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{{Short description|Study of general and fundamental questions}} | |||
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'''Philosophy''' comes from the ancient Greek words ''philo'', to love or to befriend, and ''sophia'', to be wise. It can be construed then either as the love of wisdom or the wisdom of love. | |||
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]'' by ] is a symbol of philosophical thought.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2023|p=}} | {{harvnb|Morujão|Dimas|Relvas|2021|p=}} | {{harvnb|Mitias|2022|p=}} }}</ref>|upright=1.2]] | |||
{{Philosophy sidebar}} | |||
'''Philosophy''' ('love of wisdom' in ]) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like ], ], ], ], ], and ]. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions. | |||
Historically, many of the individual ]s, such as ] and ], formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the ] include ], ], ], and ]. Western philosophy originated in ] and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and ]. Indian philosophy combines the ] problem of how to reach ] with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and ]. | |||
Academics distinguish between ] and ] within Western philosophy. This modern-day ] is problematic for understanding the current use of the word ''philosophy'' since it may be used to mean only one of either of these philosophies rather than both. | |||
Major branches of philosophy are ], ], ], and ]. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of ] and explores how good ]s can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of ], existence, ], and ]. Other subfields are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Within each branch, there are competing ] that promote different principles, theories, or methods. | |||
Some tentative definitions of '''Philosophy''' might be: | |||
#The study or discussion of the truths, principles and practices of '']'', and ''conduct,'' '']'', and '']''({{fact}}); | |||
#That which grasps its own era in thought ({{fact}}); | |||
#An attempt to answer and set boundary questions such as, "What is the good life?" or "Why is there something rather than nothing?"({{fact}}) | |||
#An interpretation of the world in order to change it({{fact}}). | |||
#The provision of a solid foundation for scientific thought and for political praxis({{fact}}). | |||
#The dissolution and relief from enigmas and mysteries({{fact}}). | |||
Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include ], reliance on ] and ]s, use of ], analysis of ], ], and ]. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, ], ], ], and ]. It provides an ] perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications. | |||
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== Etymology == | |||
In the history of philosophy academics differentiate between ], which grew from the ] tradition of inquiry, and ], covering a variety of near-, middle-, and far-Eastern approaches. | |||
The word ''philosophy'' comes from the ] words {{lang|grc|φίλος}} ({{transl|grc|philos}}) {{gloss|love}} and {{lang|grc|σοφία}} ({{transl|grc|sophia}}) {{gloss|wisdom}}.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=350}} |2={{harvnb|Simpson|2002|loc=Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Jacobs|2022|p=}} }}</ref>{{efn|The Ancient Greek ''philosophos'' ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the ] term ''mer-rekh'' (''mr-rḫ'') meaning 'lover of wisdom'.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Herbjørnsrud|2021|p=123}} |2={{harvnb|Herbjørnsrud|2023|p=X}} }}</ref>}} Some sources say that the term was coined by the ] philosopher ], but this is not certain.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bottin|1993|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Jaroszyński|2018|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
]'s observation of how ].]] | |||
In Western philosophy there are five major branches: ], ], ], ], and ]. It is also common to divide the subject broadly into metaphysics, ethics, ], and possibly the ]. | |||
The word entered the English language primarily from ] and ] starting around 1175 CE. The French {{lang|fr|philosophie}} is itself a borrowing from the Latin {{lang|la|philosophia}}. The term ''philosophy'' acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (], ], ], and ])", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of ], ], and ], and the basic limits of human understanding".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|OED staff|2022|loc=Philosophy, n.}} |2={{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=350}} }}</ref> | |||
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Before the modern age, the term ''philosophy'' was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of ] inquiry, such as the individual ], as its subdisciplines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} }}</ref> For instance, ] was a major branch of philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kenny|2018|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Cotterell|2017|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Maddy|2022|p=}} }}</ref> This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=}} }}</ref> An example of this usage is the 1687 book '']'' by ]. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Cotterell|2017|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Maddy|2022|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} }}</ref> | |||
==Branches of philosophy== | |||
The meaning of ''philosophy'' changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010}} |3={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=}} |4={{harvnb|AHD Staff|2022}} }}</ref> | |||
There is no universal agreement about which subjects are the main branches of philosophy. In ''The Story of Philosophy'', ] lists ], ], ], ], and ]. <ref>{{cite book|author=Durant, Will|title=''The Story of Philosophy''|publisher=Pocket|date=1991}} ISBN 0-671-73916-6</ref> He is clearly following the Greek structure with the exception of logic. The Greeks viewed logic as only one aspect of epistemology. Issues such as the basis of logic (i.e., the self-evident axioms on which logic rests), the validity of the senses, the issue of free will, the nature of emotions, the nature of the subjective and the objective and others are also included. Nevertheless, there are many places where these subjects overlap (particularly in metaphysics and epistemology), and there are many philosophical ideas that cannot be placed neatly into only one of these categories. | |||
== Conceptions of philosophy == | |||
Each branch has its own particular questions. Logic asks: How do we distinguish arguments from premises to conclusions as valid or invalid? How can we know that a statement is true or false? What kinds of questions can we answer? Aesthetics asks: What is beauty? What is art? Ethics asks: What are values? Why does man need them? Are values absolute or relative? Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions, values, or institutions? Which actions are right and which are wrong? What is happiness? Is there a ] value on which all other values depend? Are values 'in' the world (like tables and chairs) and if not, how should we understand their ] status? Politics is the study of social organization. It asks such questions as: How should men interact in society? What is law? What is government? Do men need law and government? What is Justice? What is freedom in the political context? What is the nature of production and trade? How do they function within the various forms of government? Independent historians Will and Ariel Durant focus on the nature of government and describe "monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, socialism, anarchism & feminism" as the "dramatis personae of political philosophy". <ref>{{cite book|author=Durant, Will and Durant, Ariel|title=''Rousseau and Revolution: A History of Civilization in France, England, and Germany from 1756, and in the Remainder of Europe from 1715, to 1789 (Story of Civilization, 10)|publisher=MJF Books|date=1997}} ISBN 1-56731-021-4</ref> And metaphysics asks: What is reality? What exists? Do things exist independently of perception? (See ], the idea that only perception exists.) | |||
{{see also|Metaphilosophy}} | |||
=== General conception === | |||
Outside these five broad categories are other areas of philosophical inquiry such as ] or ]. | |||
The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Quinton|2005|p=702}} |3={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} |4={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023a}} |5={{harvnb|OUP Staff|2020}} |6={{harvnb|Adler|2000}} }}</ref> It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.{{sfn|Perry|Bratman|Fischer|2010|p=}} | |||
The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Russell|1912|p=91}} |2={{harvnb|Blackwell|2013|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Pojman|2009|page=2}} |4={{harvnb|Kenny|2004|p=xv}} |5={{harvnb|Vintiadis|2020|p=}} }}</ref> For example, Socrates stated that "]" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.{{sfn|Plato|2023|loc=}}{{sfn|McCutcheon|2014|p=}} And according to ], "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Russell|1912|p=91}} |2={{harvnb|Blackwell|2013|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
==History of philosophy== | |||
{{Main|History of philosophy}} | |||
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=== Academic definitions === | |||
The history of philosophy is often divided into three periods: ], ], and ]. Eastern thought has been, for most of its history, independent of ancient and medieval philosophy. Some philosophers have argued that human civilization has passed into a new, "]" period ({{fact}}). Others believe that there is a distinction between "Modern" philosophy and ], but there is great disagreement about the content of this difference ({{fact}}). It is important to note that ancient Greek and Roman philosophers never thought of themselves as "Western" philosophers, and it would be historically inaccurate to claim this ({{fact}}). Many classical Greek texts were actually preserved in the Middle East, and forgotten and lost in the specific areas of Italy and Greece until the Renaissance. In this way, an alternative understanding of the history of philosophy is in terms of such trans-periodic traditions as ]. | |||
{{main|Definitions of philosophy}} | |||
Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Quinton|2005|p=702}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} }}</ref> and are studied in ].{{sfn|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=vii, 17}} Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Mittelstraß|2005|loc=}} }}</ref> Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain ] and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Joll}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} }}</ref> | |||
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Rescher|2013|loc=|pp=1–3}} |3={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|pp=}} }}</ref> Such an approach is pursued by ], who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?"<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Guyer|2014|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Kant|1998|p=A805/B833}} |3={{harvnb|Kant|1992|p=9:25}} }}</ref> Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.{{sfn|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} | |||
==Western philosophy== | |||
{{Main|History of Western philosophy}} | |||
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===Greco-Roman philosophy=== | |||
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Ancient Greek philosophy may be divided into the ], the Socratic period, and the post-Aristotelian period. The pre-Socratic period was characterized by metaphysical speculation, often preserved in the form of grand, sweeping statements, such as "All is fire", or "All changes". Important pre-Socratic philosophers include ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The Socratic period is named in honor of the most recognizable figure in Western philosophy, ], who, along with his pupil ], revolutionized philosophy through the use of the ], which developed the very general philosophical methods of ], ], and ]. While Socrates wrote nothing himself, his influence as a "skeptic" survives through Plato's works. Plato's writings are often considered basic texts in philosophy as they defined the fundamental issues of philosophy for future generations. These issues and others were taken up by ], who studied at Plato's school, the ], and who often disagreed with what Plato had written. The subsequent period ushered in such philosophers as ], ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.{{sfn|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some ], such as ], philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Hylton|Kemp|2020}} }}</ref> Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Chalmers|2015|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Dellsén|Lawler|Norton|2021|pp=814–815}} }}</ref> This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Mittelstraß|2005|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} }}</ref> In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hacker|2013|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} }}</ref> | |||
] | |||
===Medieval philosophy=== | |||
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The ] came with the collapse of Roman civilization and the dawn of ], ], and ]. The medieval period brought Christian ], with writers such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. A female Christian philosopher of the period was a student of ] named ]. The philosophers in the scholastic Christian tradition and philosophers in the other major ]s (such as the Jewish philosophers ] and ], and the Muslim philosophers ], ], and ]) were each aware of the others' works. These religious traditions took on questions about the relation of man to God. The philosophy of this period is characterized by analysis of the nature and properties of God; the metaphysics involving substance, essences and accidents (that is, qualities that are respectively ''essential'' to substances possessing them or merely ''happening'' to be possessed by them), form, and divisibility; and logic and the philosophy of language. | |||
Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with ], ], or the clarification of language.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Rescher|2013|loc=|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> According to one view, philosophy is ], which involves finding the ] for the application of concepts.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=}} }}</ref> Another definition characterizes philosophy as ''] about thinking'' to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|p=}} }}</ref> A further approach presents philosophy as a ] therapy. According to ], for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Joll|loc=Lead Section, § 2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein}} |3={{harvnb|Biletzki|Matar|2021}} }}</ref> | |||
Many of these philosophers took as their starting point the theories of Plato or Aristotle. Others, however, such as ], rejected Greek philosophy as antithetical to revelation and faith. | |||
], such as ], characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating ]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Joll|loc=§ 4.a.i}} |2={{harvnb|Gelan|2020|p=|loc=Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences}} |3={{harvnb|Ingarden|1975|pp=|loc=The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science}} |4={{harvnb|Tieszen|2005|p=}} }}</ref> They practice a radical ] of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.{{sfn|Smith|loc=§ 2.b}} | |||
===Modern Western philosophy=== | |||
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Modern philosophy is generally considered to begin with the work of ]. His work was greatly influenced by questioning from his correspondences with other philosophers. For example, the prodding of ] and ] obliged Descartes to try to formulate more cogent replies to the ]. <ref>{{cite journal|title=The `Scandal' of Cartesian Interactionism|author=Richardson, R.C.|journal=Mind|volume=91|issue=361|date=Jan., 1982|pages= pp. 20-37}}</ref> | |||
An early approach found in ] and ] is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banicki|2014|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Hadot|1995|loc=}} }}</ref> This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's ] by leading a reflective life.{{sfn|Grimm|Cohoe|2021|pp=}} For example, the ] saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve ] and flourish in life.{{sfn|Sharpe|Ure|2021|pp=}} | |||
Medieval philosophy had been concerned primarily with argument from authority, and the analysis of ancient texts using Aristotelian logic. The ] saw an outpouring of new ideas that questioned authority. ] (1214–1294?) was one of the first writers to advocate putting authority to the test of experiment and reason. ] (1469–1527) challenged conventional ideas about ]. ] (1561–1626) wrote in favor of the methods of science in philosophical discovery. | |||
== History {{anchor|Historical overview}} == | |||
===Analytic and Continental=== | |||
{{main|History of philosophy}} | |||
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As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Copleston|2003|pp=4–6}} |2={{harvnb|Santinello|Piaia|2010|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=}} }}</ref> Some theorists see it as a part of ], but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Laerke|Smith|Schliesser|2013|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Frede|2022|p=x}} |4={{harvnb|Beaney|2013|p=}} }}</ref> The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes ]s, ], and proverbial lore.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Scharfstein|1998|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Is There Indian Philosophy?}} |3={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=1–3}} |4={{harvnb|Rescher|2014|p=}} |5={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> | |||
