 2021 study found that protests against restrictions were likely to directly increase the spread of the virus.

Asia

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Asia

As of the end of 2021, Asia's peak had come at the same time and at the same level as the world as a whole, in May 2021. However, cumulatively they had experienced only half of the global average in cases.

A temporary hospital constructed in Wuhan in February 2020

China opted for containment, instituting strict lockdowns to eliminate viral spread. The vaccines distributed in China included the BIBP, WIBP, and CoronaVac. It was reported on 11 December 2021, that China had vaccinated 1.162 billion of its citizens, or 82.5% of the total population of the country against COVID-19. China's large-scale adoption of zero-COVID had largely contained the first waves of infections of the disease. When the waves of infections due to the Omicron variant followed, China was almost alone in pursuing the strategy of zero-Covid to combat the spread of the virus in 2022. Lockdown continued to be employed in November to combat a new wave of cases; however, protests erupted in cities across China over the country's stringent measures, and in December that year, the country relaxed its zero-COVID policy. On 20 December 2022, the Chinese State Council narrowed its definition of what would be counted as a COVID-19 death to include solely respiratory failure, which led to scepticism by health experts of the government's total death count at a time when hospitals reported being overwhelmed with cases following the abrupt discontinuation of zero-COVID.

The first case in India was reported on 30 January 2020. India ordered a nationwide lockdown starting 24 March 2020, with a phased unlock beginning 1 June 2020. Six cities accounted for around half of reported cases—Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Pune and Kolkata. Post-lockdown, the Government of India introduced a contact tracking app called Aarogya Setu to help authorities manage contact tracing and vaccine distribution. India's vaccination program was considered to be the world's largest and most successful with over 90% of citizens getting the first dose and another 65% getting the second dose. A second wave hit India in April 2021, straining healthcare services. On 21 October 2021, it was reported that the country had surpassed 1 billion vaccinations.

Disinfection of Tehran Metro trains to prevent COVID-19 transmission. Similar measures have also been taken in other countries.

Iran reported its first confirmed cases on 19 February 2020, in Qom. Early measures included the cancellation/closure of concerts and other cultural events, Friday prayers, and school and university campuses. Iran became a centre of the pandemic in February 2020. More than ten countries had traced their outbreaks to Iran by 28 February, indicating a more severe outbreak than the 388 reported cases. The Iranian Parliament closed, after 23 of its 290 members tested positive on 3 March 2020. At least twelve sitting or former Iranian politicians and government officials had died by 17 March 2020. By August 2021, the pandemic's fifth wave peaked, with more than 400 deaths in 1 day.

COVID-19 was confirmed in South Korea on 20 January 2020. Military bases were quarantined after tests showed three infected soldiers. South Korea introduced what was then considered the world's largest and best-organised screening programme, isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining contacts. Screening methods included mandatory self-reporting by new international arrivals through mobile application, combined with drive-through testing, and increasing testing capability to 20,000 people/day. Despite some early criticisms, South Korea's programme was considered a success in controlling the outbreak without quarantining entire cities.

Europe

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Europe
Deaths per 100,000 residents

The COVID-19 pandemic arrived in Europe with its first confirmed case in Bordeaux, France, on 24 January 2020, and subsequently spread widely across the continent. By 17 March 2020, every country in Europe had confirmed a case, and all had reported at least one death, with the exception of Vatican City. Italy was the first European nation to experience a major outbreak in early 2020, becoming the first country worldwide to introduce a national lockdown. By 13 March 2020, the WHO declared Europe the epicentre of the pandemic and it remained so until the WHO announced it had been overtaken by South America on 22 May. By 18 March 2020, more than 250 million people were in lockdown in Europe. Despite deployment of COVID-19 vaccines, Europe became the pandemic's epicentre once again in late 2021.

The Italian outbreak began on 31 January 2020, when two Chinese tourists tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in Rome. Cases began to rise sharply, which prompted the government to suspend flights to and from China and declare a state of emergency. On 22 February 2020, the Council of Ministers announced a new decree-law to contain the outbreak, which quarantined more than 50,000 people in northern Italy. On 4 March, the Italian government ordered schools and universities closed as Italy reached a hundred deaths. Sport was suspended completely for at least one month. On 11 March, Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte closed down nearly all commercial activity except supermarkets and pharmacies. On 19 April, the first wave ebbed, as 7-day deaths declined to 433. On 13 October, the Italian government again issued restrictive rules to contain the second wave. On 10 November, Italy surpassed 1 million confirmed infections. On 23 November, it was reported that the second wave of the virus had led some hospitals to stop accepting patients.

