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Korean War
United States Marines, lead by Baldomero Lopez, land at Inchon.
Date Full-scale fighting lasted from June 25, 1950, until an armistice on July 27, 1953, though there was never a permanent peace treaty. Location Korean Peninsula Result Cease-fire; establishment of Korean Demilitarized Zone; otherwise, essentially uti possidetis. Territorial changes Korean Demilitarized Zone(DMZ); both South and North gain some territory along the 38th parallel.
Belligerents
United Nations:  South Korea,  Australia,  Belgium, Canada,  Colombia,  Ethiopia,  France,  Greece,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  New Zealand,  Philippines,  South Africa,  Thailand,  Turkey,  United Kingdom,  United States Medical staff:  Denmark,  Italy,  Norway,  Sweden	Communist:  North Korea,  China,  Soviet Union
Commanders and leaders
Syngman Rhee, Chung Il-kwon, Paik Sun-yup, Douglas MacArthur, Matthew Ridgway, Mark Wayne Clark	Kim Il-Sung, Choi Yong-kun, Van Len, Kim Chaek, Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai
Strength
Note: All figures may vary according to source. This measures peak strength as sizes changed during the war. South Korea 590,911, USA 480,000, Britain 63,000, Canada 26,791, Australia 17,000, The Philippines 7,000, Turkey 5,455, The Netherlands 3,972, France 3,421, New Zealand 1,389, Thailand 1,294, Ethiopia 1,271, Greece 1,263, Colombia 1,068, Belgium 900, South Africa 826, Luxembourg 44 Total: 941,356–1,139,518	North Korea 260,000, China 780,000, Soviet Union 26,000 Total: 1,066,000
Casualties and losses
South Korea: 58,127 combat deaths 175,743 wounded 80,000 MIA or POW United States: 27,704 dead (including 8,370 non-combat) 79,526 wounded 4,442 MIA 6,656 POW United Kingdom: 1,109 dead 2,674 wounded 1,060 MIA or POW Turkey: 721 dead 2,111 wounded 168 MIA 216 POW Total: Over 474,000	North Korea: 215,000 dead, 303,000 wounded, 120,000 MIA or POW China : 114,000 killed in combat 34,000 non-combat deaths 380,000 wounded 21,400 POW China (Estimation from Pantagon ): 400,000+ dead 486,000 wounded 21,000 POW Soviet: 315 dead 500+ wounded Total: 1,190,000-1,577,000+
Civilians killed/wounded (total Koreans) = Millions

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The Korean War began as a civil war fought from 1950–1953 on the Korean Peninsula, which had been divided by the post-World War II Soviet and American occupation zones. The civil war began on June 25, 1950, when North Korea attacked South Korea. The civil war was greatly expanded when the United States, and later China entered the conflict. The conflict ended when a cease-fire was reached on July 27,1953.

The principal support on the side of the North was China, with limited assistance by Soviet combat advisors, military pilots, and weapons. South Korea was supported by United Nations (U.N.) forces, primarily from the United States, although many other nations also contributed personnel. When the conflict began, North and South Korea existed as provisional governments competing for control over the Korean peninsula after the Division of Korea by the United States and the Soviet Union.

In South Korea, the war is often called 6·25, from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, Han-guk Jeonjaeng (Korean: 한국전쟁, literally “Korean War”). In North Korea, it is formally called the Fatherland Liberation War (However, it is more commonly referred to as the "Korean War."Korean: 조국해방전쟁). In the United States, the conflict was officially termed a police action — the Korean Conflict — rather than a war, largely in order to avoid the necessity of a declaration of war by the U.S. Congress. The war is sometimes referred to outside Korea as “The Forgotten War” because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that garners far less attention than World War II, which preceded it, and the controversial Vietnam War, which succeeded it. In China, the conflict was known as the War to Resist America and Aid Korea (抗美援朝), but is today commonly called the “Korean War” (朝鮮戰爭, Chaoxian Zhanzheng).

Background

Japanese occupation

After defeating China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, Japanese forces remained in Korea, occupying strategically important parts of the country. Ten years later, they would astound the world by defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (February 4, 1904 to September 5, 1905) as part of Japan’s early emergence as an imperial power. The Japanese occupied the peninsula against the wishes of the Korean government, expanded their control over local institutions through force and finally annexed Korea in August 1910.

Korea remained a Japanese colony until the end of World War II in 1945. On August 6, 1945, the Soviet Union, in keeping with a commitment asked for by the United States, declared war on the Japanese Empire and, on August 8, began an attack on the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. As agreed with the United States, the USSR halted its troops at the 38th parallel. U.S. troops were in the southern part of the peninsula in early September, 1945. Many Korean people had organized politically prior to the arrival of American troops.

Post-WWII Division of Korea

With only weeks to live, Franklin Delano Roosevelt made his way to the Yalta Conference in February 1945. Yalta would be FDR’s last great mark on American history. Russian Premier Joseph Stalin called for “buffer zones” in both Asia and Europe. Stalin believed that Russia should have preeminence in China, and in return he would enter into the war against Japan “two to three weeks after the surrender of Germany.”

On August 10, 1945, with the Japanese surrender imminent, the American government was unsure whether the Russians would adhere to the proposal arranged by the U.S. government. A month earlier, Colonels Dean Rusk and Bonesteel had drawn the dividing line at the 38th parallel in less than one-half an hour and using a National Geographic map for reference. Dean Rusk (U.S. Secretary of State 1961–69) would later comment that the American military was “faced with the scarcity of U.S. forces immediately available and time and space factors which would make it difficult to reach very far north before Soviet troops could enter the area.” History showed that the Soviets fulfilled their obligations and halted the liberation of Korea at the 38th parallel.

The Soviets accepted this line with little question since it helped their negotiations over eastern Europe. Japanese forces north of that line would surrender to the Soviet Union, and those to the south to the United States. Thus, without consulting the Korean people, the two major powers divided the Korean peninsula into two occupation zones, thereby putting into place the foundation for the eventual civil war. Although later policies and actions contributed to Korea’s division, the United States did not envision this as a permanent partition.

In December 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to administer the country under what the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers meeting described as The US-Soviet Joint Commission. After four years of self-government under international trusteeship, Korea would become free and independent. However, both the U.S. and the USSR approved Korean-led governments in their respective halves, each one favorable to the occupying power's political ideology. These arrangements were largely rejected by the majority of Korean people, which would later help give rise to a series of bloody insurrections and strikes in the southern half.

In South Korea, an anti-trusteeship right wing group known as the Representative Democratic Council emerged with the support of the American forces, though ironically this group came to oppose these US sponsored agreements. As Japan forcibly colonized Korea from 1910 to 1945, most Koreans opposed another period of foreign control. This opposition caused the U.S. to abandon the Soviet supported Moscow Accords. The Americans did not want a left-leaning government in South Korea and so changed their position and called for elections in Korea. As the population of the South was double that of the North, the Soviets knew that Kim Il-Sung would lose the election. Elections backed by the U.S. and the U.N. took place only in the South, where the Joint Commission was replaced by UNTCOK which oversaw the elections with mimimal resources and knowledge of the Korean people.

As part of their occupation program, the American forces facilitated the rise to power of a number of Koreans who, in the eyes of many Koreans, had betrayed their countrymen by collaborating with the Japanese. The end result was a southern regime that lacked widespread support from the general population. This lack of legitimacy helped result in a series of riots, nation-wide strikes, and outright rebellions - such as those in Jeju Island, Yosu, and elsewhere. During this time, over 100,000 south Korean died as a direct result of the military and police forces of the South Korean regime and US military support.

In an election that was U.N.-sanctioned but widely seen as corrupt, the American-administered South saw the defeat of a left-wing and popular group of political leaders that had been active years before the end of the war. The government that emerged was led by anti-Communist Syngman Rhee, a Korean who had lived outside Korea for over three decades. The South’s left-wing parties boycotted the elections in part to protest U.S. support for Rhee and its suppression of indigenous political movements. The Soviets, in turn, approved and furthered the rise of a Communist government in the North. Bolstered by his history as an anti-Japanese fighter, his political skills, and his connections with the Soviet Union, Kim Il-Sung rose to become leader of this new government, and crushed any opposition to his rule.

The American government and its allies had said Korea would be a unified, independent country under an elected government but failed to specify the details and were more concerned with winning the opening round of the Cold War than with fulfilling the wishes of the Korean people. In 1949, both Soviet and American forces withdrew.

South Korean President Syngman Rhee and North Korean General Secretary Kim Il-Sung were each intent on reuniting the peninsula under his own system. Partly because of numbers of outdated Soviet tanks and heavy arms, the North Koreans were able to escalate ongoing border clashes and go on the offensive, while South Korea, with only limited American backing, had far fewer options. The American government believed at the time that the Communist bloc was a unified monolith, and that North Korea acted within this monolith as a pawn of the Soviet Union. Thus, the United States portrayed the conflict in the context of international aggression rather than a civil war.

Opening of the Civil War

Rhee and Kim competed to reunite the peninsula, conducting military attacks along the border throughout 1949 and early 1950. The North, however, changed the nature of the war from border skirmishes to a full-scale civil war.

On January 12, 1950, United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson said America’s Pacific defense perimeter was made up of the Aleutians, Ryukyu, Japan, and the Philippines, implying that America might not fight over Korea. Acheson said Korea’s defense would be the responsibility of the United Nations.

In mid 1949, Kim Il-Sung pressed his case with Joseph Stalin that the time had come for a reunification of the Korean Peninsula. Kim needed Soviet support to successfully execute an offensive far across a rugged, mountainous peninsula. Stalin, as leader of the Communist bloc and source of potential supplies, refused permission, concerned with the relative lack of preparedness of the North Korean armed forces and with possible U.S. involvement.