{{main|Analytic and Continental Philosophy}} | |||
The late modern period in philosophy, beginning in the late 19th century and lasting to the 1950s, was marked by a developing schism between the "Continental" tradition and the "Analytic" tradition associated with many English-speaking countries. | |||
Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include ], ], ], and ]. Other philosophical traditions are ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=v, 1–12}} |2={{harvnb|Flavel|Robbiano|2023|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Solomon|Higgins|2003|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Contents, Preface}} }}</ref> | |||
What underlies the analytic tradition, especially the early analytic tradition, is the view (originally defended by Ockham) that much philosophical error arises from misunderstandings generated by language. According to some analytic philosophers, the true meaning of ordinary sentences is "concealed by their grammatical form", and we must translate them into their true form (understood as their ]) in order to clarify them. The difficulty, so far unresolved, is to determine what the correct logical form must be. Some philosophers (beginning with Frege and ]) have argued that ] shows us the true logical form of ordinary sentences. Other analytic philosophers, such as the late ], rejected the idea of logical form; and this issue of logical form figured prominently in early analytic philosophy. These debates over logical form are no longer as central to analytic philosophy as they used to be, and analytic philosophy now tends to address the full range of philosophical problems with all available philosophical methods. Today analytic philosophy's essence lies more in a style of writing and argumentation (that is, it aims to be clear and rigorous) than in its subject matter or ideas. An emphasis on carefully analyzing language to reveal philosophical errors still remains; but the “analysis” that figures in the name “analytic philosophy” is now just as likely to refer to the analysis of ideas, arguments, social institutions, and presuppositions. | |||
=== Western === | |||
"Continental" philosophy is most closely identified with the ] movement inaugurated by Edmund Husserl and the various reactions to and modifications of Husserl's work. Phenomenology is primarily a method of investigation. As Husserl conceived it, to investigate phenomenologically is to examine the contents of conscious experience while bracketing all of the assumptions we ordinarily make concerning the existence of objects in the world. He believed that we could arrive at certain knowledge by deducing the necessary features of our conscious experience. Perhaps the most important such feature deduced by Husserl was called intentionality, which denotes the character of consciousness by which it is always directed at some object or other. The phenomenological method is an important alternative to the way that analytic philosophy typically proceeds. Instead of taking linguistic data as the starting point and linguistic analysis as the primary method of philosophy, phenomenology takes conscious experience as the starting point and the detailed analysis of such experience – that is, "phenomenological analysis" – as its method. Some important figures in the analytic tradition such as Wilfrid Sellars and ] have argued that linguistic analysis is actually a kind of phenomenological investigation because it appeals to our experience as language users to answer philosophical questions. In effect, they have argued that analytic philosophy is but one kind of phenomenology, the implication being that analytic philosophy can ignore the tradition that commences with phenomenology only to its detriment. | |||
{{main|Western philosophy}} | |||
] was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.{{sfn|Shields|2022|loc=Lead Section}}]] | |||
While Husserl placed great emphasis on consciousness and took up an idealist position motivated largely by a firm distinction between a conscious ego and its objects, the subject-object distinction was deeply critiqued by Husserl's student, Martin Heidegger. Heidegger's 1927 book ''Being and Time'' was not only a critique of Husserl, but of a way of thinking that he believed infected the entire Western philosophical tradition of which Husserl was the latest expression. Arguably, ''Being and Time'' was the single most revolutionary work of twentieth century philosophy. Though Heidegger radically revised phenomenology, he still considered himself a phenomenologist. With him, phenomenology became ''existential'' phenomenology, which focused on producing a "hermeneutics of facticity" – an interpretation of the human condition as lived by real human beings. Heidegger was followed in this effort most famously by Jean-Paul Sartre in his book ''Being and Nothingness'', which carried Heidegger's analysis further and applied it to concrete situations. Maurice Merleau-Ponty critiqued Sartre while still continuing on the path marked by Heidegger's emphasis on our practical engagement with the world as opposed to the Husserlian focus on explicit conscious awareness. The hermeneutical strand of Heidegger's work was developed by Hans-Georg Gadamer in ''Truth and Method''. Together, hermeneutics – the theory of interpretation in the most general sense – and phenomenology constitute the main concerns of continental philosophy. These concerns tend to require a great deal of systematic thinking to make progress in them, and thus continental philosophy tends to look more often at the "big picture" and to deal more directly with everyday human concerns than does analytic philosophy – though like any stereotype, this generalization admits of many exceptions and should not be read to the letter. | |||
Western philosophy originated in ] in the 6th century BCE with the ]. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the ] as a whole.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Presocratic Thought}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|pp=}} }}</ref> The philosophy following them was shaped by ] (469–399 BCE), ] (427–347 BCE), and ] (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like ], ], and what the ] and ] is.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Socrates, Plato, Aristotle}} }}</ref> The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Long|1986|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=Chapter 10}} |3={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=6. Post-Hellenistic Thought}} }}</ref> The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate ]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Lagerlund|2020|p=v}} |3={{harvnb|Marenbon|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|MacDonald|Kretzmann|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref><ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2019|pp=3–4}} }}</ref> | |||
==Eastern philosophy== | |||
{{Main|Eastern philosophy}} | |||
Many societies have considered philosophical questions and built philosophical traditions based upon each other's works. Eastern and Middle Eastern philosophical traditions have influenced Western philosophers. Russian, Jewish, Islamic and recently Latin American philosophical traditions have contributed to, or been influenced by, Western philosophy, yet each has retained a distinctive identity. | |||
The ] period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular ]. ] also emerged in this period.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1, 3}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2022|pp=155–157}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Renaissance}} |4={{harvnb|Chambre|Maurer|Stroll|McLellan|2023|loc=Renaissance Philosophy}} }}</ref> The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Anstey|Vanzo|2023|pp=}} }}</ref> Many of these innovations were used in the ] to challenge traditional authorities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Kenny|2006|pp=90–92}} }}</ref> Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by ] and ].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of ], the focus on the ] as well as ], and movements in ] like phenomenology, ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Livingston|2017|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Silverman|Welton|1988|pp=}} }}</ref> The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at ]s.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} There was also a noticeable growth in the number of ], but they still remained underrepresented.{{sfn|Waithe|1995|pp=xix–xxiii}} | |||
The differences between traditions are often based on their favored historical philosophers, and varying stress on ideas, procedural styles, or written language. The subject matter and dialogues of each can be studied using methods derived from the others, and there are significant commonalities and exchanges between them. | |||
=== Arabic–Persian === | |||
"]" refers to the broad traditions that originated or were popular in ], ], ], ], and to an extent, the ] (which overlaps with Western philosophy due to being the origin of the ]s). | |||
{{main|Islamic philosophy|Iranian philosophy}} | |||
], one of the most influential philosophers of the ].]] | |||
Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the ]. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|p=1}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic–Persian Philosophy}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=5–6}} }}</ref> | |||
] (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Esposito|2003|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Nasr|Leaman|2013|loc=11. Al-Kindi}} |3={{harvnb|Nasr|2006|pp=109–110}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2020|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> ] (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gutas|2016}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} }}</ref> ] (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed ] and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=140–146}} |2={{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=Lead Section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî's "Refutations" of Falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam}} }}</ref> Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Rushd (Averroes)}} |2={{harvnb|Kaminski|2017|p=}} }}</ref> ] (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Rizvi|2021|loc=Lead Section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology}} |2={{harvnb|Chamankhah|2019|p=}} }}</ref> The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of ], which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moaddel|2005|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Masud|2009|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Safi|2005|loc=}} }}</ref> | |||
===Indian philosophy=== | |||
{{Main|Indian philosophy}} | |||
{{See|Hindu philosophy|Buddhist philosophy|Jainism}} | |||
] to ], founder of '']'', one of the major schools of Hindu philosophy.]] | |||
Hindu philosophy constitutes an integral part of the culture of ], and is the first of the ] philosophies which were influential throughout the ]. The great diversity in thought and practice of Hinduism is nurtured by its liberal ]. | |||
=== Indian === | |||
The origins of ] are to be traced in ] deliberations about the universe and ] ("universal order"), the first of which was the '']'', composed in the ]. Other major texts with philosophical implications include the '']'', the '']'', and the '']'', from circa 1000 BCE to 500 BCE.<ref>Radhakrishnan, S, and Moore, CA, ''A source book in Indian philosophy'', Princeton, 1967</ref> The ] '']'' and '']'' also cover Indian philosophy in much depth. At about the same time, the ] schools, including ] and ], also developed. It is notable that the '']'' schools of Hindu philosophy are still living traditions today. Hinduism has no known founder or single, authoritative text <ref>{{cite book|author=Stevenson, Leslie.|title=''Ten theories of human nature''|edition=4th edition|press=Oxford University Press|date=2004}}</ref>. | |||
{{main|Indian philosophy}} | |||
] developed the ] view of ], stating that the existence of a plurality of distinct entities is an ].]] | |||
Hindu philosophy is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called ]s in Sanskrit). The six major ] schools of thought are the ] (]), ] (union), ] (]), ] (]), ] (investigation), and ] (culmination of the ]) schools. The Vedanta school is further divided into six sub-schools: ] (]/]), ] (monism of the qualified whole), ] (]), ] (dualism-nondualism), Suddhadvaita, and ] schools. | |||
One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the ] question of how to reach ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|p=3}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} }}</ref> It started around 900 BCE when the ] were written. They are the foundational scriptures of ] and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the ] and ] as well as the question of how ] are reborn based on their ].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Pooley|Rothenbuhler|2016|p=}}|{{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|p=}}}}</ref> This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like ] and ].<ref name="auto1">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Ruether|2004|p=}} }}</ref> Buddhism was founded by ] (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a ] and proposed ] to liberate oneself from ].<ref name="auto1"/> Jainism was founded by ] (599–527 BCE), who emphasized ] as well as respect toward all forms of life.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Vallely|2012|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Gorisse|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> | |||
] philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of ], a ] prince later known as the ], derived from the Sanskrit 'bud', 'to awaken'. Buddhism is a ] religion, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods. The Buddha himself expressly disavowed any special divine status or inspiration, and said that anyone, anywhere could achieve all the insight that he had. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably ]) do ] a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems. | |||
The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE{{efn|The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|p=}} | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview}} | {{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=}} }}</ref>}} and was characterized by the emergence of the six ]: ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy, The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Adamson|Ganeri|2020|pp=}} }}</ref> The school of ] developed later in this period. It was systematized by ] ({{circa|700}}–750 CE), who held that ] and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, 2. Metaphysics}} |3={{harvnb|Menon|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> A slightly different perspective was defended by ] (1017–1137 CE),{{efn|These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works}}}} who founded the school of ] and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses}} He also helped to popularize the ], which taught ] as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ranganathan|loc=4. Rāmānuja's Soteriology}} |2={{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Seshadri|1996|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Jha|2022|p=}} }}</ref> The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Modern Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023}} }}</ref> Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, ] (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banhatti|1995|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Bilimoria|2018|pp=529–531}} |3={{harvnb|Rambachan|1994|pp=}} }}</ref> | |||
From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts, in which the Buddha had been instructed by various teachers. Buddhism rejects ], ], ], and ] alike. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical ] and non-being, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism. | |||
=== Chinese === | |||
Most Buddhist sects believe in ], a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. One effect of karma is ]. At death, the karma from a given life determines the nature of the next life's existence. The ultimate goal of a Buddhist practitioner is to eliminate karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain ], usually translated as awakening or enlightenment. | |||
{{main|Chinese philosophy}} | |||
] on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.]] | |||
] philosophy, founded by ] (599-527 BCE), is based upon eternal, universal truths, according to its followers. Over a period of time, these truths may lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached ] or total knowledge (''Keval Gnan''). | |||
Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=3, 70–71}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |5={{harvnb|Cua|2009|pp=43–45}} |6={{harvnb|Wei-Ming|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Many ] emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perkins|2013|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Ma|2015|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Botz-Bornstein|2023|p=}} }}</ref> Confucianism was founded by ] (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral ]s and explored how they lead to harmony in society.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=70–76}}|{{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1b. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) of the Analects}}|{{harvnb|Boyd|Timpe|2021|pp=}}|{{harvnb|Marshev|2021|pp=}}}}</ref> Daoism was founded by ] (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the ] or the natural order of the universe.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Slingerland|2007|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> Other influential early schools of thought were ], which developed an early form of altruistic ],<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1c. Mozi (c. 470–391 B.C.E.) and Mohism}} |3={{harvnb|Defoort|Standaert|2013|p=}} }}</ref> and ], which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Kim|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods}} }}</ref> | |||