Elderly woman rolls up sleeve as two nurses administer a vaccine.
Vaccinations at a retirement home in Gijón, Spain on 12 December 2020

The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Spain on 31 January 2020, when a German tourist tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 on La Gomera in the Canary Islands. Post-hoc genetic analysis has shown that at least 15 strains of the virus had been imported, and community transmission began by mid-February. On 29 March, it was announced that, beginning the following day, all non-essential workers were ordered to remain at home for the next 14 days. The number of cases increased again in July in a number of cities including Barcelona, Zaragoza and Madrid, which led to reimposition of some restrictions but no national lockdown. By September 2021, Spain was one of the countries with the highest percentage of its population vaccinated (76% fully vaccinated and 79% with the first dose). Italy is ranked second at 75%.

Sweden differed from most other European countries in that it mostly remained open. Per the Swedish constitution, the Public Health Agency of Sweden has autonomy that prevents political interference and the agency favoured remaining open. The Swedish strategy focused on longer-term measures, based on the assumption that after lockdown the virus would resume spreading, with the same result. By the end of June, Sweden no longer had excess mortality.

Devolution in the United Kingdom meant that each of its four countries developed its own response. England's restrictions were shorter-lived than the others. The UK government started enforcing social distancing and quarantine measures on 18 March 2020. On 16 March, Prime Minister Boris Johnson advised against non-essential travel and social contact, praising work from home and avoiding venues such as pubs, restaurants, and theatres. On 20 March, the government ordered all leisure establishments to close, and promised to prevent unemployment. On 23 March, Johnson banned gatherings and restricted non-essential travel and outdoor activity. Unlike previous measures, these restrictions were enforceable by police through fines and dispersal of gatherings. Most non-essential businesses were ordered to close. On 24 April 2020, it was reported that a promising vaccine trial had begun in England; the government pledged more than £50 million towards research. On 16 April 2020, it was reported that the UK would have first access to the Oxford vaccine, due to a prior contract; should the trial be successful, some 30 million doses would be available. On 2 December 2020, the UK became the first developed country to approve the Pfizer vaccine; 800,000 doses were immediately available for use. In August 2022 it was reported that viral infection cases had declined in the UK.

North America

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in North America

The virus arrived in the United States on 13 January 2020. Cases were reported in all North American countries after Saint Kitts and Nevis confirmed a case on 25 March, and in all North American territories after Bonaire confirmed a case on 16 April.

The hospital ship USNS Comfort arrives in Manhattan on 30 March 2020

Per Our World in Data, 103,436,829 confirmed cases have been reported in the United States with 1,209,547 deaths, the most of any country, and the nineteenth-highest per capita worldwide. COVID-19 is the deadliest pandemic in US history; it was the third-leading cause of death in the US in 2020, behind heart disease and cancer. From 2019 to 2020, US life expectancy dropped by 3 years for Hispanic Americans, 2.9 years for African Americans, and 1.2 years for white Americans. These effects have persisted as US deaths due to COVID-19 in 2021 exceeded those in 2020. In the United States, COVID-19 vaccines became available under emergency use in December 2020, beginning the national vaccination program. The first COVID-19 vaccine was officially approved by the Food and Drug Administration on 23 August 2021. By 18 November 2022, while cases in the U.S. had declined, COVID variants BQ.1/BQ.1.1 had become dominant in the country.

In March 2020, as cases of community transmission were confirmed across Canada, all of its provinces and territories declared states of emergency. Provinces and territories, to varying degrees, implemented school and daycare closures, prohibitions on gatherings, closures of non-essential businesses and restrictions on entry. Canada severely restricted its border access, barring travellers from all countries with some exceptions. Cases surged across Canada, notably in the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Quebec and Ontario, with the formation of the Atlantic Bubble, a travel-restricted area of the country (formed of the four Atlantic provinces). Vaccine passports were adopted in all provinces and two of the territories. Per a report on 11 November 2022, Canadian health authorities saw a surge in influenza, while COVID-19 was expected to rise during winter.

South America

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in South America
Disinfection of public area in Itapevi, Brazil, in April 2020

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached South America on 26 February 2020, when Brazil confirmed a case in São Paulo. By 3 April, all countries and territories in South America had recorded at least one case. On 13 May 2020, it was reported that Latin America and the Caribbean had reported over 400,000 cases of COVID-19 infection with 23,091 deaths. On 22 May 2020, citing the rapid increase of infections in Brazil, the WHO declared South America the epicentre of the pandemic. As of 16 July 2021, South America had recorded 34,359,631 confirmed cases and 1,047,229 deaths from COVID-19. Due to a shortage of testing and medical facilities, it is believed that the outbreak is far larger than the official numbers show.