Over the following year, the North Korean leadership molded its army into a relatively formidable offensive war machine modeled partly on a Soviet mechanized force but strengthened primarily by an influx of Koreans who had served with the Chinese People's Liberation Army since the 1930s. By 1950, the North Korean military was equipped with outdated Soviet weaponry, yet it enjoyed substantial advantages over the Southern forces in virtually every category of equipment. After another visit by Kim to Moscow in March and April 1950, Stalin approved an attack.

Korean War (1950 – 1953)

North Korean attack

The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, June 25, 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery.

Equipped with 242 tanks including 150 Soviet-made T-34 tanks, the North Korean military began the war with about 180 aircraft, including 40 YAK fighters and 70 attack bombers. Their navy was inconsequential. The most serious weakness was its lack of a reliable logistics system for moving supplies south as the army advanced. Thousands of Korean civilians were forced to hand-carry supplies, many of whom later died in American air attacks.

Nevertheless, the North’s well-planned attack with about 135,000 troops achieved surprise and quick successes. North Korea attacked many key places including Kaesŏng, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu and Ongjin.

Within days, South Korean forces, outnumbered, outgunned, and often of dubious loyalty to the southern regime, were in full retreat or often defected en masse to the North. As the ground attack continued, the North Korean Air Force conducted bombing of Kimpo Airport near Seoul. North Korean forces occupied Seoul on the afternoon of June 28. But the North’s hopes for a quick surrender by the Rhee government and the disintegration of the South Korean Army evaporated when foreign powers intervened. They did not expect the war to last long enough for American intervention, so there were no significant defenses prepared against American air attacks.

The South Korean Army had 65,000 soldiers armed, trained, and equipped by the U.S. military, and as a force was deficient in armor and artillery. There were no large foreign combat units in the country when the civil war began, but there were large American forces stationed in nearby Japan.

Western reaction

The invasion of South Korea came as a surprise to the United States and other western powers. In the preceding week, Dean Acheson of the State Department had told Congress on June 20 no such war was likely. Contacted hours after the invasion had begun, President Truman was convinced the initial stages of World War III had commenced.

The same day the civil war had officially begun (June 25), the United Nations immediately drafted UNSC Resolution 82, which was unanimously passed in the Security Council since the Soviet ambassador was boycotting the U.N. at the time. This led to direct action by the United States and other U.N. members. The Resolution called for three things:

• for all hostilities to end and North Korea to withdraw to the 38th Parallel;
• for a U.N. Commission on Korea to be formed to monitor the situation and report to the Security Council;
• for all U.N. members to support the United Nations in achieving this, and refrain from providing assistance to the North Korean authorities.

Later, debates would arise over the legality of this resolution since it sponsored U.N. intervention into a civil war. Though the resolution passed, it is thought that had the USSR not been boycotting the U.N. at the time, the Soviets likely would have used their veto to cancel the resolution.

American action was taken for a number of reasons. Truman, a Democratic President, was under severe domestic pressure for being too soft on Communism by, among others, Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy. Especially outspoken were those who accused the Democrats of having "lost" China to the Communists. The intervention also was an important implementation of the new Truman Doctrine, which advocated the opposition of Communism wherever it tried to expand. The lessons of Munich in 1938 also influenced the American decision, leading them to believe that appeasing aggressive states would only encourage further expansion.

Instead of pressing for a Congressional declaration of war, which he regarded as too alarmist and time-consuming when time was of the essence, Truman went to the United Nations for approval. (He would later come under harsh criticism for not consulting Congress before sending troops.)

Thanks to the temporary Soviet absence from the Security Council — the Soviets were boycotting the Security Council to protest the exclusion of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) from the U.N. — there was no veto by Stalin and the (Nationalist-controlled) Republic of China government held the Chinese seat. Without Soviet and Chinese vetoes, and with only Yugoslavia abstaining, the U.N. voted to aid South Korea on June 27. U.S. forces were joined by troops from 15 other U.N. members: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Britain, France, South Africa, Turkey, Thailand, Greece, the Netherlands, Ethiopia, Colombia, the Philippines, Belgium, and Luxembourg.

The Soviet Union and its allies, however, challenged the resolution on grounds of illegality since a permanent member of the council (the Soviet Union) was absent from the voting. The North Korean government also did not concur since the conflict was a civil war, and therefore not clearly within the scope of the UN. In 1950, a Soviet resolution calling for an end of hostilities and withdrawal of foreign troops was rejected.

American public opinion was solidly behind the intervention. Truman would later take harsh criticism for not obtaining a declaration of war from Congress before sending troops to Korea. Thus, “Truman’s War” was said by some to have violated the spirit, and the letter, of the United States Constitution. The other foreign powers allied with the United States quickly agreed with American actions, volunteering their support for the intervention. Sixteen nations finally contributed to “U.N. forces,” but the United States provided 50 percent of the ground forces (South Korea provided most of the remainder), 86 percent of the naval power, and 93 percent of the air power.

U.S. Intervention

Despite the post-World War II demobilization of U.S. and allied forces, which caused serious supply problems for American troops in the region (excluding the United States Marines, the infantry divisions sent to Korea were at 40% of paper strength, and the majority of their equipment was found to be useless), the United States still had substantial forces in Japan relative to the North Korean military with its largely outdated Soviet equipment. These American forces were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Apart from British Commonwealth units, no other nation could supply sizable manpower.

On hearing of the outbreak of large-scale hostilities in Korea, Truman ordered MacArthur to transfer munitions to the ROK Army, while using air cover to protect evacuation of U.S. citizens who were fleeing from the advancing North Koreans. Truman did not agree with his advisors who called for unilateral U.S. airstrikes against the North Korean forces but did order the Seventh Fleet to protect Taiwan, thereby ending America’s policy of non-interference in Chinese domestic affairs by assisting the government and forces of Chiang Kai-Shek. The Nationalist government (now confined to Taiwan) asked to participate in the war. Their request was denied by the Americans, who felt they would only encourage PRC intervention.

The first significant foreign military intervention was the American combat unit Task Force Smith, part of the U.S. Army’s 24th Infantry Division based in Japan. On July 5 it engaged in its first clash with North Korea at Osan and was defeated with heavy losses. The victorious North Korean forces advanced southwards and the half-strength 24th Division was forced to retreat to Taejeon, which also fell to the Northern forces and made General William F. Dean a prisoner of war.

By August, the South Korean forces and the U.S. Eighth Army had been easily defeated and retreated into a small area in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula around the city of Pusan. American Eighth Army commander Lieutenant-General Walton Walker was able to maneuver his forces to successfully confront the North Koreans as the Communists attempted a flanking maneuver instead of concentrating their forces, which might have destroyed U.N. forces in the area.

Nonetheless, by September only the area around Pusan, about 10% of the total Korean peninsula, was still in the hands of the coalition. With the aid of massive American supplies, air support, and additional reinforcements, the U.S. and ROKA forces managed to stabilize a line along the Nakdong River. This desperate holding action became known in the United States as the Pusan Perimeter. Although more U.N. support arrived, the situation was dire for the southern régime and its foreign allies, and it appeared as if the North would unite the peninsula under its government.

Allied forces rally

In the face of fierce North Korean attacks, the allied defense became a desperate holding action called the Battle of Pusan Perimeter by Americans. The failure of North Korea to capture Pusan doomed its hopes for national unification.

American air power arrived in large numbers, flying 40 sorties a day in ground support actions, targeting North Korean forces but also creating widespread destruction among civilians and cities as well. Strategic bombers (mostly B-29 s based in Japan) closed most rail and road traffic by day, and destroyed 32 critical bridges necessary not only for the conduct of warfare but the flight of civilians. Trains used by military and civilians alike waited out the daylight hours in tunnels.

Throughout all parts of Korea, the American bombers knocked out the main supply dumps, leveled entire cities and their populations, and eliminated oil refineries and seaports that handled imports such as military supplies, food, and medicine. Naval air power also attacked transportation chokepoints. The North Korean logistics problems grew severe, with shortages of food and ammunition. The North lost half of its invading force, and morale was poor.

Meanwhile, supply bases in Japan were pouring foreign weapons and soldiers into Pusan. American tank battalions were rushed in from San Francisco; by late August, America had over 500 medium tanks in the Pusan perimeter. By early September, U.N.-ROK forces were vastly stronger and outnumbered the North Koreans by 180,000 to 100,000. At that point, they began a counterattack.

Recovery of South Korea

In the face of these overwhelming reinforcements, the North Korean forces found themselves undermanned and with weak logistical support, lacking the substantial naval and air support of the Americans. In order to alleviate pressure on the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur, as U.N.commander-in-chief for Korea, argued the case for an amphibious landing far behind the North Korean troops at Inchon (인천; 仁川).

The violent tides and heavy enemy presence made this an extremely risky operation. MacArthur had started planning a few days after the war began but had been strongly opposed by the Pentagon. When he finally received permission, MacArthur activated the X Corps under General Edward Almond (comprising 70,000 troops of the 1st Marine Division and the Army’s 7th Infantry Division and augmented by 8,600 Korean troops) and ordered them to land at Inchon in Operation Chromite. By the time of the attack on September 15th, thanks to guerilla force reconnaissance, misinformation and extensive shelling prior to the invasion, the North Korean military had few soldiers stationed in Inchon, so the US forces met only light resistance when they landed.

The landing was a decisive victory, as X Corps rolled over the few defenders and threatened to trap the main North Korean army. MacArthur quickly recaptured Seoul. The North Koreans, almost cut off, rapidly retreated northwards; about 25,000 to 30,000 made it back.

Invasion of North Korea

The United Nations troops drove the North Koreans back past the 38th parallel. The American goal of saving South Korea’s government had been achieved, but because of the success and the prospect of uniting all of Korea under the government of Syngman Rhee, the Americans - with U.N. approval - continued the advance into North Korea. This marked a crucial moment in American foreign policy, when the American leaders decided to go beyond simply “containing” perceived Communist threats to actual rollback. Other issues included the psychological effects of destroying a Communist nation and the liberation of POWs.