] is a basic principle of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of ]. | |||
Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into ].<ref name="auto">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=§ Early Buddhism in China}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of ] emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.<ref name="auto"/> ] developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of ]—which focused on ], ], and ]—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Jiang|2009|pp=473–480}} |3={{harvnb|Qi|2014|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Tian|2009|pp=512–513}} }}</ref> Another development was the emergence of ], which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Van Norden|2022|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Redse|2015|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Makeham|2003|pp=}} }}</ref> | |||
===Persian philosophy=== | |||
{{Main|Iranian philosophy}} | |||
{{See|Zoroastrianism|Islamic philosophy}} | |||
] portrayed in a popular 18th century Indian ] Zoroastrian depiction.]] | |||
The teachings of ] (Zoroaster) appeared in ] at some point during the period between 1000-588 BCE. <ref name="Whitley">{{cite journal|title=The Date and Teaching of Zarathustra|author=Whitley, C.F.|pages=219-223|journal=Numen|volume=Vol. 4|issue=3|year=Sep. 1957}}</ref> His wisdom became the basis of the religion ], and generally influenced the development of the ] branch of ] philosophy. Zarathushtra was the first who treated the problem of evil in philosophical terms. <ref name="Whitley" /> He is also believed to be one of the oldest ] in the history of religion. He espoused an ethical philosophy based on the primacy of ''good thoughts (humata), good words (hukhata), and good deeds (hvarshatra).'' | |||
=== Other traditions === | |||
Zarathushtra was known as a sage, magician and miracle-worker in post-Classical Western culture, though almost nothing was known of his ideas until the late eighteenth century. By this time his name was associated with lost ancient wisdom and was appropriated by Freemasons and other groups who claimed access to such knowledge. He appears in Mozart's opera "Die Zauberflöte" under the variant name "Sarastro", who represents moral order in opposition to the "Queen of the Night". Enlightenment writers such as Voltaire promoted research into Zoroastrianism in the belief that it was a form of rational Deism, preferable to Christianity. | |||
Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous ] religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 3.2 Confucianism, § 3.3 Buddhism}} |2={{harvnb|Kasulis|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following ] and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=§ 4.3 Edo-period Philosophy (1600–1868)}}|{{harvnb|Kasulis|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The ] emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (''zettai-mu''), place (''basho''), and the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Davis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Absolute Nothingness: Giving Philosophical Form to the Formless}} |2={{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=§ 4.4.2 Modern Academic Philosophies}} }}</ref> | |||
Latin American philosophy in the ] was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gracia|Vargas|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. History}} |2={{harvnb|Stehn|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Indigenous Period}} |3={{harvnb|Maffie}}}}</ref> It has similarities to ], which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Arola|2011|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Rivera Berruz|2019|p=72}} }}</ref> Latin American philosophy during the ], starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of ]. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were ], the ], and the exploration of identity and culture.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gracia|Vargas|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. History}} |2={{harvnb|Stehn|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Twentieth Century}} }}</ref> | |||
In 2005, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy ranked Zarathushtra number two in the chronology of philosophical events. Zarathushtra's impact lingers today due in part to the system of rational ethics he founded called Mazda-Yasna. The word Mazda-Yasna is ] and is translated as "Worship of Wisdom" in English. The Greeks later used a similar word to the Iranian one – the word "philosophy" in Greek literally means "love of wisdom". | |||
Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=African Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=Lead Section, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Mangena|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as ], ], ], Marxism, ], the role of cultural identity, ], ], and the critique of ].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Bell|Fernback|2015|p=}} | {{harvnb|Coetzee|Roux|1998|pp=}} | {{harvnb|Wiredu|2005|p=12}} | {{harvnb|Chimakonam|Ogbonnaya|2021}} }}</ref> | |||
Throughout Iranian history, due to Greek and Arabic influence, a wide spectrum of schools of thoughts showed a variety of views on philosophical questions extending from Old Iranian and Zoroastrian traditions, to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era, to various ]ic schools. Iranian philosophy after the Arab invasion of Persia is characterized by different interactions with the ] with Greek and ]. The ] and the ] are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia. | |||
== Core branches == | |||
], founded by ], was influential from ] in the West, to ] in the East. Its influence subtly continues in Western Christian thought via Saint ], who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism, which he passionately denounced in his writings, and whose writings continue to be influential among Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox ]. An important principle of Manicheism was its ] ]/], which it shared with ]ism, a philosophy founded by Mazdak. Under this dualism, there were two original principles of the universe: Light, the good one; and Darkness, the evil one. These two had been mixed by a cosmic accident, and man's role in this life was through good conduct to release the parts of himself that belonged to Light. Mani saw the mixture of good and bad as a cosmic tragedy, while Mazdak viewed this in a more neutral, even optimistic way. | |||
{{See also|Outline of philosophy#Branches of philosophy|Outline of philosophy#Philosophical schools of thought}} | |||
Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brenner|1993|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Palmquist|2010|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Jenicek|2018|p=}} }}</ref> There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and ] are sometimes linked under the general heading of ] as they investigate ] or evaluative aspects.{{sfn|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead Section: "In its broadest sense, 'value theory' is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist philosophy and the philosophy of religion – whatever areas of philosophy are deemed to encompass some 'evaluative' aspect."}} Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kenny|2018|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Lazerowitz|Ambrose|2012|pp=}} }}</ref> | |||
In the Islamic era, various Persian philosophers contributed to Islamic philosophy. ] discussed the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle elaborately. He hypothesized an "ideal state" in his work ''Al-Madina al-fadila''. His ideas were not extreme, rather he often tried to unify many contradictory ideas. He accepted the supremacy of a creator, while admitting the absoluteness of creation. His idealized state-leader in ''Al-Madina al-fadila'' is an ]. This philosophy had an impact on centralizing then divided ]. He explicitly claimed that attaining ideal state is impossible, but the struggle should be encouraged. | |||
=== Epistemology === | |||
] (Ibn Sina) wrote extensively on the subjects of philosophy, ], ], ] and other disciplines. Most of his works were written in ], which was the ] scientific language of that time, while some were written in ]. Ibn Sina's commentaries on Aristotle often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ]. His ''Logic, Metaphysics, Physics'', and ''De Caelo'', are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine. The ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics'' have been printed more than once in Europe. Some of his shorter essays on logic take a poetical form, which was also later published in Europe. He wrote two encyclopaedic treatises dealing with philosophy, known as the ''Al-Shifa'' (''Sanatio'' in Latin) and ''An-najat'' (''Liberatio'' in Latin). He also wrote a ''Philosophia Orientalis'', mentioned by ], which according to ] was ] in tone. Arabic philosophy flourished after Avicenna's death, emerging from Avicenna's inflammatory pronouncements on all matters within the world, whether physical or metaphysical, such as the works of the post-Avicennian ]i ]s and anti-Peripatetics. | |||
{{Main|Epistemology}} | |||
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as ''theory of knowledge'' and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Martinich|Stroll|2023|loc=Lead Section, The Nature of Epistemology}} |2={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=Article Summary}} }}</ref> Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|p=ix}} | |||
Epistemology is primarily interested in ] or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates ], such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and ], for example, knowing a celebrity personally.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead Section, 2. What Is Knowledge?}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} |3={{harvnb|Colman|2009a|loc=}} }}</ref> | |||
===Chinese philosophy=== | |||
{{Main|Chinese philosophy}} | |||
], by E.T.C. Werner.]] | |||
Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on ], and ] as a whole. Many of the great philosophical schools were formulated during the ] and ], and came to be known as the ]. The four most influential of these were ], ], ], and ]. Later on, during the ], ] from ] also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. (It should be noted that Eastern thought, unlike Western philosophy, did not express a clear distinction between philosophy and ].) Like ], ] covers a broad and complex range of thought, possessing a multitude of schools that address every branch and subject area of philosophy. | |||
One area in epistemology is the '']''. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a ''belief'' that is ''justified'' and ''true''. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Martinich|Stroll|2023|loc=The Nature of Knowledge}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge}} }}</ref> Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of ] instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=§ 2d. The Gettier Problem}} }}</ref> | |||
In China, the '']'' (''Dào dé jīng'', in ] romanisation) of ] (''Lǎo zǐ'') <ref>{{cite book|author=Lao Tze (Laozi)|editor=Stephen Hodge (Translator)|title=''Tao Te Ching''|publisher=Barron''s Educational Series|date=2002}} ISBN 0-7641-2168-5</ref> and the '']'' of ] (''Kǒng fū zǐ''; sometimes called ''Master Kong'') <ref name="Confucius">{{cite book|author=Kung Fu Tze (Confucius)|editor=D. C. Lau (Translator)|title=''The Analects''|publisher=Penguin Classics|date=1998}} ISBN 0-14-044348-7</ref> both appeared around 600 BCE, about the time that the Greek pre-Socratics were writing. | |||
Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge}} }}</ref> According to ], all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like ], are not acquired through experience.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hetherington|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=}} }}</ref> The ] is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an ] or ]. ]s avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=3. The Nature of Justification}} }}</ref> Another solution is presented by ]s, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.{{sfn|Olsson|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism}} | |||
Of all the Chinese philosophies, however, it is quite safe to say ] has had the greatest impact throughout ]. ] represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His philosophy focused in the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. Confucianism, along with ], is responsible for creating the world’s first ], which holds that one's status should be determined by ability instead of ancestry, wealth, or friendships. <ref name="Confucius" /> It is arguable that ] is most responsible for shaping the Chinese culture and state of ]. | |||
Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of ], which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=6. The Limits of Cognitive Success}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=4. The Extent of Human Knowledge}} |3={{harvnb|Johnstone|1991|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to fit the prevailing school of thought in China. The Chinese schools of philosophy, except during the ], have been relatively tolerant of one another. Instead of competing, they generally have cooperated and shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their own. For example, ] was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the ], with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features. | |||
=== Ethics === | |||
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the ] in ], there were many calls, such as the ], to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate ], ], and ] into Chinese philosophy, notably by ] (''Sūn yì xiān'', in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. ] (''Máo zé dōng'') added ], ], and other ] thought. The current government of the ] is trying to encourage a form of ]. Although, officially, the ] does not encourage, and have even forbid, some of the philosophical practices of ], the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in ], philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. | |||
{{Main|Ethics}} | |||
], '']'' (1863){{sfn|Mill|1863|p=}}]] | |||
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right ]. It is also concerned with the moral ] of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of ] are and how to live a good life.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=325–326}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380}} |3={{harvnb|Lambert|2023|p=}} }}</ref> Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|pp=vii–xi}} | |||
Chinese philosophy has spread around the world in forms such as the so-called '']'' and New Age ideas (see for example ]). Many in the academic community of the West remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or philosophical. However, it still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even ]. | |||
The main branches of ethics are ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380}} }}</ref> Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like ''right action'' and '']''. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be ] and how to acquire knowledge of them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=390–391}} |4={{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Barsky|2009|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380, 390–391}} }}</ref> | |||
''See also: ], ], ], ], ]'' | |||
Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, ], and ] are influential schools of thought.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=382, 386–388}} }}</ref> ''Consequentialists'' judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is ], which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. ''Deontologists'' judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. ''Virtue theorists'' judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like ] and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=382, 386–388}} |3={{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2022|loc=1.2 Practical Wisdom}} }}</ref> | |||
''Related Topics: ], ], ], ], ]'' | |||
== |
=== Logic === | ||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Logic}} | ||
Other philosophical traditions, such as ]n philosophy, are rarely considered by foreign academia. Since emphasis is mainly placed on western philosophy as a reference point, the study, preservation and dissemination of valuable, but lesser known, non-Western philosophical works face many obstacles. Key African philosophers include the Fulani ], founder of the ] of ] and ] of ]; both were prolific Islamic scholars. The ] contains not only a source of the Kings of Ethiopia but a window into African philosophy, as the text undergirds the beliefs of ] and ]. | |||
{{sectstub}} | |||
Logic is the study of ]. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad ]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hintikka|2019}} |2={{harvnb|Haack|1978|loc=Philosophy of Logics}} }}</ref> It is usually divided into formal and ]. Formal logic uses ] with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blair|Johnson|2000|pp=94–96}} |2={{harvnb|Walton|1996}} |3={{harvnb|Tully|2005|p=532}} |4={{harvnb|Johnson|1999|pp=265–267}} |5={{harvnb|Groarke|2021}} }}</ref> | |||
==Philosophical topics== | |||
{{Main|List of philosophical topics}} | |||
Logic examines a variety of arguments. ] are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively ] if the truth of its ]s ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a ], like '']'', which has the following ]: "''p''; if ''p'' then ''q''; therefore ''q''". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Velleman|2006|pp=8, 103}} |2={{harvnb|Johnson-Laird|2009|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=334–336, 432}} }}</ref> | |||
==Metaphysics and epistemology== | |||