The virus was confirmed to have spread to Brazil on 25 February 2020, when a man from São Paulo who had travelled to Italy tested positive for the virus. The disease had spread to every federative unit of Brazil by 21 March. On 19 June 2020, the country reported its one millionth case and nearly 49,000 reported deaths. One estimate of under-reporting was 22.62% of total reported COVID-19 mortality in 2020. As of 22 December 2024, Brazil, with 37,511,921 confirmed cases and 702,116 deaths, has the third-highest number of confirmed cases and second-highest death toll from COVID-19 in the world, behind only those of the United States and India.

Africa

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Africa
US Air Force personnel unload a C-17 aircraft carrying medical supplies in Niamey, Niger, in April 2020.

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Africa on 14 February 2020, with the first confirmed case announced in Egypt. The first confirmed case in sub-Saharan Africa was announced in Nigeria at the end of February 2020. Within three months, the virus had spread throughout the continent; Lesotho, the last African sovereign state to have remained free of the virus, reported its first case on 13 May 2020. By 26 May, it appeared that most African countries were experiencing community transmission, although testing capacity was limited. Most of the identified imported cases arrived from Europe and the United States rather than from China where the virus originated. Many preventive measures were implemented by different countries in Africa including travel restrictions, flight cancellations, and event cancellations. Despite fears, Africa reported lower death rates than other, more economically developed regions.

In early June 2021, Africa faced a third wave of COVID infections with cases rising in 14 countries. By 4 July the continent recorded more than 251,000 new COVID cases, a 20% increase from the prior week and a 12% increase from the January peak. More than sixteen African countries, including Malawi and Senegal, recorded an uptick in new cases. The WHO labelled it Africa's 'Worst Pandemic Week Ever'. In October 2022, WHO reported that most countries on the African continent will miss the goal of 70 per cent vaccination by the end of 2022.

Oceania

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania
Empty shelves at a Coles grocery store in Brisbane, Australia, in April 2020

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached Oceania on 25 January 2020, with the first confirmed case reported in Melbourne, Australia. It has since spread elsewhere in the region. Australia and New Zealand were praised for their handling of the pandemic in comparison to other Western nations, with New Zealand and each state in Australia wiping out all community transmission of the virus several times even after re-introduction into the community.

As a result of the high transmissibility of the Delta variant, however, by August 2021, the Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria had conceded defeat in their eradication efforts. In early October 2021, New Zealand also abandoned its elimination strategy. In November and December, following vaccination efforts, the remaining states of Australia, excluding Western Australia, voluntarily gave up COVID-Zero to open up state and international borders. The open borders allowed the Omicron variant of COVID-19 to enter quickly, and cases subsequently exceeded 120,000 a day. By early March 2022, with cases exceeding 1,000 a day, Western Australia conceded defeat in its eradication strategy and opened its borders. Despite record cases, Australian jurisdictions slowly removed restrictions such as close contact isolation, mask wearing, and density limits by April 2022.

On 9 September 2022, restrictions were significantly relaxed. The aircraft mask mandate was scrapped nationwide, and daily reporting transitioned to weekly reporting. On 14 September, COVID-19 disaster payment for isolating persons was extended for mandatory isolation. By 22 September, all states had ended mask mandates on public transport, including in Victoria, where the mandate had lasted for approximately 800 days. On 30 September 2022, all Australian leaders declared the emergency response finished and announced the end of isolation requirements. These changes were due in part to high levels of 'hybrid immunity' and low case numbers.

Antarctica

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica

Due to its remoteness and sparse population, Antarctica was the last continent to have confirmed cases of COVID-19. The first cases were reported in December 2020, almost a year after the first cases of COVID-19 were detected in China. At least 36 people were infected in the first outbreak in 2020, with several other outbreaks taking place in 2021 and 2022.

United Nations

Main article: United Nations response to the COVID-19 pandemic

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNSC) was criticised for its slow response, especially regarding the UN's global ceasefire, which aimed to open up humanitarian access to conflict zones. The United Nations Security Council was criticised due to the inadequate manner in which it dealt with the COVID-19 pandemic, namely the poor ability to create international collaboration during this crisis.

On 23 March 2020, United Nations Secretary-General António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres appealed for a global ceasefire; 172 UN member states and observers signed a non-binding supporting statement in June, and the UN Security Council passed a resolution supporting it in July.

On 29 September 2020, Guterres urged the International Monetary Fund to help certain countries via debt relief and also call for countries to increase contributions to develop vaccines.