The U.N. forces crossed into North Korea in early October 1950. The U.S. X Corps made amphibious landings at Wonsan and Iwon, which had already been captured by South Korean forces advancing by land. The rest of the U.S. Army, along with the South Koreans, drove up the western side of Korea and captured Pyongyang on October 19. By the end of October, the North Korean Army was rapidly disintegrating and the U.N. took 135,000 prisoners.

The U.N. offensive greatly concerned the Chinese, who worried that the U.N. forces would not stop at the Yalu River, the border between the DPRK and China, and extend their rollback policy into China itself. Many in the West, including General MacArthur, thought that spreading the war to China would be necessary. However, Truman and the other leaders disagreed, and MacArthur was ordered to be very cautious when approaching the Chinese border. Eventually, MacArthur disregarded these concerns, arguing that since the North Korean troops were being supplied by bases in China, those supply depots should be bombed. However, except on some rare occasions, U.N. bombers remained out of Manchuria during the war.

The Chinese entry (October, 1950)

China warned American leaders through neutral diplomats that it would intervene to protect its national security. Truman regarded the warnings as “a bald attempt to blackmail the U.N.” and did not take it seriously. On October 15, 1950, Truman went to Wake Island for a short, highly publicized meeting with MacArthur. The CIA had previously told Truman that Chinese involvement was unlikely. MacArthur, saying he was speculating, saw little risk. The general explained that the Chinese had lost their window of opportunity to help North Korea’s invasion. He estimated the Chinese had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, with between 100,000-125,000 men along the Yalu; half could be brought across the Yalu. But the Chinese had no air force; hence, “if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter.” MacArthur thus assumed that Chinese were motivated to help North Korea, and wished to avoid heavy casualties.

On October 8, 1950, the day after American troops crossed the 38th, Chairman Mao Zedong issued the order to assemble the Chinese People’s Volunteer Army. 70% of the members of the PVA were Chinese regulars from the Chinese People’s Liberation Army. Mao ordered the army to move to the Yalu River, ready to cross. Mao sought Soviet aid and saw intervention as essentially defensive: “If we allow the U.S. to occupy all of Korea… we must be prepared for the U.S. to declare… war with China,” he told Stalin. Premier Zhou Enlai was sent to Moscow to add force to Mao’s cabled arguments. Mao delayed his forces while waiting for Soviet help, and the planned attack was thus postponed from 13 October to 19 October. Soviet assistance was limited to providing air support no nearer than sixty miles (96 km) from the battlefront. The Russian MiG-15s in PRC colors became a serious challenge to the U.N. pilots. In one area called “MiG Alley” by U.N. forces, they held local air superiority against the American made Lockheed P-80 Shooting Stars until the newer North American F-86 Sabres were deployed. The Chinese were angry at the limited support, having assumed that the Soviets had promised to provide full scale air support. The Soviet role was known to the U.S. but they kept quiet so as to avoid widening the conflict and potential nuclear warfare.

The Chinese made contact with American troops on October 25, 1950, with 270,000 PVA troops under the command of General Peng Dehuai, much to the surprise of the U.N., who had ignored evidence that such a massive force existed. However, after these initial engagements, the Chinese forces pulled back into the mountains. U.N. leaders saw the withdrawal as a sign of weakness, and greatly underestimated the Chinese fighting capability. The U.N. forces thus continued their advance to the Yalu River, ignoring stern warnings given by the Chinese.

In late November, the Chinese struck in the west, along the Chongchon River, and completely overran several South Korean divisions and successfully landed a heavy blow to the flank of the remaining U.N. forces. The resulting defeat of the U.S. Eighth Army was the longest retreat of any American military unit in history. In the east, at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, a 30,000 man unit from the U.S. 7th Infantry Division was also unprepared for the Chinese tactics and was soon surrounded, though they eventually managed to escape the encirclement, albeit suffering over 15,000 casualties. The U.S. Marines were also defeated at the Chosin Reservoir, and forced to retreat after inflicting heavy casualties on six Chinese divisions.

The U.S. forces in northeast Korea, who had rushed northwards with great speed only a few months earlier, were now forced to race southwards with even greater speed and form a defensive perimeter around the port city of Hungnam, where a major evacuation was being carried out in late December 1950. Facing complete defeat and surrender, 193 shiploads of American men and material were evacuated from Hungnam Harbor, and about 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies were shipped to Pusan in orderly fashion. As they left, the American forces blew up large portions of the city to deny its use to the Communists, depriving many Korean civilians of shelter in the dead of winter.

Fighting across the 38th Parallel (early 1951)

In January 1951, the Chinese and North Korean forces struck again in their 3rd Phase Offensive (also known as the Chinese Winter Offensive). The Chinese repeated their previous tactics of mostly night attacks, with a stealthy approach from positions some distance from the front, followed by a rush with overwhelming numbers, and using trumpets or gongs both for communication and to disorient their foes. Against this the U.N. forces had no remedy, and their resistance crumbled; they retreated rapidly to the south (referred to by U.N. forces as the “bug-out”). Seoul was abandoned, and was captured by Communist forces on the 4 January, 1951.

To add to the Eighth Army’s difficulties, General Walker was killed in an accident. He was replaced by a World War II airborne veteran, Lieutenant-General Matthew Ridgway, who took immediate steps to raise the morale and fighting spirit of the battered Eighth Army, which had fallen to low levels during its retreat. Nevertheless, the situation was so grim that MacArthur mentioned the use of atomic weapons against China, much to the alarm of America’s allies.

U.N. forces continued to retreat until they had reached a line south of Suwon in the west and Wonju in the center, and north of Samchok in the east, where the front stabilized. The PVA had outrun its supply line and was forced to recoil. The Chinese could not go beyond Seoul because they were at the end of their logistics supply line — all food and ammunition had to be carried at night on foot or bicycle from the Yalu River.

In late January, finding the lines in front of his forces were deserted, Ridgway ordered reconnaissance in force, which developed into a full-scale offensive, Operation Roundup. The operation was planned to proceed gradually, to make full use of the U.N.’s superiority in firepower on the ground and in the air; by the time Roundup was completed, in early February, U.N. forces had reached the Han River, and re-captured Wonju.

The Chinese struck back in mid-February with their Fourth Phase Offensive, from Hoengsong in the center against IX Corps positions around Chipyong-ni. A short but desperate siege there fought by units of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division, including the French Battalion, broke up the offensive; in this action, the U.N. learned how to deal with Chinese offensive tactics and be able to stand their ground.

Roundup was followed in the last two weeks of February 1951,with Operation Killer, by a revitalized Eighth Army, restored by Ridgway to fighting trim. This was a full-scale offensive across the front, again staged to maximize firepower and with the aim of destroying as much of the PVA and NKPA as possible. By the end of Killer, I Corps had re-occupied all territory south of the Han, while IX Corps had captured Hoengsong.

On 7 March, 1951, the Eighth Army pushed forward again, in Operation Ripper, and on the 14th expelled the North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, the fourth time in a year the city had changed hands. Seoul was in utter ruins; its prewar population of 1.5 million had dropped to 200,000, with severe food shortages.

MacArthur was removed from command by President Truman on April 11, 1951, for insubordination, setting off a firestorm of protest back in the States. The new supreme commander was Ridgway, who had managed to regroup U.N. forces for the series of effective counter-offensives. Command of Eighth Army passed to General James Van Fleet.

A further series of attacks slowly drove back the Communist forces, such as Operations Courageous and Tomahawk, a combined ground- and air-assault to trap Communist forces between Kaesong and Seoul. U.N. forces continued to advance until they reached Line Kansas, some miles north of the 38th parallel.

The Chinese were far from beaten, however; In April 1951 they launched their Fifth Phase Offensive, (also called the Chinese Spring Offensive) This was a major effort, involving three Field Armies (up to 700,000 men). The main blow fell on I Corps, but fierce resistance in battles at the Imjin River and Kapyong, blunted its impetus, and the Chinese were halted at a defensive line north of Seoul (referred to as the No-Name Line).

A further Communist offensive in the east against ROK and X Corps on the 15 May also made initial gains, but by the 20th the attack had ground to a halt. Eighth Army counterattacked and by the end of May had regained Line Kansas.

The decision by U.N. forces to halt at Line Kansas, just north of the 38th Parallel, and not to persist in offensive action into North Korea, ushered in the period of stalemate which typified the remainder of the conflict.

Historian Bevin Alexander had this to say about Chinese tactics in his book How Wars Are Won:

The Chinese had no air power and were armed only with rifles, machine guns, hand grenades, and mortars. Against the much more heavily armed Americans, they adapted a technique they had used against the Nationalists in the Chinese Civil War of 1946–49. The Chinese generally attacked at night and tried to close in on a small troop position — generally a platoon — and then attacked it with local superiority in numbers. The usual method was to infiltrate small units, from a platoon of fifty men to a company of 200, split into separate detachments. While one team cut off the escape route of the Americans, the others struck both the front and the flanks in concerted assaults. The attacks continued on all sides until the defenders were destroyed or forced to withdraw. The Chinese then crept forward to the open flank of the next platoon position, and repeated the tactics.

Stalemate (July 1951 - July 1953)

The rest of the war involved little territory change, large-scale bombing of the north and its population, and lengthy peace negotiations, which began on July 10, 1951, at Kaesong. Even during the peace negotiations, combat continued. For the South Korean and allied forces, the goal was to recapture all of South Korea before an agreement was reached in order to avoid loss of any territory. The Chinese and North Koreans attempted similar operations, and later in the war they undertook operations designed to test the resolve of the U.N. to continue the conflict. Principal military engagements in this period were the actions around the Punchbowl, in the east, such as Bloody Ridge and Heartbreak Ridge in 1951, the battles for Old Baldy, in the center, and the Hook, in the west, during 1952–53, and the battle for Pork Chop Hill in 1953.

