Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 02:57, 18 November 2024

Republic of Mali Official names Bambara: Mali ka Fasojamana / ߡߊ߬ߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ Fula: Republik bu Maali / 𞤈𞤫𞤨𞤵𞤦𞤤𞤭𞤳 𞤦𞤵 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 Arabic: جُمْهُورِيَّةْ مَالِي (Jumhūriyyet Māli) Soninke: Mali Tɔgɔbadugu Tamasheq: Tagduda n Mali / ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⵉ Songhai: Mali Laamaa
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Un peuple, un but, une foi" (French) "Mɔgɔ kelen, laɲini kelen, dannaya kelen" (Bambara) "One people, one goal, one faith"
Anthem: "Le Mali" (French)
Location of Mali (green)
Capitaland largest city	Bamako 12°39′N 8°0′W / 12.650°N 8.000°W / 12.650; -8.000
Official languages	13 national languages Bambara Bobo Arabic Bozo Dogon, Toro So Fula Kassonke Maninke Minyanka Senufo, Senara Songhay, Koyraboro Senni Soninke Tamasheq
Working language	French (de facto)
Spoken languages	Bambara Fula Arabic Soninke Songhay Mandinka Minyanka Tamasheq Senufo Bobo Bozo Kassonke Samogo Dafing Dogon
Ethnic groups	33.3% Bambara 13.3% Fula 9.6% Soninke 9.6% Senufo / Bwa 8.8% Malinke 8.7% Dogon 5.9% Songhai 3.5% Tuareg 2.1% Bobo 4.5% other
Religion (2021)	95% Islam 5% other
Demonym(s)	Malian
Government	Unitary presidential republic under a military junta
• President	Assimi Goïta (interim)
• Prime Minister	Choguel Kokalla Maïga (interim)
Legislature	National Assembly
Formation
• Mali Empire	1235
• Establishment of the Sudanese Republic	24 November 1958
• Merger with Senegal to create the Mali Federation	4 April 1959
• Independence from France	20 June 1960
• Dissolution of the Mali Federation	20 August 1960
• Declaration of the Republic of Mali	22 September 1960
Area
• Total	1,240,192 km (478,841 sq mi) (23rd)
• Water (%)	1.6
Population
• 2024 estimate	21,990,607 (61st)
• Density	11.7/km (30.3/sq mi) (215th)
GDP (PPP)	2023 estimate
• Total	$61.625 billion (115th)
• Per capita	$2,639 (174th)
GDP (nominal)	2023 estimate
• Total	$21.309 billion (123rd)
• Per capita	$912 (175th)
Gini (2010)	33.0 medium inequality
HDI (2022)	0.410 low (188th)
Currency	West African CFA franc (XOF)
Time zone	UTC (GMT)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on	Right
Calling code	+223
ISO 3166 code	ML
Internet TLD	.ml

Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi). The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east by Niger, to the northwest by Mauritania, to the south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast, and to the west by Guinea and Senegal. The population of Mali is 24,478,595, 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024. Its capital and largest city is Bamako. The country has 13 official languages, of which Bambara is the most commonly spoken.

The sovereign state's northern borders reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert. The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has the Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold (of which it is the third largest producer in Africa) and salt.

Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named), the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history. Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam, culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of learning with its university, one of the oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468, followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal, the Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state.

In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared the secession of a new state, Azawad. The conflict was complicated by a military coup in March 2012 and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013. A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013. In the early 2020s, Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta.

Etymology

The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire. It means "the place where the king lives" and carries a connotation of strength.

Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the empire was called Mali. One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city.

Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples. It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/.

History

Before colonization

The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used around by 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people, along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC, and Djenne-Djenno, which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By the sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires.

There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068, the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana, and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi.

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.

The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita, which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire.

The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire. The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.

In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha. The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance. At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold.

One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."

French colonial rule

Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.

In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso. The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops.

On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within the French Community. In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation.

Independence

The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day.

Modibo Keïta was elected the first president. He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources. In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million. On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré, a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day.

Moussa Traoré regime

The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974, in which famine killed thousands of people. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.

Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.

In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the drought. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.

From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.

26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed. The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.

By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré.

Multi-party democracy

Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.

Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master. In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012, ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters.

Northern Mali conflict

In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA). In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état, citing Touré's failures in quelling the rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States. The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad. However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali.

On 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré. On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals. On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu.

In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election.

Conflict in Central Mali

In the central Mali province of Mopti, conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara, and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people. Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas. The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups" to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda. While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends".

Added a top Mali military commander:

I’ve discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover.

The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict. The government denies this. One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou, created in 2016.

In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018, no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of the Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy, and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote.

In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali". However, the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers. The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband. The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng, warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict. By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali. The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti. It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children.

During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso. President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us". On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali. In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November.

2020s coups and Assimi Goïta junta

Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé. Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June. In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court.

Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati, Koulikoro Region, began a mutiny on 18 August 2020. President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed. Wagué announced the formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president.

On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement.

Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after the handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration. Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré, were being detained in a military base in Kati, outside Bamako. On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president.

In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War, occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group. By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled the amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta.

On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years. On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled. According to Human Rights Watch, Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane. On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations. This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate". A UN panel reported that in the first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year.

Sergey Lavrov, the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities.