WHO

Main article: World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic
World Health Organization representatives holding joint meeting with Tehran city administrators in March 2020

The WHO spearheaded initiatives such as the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund to raise money for the pandemic response, the UN COVID-19 Supply Chain Task Force, and the solidarity trial for investigating potential treatment options for the disease. The COVAX program, co-led by the WHO, GAVI, and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), aimed to accelerate the development, manufacture, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, and to guarantee fair and equitable access across the world.

Restrictions

Further information: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic and International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Workers unloading boxes of medical supplies at Villamor Air Base.
Donated medical supplies received in the Philippines

The pandemic shook the world's economy, with especially severe economic damage in the United States, Europe and Latin America. A consensus report by American intelligence agencies in April 2021 concluded, "Efforts to contain and manage the virus have reinforced nationalist trends globally, as some states turned inward to protect their citizens and sometimes cast blame on marginalised groups". COVID-19 inflamed partisanship and polarisation around the world as bitter arguments exploded over how to respond. International trade was disrupted amid the formation of no-entry enclaves.

Travel restrictions

Main article: Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic

The pandemic led many countries and regions to impose quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions, either for citizens, recent travellers to affected areas, or for all travellers. Travel collapsed worldwide, damaging the travel sector. The effectiveness of travel restrictions was questioned as the virus spread across the world. One study found that travel restrictions only modestly affected the initial spread, unless combined with other infection prevention and control measures. Researchers concluded that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late". The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen free travel zone.

Repatriation of foreign citizens

Main article: Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Ukraine evacuates Ukrainian citizens from Wuhan, China.

Several countries repatriated their citizens and diplomatic staff from Wuhan and surrounding areas, primarily through charter flights. Canada, the United States, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany and Thailand were among the first to do so. Brazil and New Zealand evacuated their own nationals and others. On 14 March, South Africa repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative, while four who showed symptoms were left behind. Pakistan declined to evacuate its citizens.

On 15 February, the US announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the Diamond Princess cruise ship, and on 21 February, Canada evacuated 129 Canadians from the ship. In early March, the Indian government began repatriating its citizens from Iran. On 20 March, the United States began to withdraw some troops from Iraq.

Impact

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic Further information: Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Economics

Main article: Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic See also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, on science and technology, on financial markets, 2020 stock market crash, and COVID-19 recession
A stock index chart shows the 2020 stock market crash.

The pandemic and responses to it damaged the global economy. On 27 February 2020, worries about the outbreak crushed US stock indexes, which posted their sharpest falls since 2008.

Tourism collapsed due to travel restrictions, closing of public places including travel attractions, and advice of governments against travel. Airlines cancelled flights, while British regional airline Flybe collapsed. The cruise line industry was hard hit, and train stations and ferry ports closed. International mail stopped or was delayed.

The retail sector faced reductions in store hours or closures. Retailers in Europe and Latin America faced traffic declines of 40 per cent. North America and Middle East retailers saw a 50–60 per cent drop. Shopping centres faced a 33–43 per cent drop in foot traffic in March compared to February. Mall operators around the world coped by increasing sanitation, installing thermal scanners to check the temperature of shoppers, and cancelling events.

Hundreds of millions of jobs were lost, including more than 40 million jobs in the US. According to a report by Yelp, about 60% of US businesses that closed will stay shut permanently. The International Labour Organization (ILO) reported that the income generated in the first nine months of 2020 from work across the world dropped by 10.7%, or $3.5 trillion.

Supply shortages

Main article: Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic
COVID-19 fears led to panic buying of essentials across the world, including toilet paper, instant noodles, bread, rice, vegetables, disinfectant, and rubbing alcohol (picture taken in February 2020).

Pandemic fears led to panic buying, emptying groceries of essentials such as food, toilet paper, and bottled water. Panic buying stemmed from perceived threat, perceived scarcity, fear of the unknown, coping behaviour and social psychological factors (e.g. social influence and trust).

Supply shortages were due to disruption to factory and logistic operations; shortages were worsened by supply chain disruptions from factory and port shutdowns, and labour shortages.

Shortages continued as managers underestimated the speed of economic recovery after the initial economic crash. The technology industry, in particular, warned of delays from underestimates of semiconductor demand for vehicles and other products.

According to WHO Secretary-General Tedros Ghebreyesus, demand for personal protective equipment (PPE) rose one hundredfold, pushing prices up twentyfold. PPE stocks were exhausted everywhere.

In September 2021, the World Bank reported that food prices remained generally stable and the supply outlook remained positive. However, the poorest countries witnessed a sharp increase in food prices, reaching the highest level since the pandemic began. The Agricultural Commodity Price Index stabilised in the third quarter but remained 17% higher than in January 2021.