The peace negotiations went on for two years, first at Kaesong, and later at Panmunjon. A major issue of the negotiations was repatriation of POWs. The Communists agreed to voluntary repatriation, but only if the majority would return to China or North Korea, something that did not occur. As many refused to be repatriated to the Communist North Korea and China, the war continued until the Communists eventually dropped this issue.

In October 1951, U.S. forces performed Operation Hudson Harbor intending to establish the capability to use nuclear weapons. Several B-29s conducted individual simulated bomb runs from Okinawa to North Korea, delivering “dummy” nuclear bombs or heavy conventional bombs; the operation was coordinated from Yakota Air Base in Japan. The battle exercise was intended to test “actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming,” and so on. The results indicated that nuclear bombs would be less effective than anticipated, because “timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare.”

On November 29, 1952, U.S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise by going to Korea to find out what could be done to end the conflict. With the U.N.’s acceptance of India’s proposal for a Korean armistice, a cease-fire was established on July 27, 1953, by which time the front line was back around the proximity of the 38th parallel, and so a demilitarized zone (DMZ) was established around it, still defended to this day by North Korean troops on one side and South Korean and American troops on the other. The DMZ runs north of the parallel towards the east, and to the south as it travels west. The site of the peace talks, Kaesong, the old capital of Korea, was part of the South before hostilities broke out but is currently a special city of the North. No peace treaty has been signed to date, technically leaving the North and South Korea at war.

Characteristics

Armored warfare

When the North Korean soldiers stormed across the 38th Parallel into South Korea, the Soviet T-34/85 tank was nearly invincible against the South Korean lines. During this time, the South Korean army had few soldiers, no tanks, few anti-tank guns and few bazookas. In fact, nearly all the Korean soldiers were unfamiliar with tanks and how to counter them.

As noted above, the South Korean army had anti-tank rockets but these were World War II vintage 2.36 inch (60 mm) M9 bazookas. These weapons were obsolete even when produced during World War II and could not pierce the frontal armor of the T-34/85s. Until the U.S introduced the heavier 3.5 inch (89 mm) M20 bazooka, South Korean troops were unable to effectively counter North Korean tanks.

The first American tanks to arrive in Korea and go into action were M24 Chaffee light tanks which had been left in Japan for post-WWII occupation duties (heavier tanks would have torn up Japanese roads). These light tanks had very limited success against the far superior Medium T-34/85 tanks used by communist forces. Later shipments of heavier American tanks such as the M4 Sherman and the M26 Pershing, the British Centurion as well as American and Allied ground attack aircraft were able to neutralize the Communist tanks' advantage.

However, in contrast to World War II’s heavy emphasis on armor, few open tank battles actually occurred over the course of the Korean War. The country’s heavily forested and often mountainous terrain meant that tanks were unable to efficiently maneuver, but could be set up in a position to strike the enemy on a hill or cliff.

Air war

Air-to-air combat

See also: MiG Alley

See also: United States Air Force Aircraft of the Korean War

The Korean War was the last major war where propeller-powered fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair and aircraft carrier-based Supermarine Seafire were used, as turbojet fighter aircraft such as F-80s and F9F Panthers came to dominate the skies, overwhelming North Korea’s propeller-driven Yakovlev Yak-9s and Lavochkin La-9s.

From 1950, North Koreans began flying the Soviet-made MiG-15 jet fighters, some of which were piloted by experienced Soviet Air Force pilots, a casus belli deliberately overlooked by the U.N. allied forces who were reluctant to engage in open war with the Soviet Union and the PRC. At first, U.N. jet fighters, which now also included Royal Australian Air Force Gloster Meteors, had some success, but the superior quality of the MiGs soon held sway over the first-generation jets used by the U.N. early in the war.

In December 1950, the U.S. Air Force began using the F-86 Sabre. The MiG could fly higher, 50,000 vs. 42,000 feet, offering a distinct advantage at the start of combat. In level flight, their maximum speeds were comparable - about 660 mph. The MiG could climb better; the Sabre was more maneuverable and could dive better. For weapons, the MiG carried two 23 mm and one 37 mm cannon, compared to the Sabre’s six .50 caliber machine guns. The American .50 caliber machine guns, while not packing the same punch, carried many more rounds and were aimed with a superior radar-ranging gunsight. Maintenance of the Sabre was a headache, and a large proportion of the U.N. air strength was grounded due to repairs during the war.

Even after the USAF introduced the more advanced F-86, its pilots often struggled against the jets piloted by elite Soviet pilots. The lighter-weight MiG-15 had an edge in ceiling, acceleration and rate of climb, although overall speed and roll rate were slightly inferior. The armament differences were questionable. While the MiG had a heavier armament (3 cannons vs. 6 machine-guns), the MiG had limited ammunition and the rate of fire was considerably slower. The U.N. gradually gained a numerical advantage, and their aggressiveness gave them an air superiority that lasted until the end of the war — a decisive factor in helping the U.N. first advance into the north, and then resist the Chinese invasion of South Korea. The Chinese also had jet power, but the American forces had superior training for their pilots. With the introduction of the F-86F in late 1952, the two aircraft had virtually identical performance characteristics.

Among other factors which helped tip the balance toward the U.N. jets were the F-86's better radar gunsight, which led to installation of the first radar warning receiver on MiG fighters, better cockpit visibility, better stability and control at high speed and high altitudes, and the introduction of the first G-suits. U.S. F-86 pilots claimed 792 MiG-15 s shot down and 108 additional aircraft for the loss of 78 Sabres, a ratio in excess of 10:1. Some post-war research has only been able to confirm 379 victories, although the USAF continues to maintain its official credits and the debate is possibly irreconcilable. Recently exposed Stalin-era Soviet documentation claims that only 345 Soviet MiG-15 s were lost during the Korean War.

The Soviets claimed about 1,300 victories and 335 MiG losses at that time. China’s official losses were 231 planes shot down in air-to-air combat (mostly MiG-15) and 168 other losses. The number of losses of the North Korean Air Force was not revealed. It is estimated that it lost about 200 aircraft in the first stage of the war, and another 70 aircraft after Chinese intervention. Soviet claims of 650 victories over F-86s, and China’s claims of another 211 F-86s in air combat, are probably exaggerated. According to a recent U.S. publication, the number of USAF F-86s ever present in the Korean peninsula during the war totalled only 674 and the total F-86 losses due to all causes were about 230.

Direct comparison of Sabre and MiG losses seem irrelevant, as primary targets for MiGs were heavy B-29 bombers, and primary targets for Sabres were MiG-15s.

By early 1951, the battle lines hardened and didn’t change too much for the rest of the conflict. Throughout the summer and early fall of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres (as few as 44 at one point) of the 4th FIW continued to seek battle in MiG Alley near the Yalu (at least 500). Jabara, Becker, and Gibson became the first Sabre aces. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng’s famous message to the Pentagon, the 51st FIW reinforced the beleaguered 4th in December 1951. For the next year and a half, the duel continued, in generally the same fashion.

American air interdiction and civilian casualties

The United Nations Command enjoyed freedom from air attack after the North Korean Air Force was defeated soon after the start of the war. Except for nuisance raids at night by obsolete aircraft attacking singly, the north did not attempt to attack the battle line or bases south of it.

Conversely, the U.N. Command, operating primarily through the USAF Far East Air Forces and the U.S. Navy’s Task Force 77, exerted constant pressure both day and night against the industrial infrastructure of North Korea and against the logistics system supplying the communist armies. Some lengthy operations, such as Operation Strangle, an attempt to force the communists to truck in supplies by cutting its railroads, were unsuccessful, while others, such as the joint-service and multi-national air attacks on the hydroelectric system and the capital city of Pyongyang in 1952 achieved military success.

Throughout the conflict, the United States maintained a policy of heavy bombing of any location thought to be useful to North Korea, including civilian and food centers. Americans also used incendiary weapons against any and all North Korean settlements. Although images of the civilian victims of the weapon were to be ingrained upon the memory of the world in Vietnam, it was later claimed that significantly more napalm was dropped on North Korea, despite the relative short length of the conflict. Tens of thousands of gallons were dropped on Korea each day.

In May and June 1953, the USAF undertook missions to destroy several key irrigation dams, and targeted various agriculture and industry centers in the North. Dams on the Kusŏng/Guseong, Tŏksan/Deoksan and Pujŏn/Bujeon Rivers were all destroyed, severely flooding vast areas of land, drowning thousands of civilians, and ultimately leading to the starvation of many more. This destruction of civilian peasants and their farmland diminished the food supplies available for the civilians and troops and created famine like conditions in some areas. However, in the context of the war’s resolution, it did not dramatically effect the war’s ultimate outcome.

A U.S. intelligence report in 1953 noted that these floods caused by bombing dams would destroy enemy supplies and the villages where they were stored. The report also noted that the loss of rice - the staple food commodity for North Koreans - would result in “starvation and slow death,” a course of action that was deemed a war crime when used — under admittedly greatly different circumstances — by the Nazis against food supplies in the Netherlands in 1944.

See also British Commonwealth Forces Korea

Proposed use of nuclear weapons

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There were two occasions when the United Nations forces came very close to using nuclear weapons (see Knightley, p 334). The first was the entry of China into the war, which prompted General MacArthur to urge President Truman to use nuclear weapons against “Red China, Eastern Russia, and everything else” (Truman later admitted this played a part in his decision to sack MacArthur in 1951). The second occasion arose in the run-up to the signing of the Armistice in 1953, when Eisenhower took the view that if the North Koreans failed to sign, the U.S. would have used nuclear weapons against military targets in order to win the war.

War crimes

Crimes against civilians

During the periods when parts of South Korea were under North Korean control, political killings, reportedly into the tens of thousands, took place in the cities and villages across occupied South Korea. The Communists systematically killed former South Korean government officials and others deemed hostile to the Communists, and such killing was intensified as North Koreans retreated from the South.