In June 2023, Mali removed French, the language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta.

On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River, killing at least 154 civilians.

In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during the Battle of Tinzaouaten. On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine.

On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako, killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others.

Geography

Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E. Mali borders Algeria to the north-northeast, Niger to the east, Burkina Faso to the south-east, Ivory Coast to the south, Guinea to the south-west, and Senegal to the west and Mauritania to the north-west.

At 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi), Mali is the 24th-largest country in the world and the eighth-largest country in Africa. It is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert, which produces an extremely hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone. Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas massif lies in the northeast.

Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country. Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent. Late April to early October is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta. The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The southern areas have a tropical wet and dry climate. (Köppen climate classification Aw) In review, Mali's climate is tropical, with March to May being the hot, dry season. June to October is rainy, humid and mild. November to February is the cool, dry season.

Mali has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred). In 2012, a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified. Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.

Biodiversity

Five terrestrial ecoregions lie within Mali's borders: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 51st globally out of 172 countries.

Politics and government

Government

Until the military coup of 22 March 2012, Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999. The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential". Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.

The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers. The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms. Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly. The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government.

Mali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement. Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter. Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.

The transition government pushed back the timetable for a new election, initially to be held in February 2022, to February 2024. In exchange for the government's commitment to a 2024 election, ECOWAS agreed to lift sanctions on the country.

Foreign relations

Until 2012, Mali's foreign policy orientation had become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly. Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler. Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.

Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.

In early 2019, Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for an attack on a United Nations base in Mali that killed 10 peacekeepers from Chad. 25 people were reported to have been injured in the attack. Al Qaeda's stated reason for the attack was Chad's re-establishing diplomatic ties with Israel. The base was attacked in Anguelhok, a village located in an especially unstable region of the country.

Military

Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force, as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.

Regions and cercles

Since 2016, Mali has been divided into ten regions and the District of Bamako. Each region has a governor. The implementation of the two newest regions, Taoudénit (formerly part of Tombouctou Region) and Ménaka (formerly Ménaka Cercle in Gao Region), has been ongoing since January 2016; a governor and transitional council has been appointed for both regions.

Since 2023, Mali has added nine new regions to its administrative structure, bringing the total to 19 regions plus the district of Bamako. This reorganization aims to improve governance and bring public services closer to local populations. This initiative continues the decentralization efforts that began with the creation of the Taoudénit and Ménaka regions in 2016. The nineteen regions in turn are subdivided into 159 cercles and 815 communes.

The régions and Capital District are:

Economy

This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (July 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The Central Bank of West African States handles the financial affairs of Mali and additional members of the Economic Community of West African States. Mali is considered one of the poorest countries in the world. The average worker's annual salary is approximately US$1,500.

Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, 12 partially privatized, and 20 liquidated. In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation. Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), were expected to be privatized in 2008.

Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. The programme increased social and economic conditions, and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.

Mali is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The gross domestic product (GDP) has risen since. In 2002, the GDP amounted to US$3.4 billion, and increased to US$5.8 billion in 2005, which amounts to an approximately 17.6% annual growth rate.

Mali is a part of the "Franc Zone" (Zone Franc), which means that it uses the CFA franc. Mali is connected with the French government by agreement since 1962 (creation of BCEAO). Today all seven countries of BCEAO (including Mali) are connected to French Central Bank.

Mali was ranked 136th out of 139 in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Agriculture

Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast. During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003. In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock, and agriculture amount to 80% of Mali's exports.

Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture. 15% of Malian workers are employed in the service sector. Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.

Mining

In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry. Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).

The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises. Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.

Energy

Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA. Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. In 2002, 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.

Energie du Mali is an electric company that provides electricity to Mali citizens. Only 55 percent of the population in cities have access to EDM.

Transport infrastructure

In Mali, there is a railway that connects to bordering countries. There are also approximately 29 airports, of which 8 have paved runways. Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs. A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation.

Demographics

In 2021, Mali's population was an estimated 21.9 million. Mali's population grew from 7.7 million in 1982 to 19.9 million in 2018. The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5%–10% of Malians are nomadic. More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 2 million residents.

In 2007, about 48% of Malians were younger than 12 years old, 49% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older. The median age was 15.9 years. The birth rate in 2014 was 45.53 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate (in 2012) was 6.4 children per woman. The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000. Life expectancy at birth was 53.06 years total (51.43 for males and 54.73 for females). Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality, with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2007.

Largest cities in Mali

v t e Largest cities or towns in Mali According to the 2009 Census
	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.
Bamako Sikasso	1	Bamako	Bamako	1,810,366
	2	Sikasso	Sikasso	226,618
	3	Koutiala	Sikasso	141,444
	4	Ségou	Ségou	133,501
	5	Kayes	Kayes	126,319
	6	Mopti	Mopti	120,786
	7	Kalabancoro	Koulikoro	96,173
	8	Gao	Gao	86,353
	9	Kati	Koulikoro	84,500
	10	San	Ségou	66,967

Ethnic groups

Mali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups. The Bambara are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up 36.5% of the population. Collectively, the Bambara, Soninké, Khassonké, and Malinké (also called Mandinka), all part of the broader Mandé group, constitute 50% of the population. Other significant groups are the Fula (17%), Voltaic (12%), Songhai (6%), and Tuareg and Moor (10%). In Mali and in Niger, the Moors are also known as Azawagh Arabs, named after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. They speak mainly Hassaniya Arabic, one of the regional varieties of Arabic.

