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Glorification of martyrdom in Palestinian society refers to the positive cultural conceptions of Palestinian martyrs who have died in political violence related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. This phenomenon has been present since at least 1968, but became more widespread in the early 1990s. The culture of martyrdom has influenced Palestinian militants, with groups such as Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad considering it the pinnacle of jihad (religious struggle) and the highest form of sacrifice for their cause.

In Palestine, education, visual media, community events, ceremonies, leaflets and posters celebrate martyrdom from a young age, creating a narrative that frames these individuals as heroes in the struggle against Israeli occupation. This culture of martyrdom has shaped public opinion and reinforced the cultural significance attached to these attacks, which has led to support for suicide attacks and contributed to a cycle of violence. It has also impacted the psychological well-being of Palestinian children, as well as raised allegations of indoctrination.

Background

In Palestine, the term "martyr" is used to mean any person who was killed by an aggressor, whether targeted or untargeted, and regardless of religion. For example, Shireen Abu Akleh was a Palestinian Christian journalist who was killed by Israeli forces, and Arabic media calls her a ‘martyr’. This reflects a communal belief that every Palestinian death is part of a resistance against Israeli occupation. Children are likewise called martyrs, such as the late children of journalist Wael Al-Dahdouh who were killed in an Israeli airstrike.

Istishhadi is a newer term and is used specifically by Palestinians for those carrying out ’amaliyyat istishhadiyya’ (martyrdom operations). These martyrdom operations, generally known as suicide bombings in the West, were introduced as a form of political violence by Hamas when they carried out their first operations in the spring of 1994 in the towns of Afula and Khedara. However, the concept of Palestinian fighter self-sacrifice has existed prior as fida’i ("the one who sacrifices self"), which resulted as the central strategy for Palestinian resistance groups ever since the Battle of Karameh, where for the first time Palestinian fighters scored a victory against the Israeli army. Nevertheless, the discourse of istishhadiyeen is different from the fida’iyeen discourse; while fida’i took on missions that would surely result in death, the istishhadiyeen take their own lives.

Hamas, an Islamist militant organization, upholds martyrdom as the highest expression of jihad and Islamic belief. Hamas asserts that the use of suicide bombers has empowered the Palestinian people strategically, attributing it to "Palestinian innovative genius” (‘abqariyyat al-ibda‘ al-filastini). Hamas officials have rejected claims that suicide attacks harm the Palestinian cause, asserting that “martyrdom operations” reflect the triumph of the Muslim soul, faith, and spirituality over the Israeli or Western “technological mindset.” Palestinian anthropologist Nasser Abufarha states that istishhadi did not previously exist in the Arabic dictionary. He writes that istishhadi is different from the concepts of shahid or fida'i in that istishhadi is the idea of actively seeking martyrdom; an idea that is not traditionally Islamic. Abufarha states that Hamas coined the term istishhadi with the aim of attaching religion to self-sacrifice because Hamas believes Islam is "the most solid ideology through which to achieve the goals of the Palestinian national struggle." In addition, the act of the istishhadi is seen as a "blood covenant" through which the exchange of blood fuses human life with the land.

Istishhad has played a role in Palestinian society since the 1990s. In the 1990s, the ethos of self-sacrifice became deeply embedded in Palestinian collective consciousness through indoctrination and suicide bombings orchestrated by Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad and other militant groups. During the Oslo Accords, Hamas and Jihad had trouble gaining wide acceptance for their martyrdom operations due to Palestinians' hope that the Oslo Accords would result in agreements with Israel that would address the Palestinian call for political independence. To recruit volunteers during this time, Hamas and Jihad groomed members to accept death and made promises about the afterlife. However, after the collapse of the Oslo Accords and at the beginning of the Second Intifada, popular interest in martyr operations grew. During the Second Intifada (2000–2005), self-sacrifice became even more deeply rooted in Palestinian society. Nationalistic factions aligned with the Palestinian National Authority also embraced it as a political tool to influence public opinion. Perpetrators of suicide bombings were glorified as heroes. These actions of self-sacrifice were perceived as a method to reclaim lost dignity, both on a national and familial level. Families of the martyrs gained social standing and material support. Hatina writes that self-sacrifice has become a formative ethos of Palestinian Islam in the struggle against Israel. It has also become a moral justification for Palestinian suicide bombings.

