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Assyrians
ܐܵܫܘܿܪܵܝܹܐ‎ Ashuraye

Ethnic flag used by most Assyrians
Total population
3.3–5 million
Regions with significant populations
Assyrian homeland:	Numbers can vary
Iraq	142,000–200,000
Syria	200,000–877,000 (pre-Syrian civil war)
Turkey	25,000
Iran	7,000–17,000
Diaspora:	Numbers can vary
United States	600,000
Sweden	150,000
Germany	70,000–100,000
Jordan	30,000–150,000
Australia	61,000 (2020 est.)
Lebanon	50,000
Netherlands	25,000–35,000
Canada	19,685
France	16,000
Russia	14,000
Greece	6,000
Armenia	2,769–6,000
Austria	2,500–5,000
United Kingdom	3,000–4,000
Georgia	3,299
Palestine	1,500–5,000
Ukraine	3,143
New Zealand	1,497
Israel	1,000
Denmark	700
Kazakhstan	350
Finland	300
Languages
Neo-Aramaic languages (Suret, Turoyo), Classical Syriac (liturgical), Akkadian (in antiquity), Sumerian (in antiquity)
Religion
Predominantly Syriac Christianity Minority Protestantism and Judaism

Assyrians (Assyrian: ܐܵܫܘܿܪܵܝܹܐ‎, romanized: Āšūrāyē or ܐܵܬܘܿܪܵܝܹܐ‎, romanized: Āṯūrāyē ) are an indigenous ethnic group native to Assyria, a geographical region in West Asia. Modern Assyrians descend from their ancient counterparts, originating from the ancient indigenous Mesopotamians of Akkad and Sumer, who first developed the civilisation in northern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) that would become Assyria in 2600 BCE. Modern Assyrians may culturally self-identify as Syriacs, Chaldeans, or Arameans for religious, geographic, and tribal identification.

Assyrians speak Akkadian-influenced Aramaic (Suret, Turoyo), one of the oldest continuously spoken and written languages and one of the oldest alphabetically written languages in the world. Aramaic has influenced Hebrew, Arabic, and some parts of Mongolian and Uighur. Aramaic was the lingua franca of West Asia and the language spoken by Jesus Christ.

Assyrians are almost exclusively Christian, with most adhering to the East and West Syriac liturgical rites of Christianity. The churches that constitute the East Syriac rite include the Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, and the Ancient Church of the East, whereas the churches of the West Syriac rite are the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Syriac Catholic Church. Both rites use Classical Syriac as their liturgical language.

The ancestral indigenous lands that form the Assyrian homeland are those of ancient Mesopotamia and the Zab rivers, a region currently divided between modern-day Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, and northeastern Syria. A majority of modern Assyrians have migrated to other regions of the world, including North America, the Levant, Australia, Europe, Russia and the Caucasus. Emigration was triggered by genocidal events such as the massacres in Hakkari, the massacres of Diyarbekır, the Assyrian genocide (concurrent with the Armenian and Greek genocides) during World War I by the Ottoman Empire and allied Kurdish tribes, the Simele massacre, the Iranian Revolution, Arab Nationalist Ba'athist policies in Iraq (between the years 1968–2003) and in Syria the take over by Islamic State of many parts in Syria and Iraq, particularly the Nineveh Plains between 2014–2017. Events such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq by United States and its allies, and the Syrian civil war, which began in 2011, have displaced much of the remaining Assyrian community from their homeland as a result of ethnic and religious persecution at the hands of Islamic extremists. Of the one million or more Iraqis reported by the United Nations to have fled Iraq since the occupation, nearly 40% were indigenous Assyrians, even though Assyrians accounted for only around 3% of the pre-war Iraqi demography.

The emergence of the Islamic State and the occupation of a significant portion of the Assyrian homeland resulted in another major wave of Assyrian displacement. The Islamic State was driven out from the Assyrian villages in the Khabour River Valley and the areas surrounding the city of Al-Hasakah in Syria by 2015, and from the Nineveh Plains in Iraq by 2017. In 2014, the Nineveh Plain Protection Units was formed and many Assyrians joined the force to defend themselves. The organization later became part of Iraqi Armed forces and played a key role in liberating areas previously held by the Islamic State during the War in Iraq. In northern Syria, Assyrian groups have been taking part both politically and militarily in the Kurdish-dominated but multiethnic Syrian Democratic Forces (see Khabour Guards and Sutoro) and Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria.

History

Modern Assyrian language derives from ancient Aramaic, part of the Northwest Semitic languages. Around 700 BC, Aramaic slowly replaced Akkadian in Assyria, Babylonia and the Levant. Widespread bilingualism among Assyrian nationals was already present before the fall of the Empire. The Aramaic that the modern Assyrians speak differs from the Aramaic of the Arameans. The ancient Assyrians created Imperial Aramaic, a language used for unifying the different peoples living under their control. The modern language (Suret, Turoyo), the successor of the ancient Aramaic created by the ancient Assyrians, is still spoken by modern Assyrians, unlike Western Aramaic, which the modern Arameans speak. The Akkadian language has influenced the Aramaic that the modern Assyrians speak.

Origins

The Assyrian lineage, deeply rooted in the annals of Mesopotamian history, finds its origins intertwined with the Akkadian Empire. Established by Sargon the Great around 2334 BCE, the Akkadian Empire marked a pivotal epoch. The city of Ashur, though not distinctly Assyrian then, began to rise in prominence within this empire, foreshadowing the emergence of Assyrian civilization. As the Akkadian Empire grappled with internal conflicts and external pressures, Ashur gradually gained autonomy, signifying the initiation of Assyria's unique trajectory.

Sargon the Great, an eminent ruler of the Akkadian Empire, left an indelible mark on the region. The Akkadian Empire's reign witnessed the Akkadian language becoming a lingua franca, fostering unity and communication across diverse regions. The Akkadian script, an early form of writing, gained prominence and was a precursor to the cuneiform script that would later be central to Assyrian culture.

Old Assyrian Period

Around the 21st century BCE, the Assyrians progressed into a formidable empire, displaying early signs of statehood and organizational sophistication. Trade flourished under their influence, establishing robust connections with Anatolia, the Levant, and Kanesh (present-day Turkey), thus playing a pivotal role in the economic landscape of the region.

The Assyrians' economic prowess bolstered their influence and set the stage for the expansive empires that would follow. The Old Assyrian Empire showcased a burgeoning Assyrian identity, characterized by a sense of unity and burgeoning cultural distinctiveness. While not yet at the zenith of their power, the Assyrian people were laying the foundations of a civilization that would significantly impact the ancient world.

Middle Assyrian Empire

In the subsequent centuries, Assyria witnessed significant expansion and consolidation of power during the Middle Assyrian era. This era, marked by centralized governance, a fortified capital in Ashur, and an efficient taxation system, saw the Assyrians evolve into a military powerhouse. Rulers like Tiglath-Pileser I and Ashurnasirpal II notably advanced the empire, reaching its zenith.

