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Fascism is an authoritarian nationalist ideology focused on solving economic, political, and social problems that its supporters see as causing national decline or decadence. Fascists aim to create a single-party state in which the government is led by a dictator who seeks unity by requiring individuals to subordinate self-interest to the collective interest of the nation or a race. Fascist movements promote violent conflict between nations, political factions, and races as part of a social Darwinist view that conflict between these groups is natural and a part of evolution.

Fascist governments permanently forbid and suppress all criticism and opposition to the government and the fascist movement. Fascist movements oppose any ideology or political system that gives direct political power to people as individuals rather than as a collective through the state (democracy, individualism, liberalism); that is deemed detrimental to national identity and unity (class conflict, communism, internationalism, laissez-faire capitalism); that protects and enhances the power of "weak" or disobedient people rather than promoting "strong" and obedient people (egalitarianism); that may oppose major changes to institutions and cultural values that it proposes (conservatism) and that undermine the military strength and military ambitions of the nation (pacifism).

Following the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II, the term fascist has been used as a pejorative word.

Etymology, definitions and usage

The term fascismo was brought into popular and demeaning usage by the Italian founders of Fascism, Benito Mussolini and the Neo-Hegelian philosopher Giovanni Gentile. It is derived from the Italian word fascio, which means "bundle" or "union", and from the Latin word fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods that were rarely tied around an axe, were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrates; they were carried by his Lictors and could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command. Furthermore, the symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break. This is a familiar theme throughout different forms of fascism; for example the Falange symbol is a bunch of arrows joined together by a yoke. In 1919 Fasci italiani di combattimento was founded and the Fascist manifesto was published, outlining Italian fascism, which was the original meaning of the term.

The popular presentations of fascism in the publications of the Western world have been radically different in the period during and after World War II and in the period from 1919 to 1939, when Benito Mussolini and the Italian fascists were widely acclaimed. Fascism was primarily associated with the Axis powers, who fought and lost the war, so it has been difficult to provide an unbiased view of the topic. Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism. Since the 1990s, scholars like Stanley Payne, Roger Eatwell, Roger Griffin and Robert O. Paxton have begun to gather a rough consensus on the system's core tenets. Each form of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions as too wide or too narrow.

Griffin wrote:

a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti conservative nationalism. As such it is an ideology deeply bound up with modernization and modernity, one which has assumed a considerable variety of external forms to adapt itself to the particular historical and national context in which it appears, and has drawn a wide range of cultural and intellectual currents, both left and right, anti-modern and pro-modern, to articulate itself as a body of ideas, slogans, and doctrine. In the inter-war period it manifested itself primarily in the form of an elite-led "armed party" which attempted, mostly unsuccessfully, to generate a populist mass movement through a liturgical style of politics and a programme of radical policies which promised to overcome a threat posed by international socialism, to end the degeneration affecting the nation under liberalism, and to bring about a radical renewal of its social, political and cultural life as part of what was widely imagined to be the new era being inaugurated in Western civilization. The core mobilizing myth of fascism which conditions its ideology, propaganda, style of politics and actions is the vision of the nation's imminent rebirth from decadence.

According to Paxton, fascism is

a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.

Political spectrum

There is disagreement on the position of fascism in the political spectrum; it has been described as left, right and center.

Fascists reject left-wing ideas of class conflict and internationalism in favor of class collaboration and statist nationalism. In 1932, Italian fascist philosopher Giovanni Gentile, largely in an effort to explain the disagreements in policy with "true" socialists and communists, described Italian fascism as a collectivist and statist right-wing ideology:

Granted that the 19th century was the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy, this does not mean that the 20th century must also be the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy. Political doctrines pass; nations remain. We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the "right", a Fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual (liberalism implies individualism) we are free to believe that this is the "collective" century, and therefore the century of the State.

Eugen Weber places fascism on the right: "...their most common allies lay on the right, particularly on the radical authoritarian right, and Italian Fascism as a semi-coherent entity was partly defined by its merger with one of the most radical of all right authoritarian movements in Europe, the Italian Nationalist Association (ANI)." Walter Laqueur says that historical fascism "did not belong to the extreme Left, yet defining it as part of the extreme Right is not very illuminating either", but that it "was always a coalition between radical, populist ('fascist') elements and others gravitating toward the extreme Right". Stanley Payne notes the alliances and sometimes fusion between fascists and right-wing authoritarians, but stresses the important differences between the two.