By contrast, petroleum products were in surplus at the beginning of the pandemic, as demand for gasoline and other products collapsed due to reduced commuting and other trips. The 2021 global energy crisis was driven by a global surge in demand as the world economy recovered. Energy demand was particularly strong in Asia.

Arts and cultural heritage

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage

The performing arts and cultural heritage sectors were profoundly affected by the pandemic. Both organisations' and individuals' operations have been impacted globally. By March 2020, across the world and to varying degrees, museums, libraries, performance venues, and other cultural institutions had been indefinitely closed with their exhibitions, events and performances cancelled or postponed. A 2021 UNESCO report estimated ten million job losses worldwide in the culture and creative industries. Some services continued through digital platforms, such as live streaming concerts or web-based arts festivals.

Politics

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics See also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations

The pandemic affected political systems, causing suspensions of legislative activities, isolations or deaths of politicians, and rescheduled elections. Although they developed broad support among epidemiologists, NPIs (non-pharmaceutical interventions) were controversial in many countries. Intellectual opposition came primarily from other fields, along with heterodox epidemiologists.

Brazil

The pandemic (and the response of Brazilian politicians to it) led to widespread panic, confusion, and pessimism in Brazil. When questioned regarding record deaths in the country in April 2020, Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro said "So what? I'm sorry. What do you want me to do about it?" Bolsonaro disregarded WHO-recommended mitigation techniques and instead downplayed the risks of the virus, promoted increased economic activity, spread misinformation about the efficacy of masks, vaccines and public health measures, and distributed unproven treatments including hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin. A series of federal health ministers resigned or were dismissed after they refused to implement Bolsonaro's policies.

Disagreements between federal and state governments led to a chaotic and delayed response to the rapid spread of the virus, exacerbated by preexisting social and economic disparities in the country. Employment, investment and valuation of the Brazilian real plummeted to record lows. Brazil was also heavily affected by the Delta and Omicron variants. At the height of the outbreak in the spring of 2021, 3,000+ Brazilians were dying per day. Bolsonaro's loss to Lula da Silva in the 2022 presidential election is widely credited to the former's mishandling of the pandemic.

China

Further information: China–United States relations § COVID-19

Multiple provincial-level administrators of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) were dismissed over their handling of quarantine measures. Some commentators claimed this move was intended to protect CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping. The US intelligence community claimed that China intentionally under-reported its COVID-19 caseload. The Chinese government maintained that it acted swiftly and transparently. Journalists and activists in China who reported on the pandemic were detained by authorities, including Zhang Zhan, who was arrested and tortured.

Italy

Palazzo Margherita lit in Italian flag to show solidarity during the COVID-19 pandemic on 26 March 2020

In early March 2020, the Italian government criticised the EU's lack of solidarity with Italy. On 22 March 2020, after a phone call with Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte, Russian president Vladimir Putin ordered the Russian army to send military medics, disinfection vehicles, and other medical equipment to Italy. In early April, Norway and EU states like Romania and Austria started to offer help by sending medical personnel and disinfectant, and European Commission president Ursula von der Leyen offered an official apology to the country.

United States

Anti-lockdown protesters rallied at Ohio Statehouse 20 April 2020.

Beginning in mid-April 2020, protestors objected to government-imposed business closures and restrictions on personal movement and assembly. Simultaneously, essential workers protested unsafe conditions and low wages by participating in a brief general strike. Some political analysts claimed that the pandemic contributed to US president Donald Trump's 2020 defeat.

The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States prompted calls for the United States to adopt social policies common in other wealthy countries, including universal health care, universal child care, paid sick leave, and higher levels of funding for public health. The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated that preventable hospitalisations of unvaccinated Americans in the second half of 2021 cost US$13.8 billion.

There were also protest in regards to vaccine mandates in the United States. In January 2022, the US Supreme Court struck down an OSHA rule that mandated vaccination or a testing regimen for all companies with greater than 100 employees.

Other countries

The number of journalists imprisoned or detained increased worldwide; some detentions were related to the pandemic. The planned NATO "Defender 2020" military exercise in Germany, Poland and the Baltic states, the largest NATO war exercise since the end of the Cold War, was held on a reduced scale.

The Iranian government was heavily affected by the virus, which infected some two dozen parliament members and political figures. Iranian president Hassan Rouhani wrote a public letter to world leaders asking for help on 14 March 2020, due to a lack of access to international markets. Saudi Arabia, which had launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015, declared a ceasefire.

Diplomatic relations between Japan and South Korea worsened. South Korea criticised Japan's "ambiguous and passive quarantine efforts" after Japan announced travellers from South Korea must quarantine for two weeks. South Korean society was initially polarised on president Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis; many Koreans signed petitions calling for Moon's impeachment or praising his response.