The Assyrian military, famed for its discipline and innovations, was a symbol of Assyrian might and a crucial factor in their territorial expansion. The Middle Assyrian Empire was a testament to the Assyrians' administrative acumen, which facilitated effective governance and further bolstered their ascendancy.

Neo-Assyrian Empire

In the 10th century BCE, the Assyrians experienced a resurgence, marked by military conquests and administrative advancements during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Leaders like Tiglath-Pileser III, Shalmaneser V, and Sennacherib played pivotal roles in this resurgence, ultimately reaching its zenith under Ashurbanipal. This period witnessed the flourishing of Assyrian culture, characterized by remarkable achievements in art, architecture, and literature.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire became a superpower of the ancient world, known for its highly organized military campaigns and advanced administrative systems. The empire's capital, Nineveh, stood as a testament to their architectural prowess and administrative achievements, reflecting the grandeur of the empire.

Christian Era and Evolution of Assyrian Identity

As the 1st century CE unfolded, the Assyrian people found themselves at a crucial juncture as they transitioned into the Christian era. The kingdom of Osroene, particularly centered around Edessa (modern-day Şanlıurfa, Turkey), emerged as a notable buffer state and a center of early Christianity. Edessa played a critical role in early Christian theology and missionary work, significantly influencing the Assyrian identity.

The Assyrian population, deeply rooted in their culture, embraced Christianity. This transition heralded a new phase in the Assyrian narrative, intertwining their ancient heritage with the emerging Christian faith and shaping their identity for millennia to come. Christian beliefs and traditions became deeply ingrained, eventually becoming a defining characteristic of the Assyrian identity.

Christianity, with its teachings and growing communities, became an integral aspect of Assyrian life. Edessa, a significant center for theological and philosophical discourse, played a crucial role in the early Christian church. Assyrian Christians, while embracing their new faith, also retained elements of their ancient culture and traditions, showcasing a remarkable fusion of the old and the new.

The influence of Christianity expanded over the centuries, profoundly impacting the Assyrian way of life, societal structure, and cultural practices. Christian beliefs and traditions became deeply ingrained, eventually becoming a defining characteristic of the Assyrian identity.

As Christianity continued to spread and solidify its presence, it gradually supplanted Ashurism, the ancient Assyrian religion. Assyrian mythology, with its distinct pantheon and rituals, began to fade into history, leaving an indelible mark on Assyrian culture but slowly losing prominence.

Arab Conquests

In the 7th century, the Assyrian population experienced a significant historical transition during the Islamic conquests. The Arabian Peninsula, birthplace of Islam, witnessed the rise of the Islamic Caliphate under the leadership of Prophet Muhammad and his successors. The Arab armies swiftly expanded their territories, reaching into regions previously held by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.

The Assyrian heartland, part of the broader Mesopotamian region, came under the dominion of the rapidly expanding Islamic empire. This marked a new era for the Assyrian people as they encountered Arab rule and the influence of Islam. The conquests led to changes in governance, culture, and religious practices for the Assyrian population.

Under Arab rule, Assyrians were designated as "dhimmi," non-Muslim subjects living in an Islamic state, granting them a protected, albeit subordinate, status. They were required to pay a special tax called "jizya" and adhere to certain restrictions while practicing their Christian faith.

Despite the changes brought about by Arab conquest, Assyrian culture and identity endured, deeply rooted in their ancient heritage and Christian faith. Assyrians continued to contribute to the rich tapestry of the region's history, maintaining their distinctiveness while adapting to the evolving socio-political landscape.

This period represents a pivotal moment in the trajectory of Assyrian history, characterized by the encounter with Islam and the beginning of a new chapter in their millennia-long narrative.

The Mongol Conquest

In the 13th century, the expansive Mongol Empire, under the leadership of figures like Genghis Khan and their successors, extended its dominion over Assyrian settlements and territories. This expansion subjected the Assyrian populace to the disarray and ruthlessness accompanying conquests. The Mongol forces, employing severe tactics, sought to suppress and govern the local populations. Notably, key Assyrian cities, including the historically significant Ashur, revered in Assyrian culture, experienced extensive looting and devastation, leaving them in ruins.

This pattern of devastation and pillage was not limited to Ashur but encompassed several other Assyrian cities as the Mongol conquest swept across the region. The conquest disrupted the established societal order, resulting in displacements, loss of lives, and the erasure of communities with their distinct histories.

One such city that suffered immensely was Alqosh, another integral part of Assyrian heritage. The invading Mongol forces subjected Alqosh to extensive looting and destruction, further adding to the profound loss experienced by the Assyrian population.

Following the Mongol conquests, the Assyrian populace undertook the daunting endeavor of rebuilding their lives, communities, and cities. They demonstrated notable perseverance, ensuring the continuity of their cultural heritage into the subsequent eras. Despite facing substantial adversity and enduring the impact of Mongol conquests, the Assyrian people exhibited remarkable resilience, leaving a lasting imprint on historical records.

Ottoman Empire and World War I

During the 15th to the early 20th centuries, Assyrian communities found themselves under Ottoman rule, residing primarily in regions including present-day Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran. Their experiences varied widely, influenced by local conditions, governance, and the broader geopolitical landscape.

The Assyrian population within the empire maintained their distinct cultural identity, traditions, and language while adapting to the social and economic structures of the Ottoman Empire. They were recognized as a distinct millet, an autonomous religious community, and had their affairs regulated by their religious leaders and elders. Ottoman Empire's policies towards non-Muslim communities like the Assyrians fluctuated over time and across different rulers. At times, they faced discriminatory measures, heavy taxation, and occasional persecutions.

Sayfo

The late 19th and early 20th centuries brought significant challenges for the Assyrian population within the Ottoman Empire. As the empire started to decline, various minority groups, including Assyrians, found themselves caught in the midst of escalating tensions and conflicts.

During World War I, amidst the chaos of the war, Assyrians, alongside Armenians and Greeks, were subjected to mass atrocities and deportations. These tragic events, known as the Assyrian Genocide, led to the loss of a significant portion of the Assyrian population.

In the aftermath of World War I and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, Assyrian communities were dispersed across the Middle East and beyond. They faced challenges of displacement, loss, and the struggle to preserve their cultural identity in new and often unfamiliar territories.

This period underscores the complex interplay of politics, culture, and survival for the Assyrian population within the Ottoman Empire, portraying the challenges and resilience of the Assyrian community during this tumultuous time.

Modern history

The majority of Assyrians living in what is today modern Turkey were forced to flee to either Syria or Iraq after the Turkish victory during the Turkish War of Independence. In 1932, Assyrians refused to become part of the newly formed state of Iraq and instead demanded their recognition as a nation within a nation. The Assyrian leader Shimun XXI Eshai asked the League of Nations to recognize the right of the Assyrians to govern the area known as the "Assyrian triangle" in northern Iraq. During the French mandate period, some Assyrians, fleeing ethnic cleansings in Iraq during the Simele massacre, established numerous villages along the Khabur River during the 1930s.