South Korean military, police and paramilitary forces, often with U.S. military knowledge and without trial, executed in turn tens of thousands of alleged “Communist sympathizers” during incidents like the Daejeon and Jeju Massacres; the bodies of these killed were often dumped into mass graves. Gregory Henderson, a U.S. diplomat in Korea at the time, put the figure at 100,000.

For a time, American troops were under orders to consider any Korean civilians on the battlefield approaching their position as hostile and were instructed to “neutralize” them due to fears of infiltration. This led to the indiscriminate killings of hundreds of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military at places such as No Gun Ri, where many defenseless refugees — most of whom were women, children and old men — were shot at by the U.S. Army and may have been strafed by the USAF. Recently, the U.S. admitted having a policy of strafing civilians in other places and times. South Koreans also blew up several bridges that were crowded with fleeing civilians when they could not clear the bridges before the enemy arrived.

Korean forces on both sides routinely rounded up and forcibly conscripted both males and females in their area of operations; whether they refused or not, thousands of them never returned home. According to some estimates 400,000 South Korean citiziens were conscripted into the North Korean Army.

Crimes against POWs

Prisoners of war were mistreated by all sides. According to some estimates, the U.N. side was ultimately responsible for more deaths and violence than the communist side as there were more prisoners. As pointed out by Britain's former Chief of the Defense Staff, Field Marshal Lord Carver: “The U.N. prisoners in Chinese hands, although subject to ‘re-education’ processes of varying intensity… were certainly much better off in every way than any held by the Americans.”

Carver's assessment differs from other historical accounts which report frequent beatings, starvation, forced labor, summary executions and death marches imposed by the Communist forces on U.N. prisoners. North Korean forces committed several massacres of captured U.S. troops at places such as Hill 312 on the Pusan Perimeter, and in and around Daejeon; this occurred particularly during early mopping-up actions. According to the U.S. Congressional report: "More than 5,000 American prisoners of war died because of Communist war atrocities and more than a thousand who survived were victims of war crimes. (…) Approximately two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died due to war crimes."

The Communists claimed that they had captured over 70,000 South Korean soldiers overall, but they only returned near 8,000 of them. In contrast, 76,000 North Korean POWs were repatriated by South Korea. In addition to some 12,000 deaths in captivity, up to 50,000 ROK POWs may have been illegally pressed into the DPRK military. According to the South Korean Ministry of Defense there were at least 300 POWs still alive being held captive in North Korea in 2003. One ROK soldier escaped and returned home in 2004.

Legacy

The Korean War was the first armed confrontation of the Cold War and set the standard for many later conflicts. It created the idea of a limited war, where the two superpowers would fight in another country, making the people in that nation suffer the bulk of the destruction and death involved in a war between such large nations. The superpowers avoided descending into an all-out war with one another, as well as the mutual use of nuclear weapons. It also expanded the Cold War, which to that point had mostly been concerned with Europe. The war led to a strengthening of alliances in the Western bloc and the splitting of Communist China from the Soviet bloc.

Australia

From 1950 to 1953, 17,000 Australians in the Army, Navy and Air Force fought as part of the United Nations (U.N.) multinational force. After the war ended, Australians remained in Korea for four years as military observers. Australia gained political and security benefits, the most important being the signing of the ANZUS Treaty with the United States and New Zealand. Australian War Memorial

Canada

Canada sent 26,791 troops to the war, with 7,000 more remaining to supervise the ceasefire until the end of 1955. Of these 1,558 became casualties, including 516 deaths, most of them due to combat. Canada’s participation included a brigade of troops, eight naval vessels and 22 pilots for U.S. jet squadrons. See also History of the Canadian Army.

The Korean War was the last major conflict Canadian forces participated in until the 1991 Persian Gulf War, and the last major combat by ground troops until 2002 in Afghanistan.

The Canadian military was revitalized as a result of the Korean War. A planned changeover to U.S.-designed weapons equipment had been planned for the 1950 s, but the emergency in Korea forced the use of war stocks of British-designed weapons from World War II. In the late 1950 s, Canada adopted a variety of weapons of both European and US design rather than proceeding with its planned Americanization.

Japan

Japan was politically disturbed both from the security threat to Japan because of the initial defeat of South Korea and from left-wing activities in support of North Korea and aiming to bring about a revolution in Japan. Additionally, as American occupation armies were dispatched to Korean peninsula, Japan's security became problematic. Under United States guidance, Japan established Reserved Police, later developed to the Japan Self-Defense Forces (自衛隊). The signing of the Treaty of Peace with Japan (日本国との平和条約; popularly known as the Treaty of San Francisco) was also hastened to return Japan back into international communities. In the eyes of some American policy makers, the non-belligerency clause in the Constitution was already being considered a “mistake” by 1953.

Economically, Japan was able to benefit vastly from the war. American requirements for war material were organized through a Special Procurements system, which allowed for local purchases without the complex Pentagon procurement system. Over $3.5 billion was spent on Japanese companies, peaking at $809 million in 1953, and the zaibatsu went from being distrusted to being encouraged. Among those who thrived not only on orders from the military but also through American industrial experts, including W. Edwards Deming were Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Sumitomo. Japanese manufacturing grew by 50% between March 1950 and 1951 and by 1952, pre-war standards of living were reached and output was twice the level of 1949. Becoming an independent country due to the Treaty of San Francisco also saved Japan from the burden of expense of the occupation forces.

During the war, 200,000 to 400,000 Koreans fled to Japan relying on relatives already living in Japan to provide them with shelters and necessary paper works to live legally. They joined with those having fled from Cheju and formed the largest post-World War II Korean population group in Japan. While they initially had no strong political alignment, they were eventually split into factions supporting either North or South Korea with few holding on to the ideal of unified Korea.

Korea

According to U.S. estimates, about one million South Koreans were killed or went missing in the conflict, 85 percent of them civilians. According to figures published in the Soviet Union, around 1.13 million people, or 11.1 percent of the total population, were killed in North Korea (with the total casualties of some 2.5 million). More than 80 percent of the industrial and public facilities and transportation infrastructure, three-quarters of all government buildings, and half of all housing was destroyed.

The war left the peninsula divided, with a totalitarian communist state in the North and an authoritarian state in the South. Many Korean families were also divided by the war, most of whom have had no opportunity to contact or meet one another. The demilitarized zone remains the most heavily-defended border in the world.

Initially, South Korea suffered economically in the 1950s, and later transitioned to democracy with a rapidly-growing market economy, becoming one of the East Asian Tigers. Politically, South Korea had an authoritarian form of government until the 1987 establishment of the Sixth Republic. American troops remain in Korea as part of the still-functioning U.N. Command, which commands all allied military forces in South Korea (American Air Forces, Korea, the U.S. Eighth Army, and the entire South Korean military).

North Korea enjoyed substantial economic growth, becoming the second most industrialized nation in East Asia until the 1970 s. Later, a combination of extremely poor policy decisions in the world mineral market, the constraints inherent in Juche ideology, and catastrophic weather all worked to create a near collapse of the economy by the late 1990s, at which point it became . Politically, North Korea established a political system that included strident self-reliance, strong nationalism, a cult of personality around leaders Kim Il-Sung and later his son Kim Jong-il, and a highly-disciplined society that some term Stalinist. No significant Russian or Chinese military forces remain in North Korea today.

See also: Division of Korea, Korean Demilitarized Zone, Korean reunification

People's Republic of China

By entering and fighting in the Korean War, China achieved its original goal to keep North Korea from falling. The fact that Chinese forces held their own against United Nation forces in this war heralded that China was once again becoming a major world power. The war is generally seen by many Chinese as an honorable part of China’s history, as it was the first time in a century that a Chinese army was able to stand up to a Western army in a major conflict.

China successfully prevented the South Korean and U.S. militaries from establishing a presence on its Manchurian border. At that time, Manchuria, especially Liaoning — the province right across the Yalu River — was China’s most important industrial center. Protecting the Manchurian industrial zone was one of the major reasons China entered the war. Furthermore, by supporting the North Korean state, China obtained more than 300 km of strategic buffer zone from the U.S. which would avoid the military spending necessary to protect its Manchurian border for the next fifty years.

On the other hand, this meant China lost the opportunity to reunify Taiwan. Initially, the United States had abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to China anyway, so the basic U.S. policy was to "wait and see" on the assumption that Taiwan’s reunification with China was inevitable. However, the North Korean invasion of South Korea, in the context of the Cold War, meant U.S. President Harry S. Truman intervened again and dispatched the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" the Formosa Strait, thus ending US procrastination in separating Taiwan from China by force.

There is an argument that the Chinese paid a high price for getting involved in the Korean War and that reunification with Taiwan was indefinitely postponed as a result. Some war veterans and ordinary Chinese people feel China’s intervention in the Korean War at the expense of Taiwan reunification and has not paid off. A typical reflection was made by Korean War veteran Zhang Zeshi, who spent two years in a South Korean POW camp and who claimed: “We spilled our blood in vain. It kept alive feudal dictatorship.” In the Korean War Memorial in North Korea, the Hall of Chinese Assistance is only open to Chinese and closed to North Koreans. The official account as interpretated by North Korea failed to mentioned the role played by China, instead attributing the success merely to the North Korean army under the leadership of Kim. After the recent nuclear bomb test by North Korea, the majority of Chinese believe they should abandon North Korea, and that North Korea "may no longer be our friend."

The war also partly contributed to the decline of Sino-Soviet relations. Although the Chinese had their own reasons to enter the war (i.e., a strategic buffer zone in the Korean Peninsula), the view that the Soviets had used them as proxies was shared by the Western bloc. MacArthur was a notable exception, dissenting from this prevailing view in his “Old Soldiers Never Die” speech. China had to use a Soviet loan, which had been originally intended to rebuild their destroyed economy, to pay for Soviet arms.