Palestinian officials have emphasized the role of sacrifice and martyrdom as a means of gaining international attention and achieving political goals. Hassan Al-Kashef, Director-General of the PA Information Ministry, once stated that “The only way to impose our conditions is inevitably through our blood. Had it not been for this blood, the world would have never been interested in us ... the power of the Intifada is our only weapon.”

Education

Palestinian textbooks have explicitly addressed the "appreciation of the concept of martyrdom and martyrs" as a learning objective.

According to a report from IMPACT-SE, students are exposed to textbooks that glorify violent depictions of suicide bombings, showing Palestinians cutting the throats of enemy soldiers and wearing explosive belts. A book on Islamic education published by the Palestinian Ministry of Education, dedicates a chapter to "martyrdom," emphasizing honor, glory, and guaranteed entry into paradise for those who sacrifice themselves. The book implies that those who do not engage in such actions are weak and includes an exercise prompting students to write essays on terrorist attacks carried out by Palestinians.

From 2019 to 2023, the European Parliament passed resolutions condemning the Palestinian Authority for hateful textbook content, linking it to terrorism. A resolution in 2023 emphasized the need for unbiased and impartial education to counter the involvement of teenagers in terrorist activities.

The Palestinian curriculum places a strong emphasis on rote learning, including the memorization of poems and songs that glorify self-sacrifice. Successful performances, as evidenced in classroom videos, earn approval from teachers. Abd al-Rahim Mahmud's poem "The Martyr," featured in some textbooks, includes the line, "I see my death without my stolen right and without my country as a desired one."

In 2006, a study conducted by a Palestinian psychiatrist in Gaza revealed that among children aged 12 to 14, 36% of boys and 17% of girls expressed a desire to become martyrs when they reach the age of 18.

In 2017, Hamas aired a children's TV program in Gaza, showcasing young children praising suicide attacks and expressing a desire to sacrifice themselves for the liberation of Jerusalem and Palestine. The program featured the grandchildren of Umm Nidal, a former Hamas MP, who celebrated her sons' suicide attacks against Israelis. A granddaughter expressed pride in her father's actions and said she hoped to become a martyr for Hamas.

Teachers' guides incorporate depictions of jihad as an obligation, glorifying martyrdom as a noble sacrifice accompanied by the promise of heavenly rewards for those who die.

In November 2023, a kindergarten in Beit Awwa released videos depicting children engaging in simulated military drills with toy guns, depicting the killing of IDF soldiers, and simulating a mock funeral for a child “martyr”. Signs on the walls of Hamas-run kindergartens read: "The children of the kindergarten are the shahids of tomorrow."

Mental health implications

The incorporation of material on martyrdom in the Palestinian education system has had an influence on the psyche of Palestinian children. In 2000, it was reported that one in three Palestinian children experienced psycho-social issues affecting their school performance, with 73% of 6 to 11 year olds in the northern Gaza Strip suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These experiences contribute to increased neuroticism, high-risk behavior, and low self-esteem, potentially influencing self-destructive behaviors like suicide missions. The Gaza Community Mental Health Program has reported an increase in children seeking help, sparking concerns about the lasting impact of martyrdom indoctrination.