Some countries passed emergency legislation. Some commentators expressed concern that it could allow governments to strengthen their grip on power. In Hungary, the parliament voted to allow Prime Minister Viktor Orbán to rule by decree indefinitely, suspend parliament and elections, and punish those deemed to have spread false information. In countries such as Egypt, Turkey, and Thailand, opposition activists and government critics were arrested for allegedly spreading fake news. In India, journalists criticising the government's response were arrested or issued warnings by police and authorities.

Food systems

Further information: Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic

The pandemic disrupted food systems worldwide, hitting at a time when hunger and undernourishment were rising- an estimated 690 million people lacked food security in 2019. Food access fell – driven by falling incomes, lost remittances, and disruptions to food production. In some cases, food prices rose. The pandemic and its accompanying lockdowns and travel restrictions slowed movement of food aid. According to the WHO, 811 million people were undernourished in 2020, "likely related to the fallout of COVID-19".

Education

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education
Students take end-of-year exams in Tabriz, Iran, during the pandemic.

The pandemic impacted educational systems in many countries. Many governments temporarily closed educational institutions, often replaced by online education. Other countries, such as Sweden, kept their schools open. As of September 2020, approximately 1.077 billion learners were affected due to school closures. School closures impacted students, teachers, and families with far-reaching economic and societal consequences. They shed light on social and economic issues, including student debt, digital learning, food insecurity, and homelessness, as well as access to childcare, health care, housing, internet, and disability services. The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children. The Higher Education Policy Institute reported that around 63% of students claimed worsened mental health as a result of the pandemic.

Health

Main articles: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues and Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic

The pandemic impacted global health for many conditions. Hospital visits fell. Visits for heart attack symptoms declined by 38% in the US and 40% in Spain. The head of cardiology at the University of Arizona said, "My worry is some of these people are dying at home because they're too scared to go to the hospital". People with strokes and appendicitis were less likely to seek treatment. Medical supply shortages impacted many people. The pandemic impacted mental health, increasing anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder, affecting healthcare workers, patients and quarantined individuals.

In late 2022, during the first northern hemisphere autumn and winter seasons following the widespread relaxation of global public health measures, North America and Europe experienced a surge in respiratory viruses and coinfections in both adults and children. This formed the beginning of the 2022–2023 paediatric care crisis and what some experts termed a "tripledemic" of seasonal influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and SARS-CoV-2 throughout North America. In the United Kingdom, paediatric infections also began to spike beyond pre-pandemic levels, albeit with different illnesses, such as Group A streptococcal infection and resultant scarlet fever. As of mid-December 2022, 19 children in the UK had died due to Strep A and the wave of infections had begun to spread into North America and Mainland Europe.

The B/Yamagata lineage of influenza B might have become extinct in 2020/2021 due to COVID-19 pandemic measures. There have been no naturally occurring cases confirmed since March 2020. In 2023, the WHO concluded that protection against the Yamagata lineage was no longer necessary in the seasonal flu vaccine, reducing the number of lineages targeted by the vaccine from four to three.

Environment

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment
Images from the NASA Earth Observatory show a stark drop in pollution in Wuhan, when comparing NO2 levels in early 2019 (top) and early 2020 (bottom).

The pandemic and the reaction to it positively affected the environment and climate as a result of reduced human activity. During the "anthropause", fossil fuel use decreased, resource consumption declined, and waste disposal improved, generating less pollution. Planned air travel and vehicle transportation declined. In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxides emissions.

In 2020, a worldwide study on mammalian wildlife responses to human presence during COVID lockdowns found complex patterns of animal behaviour. Carnivores were generally less active when humans were around, while herbivores in developed areas were more active. Among other findings, this suggested that herbivores may view humans as a shield against predators, highlighting the importance of location and human presence history in understanding wildlife responses to changes in human activity in a given area.

A wide variety of largely mammalian species, both captive and wild, have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, with some encountering a particularly high degree of fatal outcomes. In particular, both farmed and wild mink have developed highly symptomatic and severe COVID-19 infections, with a mortality rate as high as 35–55% according to one study. White-tailed deer, on the other hand, have largely avoided severe outcomes but have effectively become natural reservoirs of the virus, with large numbers of free-ranging deer infected throughout the US and Canada, including approximately 80% of Iowa's wild deer herd. An August 2023 study appeared to confirm the status of white-tailed deer as a disease reservoir, noting that the viral evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in deer occurs at triple the rate of its evolution in humans and that infection rates remained high, even in areas rarely frequented by humans.