From official Chinese sources, PVA Korean War casualty figures break down as follows: 114,000 killed in action; 380,000 total wounded in action; 21,000 died of wounds; 13,000 died of sickness; and 21,400 POW. Mao Zedong’s only healthy son, Mao Anying, was also killed as a PVA officer during the war.

Republic of China (Taiwan)

After the war was over, 14,000 of the Chinese prisoners of war hostile to the Communists of the People’s Republic of China defected to the Republic of China (ROC) (7,110 Chinese POWs opted to return to the PRC). However, there are conflicting reports. Some say that they were forced to go to the ROC, some say that they did so voluntarily. Further, some of the soldiers got anti-communist tattoos on their body, such as: “Anti-Reds,” “Anti communism, fight against Russia,” (反共抗俄); “Kill the pig (Zhu), pull out the hair (Mao)” (殺豬拔毛) (Zhu refers to the Chinese General Zhu De, and Mao is the family name of Mao Zedong); or the emblem of the Republic of China. Some say that they got those voluntarily, some say that they were forced to do so because they did not want to go initially.

The defectors arrived in Taiwan on January 23, 1954, and were referred to as “Anti-Communist volunteers” and January 23 was named World Freedom Day in their honor in Taiwan.

The Korean War also led to other long-lasting effects. Until the conflict in Korea, the U.S. had largely abandoned the government of Chiang Kai-Shek, which had retreated to Taiwan, and had not intervened in the Chinese Civil War. The start of the Korean War rendered any policy that would have caused Taiwan to fall under PRC control untenable. Truman’s decision to send American ships to the Formosa Strait further deterred the PRC from making any attempt to invade Taiwan. The anti-communist atmosphere in the West in response to the Korean War contributed to the unwillingness to diplomatically recognize the People’s Republic of China until the 1970s. Today, diplomacy between the Republic of China and mainland China remains strained, and Taiwan continues to claim sovereignty over mainland China.

Soviet Union

The war was a political disaster for the Soviet Union. Its central objective, the unification of the Korean peninsula under the Kim Il-Sung regime, was not achieved. Boundaries of both parts of Korea remained practically unchanged. Furthermore, relations with then Communist ally China was seriously and permanently spoiled, leading to the Sino-Soviet split that lasted until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The war, meanwhile, united the countries within the capitalist bloc: the Korean War accelerated the conclusion of a peace agreement between the U.S. and Japan, the warming of West Germany’s relations with other western countries, creation of military and political blocs ANZUS (1951) and SEATO (1954). However, the war was not without their pluses for the Soviet Union: the authority of the Soviet State seriously grew, which showed in its readiness to interfere in developing countries of the Third World, many of which after the Korean war went down the socialist path of development, after selecting the Soviet Union as their patron.

The war was a heavy burden on the national economy of the Soviet Union, which was still suffering from the effects of World War II. Expenditures for defense grew sharply. However, despite all these expenses approximately thirty thousand Soviet soldiers in one way or another, obtained the priceless experience of waging local wars. The war also allowed them the opportunity to test several newest forms of armaments, in particular the MiG-15 combat aircraft. Furthermore, numerous models of American military equipment were seized, which made possible for Soviet engineers and scientists to use American experience for development of new forms of armaments. Lastly, much of the payment of the war and supplies of manpower was made by China, and to this day some historians believed that, instead of a political disaster, the war actually served to preserve the military power of the Soviet Union while the western forces became severely broken.

However, according to declassified Soviet documents released after the fall of the Union, it is revealed that Stalin himself was the main obstacle for peace in Korea. This is because of the intelligence gathered on the American war machine during the Korean War and the testing of new Soviet military equipment during the Korean War

Turkey

Although not on as large a scale as the countries above, the Republic of Turkey was one of the countries that were affected greatly by the Korean War, despite the large distance between Turkey and the war zone. During World War II, Turkey maintained a neutral stance until 1945, as it was decided by Roosevelt, Churchill and İnönü at the Second Cairo Conference that maintaining Turkey’s neutrality would serve the Allies’ interests by blocking the Axis from reaching the strategic oil reserves of the Middle East. Although Turkey eventually declared war on the Axis Powers in 1945, this action did not prevent the country from being left isolated in the diplomatic arena. At the beginning of the 1950 s, Turkey was under constant pressure from the Soviet Union on territorial issues, particularly regarding the control of the Turkish Straits. Looking for an ally against the Soviets, Turkey sought to join the NATO alliance. The Korean War was viewed as a perfect opportunity to show the West a sign of good faith.

Turkey was one of the larger participants in the U.N. alliance, committing nearly 5,500 troops. The Turkish Brigade, which operated under the U.S. 25th Infantry Division, assisted in protecting the supply lines of U.N. forces which advanced towards North Korea. However, it was the Battles of Kunu-ri and Kumyanjangni that earned the Turkish Brigade a reputation and the praise of U.N. forces. Because of their heroic actions and sacrifice in these battles (721 KIA, 168 MIA, and 2111 WIA), a monument was created in Seoul in the memory of the Turkish soldiers who fought in Korea. Their actions on the battlefield may explain the reason why many South Koreans, still today, feel warmth towards the Turkish people, which was vividly demonstrated during the 2002 FIFA World Cup organized by South Korea and Japan.

However, it should be noted that the Korean War still remains a controversial topic in Turkey. While sending troops to Korea earned Turkey the respect of the West, it was also the beginning of clashes with the Eastern Bloc. The Prime Minister of Turkey was criticized for sending troops without asking the parliament first. Although Turkey’s entrance to the Korean War is considered by many as one of the most noble episodes of the country’s recent history, some believe that it was one of the most misguided foreign policy decisions ever made by the Turkish Republic, sending the country’s soldiers to die for the interests of the “imperialist powers.” Nevertheless, because her entrance to the war as part of the U.N. command earned her a place in NATO, Turkey can be considered a country which benefited from the Korean War.

United States

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The U.S. military had been caught ill-prepared for the war. Accordingly, after the war, the American defense budget was boosted to $50 billion, the Army was doubled in size, as was the number of Air Groups, and they were deployed outside American territory in Europe, the Middle East and elsewhere in Asia.

There has been some confusion over the previously reported number of 54,589 Korean War deaths. In 1993 this number was divided by the Defense Department into 33,686 battle deaths, 2,830 non-battle deaths, and 17,730 deaths of Defense Department personnel outside the Korean theatre. There were also 8,142 U.S. personnel listed as Missing In Action (MIA) during the war. U.S. casualties in the war are fewer than in the Vietnam War, but they occurred over three years as opposed to 15 years (1960 to 1975) in Vietnam. However, advances in medical services such as the Mobile Army Surgical Hospital and the use of rapid transport of the wounded to them such as with helicopters enabled the death rate for U.N. forces to be much lower than in previous wars. For service during the Korean War, the U.S. military issued the Korean Service Medal.

Later neglect of remembrance of this war, in favor of the Vietnam War, World War I and World War II and the Gulf Wars, has caused the Korean War to be dubbed the “Forgotten war” or the “Unknown War.” The Korean War Veterans Memorial was built in Washington, D.C. and dedicated to veterans of the war on July 27, 1995.

The war also changed America’s view of the Third World, most notably in Indochina. Before 1950, the Americans had been very critical of French endeavors to reestablish its presence there against local resistance; after Korea, they began to heavily support the French against the Viet Minh and other nationalist-communist local parties, paying for up to 80% of the French military budget in Vietnam.

The Korean War also saw the beginning of racial integration efforts in the U.S. military service, where African Americans fought in integrated units. President Truman signed Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948, calling on the armed forces to provide equal treatment and opportunity for black servicemen. The extent to which Truman’s 1948 orders were carried out varied among the various branches of the military, with segregated units still in deployment at the start of the conflict, and eventually being integrated towards the end of the war. The last large segregated operational unit was the U.S. 24th Infantry Regiment which was deactivated on October 1, 1951.

The U.S. still maintains a heavy military presence in Korea, as part of the effort to uphold the armistice between South and North Korea. A special service decoration, known as the Korea Defense Service Medal, is authorized for U.S. service members who serve a tour of duty in Korea.

See also:

Army:

• Eighth United States Army

Corps:

• U.S. I Corps
• U.S. IX Corps
• U.S. X Corps
• Corps of Engineers (Battalions}

U.S. Army units in Korean War: see {reference only} U.S. Air Force: See United States Pacific Air Forces

U.S. Navy: See United States Navy and United States Coast Guard

U.S.M.C:

Divisions:

• 1St Marine Division

Reserve Units:

• Marine Corps Reserve

Medals

• United Nations Service Medal
• National Defense Service Medal
• Korean Service Medal
• Korean War Service Medal
• Korean Defense Service Medal
• Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation

Western Europe

The outbreak of the war convinced Western leaders of the growing threat of international communism. The United States began to encourage Western European countries, including West Germany, to contribute to their own defense, though this was perceived as a threat by its neighbors, especially France. As the war continued, however, opposition to rearmament lessened and China’s entry in the war caused France to revise its position towards German rearmament. To contain the situation French officials proposed the creation of the European Defence Community (EDC), a supranational organisation, under the leadership of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

The end of the war reduced the perceived communist threat, and thus reduced the necessity of such an organisation. The French Parliament postponed the ratification of the EDC Treaty indefinitely. This rejection in the French Parliament was caused by Gaullist fears that the creation of the EDC threatened France’s national sovereignty. The EDC was never ratified, and the initiative collapsed in August, 1954.

See also British Commonwealth Forces Korea

Depictions

Artist Pablo Picasso’s painting Massacre in Korea (1951) depicted violence against civilians during the Korean War. By some accounts, killing of civilians by U.S. forces in Shinchun, Hwanghae Province was the motive of the painting. In South Korea, the painting was deemed to be anti-American, a longtime taboo in the South, and was prohibited for public display until the 1990s .