Naming of schools and public buildings

In May 2017, the Palestinian Authority, through its organization Women's Affairs Technical Committee (WATC), named a women's center in Burqa after Dalal Mughrabi, the ringleader of the Coastal Road massacre in 1978, in which 38 Israeli civilians were killed, hailing her as a role model. The center was constructed with support of the Norwegian government and UN Women. In response, Norway's Foreign Minister called for the withdrawal of Norwegian funding and the removal of its logo from the building so as not to be associated with terrorism. The United Nations similarly condemned the naming as "glorification of terrorism" and demanded the removal of its logo from the building. Following investigations by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which revealed that WATC had withheld crucial information, Denmark terminated its working relationship with the organization and ceased funding 23 other NGOs in the Palestinian territories.

In 2018, Belgium suspended education aid projects with the Palestinian Authority after discovering that a school it funded in Hebron had been renamed the Dalal Mughrabi Elementary School. The Belgian Foreign Ministry had financed the construction of the school in 2012 and 2013, only to later learn that it was renamed without their knowledge. Belgium also temporarily suspended two other school-building projects.

Social events

After the 2002 Passover massacre, in which 30 Israelis were killed during the Passover seder, Hamas’ dawah society, responsible for Islamic outreach, capitalized on the attack to radicalize and recruit future operatives. This included creating posters glorifying the attack and naming social events, like a soccer tournament, after the suicide bomber Abdel Aziz Basset Odeh.

Media

Palestinian martyrs are featured highly in the Palestinian media, in television, radio, newspapers, literature, internet, leaflets, posters, videos, and songs. These appearances in the media are crafted and disseminated by organizations that endorse and carry out “martyrdom operations,” such as the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades. The strategic manipulation of media by these organizations plays a pivotal role in endorsing and glorifying martyrdom within Palestinian society. This involves shaping the identity of martyrs through published texts online, along with the distribution of visual and audio materials. These materials mold public opinion and enhance the organization's profile in the competitive landscape of armed groups.

Posters

Since the 1970s, posters honoring people who died in the conflict with Israel have been hung around Palestinian streets. In 2006, Abu Hashhash stated that “Posters of Martyrs, produced by different Palestinian political parties, are now the leading form through which the concept of martyrdom is represented and communicated.”

Posters contribute to the broader narrative, shaping perceptions, and reinforcing the cultural glorification of martyrdom. Mosques affiliated with Hamas often serve as platforms for propaganda, displaying posters and pamphlets that glorify suicide bombers and incarcerated Hamas militants. An example is the al-Ein mosque in al-Bireh, raided by Israeli forces in September 2003, where posters commemorating Hamas suicide bomber Ramez Fahmi Izz al-Dina Salim adorned the front door, walls, and notice boards. Salim, responsible for a Jerusalem café bombing in September 2003, was depicted in front of the al-Aqsa mosque with a caption invoking the mosque's plea for assistance. The raid also uncovered Hamas propaganda, including leaflets advocating "spectacular suicide bombing attacks" against U.S. forces in Iraq.

Regardless of the martyr's political affiliation, age, or gender, three essential and consistent elements may be present in posters: a photograph of the martyr, an 'obituary' text typically featuring a Quranic verse, and various symbols.

Social media

Martyrs are revered in Palestinian social networks, where content memorializing them and praising their heroism is prevalent. Martyrs are often honored by the creation of a fan page on social networks. Family members share pictures, participants express their grief, and eulogies are posted, generating a following of thousands. Such platforms are also used to disseminate provocative content. Additionally, martyrs are commemorated in songs that laud their heroism, while Photoshop images depict them against heavenly backgrounds, accompanied by captions like "The shaheeds do not die, rather their blood adorns the revolution."

Symbolism

In Palestinian culture, there is a custom of re-contextualizing martyr funerals as weddings. Instead of framing the death of a martyr as a sorrowful event, Palestinian myth portrays it as a wedding ceremony where the deceased is symbolically wedded to the land of Palestine. This transformation emphasizes the symbolic act of turning a funeral into a wedding as a representation of their collective struggle and resilience.