In the far north, there is a division between Berber-descended Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due to the historical spread of slavery in the region. An estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves. Slavery has persisted in Mali for centuries. The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships, and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved.

Some mixed European/African descendants of Muslims of Spanish, as well as French, Irish, Italian and Portuguese origin, live in Mali, where they are known as the Arma people (1% of the nation's population).

Although Mali has enjoyed reasonably good inter-ethnic relationships based on a long history of coexistence, some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist, as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north. Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence, Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group. This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government, and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law.

Languages

In January 2022, due to deteriorating relations between Mali and the French government, the Mali government announced making Bambara the official language. In July 2023, French was dropped as an official language, becoming instead a working language. At the same time, the 13 national languages, namely Bambara, Bobo, Bozo, Dogon, Fula, Hassaniya Arabic, Kassonke, Maninke, Minyanka, Senufo, the Songhay languages, Soninke and Tamasheq, became official languages. The lingua franca in Mali is mainly Bambara, which about 80 percent of the population can communicate in. Over 40 other African languages are spoken by the various ethnic groups of Mali.

According to the 2009 census, the languages spoken natively in Mali were Bambara by 51.5%, Fula (8.3%), Dogon (6.6%) Soninké (5.7%), Songhai (5.3%), Mandinka (5.2%), Minianka (3.8%), Tamasheq (3.2%), Sénoufo (2%), Bobo (1.9%), Tieyaxo Bozo (1.6%), Kassonké (1.1%), Maure (1%), Dafing (0.4%), Samogo (0.4%), Arabic (Hassaniya) (0.3%), other Malian languages (0.5%), other African languages (0.2%), and other non-African languages (0.2%); 0.7% did not declare their first language.

Religion

Islam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region. An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to traditional African religions such as the Dogon religion. Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion daily.

The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.

Islam as historically practiced in Mali has been malleable and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable. After the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country, however, Mali came to be listed high (number 7) in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors, which described the persecution in the north as severe.

Education

Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen. The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7, followed by six years of secondary education. Mali's actual primary school enrolment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.

In 2017, the primary school enrolment rate was 61% (65% of males and 58% of females). In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrolment rate was 15% (20% of males and 10% of females). The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.

Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30 to 46.4%, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men. The University of Bamako, which includes four constituent universities, is the largest university in the country and enrols approximately 60,000 undergraduate and graduate students.

Health

Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation. Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world. Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53.06 years in 2012. In 2000, 62–65% of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69% to sanitation services of some kind. In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totaled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.

Efforts have been made to improve nutrition, and reduce associated health problems, by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.

Medical facilities in Mali are very limited, and medicines are in short supply. Malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis. Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of child malnutrition and a low rate of immunization. An estimated 1.9% of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year, among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 85%–91% of Mali's girls and women have had female genital mutilation (2006 and 2001 data).

Gender equality

In 2017, Mali ranked 157th out of 160 countries in the gender inequality index as reported by the United Nations Development Programme. The Malian Constitution states that it protects women's rights, however many laws exist that discriminate against women. Provisions in the laws limit women's decision-making power after marriage, in which the husband becomes superior to his wife. Women are blamed for not maintaining the appearance of their husbands and are also blamed for the actions of their children if they misbehave, which encourages the cultural attitude that women are inferior to men. The lack of participation of women in politics is due to the idea that politics is associated with men and that women should avoid this sector. Education is also an area in which boys dominate, since it is a better investment for the parents. As traditional values and practices have contributed to gender inequality in Mali, conflict and lawlessness have also influenced the growing gap in gender through gender-based violence. The unstable government of Mali has led to organizations like USAID attempting to improve the lives of the people, mainly women and girls' rights in order to re-engage the development of the country.

Gender relations

Religion, the patriarchal norms, and gender-based violence are major negative factors shaping the life of women in Mali. Patriarchal norms cause major gender inequalities and lead to male domination within the household. Girls learn household activities like chores, cooking, childcare, etc. at a young age and are expected to take the main responsibility of household chores throughout their life. This hampers women's ability to enter the formal workforce and leads to a lack of education of girls. Gender-based violence in Mali happens both on a national and a family level. At the national level, in 2012 the conflict in the Northern part of the country increased cases of kidnappings and rapes. The conflict also reduced women's access to resources, economy, and opportunities. At the household level, Malian women face gender-based violence through domestic violence, forced marriages, and marital rape. The Demographic Health Survey for Mali in 2013 stated that 76% of women and 54% of men believed physical harm towards women was acceptable if the women burnt food, argued back, went out without notifying her husband, or refused sexual relations with her husband.

Area of opportunity

The lack of education has increased gender inequality in Mali because not many women are working outside the household are even participating in the Public Administration sector. After adjusting the entrance requirements and access to education, girls still have lower enrollment rates and less access to formal education. Drop-out rates for girls are 15% higher than that of boys because they have a higher responsibility at home and most parents refuse to allow all their children to go to school, so boys tend to become educated. Similarly, technical and vocational education has a lower numbers of girls participating and are inadequately distributed in the country because the training centers are focused in the urban cities. Finally, higher education for girls consist of short programs because early marriages prevent most girls from pursuing a longer term education program like those in science. Although women do not have the same access of education, in recent decades women have been entering and representing in decision-making positions in the Public Administration sector. Out of 147 members of Parliament, 15 were women in 2010. Recent decades show that women are slowly joining important decision-making positions which is changing the attitude and status of women in Mali, which has led to the promotion of women's rights in the political sphere.