Discrimination and prejudice

Main article: Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic
A socially distanced homeless encampment in San Francisco, California, in May 2020

Heightened prejudice, xenophobia, and racism toward people of Chinese and East Asian descent were documented around the world. Reports from February 2020, when most confirmed cases were confined to China, cited racist sentiments about Chinese people 'deserving' the virus. Individuals of Asian descent in Europe and North America reported increasing instances of racially-motivated abuse and assaults as a result of the pandemic. US president Donald Trump was criticised for referring to SARS-CoV-2 as the "Chinese Virus" and "Kung Flu", terms which were condemned as being racist and xenophobic.

Age-based discrimination against older adults increased during the pandemic. This was attributed to their perceived vulnerability and subsequent physical and social isolation measures, which, coupled with their reduced social activity, increased dependency on others. Similarly, limited digital literacy left the elderly more vulnerable to isolation, depression, and loneliness.

In a correspondence published in The Lancet in 2021, German epidemiologist Günter Kampf described the harmful effects of "inappropriate stigmatisation of unvaccinated people, who include our patients, colleagues, and other fellow citizens", noting the evidence that vaccinated individuals play a large role in transmission. American bioethicist Arthur Caplan responded to Kampf, writing "Criticising who... wind up in hospitals and morgues in huge numbers, put stress on finite resources, and prolong the pandemic... is not stigmatising, it is deserved moral condemnation".

In January 2022, Amnesty International urged Italy to change their anti-COVID-19 restrictions to avoid discrimination against unvaccinated people, saying that "the government must continue to ensure that the entire population can enjoy its fundamental rights". The restrictions included mandatory vaccination over the age of 50, and mandatory vaccination to use public transport.

Lifestyle changes

The "Wee Annie" statue in Gourock, Scotland, was given a face mask during the pandemic.

The pandemic triggered massive changes in behaviour, from increased Internet commerce to cultural changes in the workplace. Online retailers in the US posted $791.70 billion in sales in 2020, an increase of 32.4% from $598.02 billion the year before. Home delivery orders increased, while indoor restaurant dining shut down due to lockdown orders or low sales. Hackers, cybercriminals and scammers took advantage of the changes to launch new online attacks.

Education in some countries temporarily shifted from physical attendance to video conferencing. Massive layoffs shrank the airline, travel, hospitality, and other industries. Despite most corporations implementing measures to address COVID-19 in the workplace, a poll from Catalyst found that as many as 68% of employees around the world felt that these policies were only performative and "not genuine".

The pandemic led to a surge in remote work. According to a Gallup poll, only 4% of US employees were fully remote before the pandemic, compared to 43% in May 2020. Among white collar workers, that shift was more pronounced, with 6% increasing to 65% in the same period. That trend continued in later stages of the pandemic, with many workers choosing to remain remote even after workplaces reopened. Many Nordic, European, and Asian companies increased their recruitment of international remote workers even as the pandemic waned, partially to save on labour costs. This also led to a talent drain in the global south and in remote areas in the global north. High cost of living and dense urban areas also lost office real estate value due to remote worker exodus. By May 2023, due to increasing layoffs and concerns over productivity, some white collar workplaces in the US had resorted to performance review penalties and indirect incentives (e.g. donations to charity) to encourage workers to return to the office.

Historiography

A 2021 study noted that the COVID-19 pandemic had increased interest in epidemics and infectious diseases among both historians and the general public. Prior to the pandemic, these topics were usually overlooked by "general" history and only received attention in the history of medicine. Many comparisons were made between the COVID-19 and 1918 influenza pandemics, including the development of anti-mask movements, the widespread promotion of misinformation and the impact of socioeconomic disparities.

Religion

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion
A man wearing purple vestments and standing at an altar uses a mobile phone camera to record himself. Empty pews are visible in the background.
An American Catholic military chaplain prepares for a live-streamed Mass in an empty chapel at Offutt Air Force Base in March 2020

In some areas, religious groups exacerbated the spread of the virus, through large gatherings and the dissemination of misinformation. Some religious leaders decried what they saw as violations of religious freedom. In other cases, religious identity was a beneficial factor for health, increasing compliance with public health measures and protecting against the negative effects of isolation on mental wellbeing.

Information dissemination

Further information: Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic, Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media, and Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism

Some news organisations removed their online paywalls for some or all of their pandemic-related articles and posts. Many scientific publishers provided pandemic-related journal articles to the public free of charge as part of the National Institutes of Health's COVID-19 Public Health Emergency Initiative. According to one estimate from researchers at the University of Rome, 89.5% of COVID-19-related papers were open access, compared to an average of 48.8% for the ten most deadly human diseases. The share of papers published on preprint servers prior to peer review increased dramatically.