The Assyrian Levies were founded by the British in 1928, with ancient Assyrian military rankings such as Rab-shakeh, Rab-talia and Tartan, being revived for the first time in millennia for this force. The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities, loyalty, bravery and discipline, and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs and Kurds. During World War II, eleven Assyrian companies saw action in Palestine and another four served in Cyprus. The Parachute Company was attached to the Royal Marine Commando and were involved in fighting in Albania, Italy and Greece. The Assyrian Levies played a major role in subduing the pro-Nazi Iraqi forces at the battle of Habbaniya in 1941.

However, this cooperation with the British was viewed with suspicion by some leaders of the newly formed Kingdom of Iraq. The tension reached its peak shortly after the formal declaration of independence when hundreds of Assyrian civilians were slaughtered during the Simele massacre by the Iraqi Army in August 1933. The events lead to the expulsion of Shimun XXI Eshai the Catholicos Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East to the United States where resided until his death in 1975.

The period from the 1940s through to 1963 saw a period of respite for the Assyrians. The regime of President Abd al-Karim Qasim in particular saw the Assyrians accepted into mainstream society. Many urban Assyrians became successful businessmen, others were well represented in politics and the military, their towns and villages flourished undisturbed, and Assyrians came to excel, and be over represented in sports.

The Ba'ath Party seized power in Iraq and Syria in 1963, introducing laws aimed at suppressing the Assyrian national identity via arabization policies. The giving of traditional Assyrian names was banned and Assyrian schools, political parties, churches and literature were repressed. Assyrians were heavily pressured into identifying as Iraqi/Syrian Christians. Assyrians were not recognized as an ethnic group by the governments and they fostered divisions among Assyrians along religious lines (e.g. Assyrian Church of the East vs. Chaldean Catholic Church vs Syriac Orthodox Church).

In response to Baathist persecution, the Assyrians of the Zowaa movement within the Assyrian Democratic Movement took up armed struggle against the Iraqi government in 1982 under the leadership of Yonadam Kanna, and then joined up with the Iraqi-Kurdistan Front in the early 1990s. Yonadam Kanna in particular was a target of the Saddam Hussein Ba'ath government for many years.

The Anfal campaign of 1986–1989 in Iraq, which was intended to target Kurdish opposition, resulted in 2,000 Assyrians being murdered through its gas campaigns. Over 31 towns and villages, 25 Assyrian monasteries and churches were razed to the ground. Some Assyrians were murdered, others were deported to large cities, and their lands and homes then being appropriated by Arabs and Kurds.

21st century

After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq by US and its allies, the Coalition Provisional Authority disbanded the Iraqi military, security, and intelligence infrastructure of former President Saddam Hussein and began a process of "de-Baathification". This process became an object of controversy, cited by some critics as the biggest American mistake made in the immediate aftermath of the Invasion of Iraq, and as one of the main causes in the deteriorating security situation throughout Iraq. Social unrest and chaos resulted in the unprovoked persecution of Assyrians in Iraq mostly by Islamic extremists (both Shia and Sunni) and Kurdish nationalists (ex. Dohuk Riots of 2011 aimed at Assyrians & Yazidis). In places such as Dora, a neighborhood in southwestern Baghdad, the majority of its Assyrian population has either fled abroad or to northern Iraq, or has been murdered. Islamic resentment over the United States' occupation of Iraq, and incidents such as the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons and the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy, have resulted in Muslims attacking Assyrian communities. Since the start of the Iraq war, at least 46 churches and monasteries have been bombed.

In recent years, the Assyrians in northern Iraq and northeast Syria have become the target of extreme unprovoked Islamic terrorism. As a result, Assyrians have taken up arms alongside other groups (such as the Kurds, Turcomans and Armenians) in response to unprovoked attacks by Al Qaeda, the Islamic State (ISIL), Nusra Front and other terrorist Islamic Fundamentalist groups. In 2014 Islamic terrorists of ISIL attacked Assyrian towns and villages in the Assyrian Homeland of northern Iraq, together with cities such as Mosul and Kirkuk which have large Assyrian populations. There have been reports of atrocities committed by ISIL terrorists since, including; beheadings, crucifixions, child murders, rape, forced conversions, ethnic cleansing, robbery, and extortion in the form of illegal taxes levied upon non-Muslims. Assyrians in Iraq have responded by forming armed militias to defend their territories.

In response to the Islamic State's invasion of the Assyrian homeland in 2014, many Assyrian organizations also formed their own independent fighting forces to combat ISIL and potentially retake their "ancestral lands." These include the Nineveh Plain Protection Units, Dwekh Nawsha, and the Nineveh Plain Forces. The latter two of these militias were eventually disbanded.

In Syria, the Dawronoye modernization movement has influenced Assyrian identity in the region. The largest proponent of the movement, the Syriac Union Party (SUP) has become a major political actor in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria. In August 2016, the Ourhi Centre in the city of Zalin was started by the Assyrian community, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac an optional language of instruction in public schools, which then started with the 2016/17 academic year. With that academic year, states the Rojava Education Committee, "three curriculums have replaced the old one, to include teaching in three languages: Kurdish, Arabic and Assyrian." Associated with the SUP is the Syriac Military Council, an Assyrian militia operating in Syria, established in January 2013 to protect and stand up for the national rights of Assyrians in Syria as well as working together with the other communities in Syria to change the current government of Bashar al-Assad. However, many Assyrians and the organizations that represent them, particularly those outside of Syria, are critical of the Dawronoye movement.

A 2018 report stated that Kurdish authorities in Syria, in conjunction with Dawronoye officials, had shut down several Assyrian schools in Northern Syria and fired their administration. This was said to be because these schooled failed to register for a license and for rejecting the new curriculum approved by the Education Authority. Closure methods ranged from officially shutting down schools to having armed men enter the schools and shut them down forcefully. An Assyrian educator named Isa Rashid was later badly beaten outside of his home for rejecting the Kurdish self-administration's curriculum. The Assyrian Policy Institute claimed that an Assyrian reporter named Souleman Yusph was arrested by Kurdish forces for his reports on the Dawronoye-related school closures in Syria. Specifically, he had shared numerous photographs on Facebook detailing the closures.

Demographics

Homeland

The Assyrian homeland includes the ancient cities of Nineveh (Mosul), Nuhadra (Dohuk), Arrapha/Beth Garmai (Kirkuk), Al Qosh, Tesqopa and Arbela (Erbil) in Iraq, Urmia in Iran, and Hakkari (a large region which comprises the modern towns of Yüksekova, Hakkâri, Çukurca, Şemdinli and Uludere), Edessa/Urhoy (Urfa), Harran, Amida (Diyarbakır) and Tur Abdin (Midyat and Kafro) in Turkey, among others. Some of the cities are presently under Kurdish control and some still have an Assyrian presence, namely those in Iraq, as the Assyrian population in southeastern Turkey (such as those in Hakkari) was ethnically cleansed during the Assyrian genocide of the First World War. Those who survived fled to unaffected areas of Assyrian settlement in northern Iraq, with others settling in Iraqi cities to the south. Though many also immigrated to neighbouring countries in and around the Caucasus and Middle East like Armenia, Syria, Georgia, southern Russia, Lebanon and Jordan.