In the U.S., far and away the most famous artistic depiction of the war is M*A*S*H: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, originally a novel by Richard Hooker (pseudonym for H. Richard Hornberger) that was later turned into a successful movie and television series. All three versions depict the misadventures of the staff of a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital as they struggle to keep their sanity through the war's absurdities through ribald humour and hijinks when not treating wounded.

Ha Jin’s War Trash contains a vivid description of the beginning of the war from the point of view of a Chinese soldier.

Films

• Fixed Bayonets (1951). U.S. soldiers in Korea surviving the harsh winter of 1951. Directed by Samuel Fuller.
• The Steel Helmet (1951). A squad of U.S. soldiers holes up in a Buddhist temple. Directed by Samuel Fuller.
• Battle Circus (1951). A love story of a hard-bitten surgeon and a new nurse at a M.A.S.H. unit. It starred Humphrey Bogart and June Allyson and was directed by Richard Brooks.
• Men of the Fighting Lady a.k.a. Panther Squadron (1954). Fictional account of U.S. Navy pilots flying F9 F Panther fighter jets on hazardous missions against ground targets. Directed by Andrew Marton and starring Van Johnson.
• Prisoner of War (1954). An American army officer volunteers to investigate conditions inside North Korean POW camps. He parachutes behind enemy lines and infiltrates a group of G.I.s being marched to one of these camps. There, he witnesses scenes of G.I.s being brainwashed, beaten, subjected to mock executions, deprived of food and water, and tortured in a variety of ways under the supervision of a Russian colonel. Starring Ronald Reagan.
• The Bridges at Toko-Ri (1955). A U.S. Navy Reserve pilot flying attack missions over North Korea, from the novel by James Michener. Directed by Mark Robson and starring William Holden. Winner of the 1955 Academy Award for Best Special Effects.
• Target Zero (1955). U.S., British and South Korean troops are trapped behind enemy lines.
• Shangganling Battle (Shanggan Ling, Chinese: 上甘岭, BW-1956)，in the Korean war in early 1950 s, a group of Chinese People’s Volunteer soldiers are blocked in Shangganling mountain area for several days. Short of both food and water, they hold their ground till the relief troops arrive. d: Meng Sha, Lin Shan; C: Gao Baocheng, XuLIinge, Liu Yuru; M: changchun.
• Battle Hymn (1956). Based on the autobiography of Colonel Dean E. Hess, an American clergyman and World War II veteran fighter pilot who volunteers to return to active duty to train the fighter pilots of the South Korean Air Force. Starring Rock Hudson as Hess.
• Pork Chop Hill (1957). A true account based on the book by S. L. A. Marshall. US soldiers attempt to retake the top of a hill. Nothing goes according to plan and the peace talks at Panmunjeom are stalled over the battle's outcome. Directed by Lewis Milestone and starring Gregory Peck.
• The Hunters (1958). Robert Mitchum and Robert Wagner as U.S. Air Force F-86 pilots in an adaptation of the novel by James Salter, who was himself an F-86 pilot in the Korean War.
• The Manchurian Candidate (1962). The principal characters in the film are captured and brainwashed during the war. (The 2004 remake of the movie used the Persian Gulf War of 1991 instead).
• War Hunt (1962). Recruits head to the front lines towards the close of the Korean War. The interaction between two of the soldiers… an idealistic newcomer and a psychotic who goes on one-man patrols slitting enemy throats under cover of night… and the orphan boy who comes between them is examined. The cease-fire brings the three to a final resolution. Robert Redford in his first silver screen role.
• MASH (1970), about the staff of a U.S. Army field hospital who use humor and hijinks to keep their sanity in the face of the horror of war. Directed by Robert Altman.
• M*A*S*H (1972–1983) was also a long-running television sitcom, inspired by the movie, featuring Alan Alda. The television series lasted more than three times as long as the war.
• Unsung Heroes (1970s-80s) was a twenty-part North Korean film series about the war, including a mix of historical and fictional characters. US Army defector Charles Robert Jenkins played the fictional lead villain Dr. Kelton in Part 19.
• Inchon (1981). The movie portrays the Battle of Incheon, a turning point in the war. Controversially, the film was partially financed by Sun Myung Moon’s Unification Movement. It became a notorious financial and critical failure, losing an estimated $40 million of its $46 million budget, and remains the last mainstream Hollywood film to use the war as its backdrop. The film was directed by Terence Young, and starred an elderly Laurence Olivier as General Douglas MacArthur. According to press materials from the film, psychics hired by Moon’s church contacted MacArthur in heaven and secured his posthumous approval of the casting.
• Joint Security Area (film) (Gongdong gyeongbi guyeok JSA) (2000). In the DMZ (Korean Demilitarized Zone) separating North and South Korea, two North Korean soldiers have been killed, supposedly by one South Korean soldier. The investigating Swiss/Swedish team from the neutral countries overseeing the DMZ (Korean Demilitarized Zone) suspects from evidence at the crime scene that another, unknown party was involved. Major Sophie E. Jean, the investigating officer, suspects a cover-up is taking place, but the truth is much simpler and much more tragic. It unravels as the story follows the development of a relationship between two North Korean and two South Korean soldiers that hang out together in an empty building in the Joint Security Area. Starring Lee Young Ae, Lee Byung-Hun, Song Kang-ho, Kim Tae-woo, and Shin Ha-kyun. Directed by Park Chan-wook.
• Tae Guk Gi: The Brotherhood of War (2004). When two Korean brothers are drafted into the military to fight in the war, the older brother tries to protect the younger by risking his own life in hopes of sending his brother home. This results in an emotional conflict that wears away at his own humanity. Epic in scope, the movie has a touching family story backdropped by a brutal war. Directed by Je-Kyu Kang or Kang Je-gyu.
• Welcome to Dongmakgol (2005). During the height of the war, three North Korean soldiers, two South Korean soldiers and a U.S. Navy pilot accidentally get stranded together in a remote and peaceful mountain village paradise called Dongmakgol. All three wayward factions learn that the village is naively oblivious to the raging war outside. These newcomers must somehow find a way to coexist with each other for the sake and preservation of the village they all learn to love and respect. Directed by Park, Gwang-hyeon.

Games

• Sabre Ace: Conflict Over Korea (1997-Eagle Interactive) Players use a U.S. F-86 Sabre in the Korean War.
• Korea: Forgotten Conflict (2003-Plastic Reality) A squad based strategy game. Players take command of a U.N. unit consisting of several specialists such as a Ranger, Medic, Demolitions Expert, Sniper, or Korean to fight against the Communist forces.
• Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots (2004-Big Huge Games) The player fights the Korean War in the Cold War campaign, in which he or she is also given the choice to extend the war after 1953.

Names

The most common English term for the war is “Korean War.”

The following are terms used by the participants of the Korean War:

• Australia: Korean War
• Belgium: Korean War (French: Guerre de Corée - Dutch: De Koreaanse Oorlog)
• Britain: Korean War
• Canada: Korean War
• France:
• Germany: Koreakrieg
• Greece: Korean War (Πόλεμος της Κορέας)
• New Zealand: Korean War
• North Korea: Fatherland Liberation War (조국해방전쟁; 祖國解放戰爭)
• South Korea: June 25 Incident (육이오 사변; 六二五 事變), Korean War (한국전쟁; 韓國戰爭), June 25 War (육이오 전쟁; 六二五 戰爭)
• Sweden: Koreakriget
• People's Republic of China: The War of Resisting the U.S. & Aiding Korea (抗美援朝战争; kàng měi yuán cháo zhànzhēng) usually used colloquially “Korean War” (朝鲜战争; 朝鮮戰爭; cháoxiǎn zhànzhēng) usually used officially
• Other Chinese-speaking communities: Korean War (韩战; 韓戰; hán zhàn) abbreviation of Korean War
• Turkey: Korean War (Kore Savaşı)
• United States: Korean Conflict, Korean War, President Truman referred to the conflict as a “Police Action,” but the term is seldom used in military or official circles.