Financial support

The Palestinian Authority Martyrs Fund, administered by the Palestinian Authority (PA), provides monthly cash stipends to the families of Palestinians involved in politically motivated violence against Israel, including those killed, injured, or imprisoned. The fund also extends disbursements to bystanders and Palestinians incarcerated in Israeli jails. In 2016, the PA disbursed approximately NIS 1.1 billion (US$303 million) in stipends and additional benefits to the families of individuals referred to as 'martyrs.

In comparative scholarship

Scholarship comparing suicide bombing in Pakistan and Palestine, found that post-martyrdom acknowledgment and the glorification of suicide martyrs is less widespread in Pakistan. Palestinians tend to gather a more extensive collection of oral, written, pictorial and mythical material related to this phenomenon.

The culture of martyrdom and death leads to linguistic twists. For example, Hamas leader Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi likened martyrdom to the "industry of life", and the claim of Ahmad Bahr, deputy speaker of the PNA Legislative Council, that "martyrdom is life, a life of heroism and valor." These expressions highlight a shared element of glorifying violence and death between contemporary radical Islamic movements and Fascism, despite their fundamental differences, as exemplified by the Spanish civil war slogan, “Viva la Muerte!”, or “Long-live death”.

Events and reactions

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• In 2005, the Palestinian daily Al-Ayyam published a special supplement entitled "What Did Hanadi Say", consisting of poems calling for Jihad and honoring a suicide bomber that killed 21 civilians in a restaurant in Haifa.
• In April 2010, a militant that orchestrated suicide bombing that caused the deaths of approximately 90 Israelis, many of them civilians, was commemorated by naming a street in Ramallah. Prior to that streets in Jenin and Beit Lahia as well as square in Jericho were also named after him. In response, Israel, the United States and Canada condemned the Palestinian Authority. The Israeli Prime Minister's Office called it an "outrageous glorification of terrorism by the Palestinian Authority" while a U.S. State Department spokesperson stated "we also strongly condemn the glorification of terrorists. Honoring terrorists who have murdered innocent civilians either by official statements or by the dedication of public places hurts peace efforts and must end."
• In March 2011, a suicide bomber that killed an 81 years old man, and injured more than 100 civilians, was commemorated by a football tournament of a Fatah youth center.
• In 2014, it was claimed by The New York Times, that the picture of the founder and Secretary-General of the Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine, and the masterminded of several suicide bombings in Israel, and a key player in a coalition of groups rejecting the Oslo process, is more prominent than that of the Hamas prime minister in some Gaza precincts.
• In May 2017, a militant who took part in the 1978 Coastal Road massacre, where 38 Israeli civilians, including 13 children, were killed, was commemorated on a women's center by an agency of the Palestinian Authority. The center was built with the aid of the government of Norway and UN Women. Norway's Foreign Minister demanded that Norway's funding for the building be repaid and its logo removed from the building. He said that "Norway will not allow itself to be associated with institutions that take the names of terrorists in this way". The United Nations also condemned the naming as "glorification of terrorism" and demanded its logo be removed from the building. The Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs started its own investigations of the Palestinian Authority WATC and found it had withheld central information about the naming of the centre and terminated the working relationship with WATC. As a result of the findings, Denmark ceased funding 23 other NGOs in Palestine.
• In December 2017, Fatah's official Facebook page posted pictures that glorify five female terrorists who were responsible for the deaths of 48 Israelis and the wounding of 276.
• In December 2023, Al-Qassam Brigades published a video showing the destruction of an IDF tank, and a Qassam militant is heard shouting "for your sake, Abu Hussein!", referring to mastermind behind various terrorist acts such as the Atzmona Massacre, the Nahal Oz attack and more.

See also

• Education in the State of Palestine
• Islamist terrorism
• Use of child suicide bombers by Palestinian militant groups
• List of Palestinian suicide attacks

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• Suicide bombing in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
• Islamic terrorism
• Anti-Zionism in the Palestinian territories
• Islamism in the State of Palestine
• Palestinian political violence