In ancient times, Akkadian-speaking Assyrians have existed in what is now Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Israel and Lebanon, among other modern countries, due to the sprawl of the Neo-Assyrian empire in the region. Though recent settlement of Christian Assyrians in Nisabina, Qamishli, Al-Hasakah, Al-Qahtaniyah, Al Darbasiyah, Al-Malikiyah, Amuda, Tel Tamer and a few other small towns in Al-Hasakah Governorate in Syria, occurred in the early 1930s, when they fled from northern Iraq after they were targeted and slaughtered during the Simele massacre. The Assyrians in Syria did not have Syrian citizenship and title to their established land until late the 1940s.

Sizable Assyrian populations only remain in Syria, where an estimated 400,000 Assyrians live, and in Iraq, where an estimated 300,000 Assyrians live. In Iran and Turkey, only small populations remain, with only 20,000 Assyrians in Iran, and a small but growing Assyrian population in Turkey, where 25,000 Assyrians live, mostly in the cities and not the ancient settlements. In Tur Abdin, a traditional centre of Assyrian culture, there are only 2,500 Assyrians left. Down from 50,000 in the 1960 census, but up from 1,000 in 1992. This sharp decline is due to an intense conflict between Turkey and the PKK in the 1980s. However, there are an estimated 25,000 Assyrians in all of Turkey, with most living in Istanbul. Most Assyrians currently reside in the West due to the centuries of persecution by the neighboring Muslims. Prior to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, in a 2013 report by a Chaldean Syriac Assyrian Popular Council official, it was estimated that 300,000 Assyrians remained in Iraq.

Assyrian subgroups

There are three main Assyrian subgroups: Eastern, Western, Chaldean. These subdivisions are only partially overlapping linguistically, historically, culturally, and religiously.

• The Eastern subgroup historically inhabited Hakkari in the northern Zagros Mountains, the Simele and Sapna valleys in Nuhadra, and parts of the Nineveh and Urmia Plains. They speak Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects and are religiously diverse, adhering to the East Syriac churches and Protestantism.
• The Chaldean subgroup is a subgroup of the Eastern one. The group is often equated with the adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, however not all Chaldean Catholics identify as Chaldean. They are traditionally speakers of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects, however there are some Turoyo speakers. In Iraq, Chaldean Catholics inhabit the western Nineveh Plains villages of Alqosh, Batnaya, Tel Keppe and Tesqopa, as well as the Nahla valley and Aqra. In Syria they live in Aleppo and the Al-Hasakah Governorate. In Turkey, they live scattered in Istanbul, Diyarbakir, Sirnak Province and Mardin Province.
• The Western subgroup, historically inhabited Tur Abdin. They mainly speak the Central Neo-Aramaic language Surayt (also known as Turoyo). Most adhere to the West Syriac churches, such as the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and the Syriac Catholic Church. Today there are also evangelical groups that have founded their own churches in the diaspora. Historically, Syriac Orthodox culture was centred in two monasteries near Mardin (west of Tur Abdin), Mor Gabriel and Deyrulzafaran. Historic Assyrian villages, some of which are still inhabited by Assyrians in Turabdin, include the following: Aynwardo, Anhil, Kafro, Miden, Arnas, Beth Debe, Beth Kustan, Beth Sbirino, Dayro da-Slibo, Hrabemishka, Qartmin, Arkah, Arbo, Mizizah, Kfraze, Hah, Marbobo, Salah, Sare and Hapsis. In addition, the cities of Midyat and Beth Zabday (Azech) were historically Assyrian cities with an Assyrian majority, this is no longer the case today. Outside of the area of core Assyrian settlement in Tur Abdin, there were also sizable populations in the towns of Diyarbakır, Urfa, Harput, and Adiyaman as well as some other villages.

Persecution

Due to their Christian faith and ethnicity, the Assyrians have been persecuted since their adoption of Christianity. During the reign of Yazdegerd I, Christians in Persia were viewed with suspicion as potential Roman subversives, resulting in persecutions while at the same time promoting Nestorian Christianity as a buffer between the Churches of Rome and Persia. Persecutions and attempts to impose Zoroastrianism continued during the reign of Yazdegerd II.

During the eras of Mongol rule under Genghis Khan and Timur, there was indiscriminate slaughter of tens of thousands of Assyrians and destruction of the Assyrian population of northwestern Iran and central and northern Iran.

More recent persecutions since the 19th century include the massacres of Badr Khan, the massacres of Diyarbakır (1895), the Adana massacre, the Assyrian genocide, the Simele massacre, and the al-Anfal campaign.

Diaspora

Since the Assyrian genocide, many Assyrians have left the Middle East entirely for a more safe and comfortable life in the countries of the Western world. As a result of this, the Assyrian population in the Middle East has decreased dramatically. As of today there are more Assyrians in the diaspora than in their homeland. The largest Assyrian diaspora communities are found in Sweden (100,000), Germany (100,000), the United States (80,000), and in Australia (46,000).

By ethnic percentage, the largest Assyrian diaspora communities are located in Södertälje in Stockholm County, Sweden, and in Fairfield City in Sydney, Australia, where they are the leading ethnic group in the suburbs of Fairfield, Fairfield Heights, Prairiewood and Greenfield Park. There is also a sizable Assyrian community in Melbourne, Australia (Broadmeadows, Meadow Heights and Craigieburn) In the United States, Assyrians are mostly found in Chicago (Niles and Skokie), Detroit (Sterling Heights, and West Bloomfield Township), Phoenix, Modesto (Stanislaus County) and Turlock.

Furthermore, small Assyrian communities are found in San Diego, Sacramento and Fresno in the United States, Toronto in Canada and also in London, UK (London Borough of Ealing). In Germany, pocket-sized Assyrian communities are scattered throughout Munich, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Berlin and Wiesbaden. In Paris, France, the commune of Sarcelles has a small number of Assyrians. Assyrians in the Netherlands mainly live in the east of the country, in the province of Overijssel. In Russia, small groups of Assyrians mostly reside in Krasnodar Kray and Moscow.

To note, the Assyrians residing in California and Russia tend to be from Iran, whilst those in Chicago and Sydney are predominantly Iraqi Assyrians. More recently, Syrian Assyrians are growing in size in Sydney after a huge influx of new arrivals in 2016, who were granted asylum under the Federal Government's special humanitarian intake. The Assyrians in Detroit are primarily Chaldean speakers, who also originate from Iraq. Assyrians in such European countries as Sweden and Germany would usually be Turoyo-speakers or Western Assyrians, and tend to be originally from Turkey.