===Rationalism and empiricism=== | |||
] | |||
The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=432, 470}} |2={{harvnb|Anshakov|Gergely|2010|p=}} }}</ref> One form is ]. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Vickers|2022}} |2={{harvnb|Nunes|2011|pp=|loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=432–449, 470}} }}</ref> Another form is ]. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Douven|2022}} |2={{harvnb|Koslowski|2017|pp=366–368|loc=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation}} |3={{harvnb|Nunes|2011|pp=|loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}} }}</ref> | |||
], who is often called the father of modern philosophy, proposed that philosophy should begin with a radical skepticism about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge. In ], in '']'', he used this method of doubt in an attempt to establish what knowledge is most certain. He chose as the foundation of his philosophy the famous statement '']'' ("I think, therefore I am"). He then attempted to rebuild a system of knowledge based on this single supposedly indubitable fact. <ref>{{cite book|author=Descartes, René|title=''Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy''|edition=Fourth Edition|publisher=Hacket Publishing Company|date=1998}} ISBN 0-87220-421-9</ref> His approach became known as a species of ]; it attracted such philosophers as ], ], and ]. | |||
Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called '']'' and are divided into ] and ] based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hansen|2020}} |2={{harvnb|Dowden|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|p=290}} |4={{harvnb|Vleet|2011|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
In response to the popularity of rationalism, ] wrote '']'' in ], developing a form of ] and ] on roughly scientific principles. Hume's work '']'' (1739-40) combined ] with a spirit of ]. Other philosophers who made major contributions to empiricism include ] and ] (Bishop Berkeley). | |||
=== Metaphysics === | |||
During this era, religious ideas played a mixed role in the struggles that preoccupied secular philosophy. Bishop Berkeley's famous ] refutation of ] is a case of an Enlightenment philosopher who drew substantially from religious ideas. Other influential religious thinkers of the time include ], ], and ]. Other major writers, such as ] and ], took a slightly different path. The restricted interests of many of the philosophers of the time foreshadow the separation and specialization of different areas of philosophy that would occur in the twentieth century. | |||
{{Main|Metaphysics}} | |||
] in an ] decorated with hand-painted miniatures.]] | |||
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of ], such as existence, ] and their ], ], ] and ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Craig|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} }}</ref> There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.{{sfn|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section}} Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "]"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|pp=ix–x}} | |||
===Kantian philosophy and the rise of idealism=== | |||
] | |||
] wrote his '']'' (1781/1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism and establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Kant's intention with this work was to look at what we know and then consider what must be true about the way we know it. One major theme was that there are fundamental features of reality that escape our direct knowledge because of the natural limits of the human faculties.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kant, Immanuel|title=''Critique of Pure Reason''|publisher=Prometheus Books|date=1990}} ISBN 0-87975-596-2</ref> Kant's method was modeled on ], though he eventually acknowledged that pure reason was insufficient to discover all truth. Kant's work was continued in the work of ], ], and ]. | |||
Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Craig|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Gracia|1999|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
Kant's philosophy, known as ], would later be made more abstract and more general, in the movement known as ], a type of ]. German idealism rose to popularity with ]'s publication in 1807 of '']''. In that work, Hegel asserts that the aim of philosophy is to spot the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the recognition of the self as both an active, subjective witness and a passive object in the world) and to get rid of these contradictions by making them compatible. Hegel wrote that every thesis creates its own antithesis, and that out of the two arises a synthesis. This process is known as the "Hegelian ]". Philosophers in the Hegelian tradition include ], ], ], and sometimes the ]. | |||
An important area in metaphysics is ]. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like ], ], and reality. It studies the ] and asks what exists on the most fundamental level.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Haaparanta|Koskinen|2012|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Fiet|2022|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} |4={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Another subfield of metaphysics is ]. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} |2={{harvnb|Coughlin|2012|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
===American Pragmatism=== | |||
]]] | |||
{{main|Pragmatism}} | |||
A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as ]s and ]s) and ] (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of ]. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} According to one view, entities have ] and ]. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Robertson Ishii|Atkins|2023|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p=}} }}</ref> A central distinction in metaphysics is between ]s and ]. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=683}} |2={{harvnb|Kuhlmann|2010|loc=Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien}} }}</ref> Other metaphysical questions are whether the past ] the present and what implications this would have for the existence of ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kane|2009|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Kane|2013|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
The late nineteenth century brought about the rise of a new philosophy in the Americas. ] and ] are considered to be the co-founders of loosely allied schools of ], which introduced what would later be called ], the idea that what is important for a good theory is how useful it is, not how well it represents reality. Thinkers in this tradition included ], ], and ]. Though not widely recognized under the term "pragmatist", philosophers like ] and ] shared many of the same foundational assumptions with the pragmatists. Pragmatism has recently been taken in new directions by ] and ]. | |||
=== |
=== Other major branches === | ||
{{See also|List of philosophies}} | |||
]]] | |||
There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Stambaugh|1987|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Phillips|2010|p=16}} |3={{harvnb|Ramos|2004|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Shand|2004|pp=}} }}</ref> | |||
] and the early ] were interested in the ]. Husserl's work ''Philosophy of Arithmatic'', inspired by the teachings of ], hoped to show that ''the concept of the ]'' was the foundation of ]. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Willard, Dallas|title=Husserl on a Logic that Failed|journal=Philosophical Review|pages=52-53|volume=89|issue=1}}</ref> The prospects for this project dwindled as Husserl entertained more and more doubts in the final chapters of that same work, culminating in the abandonment of the project by the 1890s. Husserl's philosophical change may have been helped along to a modest extent by Frege's critiques of ]. Frege's own work, the ''Begriffsschrift'', developed the concepts of modern ] by making use of the notions of the ''object'' and the ''function'', and which would provide one alternative to psychologistic accounts of number. | |||
] in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of ] and other aesthetic properties, like ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Janaway|2005|p=9|loc=Aesthetics, History Of}} }}</ref> Although it is often treated together with the ], aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Nanay|2019|p=4}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} }}</ref> In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and ]".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kelly|1998|p=ix}} |2={{harvnb|Riedel|1999}} }}</ref> A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Sartwell|2022|loc=}} }}</ref> Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and ]. Further topics include the essence of ] and the processes involved in creating them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=}} }}</ref> | |||
Frege, and to a lesser extent, Husserl, influenced the logicians ] and ]. After the latters published '']'' (1910-1913), many philosophers took a renewed interest in the problems of ]. With this increased interest in mathematical logic came the rise in popularity for the view known as ] and related theories, all of which shared a commitment to the reliability of empirical tests. Philosophers such as ] and ], along with the members of the ] in general, considered only verifiable claims to be genuine philosophy; anything that could not be deduced from testable claims was considered mere superstition or dogma. ]'s insistence upon the role of falsification in the philosophy of science was a reaction to the logical positivists. <ref>{{cite book|author=Popper, Karl R.|title=''The Logic of Scientific Discovery''|publisher=Routledge|date=2002}} ISBN 0-415-27844-9 </ref> | |||
The ] studies the nature and function of ]. It examines the concepts of ], ], and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human ] and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Language}} |2={{harvnb|Russell|Fara|2013|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in ] due to the works of ] and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal ] of sentences{{efn|The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.{{sfn|Birner|2012|p=}}}} and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Wolf|2023|loc=§§ 1.a-b, 3–4}} |2={{harvnb|Ifantidou|2014|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
===Phenomenology and hermeneutics=== | |||
]]] | |||
At the same time that the analytic movement was coming to prominence in America and Britain, a separate movement occurred in continental Europe. Under the influence of ], the later ] developed a new method to study human problems in his ''Logical Investigations'' (1901) and ''Ideas'' (1913). The method, known as ], was used to examine the details of human experience and consciousness in order to observe the most basic facts of human existence; the examination included not just observations of the way the world appears but observations of one's own thoughts, and when and how they occur. This method was developed further in the work of ] and ]. | |||
The ] studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2000|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Crumley|2006|pp=}} }}</ref> It aims to understand different types of ] and ] ], like ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ], and free will.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Mind}} |2={{harvnb|Heidemann|2014|p=}} }}</ref> An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The ] is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are ], which assumes that matter is more fundamental; ], which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and ], which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is ], which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 9, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weir|2023|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Shiraev|2010|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Polger|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The mind-body problem is closely related to the ], which asks how the physical brain can produce ]<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weisberg|loc=Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem}} }}</ref> | |||
Heidegger expanded the study of phenomenology to elaborate a philosophical ]. Hermeneutics is a method of interpreting texts by drawing out the meaning of the text in the context it was written in. Heidegger stressed two new elements of philosophical hermeneutics: that the reader brings out the meaning of the text in the present, and that the tools of hermeneutics can be used to interpret more than just texts (e.g. "social text"). <ref>{{cite book|author=Heidegger, Martin|title=Basic Writings : Second Edition, Revised and Expanded|publisher=Harper:SanFrancisco|date=1993}} ISBN 0-06-063763-3</ref> Elaborations of philosophical hermeneutics later came from ] and ]. | |||
The ] investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with ]. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the ], and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of ]s that reject religious doctrines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 5.2}} |2={{harvnb|Burns|2017|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} |4={{harvnb|Meister|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 1}} "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 5.1.1}} and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 6}} It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} }}</ref> It differs from ] since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bayne|2018|pp=1–2}} |2={{harvnb|Louth|Thielicke|2014}} }}</ref> | |||
===Existentialism=== | |||
{{main|Existentialism}} | |||
] | |||
The ] examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from ]. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} |2={{harvnb|Kitcher|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Losee|2001|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Wei|2020|p=}} |5={{harvnb|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=2–3}}}}</ref> Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=7}} "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=5}} and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"{{sfn|Papineau|2005|pp=855–856}} It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the ] and the philosophy of the ], with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Papineau|2005|p=852}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} }}</ref> | |||
In the mid-twentieth century, existentialism developed in Europe, particularly in France and Germany. The most prominent exponent of existentialism is ], although existentialist thought received major impetus from the nineteenth century philosophers ] and ], both of whom pre-date existentialism and whose contributions extend beyond existentialist thought. | |||
] is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of ]. It investigates the nature and purpose of ] and compares its different forms.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2012|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|Bowle|Arneson|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |5={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=}} }}</ref> It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is ], rather than a form of simple violence.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} |2={{harvnb|Howard|2010|p=4}} }}</ref> In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and ].{{sfn|Wolff|2006|pp=1–2}} Other topics are ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from ], which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=}} }}</ref> Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Subfields of Ethics}} Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of Thought}} |2={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
Kierkegaard, a ] philosopher generally considered the "Father of Existentialism", argued that "truth is subjectivity", meaning that what is most important to an existing being are questions dealing with an individual's inner relationship to existence. Objective truths (e.g. mathematical truths) are important, but detached or observational modes of thought can never truly comprehend human experience. Kierkegaard postulated complex ethico-religious philosophical premises, based in part on the ]: the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious. <ref>{{cite book|author=Kierkegaard, Søren|title=''Fear and Trembling''|publisher=Penguin Classics|date=1986}} ISBN 0-14-044449-1</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kierkegaard, Søren|title=''Concluding Unscientific Postscript''|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=1992}} ISBN 0-691-02081-7</ref> Nietzsche postulated complex aesthetico-philosophical premises, based in part upon the concept of the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Nietzsche, Friedrich|title=''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''|publisher=Penguin Books|date=1961}} ISBN 0-14-044118-2 </ref> Existentialists sometimes view Nietzsche's thought as characteristic of existentialism, due to the manner in which it places high value in individualism and self-creation, or self-defining. | |||
== Methods == | |||
Drawing on these ideas, existentialism rejects the notion of a human essence, instead trying to draw out the ability of each person to live authentically, which is to say that each person is able to define and determine his or her own life. Sartre's expression of existentialism in '']'' (1943). Other influential existentialists include ], ], ] and ]. ], ], and other literary figures, although not usually considered philosophers, have also contributed greatly to this thought. | |||
{{main|Philosophical methodology}} | |||
Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McKeon|2002|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} }}</ref> A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the ] in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2010|loc=|p=9}} |2={{harvnb|Williamson|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Ichikawa|2011}} }}</ref> The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Nado|2017|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Dever|2016|loc=}} }}</ref> This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2010|loc=|pp=9–11}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|Dever|2016|pp=|loc=What Is Philosophical Methodology?}} }}</ref> | |||
Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=|loc=Introduction}} }}</ref> Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Williamson|2020}} |2={{harvnb|Singer|1974|pp=420–421}} |3={{harvnb|Venturinha|2013|p=}} |4={{harvnb|Walsh|Teo|Baydala|2014|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
=== The Analytic tradition === | |||
{{main|Analytic philosophy}} | |||
] | |||
The tenor of mid-twentieth century philosophy in Anglo- nations was not as united behind a major philosophical idea as it had been in the past. Still, a general philosophical method can be abstracted from the philosophy that was going on at the time. | |||
Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|p=915}}|{{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=}}|{{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=}}}}</ref> Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on ]. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ichikawa|2011}} |2={{harvnb|Reynolds|2010|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|EB Staff|2007}} }}</ref> It is similar to how ] approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} |2={{harvnb|Parker-Ryan|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|EB Staff|2022}} }}</ref> | |||
Analytic philosophy developed as a reaction against obscure, vague, and neologistic pronouncements by ] and his followers. In ], ] published his '']'', which gave a rigidly logical account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he understood most of the problems of philosophy as mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by clear thought. Years later he would reverse a number of his positions set out in the ''Tractatus'', as revealed by the content of his second major work, '']'' (1953). ''Investigations'' encouraged the development of "ordinary language philosophy", which was developed by ], ], and a few others. The "ordinary language philosophy" thinkers shared a common outlook with many older philosophers (], ], and ]), and it was the philosophical inquiry that characterized English-language philosophy for the second half of the twentieth century. Still, the clarity of meaning was understood to be of ultimate significance. | |||
] is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley to save a group of people.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Woollard|Howard-Snyder|2022|loc=§ 3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction}} |2={{harvnb|Rini|loc=§ 8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref>]] | |||
The implied outlook for "ordinary language philosophy" is that problems in one area of philosophy can be solved independently of problems in other areas of philosophy. Philosophy is thus not a unified whole but a set of unrelated problems. Great thinkers whose work indicates an acceptance of this general outlook include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and the continental thinker ]. | |||
Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to ]s, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Duignan|2009}} }}</ref> For example, they play an important role in ]s, which employ ] to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Goffi|Roux|2011|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|pp=915–916}} }}</ref> The method of ] also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a ] position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Daniels|2020|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Method of Reflective Equilibrium}} |3={{harvnb|Little|1984|pp=}} }}</ref> | |||
Since then, a plurality of new movements has passed through English-language philosophy. Drawing on the metaphilosophical observation made by Wittgenstein in his second major work, '']'', in which he notes that a good approach to philosophy must itself be based on a careful examination of the meaning of language, a new group of philosophers have adopted a methodological skepticism. This is seen most prominently in the work of ] and ] (but with ideas going back to ] and Whitehead). The group's concerns converge on the ideas of ], ] (in opposition to most of what is considered analytic philosophy), ], and the denial of Platonic ]. A number of other perspectives have branched out from Wittgenstein's legacy. One of these is the reworking of Arisottelian moral and political philosophy pioneered by ] and ], although most analytic philosophers currently working do not consider themselves affiliated with any particular school of thought and approach philosophy's problems in a more piecemeal manner than did their predecessors. | |||
Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McDermid|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> According to the ] as formulated by ], the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McDermid|loc=Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A Maxim}} |2={{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce}} }}</ref> | |||
== Ethics and political philosophy == | |||
===Human nature and political legitimacy === | |||
]]] | |||
From ancient times, and well beyond them, the roots of justification for political authority were inescapably tied to outlooks on human nature. In ''The Republic'', ] declared that the ideal society would be run by an aristocracy of ]s, since those best at philosophy are best able to realize the good. Even Plato, however, required philosophers to make their way in the world for many years before beginning their rule at the age of fifty. For ], humans are political animals (i.e. social animals), and governments are set up in order to pursue good for the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (]) was the highest form of community, it has the purpose of pursuing the highest good. Aristotle understood political power to be the result of natural inequalities in skill and virtue. Because of these differences, he favored an aristocracy of the able and virtuous. For Aristotle, the person cannot be complete unless he or she lives in a community. His two books, ''The Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''The Politics'', are meant to be read in that order. The first book addresses virtues/excellences in the person as a citizen; the second addresses the proper form of government to ensure virtuous (and thus complete) citizens. Both books deal with the essential role of justice as a necessary virtue in civic life. | |||
Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or ]. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Cogan|loc=Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction}} |2={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Smith|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?}} |4={{harvnb|Smith|loc=Lead Section, § 2.Phenomenological Method}} }}</ref> | |||
Two millennia later, ], rejected Aristotle's (and Thomas Aquinas') view as unrealistic. The ideal sovereign is not the embodiment of the moral virtues; rather the sovereign does what's successful and necessary rather than what's morally praiseworthy. ] also contested many elements of Aristotle's views. For Hobbes, human nature is essentially anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. Moreover, Hobbes argued, though people may have natural inequalities, these are trivial, since no particular talents or virtues that a person may have will make them safe from harm inflicted by others. For these reasons, Hobbes concluded that the state arises from common agreement to raise the community out of the state of nature. This can only be done by the establishment of a ], which (or who) is vested with complete control over the community, and is able to inspire awe and terror in its subjects.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hobbes, Thomas|title=''Leviathan''|publisher=Penguin Classics|date=1985}}</ref> | |||
] places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Fischer|Collins|2015|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Fisher|Sytsma|2023|loc=}} |3={{harvnb|Papineau|2023|loc=§ 2. Methodological Naturalism}} }}</ref> | |||
Many in the Enlightenment were unsatisfied with existing doctrines in political philosophy, which seemed to marginalize or neglect the possibility of a ] ]. One attempt to overturn these doctrines was that of ], who responded to Hobbes by claiming that a human is by nature a kind of "]", and that society and social contracts corrupt this nature. In his ] ] agreed with Hobbes that the nation-state was an efficient tool for raising humanity out of a deplorable state, but argued that the sovereign may become an abominable institution compared to the relatively benign unmodulated state of nature. <ref>{{cite book|author=Sigmund, Paul E.|title=''The Selected Political Writings of John Locke''|publisher=Norton|date=2005}} ISBN 0-393-96451-5</ref> | |||
== Relation to other fields == | |||
Following the doctrine of the ], due in part to the influence of ], appeals to human nature for political justification were weakened. Nevertheless, many political philosophers, especially ], still make use of some essential human nature as a basis for their arguments. | |||
Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an ] perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}} Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=}} }}</ref> | |||
The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In ], philosophical considerations related to ] affect issues like whether an ] is already a ] and under what conditions ] is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Bioethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} |4={{harvnb|Crary|2013|pp=321–322}} }}</ref> In relation to ] and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} }}</ref> | |||
===Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn=== | |||
] | |||
{{main|Consequentialism|Deontological ethics|Deontology|Virtue ethics}} | |||
One ] that has dominated the attention of ethicists in the history of the modern era has been between ] (the idea that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgement about that action) and ] (that decisions should be made solely or primarily by considering one's duties and the rights of others). | |||
Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.{{sfn|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=51–53}} This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on ] but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already ]. A closely connected problem is whether the available ] to decide between competing theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bird|2010|pp=5–6, 8–9}} |2={{harvnb|Rosenberg|2013|pp=}} }}</ref> Epistemological problems in relation to the ] include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person ] of a crime. A related issue in ] is how to ensure truth and ] when reporting on events.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}} | |||
] and ] are famous for propagating ], which is the idea that the fundamental moral rule is to strive toward the "greatest happiness for the greatest number". However, in promoting this idea they also necessarily promoted the broader doctrine of consequentialism: that is to say, the idea that the morally right thing to do in any situation is determined by the ''consequences'' of the actions under consideration. | |||
In the fields of ] and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether ] in the form of holy books and ]s of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Reason/Rationality}} |2={{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Dougherty|2014|pp=97–98}} }}</ref> | |||
In contrast to consequentialism, ] argued that moral principles were simply products of reason. Kant believed that the incorporation of consequences into moral deliberation was a deep mistake, since it would deny the necessity of practical maxims to the working of the will. According to Kant, reason requires that we conform our actions to the ], which is an absolute duty. An important 20th-century deontologist, ], argued for weaker forms of duties called ]. | |||
] is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement.]] | |||
More recent works have emphasized the role of character in ethics, a movement known as the ]. One strain of this movement followed the work of ]. Williams noted that rigid forms of both consequentialism and deontology demanded that people behave impartially. This, Williams argued, requires that people abandon their personal projects, and hence their personal ], in order to be considered moral. | |||
Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kakas|Sadri|2003|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Li|2014|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Nievergelt|2015|pp=v–vi}} }}</ref> Further fields influenced by philosophy include ], ], linguistics, ], and ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=332–37}} |2={{harvnb|Murphy|2018|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, Table of Contents}} |4={{harvnb|Frankena|Raybeck|Burbules|2002|loc=§ Definition}} }}</ref> The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.{{sfn|Cropper|1997}} | |||
In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} }}</ref> Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in ] laid the foundation for ] and played a role in the ] and the ].{{sfn|Bristow|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory}} Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the ] and the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Pipes|2020|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Wolff|Leopold|2021|loc=§ 9. Marx's Legacy}} |3={{harvnb|Shaw|2019|p=}} }}</ref> In India, ]'s ] shaped the ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Singh|2014|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Bondurant|1988|pp=23–24}} }}</ref> | |||
], in an influential paper, "Modern Moral Philosophy" (]), revived ], inspired by ], as an alternative to what was seen as the entrenched positions of Kantianism and consequentialism. Virtue ethics has since gained some adherence and has been defended by such philosophers as ], ] and ]. | |||
An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the ] movement through philosophers such as ], ], and ]. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of ], how it differs from ], and what role it plays in the formation of ]. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and ] and their implications with respect to the ] in ].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McAfee|2018|loc=Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements}} |2={{harvnb|Ainley|2005|pp=}} |3={{harvnb|Hirschmann|2008|pp=}} |4={{harvnb|McAfee|Garry|Superson|Grasswick|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism?}}}}</ref> | |||
==Applied philosophy== | |||
Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical applications. The most obvious applications are those in ] – ] in particular – and in ]. The political philosophies of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] have shaped and been used to justify the existence of governments and their actions. | |||
The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Jones|Bos|2007|p=}} |2={{harvnb|Rickles|2020|p=}} |3={{harvnb|Lockie|2015|pp=24–28}} }}</ref> | |||
In the field of the ], progressive education as championed by ] has had a profound impact on educational practices in the ] in the twentieth century. Descendents of this movement include the current ] efforts. ]'s political ] has had a profound effect on ], ] and ] in the 20th century, especially in the years around ]. | |||
== See also == | |||
Other important applications can be found in ], which aid in understanding the notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. The ] discusses the underpinnings of the ]. ] and ] examine the place of humans in the moral configuration of reality as a whole. ] can help to interpret discussions of ]. The work of ] | |||
{{Main|Outline of philosophy}} | |||
and ] shows how the philosophy of J.L. Austin can be used to guide the design of an electronic mail program. | |||
{{Portal|Philosophy}} | |||
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In general, the various "philosophies of..." such as the ], can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields. | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
Often philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not understood well enough to be its own branch of knowledge. What were once philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields of ], ], ], and ] (among others). | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==Confines of Philosophy== | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
What should, and what should not, be counted as philosophy – and who counts as a philosopher – has been heavily debated. Historically, philosophy has been associated with certain subjects. Still, the search continues for a pattern which unites the disparate philosophical activities and interests of those who study those subjects. A handful of candidate explanations can nevertheless be assembled. <ref>{{cite book|author=Ducasse, Curt|url=http://www.ditext.com/ducasse/ducasse.html|title=''Philosophy as a Science''|date=1941}}</ref> | |||
{{colend}} | |||
Metaphilosophical ]s may claim that any statement can be counted as a philosophical statement, as there is no objective way to disqualify it of being so. Also, the very open-minded nature of philosophy makes many people skeptical when it comes to limiting the concept of philosophy to something tangible and not something open-ended. However, several philosophers or philosophical directions have had ideas about what philosophy is and what it should not be. | |||