Notes

1. On This Day 30 December 1950 from The BBC
2. The Korean War at \/37124/v5 Affairs Canadaa w,
3. at Korean-War.com
4. French Participation in the Korean War Embassy of France, Retrieved October 31, 2006
5. Statistical Data On Strength And Casualties For Korean War And Vietnam
6. The Turks in the Korean War
7. Xu Yan, Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in New York, Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness
8. http://english.people.com.cn/english/200010/26/eng20001026_53620.html
9. http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/pd-c-01.htm Korea, Schnabel, James F., United Army in the Korean War, Policy and Direction: The First Year, Chapter 1, Case History of a Pawn
10. Dankwart A. Rustow, The Changing Global Order and Its Implications for Korea's Reunification, Sino-Soviet Affairs, Vol. XVII, No. 4, Winter 1994/5, The Institute for Sino-Soviet Studies, Hanyang University
11. Joseph C. Goulden, Korea: The Untold Story of the War (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982), 17
12. Joseph C. Goulden, Korea: The Untold Story of the War (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982), 17
13. Shannon C. McCune, "Physical Basis for Korean Boundaries," Far Eastern Quarterly, No. 5 (May 946), pp. 286-87.
14. Andrew Grajdanzev, "Korean Divided," Far Eastern Survey, XIV (October 1945), 282.
15. Andrew Grajdanzev, "History of Occupation of Korea", vol. I, ch. 4, p. 16.
16. Joseph C. Goulden, Korea: The Untold Story of the War (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982), 17
17. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981)
18. Cumings, Bruce. The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945-1947, (1981), ISBN 0-691-10113-2; The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 2: The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947-1950, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-691-07843-2
19. Cumings, Bruce. The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945-1947, (1981), ISBN 0-691-10113-2; The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 2: The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947-1950, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-691-07843-2
20. http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/chapter8.htm The Korean War, 1950-1953 (an extract from American Military History, Volume 2-2005)
21. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, 1981
22. Gregory Henderson, Korea: The Politics of the Vortex, Harvard University Press, 1968; Lee Chong-sik, Korean Workers' Party, Hoover Institute Press, 1978.
23. Dean Acheson, , "THE THEME OF CHINA LOST", Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department (1969), pp. 355-358.
24. The North claimed ROK (= South Korean) troops under the “bandit traitor” Syngman Rhee had crossed the border first. Later research established that the South had launched limited attacks across the 38th parallel in places such as Ongjin, but the North started the civil war that day.
25. Appleman, South to the Naktong ch. 2; On the North Korean army the best study is Korea Institute of Military History, The Korean War (1998), vol 1.
26. Appleman, South to the Naktong p. 15
27. 1950 Colliers Yearbook
28. LaFaber
29. Appleman, South to the Naktong ch. 26, pp 381, 545
30. James F. Schnabel. United States Army In The Korean War: Policy And Direction: The First Year (1972) ch 9-10; Korea Institute of Military History, The Korean War (1998) 1:730
31. Schnable p 212; Robert J. Donovan, Tumultuous Years (1982) p 285.
32. Eliot A. Cohen and John Gooch, Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War (1990), pp 165-95.
33. William Hopkins One Bugle, No Drums: The Marines at Chosin Reservoir (1986).
34. Schnabel p. 304; Doyle James H., and Arthur J. Mayer. "December 1950 at Hungnam." Proceedings, U.S. Naval Institute 105 (April 1979): 44-65.
35. Korea Institute of Military History, The Korean War (2001) 2:512-29
36. Actions Necessary; S. V. Hasbrouck, memo to file (Nov. 7, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A, Library of Congress; Army Chief of Staff, memo to file (Nov. 20, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A, Library of Congress. See also James F. Schnabel et al., The Korean War, vol. 3 of History of The Joint Chiefs of Staff (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glaizer Inc., 1979), part 1, p. v; part 2, p. 614; Commanding General, Far East Air Force to 98th Bomb Wing Commander, Okinawa (Oct. 13, 1951), and Resumé of Operation (Sept. 30, 1951), Record Group 349, Far East Command G-2 Theater Intelligence, box 752.
37. FEAF/U.N. Aircraft Used in Korea and Losses by Type at Korean-War.com
38. Korean War Aces
39. "Harrison R. Thyng". Sabre Jet Classics. Retrieved 24 Dec. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
40. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981)
41. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981)
42. Jon Halliday and Bruce Cumings, Korea: The Unknown War, Viking Press, 1988, ISBN 0-670-81903-4
43. Jon Halliday and Bruce Cumings, Korea: The Unknown War, Viking Press, 1988, ISBN 0-670-81903-4
44. http://www.fawm.gov.au/encyclopedia/pow/korea/index.htm
45. Canadians in Korea, 1950-1953 at Korean-War.com. Accessed 23 Jun 2006.
46. Canada played a minor role in the fighting in Cyprus in 1974 and in the Balkans at Medak Pocket in the 1990 s.
47. Monique Chu, NGO celebrates World Freedom Day, Taipei Times, February 3, 2002
49. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/lashmar.htm
50. Kathleen T. Rhem, Korean War Death Stats Highlight Modern DoD Safety Record, June 8, 2000
51. Specht, Wayne (2002-10-22). "What happened to GI patrolling DMZ in '65?". Stars and Stripes. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
52. Lee, Wha-rang (2004). "Film Review: The Unsung Heroes". Korea Web Weekly. Retrieved 2007-06-18.

Bibliography

References

• Brune, Lester and Robin Higham, eds., The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research (Greenwood Press, 1994)
• Edwards, Paul M. Korean War Almanac (2006)
• Foot, Rosemary, "Making Known the Unknown War: Policy Analysis of the Korean Conflict in the Last Decade," Diplomatic History 15 (Summer 1991): 411-31, in JSTOR
• Hickey, Michael, The Korean War: The West Confronts Communism, 1950-1953 (London : John Murray, 1999) ISBN 0719555590 9780719555596
• Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean Conflict (Greenwood Press, 1999).
• Knightley, P. The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker (Quartet, 1982)
• Korea Institute of Military History, The Korean War (1998) (English edition 2001), 3 vol, 2600 pp; highly detailed history from South Korean perspective, U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7802-0
• Leitich, Keith. Shapers of the Great Debate on the Korean War: A Biographical Dictionary (2006) covers Americans only
• James I. Matray, ed., Historical Dictionary of the Korean War (Greenwood Press, 1991)
• Millett, Allan R, “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” Journal of Military History (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+ full text in JSTOR; free online revised version
• Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50 Year Critical Historiography," Journal of Strategic Studies 24 (March 2001), pp. 188-224. full text in Ingenta and Ebsco; discusses major works by British, American, Korean, Chinese, and Russian authors
• Summers, Harry G. Korean War Almanac (1990)
• Sandler, Stanley ed., The Korean War: An Encyclopedia (Garland, 1995)
• Masatake, Terauchi (1910-08-27). "Treaty of Annexation". USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center. Retrieved 2007-01-16.

Combat studies, soldiers

• Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961), Official US Army history covers the Eighth Army and X Corps from June to November 1950
• Appleman, Roy E.. East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea (1987); Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950 (1987); Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur (1989); Ridgway Duels for Korea (1990).
• Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953 (1987), revisionist study that attacks senior American officials
• Field Jr., James A. History of United States Naval Operations: Korea, University Press of the Pacific, 2001, ISBN 0-89875-675-8. official U.S. Navy history
• Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. The British Part in the Korean War, HMSO, 1995, hardcover 528 pages, ISBN 0-11-630962-8
• Futrell, Robert F. The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950–1953, rev. ed. (Office of the Chief of Air Force History, 1983), official U.S. Air Force history
• Hallion, Richard P. The Naval Air War in Korea (1986).
• Hamburger, Kenneth E. Leadership in the Crucible: The Korean War Battles of Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni. Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 257 pp.
• Hastings, Max. The Korean War (1987). British perspective
• Hermes, Jr., Walter. Truce Tent and Fighting Front (1966), Official US Army history on the "stalemate" period from October 1951 to July 1953.
• James, D. Clayton The Years of MacArthur: Triumph and Disaster, 1945-1964 (1985)
• James, D. Clayton with Anne Sharp Wells, Refighting the Last War: Command and Crises in Korea, 1950-1953 (1993)
• Johnston, William. A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea. U. of British Columbia Press, 2003. 426 pp.
• Kindsvatter, Peter S. American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. U. Press of Kansas, 2003. 472 pp.
• Millett, Allan R. Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953. Brassey's, 2003. 310 pp.
• Montross, Lynn et al., History of U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953, 5 vols. (Washington: Historical Branch, G-3, Headquarters, Marine Corps, 1954–72),
• Mossman, Billy. Ebb and Flow (1990), Official US Army history covers November 1950 to July 1951.
• Russ, Martin. Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950, , Penguin, 2000, 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4
• Toland, John. In Mortal Combat: Korea, 1950-1953 (1991)
• Varhola, Michael J. Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950-1953 (2000)
• Watson, Brent Byron. Far Eastern Tour: The Canadian Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953. 2002. 256 pp.

Origins, politics, diplomacy

• Chen Jian, China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (Columbia University Press, 1994),
• Cumings, Bruce. The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945-1947, (1981), ISBN 0-691-10113-2; The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 2: The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947-1950, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-691-07843-2, prewar; stress on internal Korean politics
• Goncharov, Sergei N., John W. Lewis; and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War, Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8047-2521-7, diplomatic
• Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command. Temple University Press, 1986), focus is on Washington
• Matray, James. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History 66 (September, 1979), 314-33. Online at JSTOR
• Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning vol 1 (2005)ISBN 0-7006-1393-5, origins
• Schnabel, James F. United States Army in the Korean War: Policy and Direction: The First Year (Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1972). official US Army history; full text online
• Spanier, John W. The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War (1959).
• Stueck, William. Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History. Princeton U. Press, 2002. 285 pp.
• Stueck, Jr., William J. The Korean War: An International History (Princeton University Press, 1995), diplomatic
• Zhang Shu-gang, Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950-1953 (University Press of Kansas, 1995)

Primary sources

• Bassett, Richard M. And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea. Kent State U. Press, 2002. 117 pp.
• Bin Yu and Xiaobing Li, eds Mao's Generals Remember Korea, University Press of Kansas, 2001, hardcover 328 pages, ISBN 0-7006-1095-2
• S. L. A. Marshall, The River and the Gauntlet (1953) on combat
• Matthew B. Ridgway, The Korean War (1967).

See also

• Korean War order of battle
• Battles of the Korean War
• Korean People's Army
• North Korean Air Force
• North Korean Navy
• Badger Army Ammunition Plant
• Gapyeong Canada Monument
• Korean War Memorial Wall (Canada)

External links

• The Center for the Study of the Korean War
• Korean War Documentary
• Korean Children's War Memorial
• Pres. Truman Library documents on his Wake Island meeting with Gen. MacArthur
• Calvin College on the Impact of the War on the Korean People
• Facts and texts on the War
• BBC: American Military Conduct in the Korean War
• Atrocities against Americans in the Korean War
• Atrocities by Americans in the Korean War
• Quicktime sequence of 27 maps adapted from the West Point Atlas of American Wars showing the dynamics of the front.
• A Korean War Stat Lingers Long After It Was Corrected
• Animation for operations in 1950
• Animation for operations in 1951
• POW films, brainwashing and the Korean War
• Maps of the Korean War from the US Military Academy West Point
• Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineer pictures of the Korean War
• CBC Digital Archives - Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War
• Korean War Commemoration
• FAQ from a Chinese perspective
• Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial
• www.roll-of-honour.com - Searchable database of British Casualties during the Korean War 1951-1953
• Russian Ace Pilots
• US Casualites in Korea by State

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