Efforts

Legislation at the international and national levels have been implemented over the decades to help promote women's rights in Mali. At the international, Mali signed the Beijing Platform for Action which suggest that women should participate in decision-making and the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which is the foundation to women's rights promotion. At the national level, Mali's Constitution has the Decree No. 092-073P-CTSP that claims equality to all Malian citizens and discrimination is prohibited, which has not been followed. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme (PRSP) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme under the Malian Government seek to improve the well-being of the citizens, and changes to governance and gender in the country. The Ministry for Advancement of Women, Children and the Family was created specifically for women and children so that their basics rights and needs get met under the law. Although there exists legislation and policy for gender equality the institutionalization of the National Gender Policy of Mali is necessary to support the importance of women's rights. Strengthening and the support of girls' and women's access to education and training is recommended to improve gender equality in Mali. The involvement of international organizations like USAID assist Mali financially to enhance their development through the efforts of the improvement of women's rights.

Culture

The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity. Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.

Music

Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as "Keepers of Memories". Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, Khaira Arby, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, Fatoumata Diawara, Rokia Traore, and Habib Koité. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture. Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.

Literature

Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music, Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers. Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart. Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.

The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.

Sport

The most popular sport in Mali is association football, which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations. Most towns and cities have regular games; the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball.

Basketball is another major sport; the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Traditional wrestling (la lutte) is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years. The game wari, a mancala variant, is a common pastime.

Mali featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.

Cuisine

Rice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains. Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as spinach or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat). Malian cuisine varies regionally. Other popular dishes include fufu, jollof rice, and maafe.

Media

In Mali, there are several newspapers such as Les Echos, L'Essor, Info Matin, Nouvel Horizon, and Le Républicain [fr]. Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision du Mali is the state-owned service. Telecommunications in Mali include 869,600 mobile phones, 45,000 televisions and 414,985 Internet users.

See also

• Index of Mali-related articles
• Outline of Mali

Notes

1. Bambara serves a lingua franca spoken by around 80% of the population.
2. Includes Christianity, no religion, and traditional African religions.
3. /ˈmɑːli/ ; Bambara pronunciation: [ma.li]
   
   • N'Ko script: ߡߊߟߌ
   • Fula: 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭
   • Arabic: مالي
4. • Bambara: Mali ka Fasojamana, N'Ko script: ߡߊߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ
   • Fula: 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, romanized: Renndaandi Maali
   • Arabic: جمهورية مالي, romanized: Jumhūriyyāt Mālī