Misinformation

Main article: COVID-19 misinformation

Misinformation and conspiracy theories about the pandemic have been widespread; they travel through mass media, social media and text messaging. In March 2020, WHO declared an "infodemic" of incorrect information. Cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias, are linked to conspiracy beliefs, including COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy.

Culture and society

Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture

The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on popular culture. It was included in the narratives of ongoing pre-pandemic television series and become a central narrative in new ones, with mixed results. Writing for The New York Times about the then-upcoming BBC sitcom Pandemonium on 16 December 2020, David Segal asked, "Are we ready to laugh about Covid-19? Or rather, is there anything amusing, or recognizable in a humorous way, about life during a plague, with all of its indignities and setbacks, not to mention its rituals and rules".

The pandemic had driven some people to seek peaceful escapism in media, while others were drawn towards fictional pandemics (e.g. zombie apocalypses) as an alternate form of escapism. Common themes have included contagion, isolation and loss of control. Many drew comparisons to the fictional film Contagion (2011), praising its accuracies while noting some differences, such as the lack of an orderly vaccine rollout.

As people turned to music to relieve emotions evoked by the pandemic, Spotify listenership showed that classical, ambient and children's genres grew, while pop, country and dance remained relatively stable.

Transition to later phases

Main article: Endemic COVID-19

A March 2022 review declared a transition to endemic status to be "inevitable". In June 2022, an article in Human Genomics said that the pandemic was still "raging", but that "now is the time to explore the transition from the pandemic to the endemic phase". Another review that month predicted that the virus that causes COVID-19 would become the fifth endemic seasonal coronavirus, alongside four other human coronaviruses.

A February 2023 review of the four common cold coronaviruses concluded that the virus would become seasonal and, like the common cold, cause less severe disease for most people. Another 2023 review stated that the transition to endemic COVID-19 may take years or decades.

On 5 May 2023, the WHO declared that the pandemic was no longer a public health emergency of international concern. This led several media outlets to incorrectly report that this meant the pandemic was "over". The WHO commented to Full Fact that it was unlikely to declare the pandemic over "in the near future" and mentioned cholera, which it considers to have been a pandemic since 1961 (i.e., continuously for the last 63 years). The WHO does not have an official category for pandemics or make declarations of when pandemics start or end.

In June 2023, Hans Kluge, director of the WHO in Europe, commented that "While the international public health emergency may have ended, the pandemic certainly has not". The WHO in Europe launched a transition plan to manage the public health response to COVID-19 in the coming years and prepare for possible future emergencies.

Epidemics and pandemics usually end when the disease becomes endemic, and when the disease becomes "an accepted, manageable part of normal life in a given society". As of March 2024, there was no widely agreed definition of when a disease is or is not a pandemic, though efforts at a formal definition were underway. Experts asked by Time that month noted that COVID-19 continued to circulate and cause disease, but expressed uncertainty as to whether it should still be described as a pandemic.

Long-term effects

Economic

Despite strong economic rebounds following the initial lockdowns in early 2020, towards the latter phases of the pandemic, many countries began to experience long-term economic effects. Several countries saw high inflation rates which had global impacts, particularly in developing countries. Some economic impacts such as supply chain and trade operations were seen as more permanent as the pandemic exposed major weaknesses in these systems.

In Australia, the pandemic caused an increase in occupational burnout in 2022.

During the pandemic, a large percentage of workers in Canada came to prefer working from home, which had an impact on the traditional work model. Some corporations made efforts to force workers to return to work on-site, while some embraced the idea.

Travel

There was a "travel boom" causing air travel to recover at rates faster than anticipated, and the aviation industry became profitable in 2023 for the first time since 2019, before the pandemic. However, economic issues meant some predicted that the boom would begin to slow down. Business travel on airlines was still below pre-pandemic levels and is predicted not to recover.

Health

An increase in excess deaths from underlying causes not related to COVID-19 has been largely blamed on systematic issues causing delays in health care and screening during the pandemic, which has resulted in an increase of non-COVID-19 related deaths.

Immunisations

During the pandemic, millions of children missed out on vaccinations as countries focused efforts on combating COVID-19. Efforts were made to increase vaccination rates among children in low-income countries. These efforts were successful in increasing vaccination rates for some diseases, though the UN noted that post-pandemic measles vaccinations were still falling behind.

Some of the decrease in immunisation was driven by an increase in mistrust of public health officials. This was seen in both low-income and high-income countries. Several African countries saw a decline in vaccinations due to misinformation around the pandemic flowing into other areas. Immunisation rates have yet to recover in the United States and the United Kingdom.

See also

Notes

  1. Some refer to "fatality rate"; however, "fatality ratio" is more accurate as this is not per unit time.

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