], or the protagonist in his dialogues, ], held up a number of virtues for philosophers. Amongst other things, he rejected that ] had a place in philosophy (most famously in ]). | |||
The ] denied the soundness of ] and traditional philosophy, and affirmed that statements about ], ] and ] are devoid of ] and thus nothing but expression of feelings or desires. | |||
What constitutes sound philosophical work is sometimes summed up by the term ]. Also, it is often agreed upon that arguments should try to follow the rules of ] and avoid ]. It has also been argued that the ] should be followed as closely as the subject-matter allows. If a branch of philosophy at some point fully can start following the norms of the ], it is no longer termed philosophy, but ]. {{fact}} | |||
Disparaging terms have been created in order to provide examples of non-philosophers and non-philosophy. "]" is used to describe those activities which are not associated with a sensible kind of inquiry, and "]" is a term used to describe those who engage in pseudophilosophy. | |||
==Philosophers on Philosophy== | |||
What is philosophy? Some would respond by listing its major subfields such as logic, ethics, and epistemology; on the other hand, it has also been said that "philosophy is the study of its own history" (viz., its own ]). However, some noted philosophers have attempted to address these issues central to philosophy's subject matter and how it is treated: | |||
{{Quotation|... is the acquisition of knowledge.|], ''Euthydemus'', 288d.}} | |||
{{Quotation|... philosophy only is the true one which reproduces most faithfully the statements of ], and is written down, as it were, from nature's dictation, so that it is nothing but a copy and a reflection of nature, and adds nothing of its own, but is merely a repetition and echo.|]|The Enlargement of Science'', 1. 2, ch. 3'}} | |||
{{Quotation|To repeat abstractly, universally, and distinctly in ]s the whole inner nature of the ], and thus to deposit it as a reflected image in permanent concepts always ready for the faculty of ], this and nothing else is philosophy.|]|]'', Vol. I, §68'}} | |||
{{Quotation|Philosophy is the science by which the natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all things – is, in other words, the science of things in their first causes, in so far as these belong to the natural order.|]|An Introduction to Philosophy'', 69'}} | |||
{{Quotation|Bertrand Russell: "The point of philosophy is to start with something so simple as to seem not worth stating, and to end with something so paradoxical that no one will believe it." |]|Pi in the Sky, 1992, p. 188}} | |||
{{Quotation|The object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory but an activity. A philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is not a number of ‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions clear. Philosophy should make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise are, as it were, opaque and blurred.|]|]'', 4.112'}} | |||
{{Quotation|... are not honest enough in their work, although they make a lot of virtuous noise when the problem of truthfulness is touched even remotely. They all pose as if they had discovered and reached their real opinions through the self-development of a cold, pure, divinely unconcerned dialectic...; while at bottom it is an assumption, a hunch, indeed a kind of “inspiration”—most often a desire of the heart that has been filtered and made abstract—that they defend with reasons they have sought after the fact.|]|]'', Part One: On the Prejudices of Philosophers, §5'}} | |||
{{Quotation|To grasp the limits of reason – only ''this'' is truly philosophy.|]| ]'', §55}} | |||
{{Quotation|Philosophy, being nothing but the study of wisdom and truth...|]|]'', Introduction, §1'}} | |||
{{Quotation|...for wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy begins in wonder.|]|]'', 155}} | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
=== Notes === | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
<references /> | |||
</div> | |||
==Further reading== | |||
=== Introductions === | |||
<div class=";references-small"> | |||
*]. ''Thinking it Through - An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy'', 2003, ISBN 0-19-513458-3 | |||
*Blumenau, Ralph. ''Philosophy and Living''. ISBN 0-907845-33-9 | |||
*Craig, Edward. ''Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction''. ISBN 0-19-285421-6 | |||
*Curley, Edwin, ''A Spinoza Reader'', Princeton, 1994, ISBN 0-691-00067-0 | |||
*Harrison-Barbet, Anthony. ''Mastering Philosophy''. ISBN 0-333-69343-4 | |||
*Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. ''A Short History of Philosophy''. ISBN 0-19-510196-0 | |||
*Russell, Bertrand. ''''. ISBN 0-19-511552-X | |||
*Sober, E. (2001). ''Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings''. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-189869-8 | |||
*Solomon, Robert C. ''Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy''. ISBN 0-534-16708-X | |||
*Warburton, Nigel. ''Philosophy: The Basics''. ISBN 0-415-14694-1 | |||
*. | |||
*. | |||
*. | |||
*, an introductory philosophy course currently offered by the Academe of Philosophical Studies at the University of No Where. Check back often for lectures, essays, articles, and other updates. | |||
</div> | |||
===Topical introductions=== | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
*Copleston, Frederick. ''Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev''. ISBN 0-268-01569-4 | |||
*Critchley, Simon. ''Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction''. ISBN 0-19-285359-7 | |||
*Hamilton, Sue. ''Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction''. ISBN 0-19-285374-0 | |||
*Harwood, Sterling, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000); www.sterlingharwood.com | |||
*Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. ''An Introduction to African Philosophy''. ISBN 0-8476-8841-0 | |||
*Knight, Kelvin. ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre''. ISBN 0-7456-1977-0 | |||
*Kupperman, Joel J. ''Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts''. ISBN 0-19-513335-8 | |||
*Leaman, Oliver. ''A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy''. ISBN 0-7456-1960-6 | |||
*Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. ''Eastern Philosophy For Beginners''. ISBN 0-86316-282-7 | |||
*Nagel, Thomas. ''What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy''. ISBN 0-19-505292-7 | |||
*Scruton, Roger. ''A Short History of Modern Philosophy''. ISBN 0-415-26763-3 | |||
*Smart, Ninian. ''World Philosophies''. ISBN 0-415-22852-2 | |||
*Tarnas, Richard. ''The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View''. ISBN 0-345-36809-6 | |||
* | |||
* | |||
</div> | |||
===Anthologies=== | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
*''Philosophic Classics: From Plato to Derrida (4th Edition)'' by Forrest E. Baird | |||
*''Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1 & 2, 2nd edition)'' by Louis P. Pojman | |||
*''Classics of Philosophy: The 20th Century (Vol. 3)'' by Louis P. Pojman | |||
*''The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill'' by Edwin Arthur Burtt | |||
*''European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche'' by Monroe Beardsley | |||
*''Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings'' by James Baillie | |||
*''Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)'' by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom | |||
*''The Phenomenology Reader'' by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney | |||
*''Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings'' edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi | |||
*''A Source Book in Indian Philosophy'' by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore | |||
*''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy'' by ] | |||
*Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). ''Metaphysics: An Anthology''. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. | |||
*''The Oxford Handbook of Free Will'' (2004) edited by Robert Kane | |||
*Husserl, Edmund and Welton, Donn, ''The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology'', Indiana University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-253-21273-1 | |||
</div> | |||
=== Reference works === | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
*''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'' edited by Ted Honderich | |||
*''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'' by Robert Audi | |||
*''The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (also available online by subscription); or | |||
*''The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement) | |||
*''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (8 vols.) edited by Paul Edwards; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared which updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia. | |||
*''Routledge History of Philosophy'' (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon | |||
*''History of Philosophy'' (9 vols.) by ] | |||
*''A History of Western Philosophy'' (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones | |||
*''Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies'' (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al ('''first 6 volumes out of print''') | |||
*''Indian Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | |||
*''A History of Indian Philosophy'' (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta | |||
*''History of Chinese Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde | |||
*''Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy'' edited by Antonio S. Cua | |||
*''Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion'' by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs | |||
*''Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'' by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam | |||
*''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English'' by John A. Grimes | |||
*''History of Islamic Philosophy'' edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman | |||
*''History of Jewish Philosophy'' edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman | |||
*''A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries'' by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin | |||
*Ayer, A. J. et al. Ed. (1994) ''A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations''. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd. | |||
*Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)''The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy''. Oxford, Oxford University Press. | |||
*Mauter, T., Ed. ''The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy''. London, Penguin Books. | |||
*Runes, D., ED. (1942). . New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc. | |||
*Angeles, P. A., Ed. (1992). ''The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy''. New York, Harper Perennial. | |||
*Bunnin, N. et. al.,Ed.(1996) ''The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy''. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. | |||
*Popkin, R. H. (1999). ''The Columbia History of Western Philosophy''. New York, Columbia University Press. | |||
* | |||
</div> | |||
===Bibliographies=== | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
</div> | |||
==See also== | |||
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===Eras of Philosophy=== | |||
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== |
=== Citations === | ||
{{reflist|22em}} | |||
{{sisterlinks|Philosophy}} | |||
{{wikibookspar||Introduction to Philosophy}} | |||
{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Philosophy}} | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
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* in ''Sens Public'' (several languages) | |||
*{{dmoz|Society/Philosophy/}} | |||
===Bibliography=== | |||
{{Philosophy navigation}} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Bristow |first1=William |title=Enlightenment |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 September 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=11 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211080212/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Brown |first1=James Robert |last2=Fehige |first2=Yiftach |title=Thought Experiments |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 October 2021 |date=2019 |archive-date=21 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121022040/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Elizabeth |title=What Is This Thing Called Philosophy of Religion? |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-59546-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWU9DwAAQBAJ |access-date=21 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Chalmers |first1=David J. |title=Why Isn't There More Progress in Philosophy? |journal=Philosophy |date=2015 |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=3–31 |doi=10.1017/s0031819114000436 |hdl=1885/57201 |s2cid=170974260 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAWIT-15 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213124652/https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAWIT-15 |url-status=live |hdl-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Chamankhah |first1=Leila |title=The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World |date=2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-22692-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGtDwAAQBAJ |access-date=9 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Chambre |first1=Henri |last2=Maurer |first2=Armand |last3=Stroll |first3=Avrum |last4=McLellan |first4=David T. |last5=Levi |first5=Albert William |last6=Wolin |first6=Richard |last7=Fritz |first7=Kurt von |title=Western Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=30 May 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=13 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135159/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Chimakonam |first1=Jonathan O. |title=History of African Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=14 June 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605181437/https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Chimakonam |first1=Johnathan O. |last2=Ogbonnaya |first2= L. Uchenna |title=African Metaphysics, Epistemology and a New Logic |chapter=Toward an African Theory of Knowledge |year=2021 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8 |isbn=9783030724474}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Clark |first1=Kelly James |title=Religious Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=21 September 2022 |date=2022 |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921184650/https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Coetzee |first1=Pieter Hendrik |last2=Roux |first2=A. P. J. |title=The African Philosophy Reader |date=1998 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-18905-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iz90Qo8G_oC&pg=PA88 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Cogan |first1=John |title=Phenomenological Reduction, The |url=https://iep.utm.edu/phen-red/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404124423/https://www.iep.utm.edu/phen-red/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Colman |first1=Andrew M. |title=A Dictionary of Psychology |date=2009a |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953406-7 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095705926;jsessionid=A19D30BFCF6E02A0F21A87B805F10DEE |chapter=Declarative Knowledge |access-date=16 April 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330090713/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095705926;jsessionid=A19D30BFCF6E02A0F21A87B805F10DEE |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Copleston |first1=Frederick |title=History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome |date=2003 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-6895-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y08L-MC36JUC |access-date=25 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Cotterell |first1=Brian |title=Physics and Culture |date=2017 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-1-78634-378-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |access-date=25 August 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Coughlin |first1=John J. |title=Law, Person, and Community: Philosophical, Theological, and Comparative Perspectives on Canon Law |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-987718-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QPFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |title=Metaphysics |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/metaphysics/v-1 |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |access-date=15 July 2023 |date=1998 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801213535/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/metaphysics/v-1 |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Crary |first1=Alice |editor1-last=Petrus |editor1-first=Klaus |editor2-last=Wild |editor2-first=Markus |title=Animal Minds & Animal Ethics |date=2013 |publisher=transcript Verlag |isbn=978-3-8394-2462-9 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321/pdf |chapter=13. Eating and Experimenting on Animals |doi=10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |access-date=10 November 2023 }} | |||