Identity and subdivisions

Syriac Christians of the Middle East and diaspora employ different terms for self-identification based on conflicting beliefs in the origin and identity of their respective communities. During the 19th century, English archaeologist Austen Henry Layard believed that the native Christian communities in the historical region of Assyria were descended from the ancient Assyrians, a view that was also shared by William Ainger Wigram. Although at the same time Horatio Southgate and George Thomas Bettany claimed during their travels through Mesopotamia that the Syriac Christians are the descendants of the Arameans.

Today, Assyrians and other minority ethnic groups in the Middle East, feel pressure to identify as "Arabs", "Turks" and "Kurds". In addition, Western media often makes no mention of any ethnic identity of the Christians in the region, and simply call refer to them as Christians, Iraqi Christians, Iranian Christians, Christians in Syria, and Turkish Christians, a label rejected by Assyrians.

Self-designation

Below are terms commonly used by Assyrians to self-identify:.

• Assyrian, named after their ethnicity as the descendants of the ancient Assyrian people, is advocated by followers from within all Middle Eastern based East and West Syriac Rite Churches. (see Syriac Christianity)
• Chaldean is a term that was used for centuries by western writers and scholars as designation for the Aramaic language. It was so used by Jerome, and was still the normal terminology in the nineteenth century. Only in 1445 did it begin to be used to designate Aramaic speakers who had entered communion with the Catholic Church. This happened at the Council of Florence, which accepted the profession of faith that Timothy, metropolitan of the Aramaic speakers in Cyprus, made in Aramaic, and which decreed that "nobody shall in future dare to call Chaldeans, Nestorians". Previously, when there were as yet no Catholic Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamian origin, the term "Chaldean" was applied with explicit reference to their "Nestorian" religion. Thus Jacques de Vitry wrote of them in 1220/1 that "they denied that Mary was the Mother of God and claimed that Christ existed in two persons. They consecrated leavened bread and used the 'Chaldean' (Syriac) language". Until the second half of the 19th century, the term "Chaldean" continued in general use for East Syriac Christians, whether "Nestorian" or Catholic. In 1840, upon visiting Mesopotamia, Horatio Southgate reported that local Chaldeans consider themselves to be descended from ancient Assyrians, and in some later works also noted the same origin of local Jacobites.
• Aramean, also known as Syriac-Aramean, named after the ancient Aramean people, is advocated by some followers from within Middle Eastern based West Syriac Rite Churches. Furthermore, Assyrians identifying as Aramean have obtained recognition from the Israeli government. To note, ancient Arameans were a separate ethnic group that lived concurrently with the Assyrian empire in what is now Syria and parts of Lebanon, Israel the West Bank and Gaza, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey.

Assyrian vs. Syrian naming controversy

As early as the 8th century BC Luwian and Cilician subject rulers referred to their Assyrian overlords as Syrian, a western Indo-European corruption of the original term Assyrian. The Greeks used the terms "Syrian" and "Assyrian" interchangeably to indicate the indigenous Arameans, Assyrians and other inhabitants of the Near East, Herodotus considered "Syria" west of the Euphrates. Starting from the 2nd century BC onwards, ancient writers referred to the Seleucid ruler as the King of Syria or King of the Syrians. The Seleucids designated the districts of Seleucis and Coele-Syria explicitly as Syria and ruled the Syrians as indigenous populations residing west of the Euphrates (Aramea) in contrast to Assyrians who had their native homeland in Mesopotamia east of the Euphrates.

This version of the name took hold in the Hellenic lands to the west of the old Assyrian Empire, thus during Greek Seleucid rule from 323 BC the name Assyria was altered to Syria, and this term was also applied to Aramea to the west which had been an Assyrian colony, and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant. When the Seleucids lost control of Assyria to the Parthians they retained the corrupted term (Syria), applying it to ancient Aramea, while the Parthians called Assyria "Assuristan," a Parthian form of the original name. It is from this period that the Syrian vs Assyrian controversy arises.

The question of ethnic identity and self-designation is sometimes connected to the scholarly debate on the etymology of "Syria". The question has a long history of academic controversy, but majority mainstream opinion currently strongly favours that Syria is indeed ultimately derived from the Assyrian term Aššūrāyu. Meanwhile, some scholars has disclaimed the theory of Syrian being derived from Assyrian as "simply naive", and detracted its importance to the naming conflict.

Rudolf Macuch points out that the Eastern Neo-Aramaic press initially used the term "Syrian" (suryêta) and only much later, with the rise of nationalism, switched to "Assyrian" (atorêta). According to Tsereteli, however, a Georgian equivalent of "Assyrians" appears in ancient Georgian, Armenian and Russian documents. This correlates with the theory of the nations to the East of Mesopotamia knew the group as Assyrians, while to the West, beginning with Greek influence, the group was known as Syrians. Syria being a Greek corruption of Assyria. The debate appears to have been settled by the discovery of the Çineköy inscription in favour of Syria being derived from Assyria.

The Çineköy inscription is a Hieroglyphic Luwian-Phoenician bilingual, uncovered from Çineköy, Adana Province, Turkey (ancient Cilicia), dating to the 8th century BC. Originally published by Tekoglu and Lemaire (2000), it was more recently the subject of a 2006 paper published in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies, in which the author, Robert Rollinger, lends support to the age-old debate of the name "Syria" being derived from "Assyria" (see Etymology of Syria).

The object on which the inscription is found is a monument belonging to Urikki, vassal king of Hiyawa (i.e., Cilicia), dating to the eighth century BC. In this monumental inscription, Urikki made reference to the relationship between his kingdom and his Assyrian overlords. The Luwian inscription reads "Sura/i" whereas the Phoenician translation reads 'ŠR or "Ashur" which, according to Rollinger (2006), "settles the problem once and for all".

The modern terminological problem goes back to colonial times, but it became more acute in 1946, when with the independence of Syria, the adjective Syrian referred to an independent state. The controversy is not restricted to exonyms like English "Assyrian" vs. "Aramaean", but also applies to self-designation in Neo-Aramaic, the minority "Aramaean" faction endorses both Sūryāyē ܣܘܪܝܝܐ and Ārāmayē ܐܪܡܝܐ, while the majority "Assyrian" faction insists on Āṯūrāyē ܐܬܘܪܝܐ but also accepts Sūryāyē.

Culture

Assyrian culture is largely influenced by Christianity. There are many Assyrian customs that are common in other Middle Eastern cultures. Main festivals occur during religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas. There are also secular holidays such as Kha b-Nisan (vernal equinox).

People often greet and bid relatives farewell with a kiss on each cheek and by saying "ܫܠܡܐ ܥܠܝܟ" Shlama/Shlomo lokh, which means: "Peace be upon you" in Neo-Aramaic. Others are greeted with a handshake with the right hand only; according to Middle Eastern customs, the left hand is associated with evil. Similarly, shoes may not be left facing up, one may not have their feet facing anyone directly, whistling at night is thought to waken evil spirits, etc. A parent will often place an eye pendant on their baby to prevent "an evil eye being cast upon it". Spitting on anyone or their belongings is seen as a grave insult.