References

1. [https://twitter.com/NkoOfficiel Académie N’Ko Mali ߡߊ߰ߟߌ ߒߞߏ ߟߏ߲ߞߏ߫ ߘߎ߲ߓߎ ] Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 May 2024
2. ^ "JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI SECRETARIAT GENERAL DU GOUVERNEMENT - DECRET N°2023-0401/PT-RM DU 22 JUILLET 2023 PORTANT PROMULGATION DE LA CONSTITUTION" (PDF). sgg-mali.ml (in French). 22 July 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2023. Article 31 : Les langues nationales sont les langues officielles du Mali. [Article 31: The national languages are the official languages of Mali.]
3. ^ "JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI SECRETARIAT GENERAL DU GOUVERNEMENT - DECRET N°2017-0735/P-RM DU 21 AOUT 2017 FIXANT L'ORGANISATION ET LES MODALITES DE FONCTIONNEMENT DES STRUCTURES DE L'EDUCATION NON FORMELLE" (PDF). sgg-mali.ml (in French). 21 August 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023. Selon la Loi n°96- 049 du 23 août 1996, les langues nationales du Mali sont : (...) [According to Law No. 96-049 of 23 August 1996, the national languages of Mali are: (...)]
4. "JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI SECRETARIAT GENERAL DU GOUVERNEMENT - DECRET N°2023-0401/PT-RM DU 22 JUILLET 2023 PORTANT PROMULGATION DE LA CONSTITUTION" (PDF). sgg-mali.ml (in French). 22 July 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2023. Article 31 : Le français est la langue de travail. L'Etat peut adopter toute autre langue comme langue de travail. [Article 31: French is the working language. The State may adopt any other language as its working language.]
5. ^ Mali country profile, p. 6.
6. ^ "Africa: Mali – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". CIA.gov. 27 April 2021. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
7. "Mali". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
8. Booty, Natasha; Pivac, Mark (23 July 2023). "Assimi Goïta: President gets sweeping powers in new Mali constitution". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
9. ^ "Mali country profile". BBC News. 19 October 2023. Archived from the original on 11 September 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
10. "Mali". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
11. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Mali)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 17 October 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
12. "Gini Index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
13. "HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
14. Which side of the road do they drive on? Archived 14 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Brian Lucas. August 2005. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
15. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
16. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
17. "Index Mundi using CIA World Factbook statistics, January 20, 2018, retrieved April 13, 2019". Archived from the original on 21 December 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
18. Mali gold reserves rise in 2011 alongside price Archived 21 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 January 2013
19. Human Development Indices Archived 12 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Table 3: Human and income poverty, p. 6. Retrieved 1 June 2009
20. "Mansa Musa (Musa I of Mali)". National Geographic Society. 14 April 2020. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
21. Mali Empire (ca. 1200-) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed Archived 5 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Black Past. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
22. "Is Mansa Musa the richest man who ever lived?". BBC News. 10 March 2019. Archived from the original on 10 March 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
23. "Who is the richest person of all time?". The Week UK. December 2021. Archived from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
24. Polgreen, Lydia and Cowell, Alan (6 April 2012) "Mali Rebels Proclaim Independent State in North" Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times
25. ^ UN Security Council condemns Mali coup Archived 28 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Telegraph (23 March 2012). Retrieved 24 March 2013.
26. "Mali – la France a mené une série de raids contre les islamistes". Le Monde. 12 January 2013. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
27. Wolny, Philip (15 December 2013). Discovering the Empire of Mali. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 9781477718896. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
28. Sasnett, Martena Tenney; Sepmeyer, Inez Hopkins (1 January 1967). Educational Systems of Africa: Interpretations for Use in the Evaluation of Academic Credentials. University of California Press. pp. 673.
29. Imperato, Pascal James; Imperato, Gavin H. (25 April 2008). Historical Dictionary of Mali. Scarecrow Press. p. 231. ISBN 9780810864023. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
30. Niane, Djibril (1965). Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali.
31. ^ Aku Adjandeh, Evelyn (July 2014). "A STUDY OF PROVERBS IN THINGS FALL APART AND SUNDIATA: AN EPIC OF OLD MALI (SUNDIATA)" (PDF). University of Ghana, Legon – Institute of African Studies. p. 100. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
32. Graft-Johnson, John Coleman De (1 January 1986). African Glory: The Story of Vanished Negro Civilizations. Black Classic Press. p. 92. ISBN 9780933121034. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
33. Fyle, C. Magbaily (1999). Introduction to the History of African Civilization: Precolonial Africa. University Press of America. pp. 11. ISBN 9780761814566.
34. Eric Huysecom, M. Rasse, L. Lespez, K. Neumann, A. Fahmy, A. Ballouche, S. Ozainne, M. Maggetti, Ch. Tribolo, S. Sorian: The emergence of pottery in Africa during the tenth millennium cal BC: new evidence from Ounjougou (Mali), in: Antiquity (2009), p. 906.
35. Arazi, Noemie. "Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources" (PDF). University College London. Institute of Archaeology. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
36. al-Bakri in Nehemiah Levtzion and J. F. Pl Hopkins, eds and trans., Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981, reprint edn Princeton, New Jersey,: Marcus Wiener, 2000), pp. 82–83.
37. ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds, and transl. Corpus, p. 333.
38. al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and transl, Corpus, p. 108.
39. ^ Mali country profile, p. 1.
40. ^ Mali country profile. Mali was later responsible for the collapse of Islamic Slave Army from the North. The defeat of Tukuror Slave Army, was repeated by Mali against the France and Spanish Expeditionary Army in the 1800s ("Blanc et memoires"). p. 2.
41. John Iliffe (2007) Africans: the history of a continent Archived 6 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-521-68297-5
42. La guerre coloniale du Bani-Volta, 1915-1916 (Burkina Faso, Mali) Archived 29 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Autrepart, 2003.
43. 14-18 Étions-nous bien défendus ?, Jean-Claude Flament, Société des écrivains, 2014.
44. ^ "Independent Mali". Britannica. 1946. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
45. "Public Holidays". Embassy of the Republic of Mali to the United States. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
46. Core document forming part of the reports of states parties: Mali. United Nations Human Rights Website.
47. ^ Mali country profile, p. 3.
48. "Liberation Day Commemorated in Mali". Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
49. "Mali's nomads face famine Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine". BBC News. 9 August 2005.
50. ^ "Nonviolent Conflict Summaries". Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2012. Mali March 1991 Revolution
51. ^ Nesbitt, Katherine. "Mali's March Revolution (1991)". International Center on Nonviolent Conflict. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
52. Bussa, Edward (26 March 2009). "Mali's March to Democracy". Threadster.com. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
53. Mohsin, Haroon (18 August 2022). "Martyr's Day in Mali". National Today. Archived from the original on 17 October 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
54. Turrittin, Jane (1991). "Mali: People Topple Traoré". Review of African Political Economy. 18 (52): 97–103. doi:10.1080/03056249108703927. ISSN 0305-6244. JSTOR 4005962. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
55. Mali country profile, p. 4.
56. USAID Africa: Mali. USAID. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
57. ^ Tran, Mark (23 October 2012). "Mali conflict puts freedom of 'slave descendants' in peril". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
58. York, Geoffrey (11 November 2012). "Mali chaos gives rise to slavery, persecution". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
59. Mali clashes force 120 000 from homes Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. News24 (22 February 2012). Retrieved 23 February 2012.
60. Callimachi, Rukmini (3 April 2012) "Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
61. "Tuareg rebels declare independence in north Mali". France 24. 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
62. Tiemoko Diallo; Adama Diarra (28 June 2012). "Islamists declare full control of Mali's north". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
63. "Mali Islamists want sharia not independence". Agence France-Presse. 20 June 2012. Archived from the original on 16 December 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