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html |title=Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work |last=Cropper |first=Carol Marie |date=1997 |newspaper=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=2 May 2016 |archive-date=28 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128202946/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Crumley |first1=Jack S |title=A Brief Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind |date=2006 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-7212-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |access-date=19 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Cua |first1=Antonio S. |chapter=The Emergence of the History of Chinese Philosophy |editor1-last=Mou |editor1-first=Bo |title=History of Chinese Philosophy |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-00286-5 }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dalal |first1=Neil |title=Śaṅkara |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 June 2023 |date=2021 |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127111736/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Christopher |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-34455-7 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 |chapter=Introduction and Historical Overview |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1057/9781137344557_1 |doi-broken-date=3 December 2024 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501081115/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Christopher |title=An Introduction to Philosophical Methods |date=2010 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-55111-934-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ |chapter=Introduction |access-date=7 June 2022 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Daniels |first1=Norman |title=Reflective Equilibrium |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=28 February 2022 |date=2020 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222215102/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Davis |first1=Bret W. |title=The Kyoto School |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 November 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928152229/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Defoort |first1=Carine |last2=Standaert |first2=Nicolas |title=The Mozi as an Evolving Text: Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-23434-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdl0smlDVtEC |access-date=21 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Dehsen |first1=Christian von |title=Philosophers and Religious Leaders |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-95102-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ |access-date=28 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Dellsén |first1=Finnur |last2=Lawler |first2=Insa |last3=Norton |first3=James |title=Thinking about Progress: From Science to Philosophy |journal=Noûs |date=2021 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=814–840 |doi=10.1111/nous.12383 |s2cid=235967433 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/2836808 |hdl-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Dever |first1=Josh |editor-first1=Herman |editor-first2=Tamar Szabó |editor-first3=John |editor-last1=Cappelen |editor-last2=Gendler |editor-last3=Hawthorne |chapter=What Is Philosophical Methodology? |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology |date=2016 |pages=3–24 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.34 |isbn=978-0-19-966877-9 |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205194742/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34 |url-status=live |publisher=Oxford University Press }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dittmer |first1=Joel |title=Ethics, Applied |url=https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=2 July 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601064729/https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Dougherty |first1=Trent |title=Faith, Trust, and Testimony |journal=Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue |date=2014 |pages=97–123 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672158.003.0005 |isbn=978-0-19-967215-8 }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |title=Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0385.xml |encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114239/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0385.xml |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley H. |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=22 January 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603000334/https://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley H. |title=Logical Reasoning |date=2020 |url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602004345/https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf |url-status=live }} (for an earlier version, see: {{cite book |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley H. |title=Logical Reasoning |date=1993 |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-534-17688-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzMQAQAAIAAJ |access-date=17 July 2023 |ref=none }}){{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Intuitionism (Ethics) |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intuitionism-ethics |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=28 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123948/https://www.britannica.com/topic/intuitionism-ethics |url-status=live |last1=Duignan |first1=Brian |date=2009 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Duignan |first1=Brian |title=Ancient Philosophy: From 600 BCE to 500 CE |date=2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc |isbn=978-1-61530-141-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC |access-date=30 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Duignan |editor1-first=Brian |title=The Science and Philosophy of Politics |date=2012 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-748-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ye-cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=21 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Chinese Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=12 June 2023 |date=2017 |archive-date=2 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502233005/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=History and Periods of Indian Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Indian-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=10 June 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=11 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611075241/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Indian-philosophy |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2023}} }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamic Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-philosophy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2020 |access-date=7 June 2023 |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607072850/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-philosophy |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2020}} }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Philosophy |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy |access-date=29 May 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=23 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223162559/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy |url-status=live |date=2023 |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2023a}} }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Philosophy of Common Sense |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-common-sense |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123948/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-common-sense |url-status=live |date=2007 |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2007}} }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ordinary Language Analysis |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ordinary-language-analysis |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=28 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123949/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ordinary-language-analysis |url-status=live |date=2022 |ref={{sfnref|EB Staff|2022}} }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Eder |first1=Anna-Maria A. |last2=Lawler |first2=Insa |last3=van Riel |first3=Raphael |title=Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny: Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods |journal=Synthese |date=2020 |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=915–923 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2 |s2cid=54631297 |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Espín |first1=Orlando O. |last2=Nickoloff |first2=James B. |title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies |date=2007 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA8 |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512559-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC |date=2003 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Eugen |last2=Collins |first2=John |title=Experimental Philosophy, Rationalism, and Naturalism: Rethinking Philosophical Method |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-50027-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Eugen |last2=Sytsma |first2=Justin |editor1-last=Bauer |editor1-first=Alexander Max |editor2-last=Kornmesser |editor2-first=Stephan |title=The Compact Compendium of Experimental Philosophy |date=2023 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-071702-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C83bEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9 |chapter=Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy |access-date=10 November 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Fiet |first1=James O. |title=The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship |date=2022 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-80037-147-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nK1jEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Flavel |first1=Sarah |last2=Robbiano |first2=Chiara |title=Key Concepts in World Philosophies: A Toolkit for Philosophers |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-16814-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q0KaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT279 |access-date=19 August 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Forrest |first1=Peter |title=The Epistemology of Religion |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 September 2022 |date=2021 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710182220/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Frankena |first1=William K. |last2=Raybeck |first2=Nathan |last3=Burbules |first3=Nicholas |contribution=Philosophy of Education |year=2002 |title=Encyclopedia of Education |edition=2nd |editor-last=Guthrie |editor-first=James W. |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865594-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=The Historiography of Philosophy |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884072-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cy9VEAAAQBAJ |access-date=24 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Gelan |first1=Victor Eugen |chapter=Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences |title=The Subject(s) of Phenomenology |date=2020 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-29357-4 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 |series=Contributions to Phenomenology |volume=108 |pages=97–105 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 |doi-broken-date=3 December 2024 |s2cid=213082313 |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302082534/http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Glenney |first1=Brian |last2=Silva |first2=José Filipe |title=The Senses and the History of Philosophy |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-73106-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ |access-date=16 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Goffi |first1=Jean-Yves |last2=Roux |first2=Sophie |author2-link=Sophie Roux |title=On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment |journal=Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts |date=2011 |pages=165–191 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35 |isbn=978-90-04-20177-4 |s2cid=260640180 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030152653/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Gorisse |first1=Marie-Hélène |title=Jaina Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 November 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217095842/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Gracia |first1=Jorge J. E. |title=Metaphysics and Its Task: The Search for the Categorial Foundation of Knowledge |date=1999 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4214-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrUkAQAAMAAJ |access-date=16 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Gracia |first1=Jorge J. E. |last2=Vargas |first2=Manuel |title=Latin American Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 November 2023 |date=2018 |archive-date=11 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611112950/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Graham |first1=Jacob N. |title=Ancient Greek Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=25 May 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825215433/https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/ |url-status=live }} | |||
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* {{cite journal |last1=Reynolds |first1=Jack |title=Common Sense and Philosophical Methodology: Some Metaphilosophical Reflections on Analytic Philosophy and Deleuze |journal=The Philosophical Forum |date=2010 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=231–258 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30061043 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x |issn=0031-806X |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307124917/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x |url-status=live |hdl-access=free }} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Rini |first1=Regina A. |title=Morality and Cognitive Science |url=https://iep.utm.edu/m-cog-sc/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907173628/https://iep.utm.edu/m-cog-sc/ |url-status=live }} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Robertson Ishii |first1=Teresa |last2=Atkins |first2=Philip |title=Essential vs. Accidental Properties |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/essential-accidental/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=16 July 2023 |date=2023 |at=Lead Section |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710185333/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/essential-accidental/ |url-status=live }} | |||
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* {{cite book |last1=Vallely |first1=Anne |chapter=Jainism |editor-last1=Juergensmeyer |editor-first1=Mark |editor-last2=Roof |editor-first2=Wade Clark |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |date=2012 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-0-7619-2729-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B105DQAAQBAJ |access-date=10 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=van Inwagen |first1=Peter |last2=Sullivan |first2=Meghan |last3=Bernstein |first3=Sara |title=Metaphysics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 September 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=16 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916103726/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Van Norden |first1=Bryan |title=Wang Yangming |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/#Infl |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 August 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501042635/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/#Infl |url-status=live }} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329200504/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |url-status=live }} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas |title=Formal and Informal Logic |editor-last1=Craig |editor-first1=Edward |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Wei |first1=Wang |title=Philosophy of Science: An Introduction to the Central Issues |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-54231-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2wNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |access-date=21 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wei-Ming |first1=Tu |title=Self-cultivation in Chinese Philosophy |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/self-cultivation-in-chinese-philosophy/v-1 |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |access-date=20 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820081451/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/self-cultivation-in-chinese-philosophy/v-1 |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Weir |first1=Ralph Stefan |title=The Mind-Body Problem and Metaphysics: An Argument From Consciousness to Mental Substance |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-91432-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUXAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |access-date=19 July 2023 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wolf |first=Michael P. |year=2023 |title=Philosophy of Language |encyclopedia=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/ |access-date=13 July 2023 |archive-date=15 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615132016/https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wolff |first1=Jonathan |last2=Leopold |first2=David |title=Karl Marx |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 September 2023 |date=2021 |archive-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116010243/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Wolff |first=Jonathan |year=2006 |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy |edition=Rev. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965801-5 }} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Woollard |first1=Fiona |last2=Howard-Snyder |first2=Frances |title=Doing vs. Allowing Harm |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/doing-allowing/#TrolProb |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 September 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005193642/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/doing-allowing/#TrolProb |url-status=live }} | |||
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Latest revision as of 09:16, 3 December 2024
Study of general and fundamental questions For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation).