Assyrians are endogamous, meaning they generally marry within their own ethnic group, although exogamous marriages are not perceived as a taboo, unless the foreigner is of a different religious background, especially a Muslim. Throughout history, relations between the Assyrians and Armenians have tended to be very friendly, as both groups have practised Christianity since ancient times and have suffered through persecution under Muslim rulers. Therefore, mixed marriage between Assyrians and Armenians is quite common, most notably in Iraq, Iran, and as well as in the diaspora with adjacent Armenian and Assyrian communities.

Language

The Neo-Aramaic languages, which are in the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, ultimately descend from Late Old Eastern Aramaic, the lingua franca in the later phase of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which displaced the East Semitic Assyrian dialect of Akkadian and Sumerian. After being conquered by the Assyrians, many people, including the Arameans, were deported to the Assyrian heartland and elsewhere. Due to a large number of Aramaic-speaking people, the Aramaization of Assyria began. The relationship between Arameans and Assyrians grew stronger, with Aramean scribes working with Assyrian ones. Around 700 B.C., the Aramaic alphabet replaced cuneiform and became the official writing system of the Assyrian empire. Aramaic was the language of commerce, trade and communication and became the vernacular language of Assyria in classical antiquity. By the 1st century AD, Akkadian was extinct, although its influence on contemporary Eastern Neo-Aramaic languages spoken by Assyrians is significant and some loaned vocabulary still survives in these languages to this day.

To the native speaker, "Syriac" is usually called Surayt, Soureth, Suret or a similar regional variant. A wide variety of languages and dialects exist, including Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, and Turoyo. Minority dialects include Senaya and Bohtan Neo-Aramaic, which are both near extinction. All are classified as Neo-Aramaic languages and are written using Syriac script, a derivative of the ancient Aramaic script. Jewish varieties such as Lishanid Noshan, Lishán Didán and Lishana Deni, written in the Hebrew script, are spoken by Assyrian Jews.

There is a considerable amount of mutual intelligibility between Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Senaya, Lishana Deni and Bohtan Neo-Aramaic. Therefore, these "languages" would generally be considered to be dialects of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic rather than separate languages. The Jewish Aramaic languages of Lishan Didan and Lishanid Noshan share a partial intelligibility with these varieties. The mutual intelligibility between the aforementioned languages and Turoyo is, depending on the dialect, limited to partial, and may be asymmetrical.

Being stateless, Assyrians are typically multilingual, speaking both their native language and learning those of the societies they reside in. While many Assyrians have fled from their traditional homeland recently, a substantial number still reside in Arabic-speaking countries speaking Arabic alongside the Neo-Aramaic languages and is also spoken by many Assyrians in the diaspora. The most commonly spoken languages by Assyrians in the diaspora are English, German and Swedish. Historically many Assyrians also spoke Turkish, Armenian, Azeri, Kurdish, and Persian and a smaller number of Assyrians that remain in Iran, Turkey (Istanbul and Tur Abdin) and Armenia still do today. Many loanwords from the aforementioned languages also exist in the Neo-Aramaic languages, with the Iranian languages and Turkish being the greatest influences overall. Only Turkey is reported to be experiencing a population increase of Assyrians in the four countries constituting their historical homeland, largely consisting of Assyrian refugees from Syria and a smaller number of Assyrians returning from the diaspora in Europe.

Script

Assyrians predominantly use the Syriac script, which is written from right to left. It is one of the Semitic abjads directly descending from the Aramaic alphabet and shares similarities with the Phoenician, Hebrew and the Arabic alphabets. It has 22 letters representing consonants, three of which can be also used to indicate vowels. The vowel sounds are supplied either by the reader's memory or by optional diacritic marks. Syriac is a cursive script where some, but not all, letters connect within a word. It was used to write the Syriac language from the 1st century AD.

The oldest and classical form of the alphabet is the ʾEsṭrangēlā script. Although ʾEsṭrangēlā is no longer used as the main script for writing Syriac, it has received some revival since the 10th century, and it has been added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999. The East Syriac dialect is usually written in the Maḏnḥāyā form of the alphabet, which is often translated as "contemporary", reflecting its use in writing modern Neo-Aramaic. The West Syriac dialect is usually written in the Serṭā form of the alphabet. Most of the letters are clearly derived from ʾEsṭrangēlā, but are simplified, flowing lines.

Furthermore, for practical reasons, Assyrian people would also use the Latin alphabet, especially in social media.

Religion

Assyrians belong to various Christian denominations, such as the Syriac Orthodox Church, which has over 1 million members around the world, the Chaldean Catholic Church, with about 600,000 members, the Assyrian Church of the East, with an estimated 400,000 members, and the Ancient Church of the East, with some 100,000 members. A small minority of Assyrians accepted the Protestant Reformation and became Reform Orthodox in the 20th century, possibly due to British influences, and are now organised in the Assyrian Evangelical Church, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church and other Protestant/Reform Orthodox Assyrian groups. While there are some atheist Assyrians, they tend to still associate with some denomination.

Many members of the following churches consider themselves Assyrian. Ethnic identities are often deeply intertwined with religion, a legacy of the Ottoman Millet system. The group is traditionally characterized as adhering to various churches of Syriac Christianity and speaking Neo-Aramaic languages. It is subdivided into:

• adherents of the Assyrian Church of the East and Ancient Church of the East following the East Syriac Rite, also known as Nestorians
• adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church following the East Syriac Rite, also known as Chaldeans
• adherents of the Syriac Orthodox Church following the West Syriac Rite, also known as Jacobites
• adherents of the Syriac Catholic Church following the West Syriac Rite

Baptism and First Communion are celebrated extensively, similar to a Brit Milah or Bar Mitzvah in Jewish communities. After a death, a gathering is held three days after burial to celebrate the ascension to heaven of the dead person, as of Jesus; after seven days another gathering commemorates their death. A close family member wears only black clothes for forty days and nights, or sometimes a year, as a sign of mourning.

During the "Seyfo" genocide, there were a number of Assyrians who were forced to convert to Islam. They reside in Turkey, and practice Islam but still retain their identity. A small number of Assyrian Jews exist as well.

• Assyrian Christianity
• Mor Hananyo Monastery: is an important Syriac Orthodox monastery in Tur Abdin, Turkey.
• Mar Assia al-Hakim Church: is a Syriac Catholic Church in Al-Jdayde quarter of Aleppo, Syria.
• Rabban Hormizd Monastery: is an important monastery of the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Church of the East in Alqosh, Iraq.
• Cathedral of Our Lady of Sorrows: is a Chaldean Catholic cathedral in Baghdad, Iraq
• Saint Mary Church: is an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of Urmia, Iran.

Music

Assyrian music is a combination of traditional folk music and western contemporary music genres, namely pop and soft rock, but also electronic dance music. Instruments traditionally used by Assyrians include the zurna and davula, but has expanded to include guitars, pianos, violins, synthesizers (keyboards and electronic drums), and other instruments.