64. "Mali Possibilities and Challenges for Transitional Justice in Mali". International Center for Transitional Justice. 9 January 2014. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
65. "French Troops Retake Kidal Airport, Move into City". USA Today. 30 January 2013. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2013. French troops retake the last remaining Islamist urban stronghold in Mali.
66. "Mali conflict: Timbuktu hails French President Hollande". BBC News. 2 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
67. "Ibrahim Boubacar Keita wins Mali presidential election". BBC News. 13 August 2013. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
68. "The Sahel in flames". The New Humanitarian. 31 May 2019. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
69. ^ ""We Used to Be Brothers" | Self-Defense Group Abuses in Central Mali". Human Rights Watch. 7 December 2018. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
70. Blake, James (29 March 2019). "Radical Islamists Have Opened a New Front in Mali". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
71. ^ "Au Mali, les liaisons dangereuses entre l'Etat et les milices" (in French). 24 July 2018. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
72. Mumbere, Daniel (10 July 2018). "Everything you need to know about Mali 2018 presidential election". Africanews.com. Archived from the original on 24 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
73. "Mali: Élection présidentielle 2018 : Le premier tour aura lieu le dimanche 29 juillet". maliactu.net. 12 February 2018. Archived from the original on 12 February 2018. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
74. "Incumbent President Keita wins re-election in Mali". France 24. 16 August 2018. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
75. "Youssouf Toloba and his Dan Nan Ambassagou armed group sign a commitment towards a ceasefire in central Mali | HD Centre". Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
76. "UN to probe 'horrific' Mali attacks as death toll jumps to 160". Al-Jazeera. 26 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
77. "Insiders Insight: Explaining the Mali massacre". African Arguments. 26 March 2019. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
78. "Central Mali: Top UN genocide prevention official sounds alarm over recent ethnically-targeted killings". UN News. 28 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
79. Giannangeli, Marco (1 November 2020). "Britain 'sleepwalking' into deadly conflict in war-torn West Africa". express.co.uk. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
80. "Sharp rise in number of children killed in Mali's deadly attacks". The Guardian. 13 August 2019. Archived from the original on 31 August 2019. Retrieved 1 September 2019.
81. "PUIC Secretary General condemns terrorist attacks in Mali". Parliamentary Union of the OIC Member States. 8 October 2019. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
82. "Mali president dismisses coup speculation after jihadi attacks kill dozens of troops near Burkina Faso border". Japantimes.co.jp. 7 October 2019. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
83. "Militants kill 54 in attack on Mali army post, ISIS claims responsibility". NBC News. 3 November 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
84. "How Much More Blood Must Be Spilled?". HRW. 10 February 2020. Archived from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
85. Ahmed, Baba (5 June 2020). "Thousands in Mali's capital demand that president step down". ABC News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 September 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
86. "Kidnapped Mali politician and French aid worker freed". the Guardian. 6 October 2020. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
87. ^ "TOUT COMPRENDRE SUR LA SITUATION AU MALI" [Understanding everything about the situation in Mali]. CNews (in French). 19 August 2020. Archived from the original on 26 August 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
88. "Mali's coup is cheered at home but upsets neighbours". BBC. 21 August 2020. Archived from the original on 21 August 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
89. "Mali: President Bah N'Daw decrees the dissolution of the CNSP". The Africa Report.com. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
90. "EU condemns 'grave and serious' kidnapping of Mali's leaders". the Guardian. 25 May 2021. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
91. "Mali's military detains president, prime minister". AlJazeera.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
92. "Mali's military leader Goita sworn in as transitional president". AlJazeera.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
93. BBC Africa Today: Islamic State Sahel Province fighters seize commune in Mali, BBC, 2023, archived from the original on 11 May 2023, retrieved 31 May 2023
94. NPR: Islamic State group almost doubled its territory in Mali in under a year, U.N. says, NPR, 2023, archived from the original on 27 August 2023, retrieved 27 August 2023
95. Ahmed, Baba (10 January 2022). "Mali's junta deplores new sanctions imposed by regional bloc". SFGate. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
96. "Thousands in Mali celebrate expulsion of French ambassador | Armed Groups News". Al Jazeera. 5 February 2022. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
97. "Mali troops and suspected Russian fighters accused of massacre". BBC News. 5 April 2022. Archived from the original on 6 April 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
98. "Mali: Military government breaks defence accords with France". AlJazeera.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
99. "Mali: France opposed to Assimi Goïta's junta demanding an end to defence agreements". The Africa Report.com. 9 May 2022. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
100. "UN experts: Malian military and 'white' soldiers killed 33". Yahoo News. 5 August 2022. Archived from the original on 6 August 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
101. "Russian Foreign Minister visits Mali in sign of deepening ties". EuroNews. 8 February 2023. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
102. "Mali demotes French, language of its former colonizer, in symbolic move". Washington Post. 4 August 2023. Archived from the original on 3 August 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
103. "Mali : Les groupes islamistes armés et l'armée prennent les civils pour cible" (in French). Human Rights Watch. 1 November 2023. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
104. Darya Tarasova; Tim Lister; Avery Schmitz (29 July 2024). "Dozens of Russian mercenaries killed in rebel ambush in Mali, in their worst known loss in Africa". CNN. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
105. "Mali announces severance of diplomatic relations with Ukraine". РБК. 5 August 2024. Archived from the original on 5 August 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
106. "Was Ukraine's role in big Wagner defeat an own goal in Africa?". BBC News. 12 August 2024.
107. "Attack by al-Qaeda linked group in Mali killed more than 70 people". Al Jazeera English. 17 September 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2024.
108. Griffiths, Ieuan (July 1986). "The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries". The Geographical Journal. 152 (2): 204–216. Bibcode:1986GeogJ.152..204G. doi:10.2307/634762. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 634762.
109. "List of African countries by area". www.britannica.com. 27 September 2024.
110. ^ Mali country profile, p. 5.
111. Uranium Mine Ownership – Africa Archived 15 April 2020 at Archive-It. Wise-uranium.org. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
112. Muller, CJ and Umpire, A (22 November 2012) An Independent Technical Report on the Mineral Resources of Falea Uranium, Copper and Silver Deposit, Mali, West Africa Archived 24 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Minxcon.
113. Uranium in Africa Archived 17 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine. World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
114. Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
115. Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
116. Video: US condemns Mali coup amid reports of looting. Telegraph (22 March 2012). Retrieved 24 March 2013.
117. ^ Mali country profile, p. 14.
118. Constitution of Mali, Art. 30.
119. Constitution of Mali, Art. 29 & 46.
120. Constitution of Mali, Art. 38.
121. ^ Mali country profile, p. 15.
122. Constitution of Mali, Art. 59 & 61.
123. (in French) Koné, Denis. Mali: "Résultats définitifs des Législatives" Archived 29 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Les Echos (Bamako) (13 August 2007). Retrieved 24 June 2008.
124. Constitution of Mali, Art. 65.
125. Constitution of Mali, Art. 81.
126. Constitution of Mali, Art. 83–94.
127. "Mali's transition govt sets February 2024 for presidential election". AfricaNews. 1 July 2022. Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
128. Melly, Paul (6 July 2022). "Mali coup: How junta got Ecowas economic sanctions lifted". BBC. Archived from the original on 5 August 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
129. ^ Mali country profile, p. 17.
130. "ion suspends Mali over coup". Al Jazeera. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
131. "Al Qaeda Claims U.N. Peacekeeper Attack That Killed 10 in Mali". NY Times. 20 January 2019. Archived from the original on 21 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
132. ^ Central Intelligence Agency (2009). "Mali". The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