The founders of fascism in Italy included people from different parts of the political spectrum, including futurists, nationalists, ex-socialists, syndicalists and ex-anarchists. The Fascist Manifesto's initial promises included nationalization of property, but many of those policies were moderated or removed. Ludwig von Mises, an advocate of laissez faire capitalism, defines socialism as any ideology that advocates socializing the means of production, including German Nazism and Italian fascism. Zeev Sternhell sees fascism as an anti-Marxist form of socialism. Irving Louis Horowitz writes of "the new left-wing Fascism" with anti-Semitism as the "essential motor." Horowitz says that in the United States, left-wing fascism consists of a denial or rejection of American democracy, and a devotion to socialism that is merely an idealized abstraction, combined with an unwillingness to confront the actual history of communism. He presents as an example Massimiliano Fanchin, who was arrested in connection with a bombing in Bologna: "He first drew attention as part of a Palestine Solidarity committee, which he helped organize with another fascist, Franco Freda." Horowitz describes Theodor W. Adorno as "central to the thinking of avant garde left-wing fascism." Jeffrey Bale writes on "'National Groupuscules' and the Resurgence of 'Left-Wing' Fascism", giving as an example Christian Bouchet who "joined a left-fascist national revolutionary group known as the Organisation Lutte du Peuple (OLP)."

A number of fascist movements described themselves a "third force" that was outside the traditional political spectrum altogether. Many scholars accept fascism as a search for a third way between capitalism and communism. Roger Griffin argued, "Not only does the location of fascism within the right pose taxonomic problems, there are good ground for cutting this particular Gordian knot altogether by placing it in a category of its own "beyond left and right." Sir Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists, described his position as "hard centre" in the political spectrum. Seymour Martin Lipset sees fascism as "extremism of the center". In some two dimensional political models, such as the Political Compass (where left and right are described in purely economic terms), fascism is ascribed to the economic centre with its extremism expressing itself on the authoritarianism axis instead.

Fascist as epithet

Following World War II, the word fascist has become a slur throughout the political spectrum. In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. Some argue that the term fascist has become hopelessly vague over the years and that it is now little more than a pejorative epithet. George Orwell wrote in 1944:

The word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shopkeepers, Social Credit, corporal punishment, fox-hunting, bull-fighting, the 1922 Committee, the 1941 Committee, Kipling, Gandhi, Chiang Kai-Shek, homosexuality, Priestley's broadcasts, Youth Hostels, astrology, women, dogs and I do not know what else... almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’.– George Orwell, What is Fascism?. 1944.

Richard Griffiths argued in 2005 that the term fascism is the "most misused, and over-used word of our times".

Core tenets

Nationalism

Fascists sees the struggle of nation and race as fundamental in society, in opposition to communism's perception of class struggle and in opposition to capitalism's focus on the value of productivity, materialism, and individualism. The nation is seen in fascism as a single organic entity which binds people together by their ancestry and is seen as a natural unifying force of people. Fascists promote the unification and expansion of influence, power, and/or territory of and for their nation. Fascism seeks to solve existing economic, political, and social problems by achieving a millenarian national rebirth, exalting the nation or race above all else, and promoting cults of unity, strength and purity. Benito Mussolini stated in 1922, "For us the nation is not just territory but something spiritual... A nation is great when it translates into reality the force of its spirit."

Eoin O'Duffy, an Irish national corporatist, stated in 1934,

We must lead the people always; nationally, socially and economically. We must clear up the economic mess and right the glaring social injustices of to-day by the corporative organization of Irish life; but before everything we must give a national lead to our people...The first essential is national unity. We can only have that when the Corporative system is accepted. We shall put our National programme to the people, and it is a programme in which even the most advanced Nationalist can find nothing to disturb him.

Joseph Goebbels described the Nazis as being affiliated with authoritarian nationalism:

It enables us to see at once why democracy and Bolshevism, which in the eyes of the world are irrevocably opposed to one another, meet again and again on common ground in their joint hatred of and attacks on authoritarian nationalist concepts of State and State systems. For the authoritarian nationalist conception of the State represents something essentially new. In it the French Revolution is superseded.

Plínio Salgado, leader of the Brazilian Integralist Action party emphasized the role of the nation:

The best governments in the world cannot succeed in pulling a country out of the quagmire, out of apathy, if they do not express themselves as national energies...Strong governments cannot result either from conspiracies of from military coups, just as they cannot come out of the machinations of parties or the Machiavellian game of political lobbying. They can only be born from the actual roots of the Nation.