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Philosophers | ||||||
Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.
Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.
Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.
Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.
Etymology
The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek words φίλος (philos) 'love' and σοφία (sophia) 'wisdom'. Some sources say that the term was coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras, but this is not certain.
The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".
Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of rational inquiry, such as the individual sciences, as its subdisciplines. For instance, natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy. This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology. An example of this usage is the 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.
The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and mathematics.
Conceptions of philosophy
See also: MetaphilosophyGeneral conception
The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions. It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.
The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense. For example, Socrates stated that "the unexamined life is not worth living" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence. And according to Bertrand Russell, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."
Academic definitions
Main article: Definitions of philosophyAttempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial and are studied in metaphilosophy. Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term. Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions. Such an approach is pursued by Immanuel Kant, who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?" Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, such as W. V. O. Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations. Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences. This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".
Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language. According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts. Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature. A further approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ordinary language.
Phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating essences. They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.
An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities. This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life. For example, the Stoics saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve eudaimonia and flourish in life.
History
Main article: History of philosophyAs a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines. Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant. The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.
Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Other philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.
Western
Main article: Western philosophyWestern philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole. The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act, how to arrive at knowledge, and what the nature of reality and mind is. The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism. The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines.
The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. Humanism also emerged in this period. The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience. Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities. Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by German idealism and Marxism. Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic, the focus on the role of language as well as pragmatism, and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology, existentialism, and post-structuralism. The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions. There was also a noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers, but they still remained underrepresented.
Arabic–Persian
Main articles: Islamic philosophy and Iranian philosophyArabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran.
Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith. Avicenna (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight. Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned. Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period. The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism, which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.
Indian
Main article: Indian philosophyOne of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment. It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. They are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions. This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to liberate oneself from suffering. Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who emphasized non-violence as well as respect toward all forms of life.
The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism: Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It was systematized by Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE), who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion. A slightly different perspective was defended by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE), who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity. He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement, which taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE. The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought. Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.
Chinese
Main article: Chinese philosophyChinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation. Many schools of thought emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism was founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society. Daoism was founded by Laozi (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the Dao or the natural order of the universe. Other influential early schools of thought were Mohism, which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism, and Legalism, which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.
Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into new forms of Buddhism. Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of Xuanxue emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations. Neo-Confucianism developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics. The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of Chinese Marxism—which focused on class struggle, socialism, and communism—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape. Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism, which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.
Other traditions
Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous Shinto religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination. Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following Edo period and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world. The Kyoto School emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (zettai-mu), place (basho), and the self.
Latin American philosophy in the pre-colonial period was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans. It has similarities to indigenous North American philosophy, which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things. Latin American philosophy during the colonial period, starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of scholasticism. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were positivism, the philosophy of liberation, and the exploration of identity and culture.
Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like Ubuntu. Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as ethnophilosophy, négritude, pan-Africanism, Marxism, postcolonialism, the role of cultural identity, relativism, African epistemology, and the critique of Eurocentrism.
Core branches
See also: Outline of philosophy § Branches of philosophy, and Outline of philosophy § Philosophical schools of thoughtPhilosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches. There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects. Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.
Epistemology
Main article: EpistemologyEpistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality. Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"
Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and knowledge by acquaintance, for example, knowing a celebrity personally.
One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem. Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of cognitive virtues instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.
Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony. According to empiricists, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like innate knowledge, are not acquired through experience. The regress problem is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning. Foundationalists avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves. Another solution is presented by coherentists, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.
Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.
Ethics
Main article: EthicsEthics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right conduct. It is also concerned with the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life. Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"
The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like right action and obligation. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them. Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.
Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics are influential schools of thought. Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is utilitarianism, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty.
Logic
Main article: LogicLogic is the study of correct reasoning. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad arguments. It is usually divided into formal and informal logic. Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.
Logic examines a variety of arguments. Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference, like modus ponens, which has the following logical form: "p; if p then q; therefore q". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".
The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true. One form is inductive reasoning. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens. Another form is abductive reasoning. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.
Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called fallacies and are divided into formal and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.
Metaphysics
Main article: MetaphysicsMetaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, space and time, events, and causation. There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages. Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "Why is there something rather than nothing?"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"
Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.
An important area in metaphysics is ontology. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like being, becoming, and reality. It studies the categories of being and asks what exists on the most fundamental level. Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical cosmology. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.
A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as souls and experiences) and abstract entities (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of identity. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity. According to one view, entities have essential and accidental features. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature. A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects. Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will.
Other major branches
See also: List of philosophiesThere are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.
Aesthetics in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and other aesthetic properties, like the sublime. Although it is often treated together with the philosophy of art, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty. In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature". A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience. Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments. Further topics include the essence of works of art and the processes involved in creating them.
The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language. It examines the concepts of meaning, reference, and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human thought and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics. The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal truth conditions of sentences and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with speech act theory.
The philosophy of mind studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world. It aims to understand different types of conscious and unconscious mental states, like beliefs, desires, intentions, feelings, sensations, and free will. An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The mind-body problem is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are materialism, which assumes that matter is more fundamental; idealism, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and dualism, which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is functionalism, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play. The mind-body problem is closely related to the hard problem of consciousness, which asks how the physical brain can produce qualitatively subjective experiences.
The philosophy of religion investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with religion. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the divine, and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of worldviews that reject religious doctrines. Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?"; "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?"; and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?" It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy. It differs from theology since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.
The philosophy of science examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from pseudoscience. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science. Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?"; "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?"; and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?" It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the natural sciences and the philosophy of the social sciences, with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.
Political philosophy is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of politics. It investigates the nature and purpose of government and compares its different forms. It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is legitimate, rather than a form of simple violence. In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and legal rights. Other topics are justice, liberty, equality, sovereignty, and nationalism. Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from political science, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states. Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics. Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are liberalism, conservativism, socialism, and anarchism.
Methods
Main article: Philosophical methodologyMethods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories. A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment. The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them. This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence.
Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend. Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.
Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts. Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue. It is similar to how ordinary language philosophy approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.
Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles. For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories. The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.
Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true. According to the pragmatic maxim as formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.
Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or epoché. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.
Methodological naturalism places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.
Relation to other fields
Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an interdisciplinary perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope. Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.
The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In medicine, philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a person and under what conditions abortion is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for research experiments. In relation to business and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of corporate social responsibility.
Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs. This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already include theoretical assumptions. A closely connected problem is whether the available evidence is sufficient to decide between competing theories. Epistemological problems in relation to the law include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime. A related issue in journalism is how to ensure truth and objectivity when reporting on events.
In the fields of theology and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether revelation in the form of holy books and religious experiences of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.
Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and computer science. Further fields influenced by philosophy include psychology, sociology, linguistics, education, and the arts. The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.
In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just. Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution. In India, Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence movement.
An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the feminist movement through philosophers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone de Beauvoir, and Judith Butler. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of gender, how it differs from biological sex, and what role it plays in the formation of personal identity. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and equality and their implications with respect to the prejudicial treatment of women in male-dominated societies.
The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.
See also
Main article: Outline of philosophy- List of important publications in philosophy
- List of philosophical problems
- List of philosophy awards
- List of philosophy journals
- List of years in philosophy
- Lists of philosophers
References
Notes
- The Ancient Greek philosophos ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the Ancient Egyptian term mer-rekh (mr-rḫ) meaning 'lover of wisdom'.
- The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.
- These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.
- The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.
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- Kenny 2018, p. 20
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- Martinich & Stroll 2023, Lead Section, The Nature of Epistemology
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- Truncellito, Lead Section
- Greco 2021, Article Summary
- Mulvaney 2009, p. ix.
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- Steup & Neta 2020, Lead Section, 2. What Is Knowledge?
- Truncellito, Lead Section, 1. Kinds of Knowledge
- Colman 2009a, Declarative Knowledge
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- Martinich & Stroll 2023, The Nature of Knowledge
- Truncellito, Lead Section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge
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- Ichikawa & Steup 2018, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 11. Knowledge First
- Truncellito, § 2d. The Gettier Problem
-
- Steup & Neta 2020, 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification
- Truncellito, Lead Section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge
-
- Steup & Neta 2020, 4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification
- Truncellito, 3. The Nature of Justification
- Olsson 2021, Lead Section, § 1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism.
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- Steup & Neta 2020, 6. The Limits of Cognitive Success
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- Audi 2006, pp. 325–326
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- Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
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- Nagel 2006, pp. 390–391
- Sayre-McCord 2023, Lead Section
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- Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
- Barsky 2009, p. 3
- Jeanes 2019, p. 66
- Nagel 2006, pp. 379–380, 390–391
-
- Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
- Nagel 2006, pp. 382, 386–388
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- Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics
- Nagel 2006, pp. 382, 386–388
- Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2022, 1.2 Practical Wisdom
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- Hintikka 2019
- Haack 1978, Philosophy of Logics
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- Blair & Johnson 2000, pp. 94–96
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- Velleman 2006, pp. 8, 103
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- Dowden 2020, pp. 432, 470
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- Vickers 2022
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- Douven 2022
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- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023
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- Audi 2006, § Metaphysics
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- Lowe 2005, p. 683
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- Nanay 2019, p. 4
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- Kelly 1998, p. ix
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- Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Language
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- Wolf 2023, §§ 1.a-b, 3–4
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- Lowe 2000, pp. 1–2
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- Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Mind
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- Taliaferro 2023, Lead Section, § 5.2
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- Taliaferro 2023, § 6.
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- Taliaferro 2023, Introduction
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- Bayne 2018, pp. 1–2
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- Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Science
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- McKeon 2002, Lead Section, § Summation
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- Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 3–5, Introduction
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- Daly 2010, pp. 9–11, Introduction
- Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 3, Introduction
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- Daly 2015, pp. 1–2, 5, Introduction and Historical Overview
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- Daly 2015, pp. 11–12, Introduction and Historical Overview
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- Brown & Fehige 2019, Lead Section
- Goffi & Roux 2011, pp. 165, 168–169
- Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, pp. 915–916
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- Daly 2015, pp. 12–13, Introduction and Historical Overview
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- McDermid, Lead Section
- Legg & Hookway 2021, Lead Section
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- McDermid, Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A Maxim
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- Cogan, Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction
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- Fischer & Collins 2015, p. 4
- Fisher & Sytsma 2023, Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy
- Papineau 2023, § 2. Methodological Naturalism
- ^ Audi 2006, pp. 332–337.
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- Tuomela 1985, p. 1
- Grant 2007, p. 303
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- Dittmer, Lead Section, § 3. Bioethics
- Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5
- Uniacke 2017, pp. 34–35
- Crary 2013, pp. 321–322
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- Dittmer, Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics
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- Uniacke 2017, pp. 34–35
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- Bird 2010, pp. 5–6, 8–9
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- Kakas & Sadri 2003, p. 588
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- Nievergelt 2015, pp. v–vi
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- Audi 2006, pp. 332–37
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- Pipes 2020, p. 29
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