133. Martin, Phillip L. (2006). Managing Migration: The Promise of Cooperation. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-7391-1341-7.
134. DiPiazza, p. 37.
135. "Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Mali" (PDF). MINUSMA. 28 March 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
136. "Régionalisation: Deux Nouvelles régions créées au Mali". Malijet. 21 January 2016. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
137. "Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Mali" (PDF). MINUSMA. 30 December 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
138. "Loi N°99-035/ Du 10 Aout 1999 Portant Creation des Collectivites Territoriales de Cercles et de Regions" (PDF) (in French). Ministère de l'Administration Territoriales et des Collectivités Locales, République du Mali. 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2012.
139. Djiguiba, Issa (21 September 2024). "Administrative and territorial division: the new administrative map of Mali is operational". www.ortm.ml. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
140. Coulibaly, Bassidi (October 2013). "Etats Generaux De La Decentralisation (in French)" (PDF). arpdeveloppement.com. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
141. "CINQUIEME RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT (in French)" (PDF). www.instat-mali.org. November 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
142. ^ "Mali". U.S. State Department. May 2008. Archived from the original on 22 January 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
143. Mali and the WTO Archived 11 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. World Trade Organization. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
144. "OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa". Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
145. Mali country profile, p. 9.
146. Zone franc sur le site de la Banque de France Archived 20 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Banque-france.fr. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
147. World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 22 October 2024. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
148. ^ Hale, Briony (13 May 1998). "Mali's Golden Hope". BBC News. Archived from the original on 11 July 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
149. ^ Cavendish, Marshall (2007). World and Its Peoples: Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish. p. 1367. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2.
150. May, Jacques Meyer (1968). The Ecology of Malnutrition in the French Speaking Countries of West Africa and Madagascar. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-02-848960-5.
151. Campbell, Bonnie (2004). Regulating Mining in Africa: For Whose Benefit?. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordic African Institute. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2.
152. African Development Bank, p. 186.
153. Farvacque-Vitkovic, Catherine et al. (September 2007) DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITIES OF MALI — Challenges and Priorities Archived 16 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Africa Region Working Paper Series No. 104/a. World Bank
154. "Mali transportation, roads, railways and airports | - CountryReports". www.countryreports.org. Archived from the original on 14 October 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
155. "Population, total | Data". data.worldbank.org. 2022. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
156. "Mali Demographics Profile 2014". Archived from the original on 7 January 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
157. "Mali: Regions, Major Cities & Localities". Population Statistics in Maps and Charts. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
158. Popenoe, Rebecca (2003) Feeding Desire – Fatness, Beauty and Sexuality among a Saharan People. Routledge, London. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0-415-28096-6
159. Fortin, Jacey (16 January 2013). "Mali's Other Crisis: Slavery Still Plagues Mali, And Insurgency Could Make It Worse". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
160. "Kayaking to Timbuktu, Writer Sees Slave Trade Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine". National Geographic News. 5 December 2002.
161. "Kayaking to Timbuktu, Original National Geographic Adventure Article discussing Slavery in Mali Archived 22 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine". National Geographic Adventure. December 2002/January 2003.
162. MacInnes-Rae, Rick (26 November 2012). "Al-Qaeda complicating anti-slavery drive in Mali". CBC News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
163. Fage, J. D.; Gray, Richard; Oliver, Roland (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521204132.
164. Hall, Bruce S. (2011) A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107002876: "The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating, and intensifying, civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. ... contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non-blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry." (cover text)
165. Hirsch, Afua (6 July 2012) Mali's conflict and a 'war over skin colour' Archived 11 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian.
166. ^ "4ème Recensement General de la Population et de L'Habitat du Mali (RGPH)" (PDF) (in French). Institut National de la Statistique. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
167. "Mali's military rulers say French ambassador has 72 hours to leave the country". CNN. 31 January 2022. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
168. "4ème RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT DU MALI (RGPH-2009)" [4th GENERAL POPULATION CENSUS AND HABITAT OF MALI (RGPH-2009)] (PDF) (in French). Mali National Institute of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
169. ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Mali Archived 18 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine. State.gov (19 September 2008). Retrieved 4 May 2012.
170. "The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity" (PDF). Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. 9 August 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
171. ^ Mali country profile, p. 7.
172. Report points to 100 million persecuted Christians. Archived 6 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
173. OPEN DOORS World Watch list 2012 Archived 10 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Worldwatchlist.us. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
174. "Education Statistics". datatopics.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
175. "Université de Bamako – Bamako, Mali". Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
176. Life Expectancy ranks Archived 6 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. CIA World Factbook
177. ^ Mali country profile, p. 8.
178. Nourishing communities through holistic farming Archived 6 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Impatient optimists, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. 30 April 2013.
179. WHO | Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices. Who.int (6 May 2011). Retrieved 4 May 2012.
180. Female genital cutting in the Demographic Health Surveys: a critical and comparative analysis. Calverton, MD: ORC Marco; 2004 (DHS Comparative Reports No. 7) Archived 26 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF). Retrieved 18 January 2013.
181. "Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update: Mali" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
182. ^ "Violence against Women in Mali" (PDF). World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT). 7 July 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
183. ^ "USAID MALI:ADDENDUM TO THE 2012 GENDER ASSESSMENT" (PDF). United States Agency of International Development. May 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 September 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
184. ^ "GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: MALI CASE STUDY" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
185. ^ Pye-Smith, Charlie & Rhéal Drisdelle. Mali: A Prospect of Peace? Oxfam (1997). ISBN 0-85598-334-5, p. 13.
186. Crabill, Michelle and Tiso, Bruce (January 2003). Mali Resource Website. Fairfax County Public Schools. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
187. ^ "Music". Embassy of the Republic of Mali in Japan. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
188. Velton, p. 29.
189. ^ Milet, p. 128.
190. ^ Velton, p. 28.
191. ^ Milet, p. 151.
192. ^ DiPiazza, p. 55.
193. ^ Hudgens, Jim, Richard Trillo, and Nathalie Calonnec. The Rough Guide to West Africa. Rough Guides (2003). ISBN 1-84353-118-6, p. 320.
194. "Malian Men Basketball". Africabasket.com. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
195. Chitunda, Julio. "Ruiz looks to strengthen Mali roster ahead of Beijing" Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. FIBA.com (13 March 2008). Retrieved 24 June 2008.
196. "Continental Cup Finals start in Africa". FIVB. 22 June 2021. Archived from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
197. ^ Velton, p. 30.
198. ^ Milet, p. 146.
199. Murison, Katharine, ed. (2002). Africa South of the Sahara 2003. Taylor & Francis. pp. 652–53. ISBN 978-1-85743-131-5. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
200. Batvina, Iryna. "Culture of Mali". Best-Country.com. Archived from the original on 5 November 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2016.