Some well known Assyrian singers in modern times are Ashur Bet Sargis, Sargon Gabriel, Evin Agassi, Janan Sawa, Juliana Jendo, and Linda George. Assyrian artists that traditionally sing in other languages include Melechesh, Timz and Aril Brikha. Assyrian-Australian band Azadoota performs its songs in the Assyrian language whilst using a western style of instrumentation.

The first international Aramaic Music Festival was held in Lebanon in August 2008 for Assyrian people internationally.

Dance

Assyrians have numerous traditional dances which are performed mostly for special occasions such as weddings. Assyrian dance is a blend of both ancient indigenous and general Near Eastern elements. Assyrian folk dances are mainly made up of circle dances that are performed in a line, which may be straight, curved, or both. The most common form of Assyrian folk dance is khigga, which is routinely danced as the bride and groom are welcomed into the wedding reception. Most of the circle dances allow unlimited number of participants, with the exception of the Sabre Dance, which require three at most. Assyrian dances would vary from weak to strong, depending on the mood and tempo of a song.

Festivals

Assyrian festivals tend to be closely associated with their Christian faith, of which Easter is the most prominent of the celebrations. Members of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church and Syriac Catholic Church follow the Gregorian calendar and as a result celebrate Easter on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 inclusively. However, members of the Syriac Orthodox Church and Ancient Church of the East celebrate Easter on a Sunday between April 4 and May 8 inclusively on the Gregorian calendar (March 22 and April 25 on the Julian calendar). During Lent, Assyrians are encouraged to fast for 50 days from meat and any other foods which are animal based.

Assyrians celebrate a number of festivals unique to their culture and traditions as well as religious ones:

• Kha b-Nisan ܚܕ ܒܢܝܣܢ‎, the Assyrian New Year, traditionally on April 1, though usually celebrated on January 1. Assyrians usually wear traditional costumes and hold social events including parades and parties, dancing, and listening to poets telling the story of creation.
• Sauma d-Ba'utha ܒܥܘܬܐ ܕܢܝܢܘܝܐ‎, the Nineveh fast, is a three-day period of fasting and prayer.
• Somikka, All Saints Day, is celebrated to motivate children to fast during Lent through use of frightening costumes
• Kalu d'Sulaqa, feast of the Bride of the Ascension, celebrates Assyrian resistance to the invasion of Assyria by Tamerlane
• Nusardyl, commemorating the baptism of the Assyrians of Urmia by St. Thomas.
• Sharra d'Mart Maryam, usually on August 15, a festival and feast celebrating St. Mary with games, food, and celebration.

• 

  Other Sharras (special festivals) include: Sharra d'Mart Shmuni, Sharra d'Mar Shimon Bar-Sabbaye, Sharra d'Mar Mari, and Shara d'Mar Zaia, Mar Bishu, Mar Sawa, Mar Sliwa, Mar Odisho, and many more. Each town or city also have their own Sharras based on the patron saints of the churches, monasteries, or other holy sites in the settlement or nearby.
• Yoma d'Sah'deh (Day of Martyrs), commemorating the thousands massacred in the Simele massacre and the hundreds of thousands massacred in the Assyrian genocide. It is commemorated annually on August 7.

Assyrians also practice unique marriage ceremonies. The rituals performed during weddings are derived from many different elements from the past 3,000 years. An Assyrian wedding traditionally lasted a week. Today, weddings in the Assyrian homeland usually last 2–3 days; in the Assyrian diaspora they last 1–2 days.

Traditional clothing

Assyrian clothing varies from village to village. Clothing is usually blue, red, green, yellow, and purple; these colors are also used as embroidery on a white piece of clothing. Decoration is lavish in Assyrian costumes, and sometimes involves jewellery. The conical hats of traditional Assyrian dress have changed little over millennia from those worn in ancient Mesopotamia, and until the 19th and early 20th centuries the ancient Mesopotamian tradition of braiding or platting of hair, beards and moustaches was still commonplace.

Cuisine

Assyrian cuisine is similar to other Middle Eastern cuisines, and is rich in grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread and tomatoes. Typically, rice is served with every meal, with a stew poured over it. Tea is a popular drink, and there are several dishes of desserts, snacks, and beverages. Alcoholic drinks such as wine and wheat beer are organically produced and drunk. Assyrian cuisine is primarily identical to Iraqi/Mesopotamian cuisine, as well as being very similar to other Middle Eastern and Caucasian cuisines, as well as Greek cuisine, Levantine cuisine, Turkish cuisine, Iranian cuisine, Israeli cuisine, and Armenian cuisine, with most dishes being similar to the cuisines of the area in which those Assyrians live/originate from. It is rich in grains such as barley, meat, tomato, herbs, spices, cheese, and potato as well as herbs, fermented dairy products, and pickles.

Genetics

Late-20th-century DNA analysis conducted by Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza, "shows that Assyrians have a distinct genetic profile that distinguishes their population from any other population." Genetic analyses of the Assyrians of Persia demonstrated that they were "closed" with little "intermixture" with the Muslim Persian population and that an individual Assyrian's genetic makeup is relatively close to that of the Assyrian population as a whole. "The genetic data are compatible with historical data that religion played a major role in maintaining the Assyrian population's separate identity during the Christian era".

In a 2006 study of the Y chromosome DNA of six regional Armenian populations, including, for comparison, Assyrians and Syrians, researchers found that, "the Semitic populations (Assyrians and Syrians) are very distinct from each other according to both axes. This difference supported also by other methods of comparison points out the weak genetic affinity between the two populations with different historical destinies." A 2008 study on the genetics of "old ethnic groups in Mesopotamia", including 340 subjects from seven ethnic communities ("Assyrian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, Armenian, Turkmen, the Arab peoples in Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait") found that Assyrians were homogeneous with respect to all other ethnic groups sampled in the study, regardless of religious affiliation.

In a 2011 study focusing on the genetics of Marsh Arabs of Iraq, researchers identified Y chromosome haplotypes shared by Marsh Arabs, Iraqis, and Assyrians, "supporting a common local background." In a 2017 study focusing on the genetics of Northern Iraqi populations, it was found that Iraqi Assyrians and Iraqi Yazidis clustered together, but away from the other Northern Iraqi populations analyzed in the study, and largely in between the West Asian and Southeastern European populations. According to the study, "contemporary Assyrians and Yazidis from northern Iraq may in fact have a stronger continuity with the original genetic stock of the Mesopotamian people, which possibly provided the basis for the ethnogenesis of various subsequent Near Eastern populations".

Haplogroups

Y-DNA haplogroup J-M304 which originated from a geographical zone that includes northeastern Syria, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey from where it expanded to the rest of the Near East and North Africa has been measured at 55% among Assyrians of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and diaspora; while it has been found at 11% among Assyrians of Iran. the same haplogroup also have high prevalence among Iraqi Arabs which is "indicative of their indigenous nature".