Bibliography

• "Constitution of Mali" (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2008. A student-translated English version Archived 12 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine is also available.
• "Country profile: Mali" (PDF). Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. January 2005. Retrieved 30 July 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• DiPiazza, Francesca Davis (2006). Mali in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Learner Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8225-6591-8. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
• Milet, Eric & Manaud, Jean-Luc (2007). Mali (in French). Editions Olizane. ISBN 978-2-88086-351-7.
• Velton, Ross (2004). Mali. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-077-0.

External links

• Official website Archived 9 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Wikimedia Atlas of Mali
• Geographic data related to Mali at OpenStreetMap
• Mali Archived 30 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Mali profile Archived 24 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine from the BBC News
• Possibilities and Challenges for Transitional Justice in Mali Archived 18 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine from the ICTJ
• Facebook group about Ngoni Archived 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine, considered a traditional instrument of Mali; also known as Xalam, Jeli N'goni, Hoddu, Khalam, Tehardent, or Gambare
• Mali 2012 Trade Summary Statistics Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
• - Mali Population-Worldometer

17°N 4°W / 17°N 4°W / 17; -4

• Mali
• 1960 establishments in Africa
• Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language
• Countries in Africa
• Former French colonies
• Landlocked countries
• Least developed countries
• Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
• Member states of the African Union
• Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
• Member states of the United Nations
• Republics
• Saharan countries
• States and territories established in 1960
• West African countries