Haplogroup T-M184 has been measured at 15.09% among Assyrians in Armenia. The haplogroup is frequent in Middle Eastern Jews, Georgians, Druze and Somalians. According to a 2011 study by Lashgary et al., R1b has been measured at 40% among Assyrians in Iran, making it major haplogroup among Iranian Assyrians. Yet another DNA test comprising 48 Assyrian male subjects from Iran, the Y-DNA haplogroups J-M304, found in its greatest concentration in the Arabian peninsula, and the northern R-M269, were also frequent at 29.2% each. Lashgary et al. explain the presence of haplogroup R in Iranian Assyrians as well as in other Assyrian communities (~23%) as a consequence of mixing with Armenians and assimilation/integration of different peoples carrying haplogroup R, while explain its frequency as a result of genetic drift due to small population size and endogamy due to religious barriers.

Haplogroup J2 has been measured at 13.4%, which is commonly found in the Fertile Crescent, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Italy, coastal Mediterranean, and the Iranian plateau.

See also

• Assyria
• Assyrian diaspora
• Assyrian genocide
• Assyrian homeland
• Assyrian independence movement
• Assyrian Universal Alliance
• The Last Assyrians
• List of Assyrians
• Mandaeans
• Mhallami
• Neo-Aramaic languages
• Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq
• Syriac Christianity
• Syriac language
• World Council of Arameans

Notes

1. Assyrians, as indigenous people of the Middle East.
2. Use of the term Syriacs, as a variant name for Assyrians.
3. Use of the term Chaldeans, as a variant name for Assyrians.
4. Use of the term Arameans, as a variant name for Assyrians.

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External links

• Media related to Assyrian people at Wikimedia Commons
• BetNahrain – Assyrian Center in Armenia
• YouTube-Video: Associate professor Svante Lundgren elaborates on the history and origin of the Assyrian people
• A virtual Assyria: Cyberland
• A virtual Assyria: Christians from the Middle East
• Traditional Assyrian Costumes
• Assyrian Iraqi Document Projects
• Who Are Assyrians?
• Assyrian History
• Aramean History Archived 2018-03-18 at the Wayback Machine

v t e Assyrian people
Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the Middle East; also known as Syriac-Arameans or Chaldeans
Identity	Assyrian continuity Assyrian diaspora Terms for Syriac Christians	Assyrian flag Aramean-Syriac flag Chaldean flag
Syriac Christianity	West Syriac Rite Syriac Orthodox Church (518–) Syriac Catholic Church (1662–) Assyrian Evangelical Church (1870–) Assyrian Pentecostal Church (1940–) East Syriac Rite Chaldean Catholic Church (1552–) Assyrian Church of the East (1692–) Ancient Church of the East (1968–)
Neo-Aramaic dialects	Sureth Turoyo Bohtan Neo-Aramaic Hertevin Senaya Mlaḥsô Syriac script
Culture	Assyrian folk-pop music Music of Mesopotamia Syriac sacral music Folk dance Cuisine
History (including related contexts)	Ancient Assyria Early Assyrian period (2600–2025 BCE) Old Assyrian period (2025–1364 BCE) Middle Assyrian Empire (1363–912 BCE) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BCE) Post-imperial Assyria (609 BCE–240 CE) Ancient Mesopotamian religion Arameans Assyrian tribes Classical antiquity Seleucid Empire (312–63 BCE) Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE) Osroene (132 BCE–244 CE) Syrian Wars (66 BCE–217 CE) Roman Syria (64 BCE–637 CE) Adiabene (15–116) Roman Assyria (116–118) Christianization (1st to 3rd c.) Nestorian schism (5th c.) Church of the East (410-1552) Asoristan (226–651) Byzantine–Sasanian Wars (502–628) Middle ages Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia (630s) Muslim conquest of Syria (630s) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Emirs of Mosul (905–1383) Buyid amirate (945–1055) Principality of Antioch (1098–1268) Ilkhanate (1258–1335) Jalayirid Sultanate (1335–1432) Qara Qoyunlu (1375–1468) Aq Qoyunlu (1453–1501) Modern era Safavid Empire (1508–55) Ottoman Empire (1555–1917) Schism of 1552 (16th c.) Massacres of Badr Khan (1840s) Massacres of Diyarbekir (1895) Rise of nationalism (19th c.) Adana massacre (1909) Assyrian genocide (1914–20) Independence movement (1919–) Simele massacre (1933) Post-Saddam Iraq (2003–) Genocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–)
By country	Homeland Settlements Iraq Nineveh Plains Qaraqosh Alqosh Tel Keppe Bartella Ankawa Shaqlawa Zakho Iran Urmia Salmas Sanandaj Syria Al-Hasakah Governorate Al-Hasakah Tell Tamer Qamishli Khabur Turkey Hakkari Diyarbakır Elazığ Mardin Province Mardin Mazıdağı Tur Abdin Diaspora Armenia Australia Belgium Canada Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Israel Jordan Lebanon Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Palestine Russia Sweden United Kingdom United States Detroit
Politics	Assyrian Democratic Movement Assyrian Democratic Organisation Assyrian Universal Alliance Dawronoye Syriac Union Party (Syria) Syriac Union Party (Lebanon) Syriac Military Council Sutoro World Council of Arameans
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v t e Iraq topics
History Chronology Ubaid period Hassuna culture Halaf culture Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period Samarra culture Uruk period Jemdet Nasr period Sumer Subartu Akkadian Empire Gutian dynasty Neo-Sumerian Empire Isin-Larsa period First Babylonian Empire Old Assyrian Period Middle Assyrian Empire Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire Simurrum culture Babylonia Assyria Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Babylonian captivity Fall of Babylon Achaemenid Assyria Seleucid Babylonia Parthian Babylonia Sassanid Asorestan 638–1958 Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Buyid dynasty Qara Qoyunlu Aq Qoyunlu Safavids Ottoman Iraq (incl. Mamluk dynasty) Mandate for Mesopotamia Mandatory Iraq Kingdom of Iraq Kings Arab Federation Republic 1958–1968 1968–2003 2003–2011 2011–present Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (National Command) Saddam Hussein Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes 1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq Weapons of mass destruction Iran–Iraq War Operation Opera Invasion of Kuwait Gulf War 1991 uprisings Sanctions Iraq War U.S. invasion Iraqi insurgency U.S. troop withdrawal Insurgency (2011–2013) War (2014–2017) Fall of Mosul Mosul liberation Insurgency 2019–2021 protests 2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis
Geography Faw peninsula Upper Mesopotamia Lower Mesopotamia Borders Euphrates river Hamrin Mountains Iraqi Kurdistan Lakes Islands Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Places Shatt al-Arab Syrian Desert Tigris river Umm Qasr Zagros Mountains Wildlife Sinjar Mountains
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Category Portal WikiProject Commons

• Assyrian people
• Ethnic groups in Iran
• Ethnic groups in Iraq
• Ethnic groups in Syria
• Ethnic groups in the Middle East
• Ethnic groups in Turkey
• Indigenous peoples of West Asia
• Oriental Orthodoxy in Iran
• Oriental Orthodoxy in Iraq
• Oriental Orthodoxy in Syria
• Oriental Orthodoxy in Turkey