Authoritarianism

All fascist movements advocate the creation of an authoritarian government that is an autocratic single-party state led by a dictator. Many fascist movements support the creation of a totalitarian state. The Italian Doctrine of Fascism states: "The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people." Political theorist Carl Schmitt, as a Nazi party member, published The Legal Basis of the Total State in 1935, describing the Nazi regime's intention to form a totalitarian state:

The recognition of the plurality of autonomous life would, however, immediately lead back to a disasterous pluralism tearing the German people apart into discrete classes and religious, ethnic, social, and interest groups if it were not for a strong state which guarantees a totality of political unity transcending all diversity. Every political unity needs a coherant inner logic underlying its institutions and norms. It needs a unified concept which gives shape to every sphere of public life. In this sense there is no normal State which is not a total State.

Japanese fascist Nakano Seigo described the need for Japan to follow the Italian Fascist and Nazi regimes as a model for Japanese government and declared that a totalitarian society was more democratic than democracies, saying:

Both Fascism and Nazism are clearly different from the despotism of the old period. They do not represent the conservatism which lags behind democracy, but are a form of more democratic government going beyond democracy. Democracy has lost its spirit and decayed into a mechanism which insists only on numerical superiority without considering the essence of human beings. It says the majority is all good. I do not agree, because it is the majority which is the precise cause of contemporary decadence. Totalitarianism must be based on essentials, superseding the rule of numbers.

Some have claimed however that in spite of Italian fascism's attempt to form a totalitarian state, this was not achieved in Italy, arguing that Fascism in Italy as a political movement devolved to a cult of personality around Mussolini. However both proponents and opponents of Italian Fascism at the time of its rule in Italy claimed that it had a clear intention to establish a totalitarian state. In addition, Hungarian fascist leader Gyula Gömbös and his fascist Hungarian National Defence Association attempted to form a totalitarian state in Hungary but failed after Gömbös' death in 1936 and the movement subsequently failed to remain in government. The Nazi regime in Germany has also been described by most scholars and critics as being a totalitarian regime.

While fascist movements declared their intention to form a totalitarian state, they exercised much less influence over the economy that that of communist-led states, in that private property remained largely free from government interferance. Nevertheless, like the Soviet Union, fascist states pursued economic policies to strengthen state power and spread ideology, such as by consolidating trade unions to be state-controlled unions. Attempts were made by both Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany to establish "autarky" (self-sufficiency) through significant economic planning, but both failed to make the two countries self-sufficient.

A key element of fascism is its endorsement of the leadership over a country of a dictator, who is often known simply as the "Leader" or a title referring to a leader of some sort such as Duce in Italian, Führer in German, Caudillo in Spanish, Conducător in Romanian, Shogun in Japanese. Fascist leaders that rule countries are not always heads of state, but heads of government, such as Benito Mussolini who held power under the largely figurehead King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III. As part of a totalitarian agenda, the fascist movement does not only ask for obedience to the leader, but wants people to recognize and worship the leader as an infallible saviour of the people.

Social Darwinism

Fascist movements have commonly held social darwinist views of nations, races, and societies. Italian Fascist Alfredo Rocco shortly after World War I claimed that conflict was inevitable in society:

Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest and less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict. Alfredo Rocco

In Germany, the Nazis utilized social Darwinism to promote their racialist concept of the German nation as being part of the Aryan race and the need for the Aryan race to be strong in order to be victorious in what the Nazis believed was ongoing competition and conflict between different races.

Social interventionism

On the question of whether one can speak of “fascist social policy” as single concept with logical and internally consistent ideas and common identifiable goals, some scholars say that one cannot, pointing for example to German National Socialism where such policy was mostly opportunistic and pragmatic. Generally fascist movements endorse social interventionism dedicated to influencing society to promote the state's interests.

Multiple fascist movements speak of the need to create a "new man" and a "new civilization" as part of their intention to transform society to fit the ideology and agenda of the movement. Mussolini promised a “social revolution” for “remaking” the Italian people. Hitler promised to purge Germany of non-Aryan influences on society and create a pure Aryan race through eugenics.

Indoctrination

Fascist states have pursued policies of indoctrination of society to their fascist movements such as through propaganda deliberately spread through education and media through regulation of the production of education and media material. Education was designed to glorify the fascist movement, inform students of it being of major historical and political importance to the nation, attempted to purge education of ideas that were not consistent with the beliefs of the fascist movement, and taught students to be obedient to the fascist movement.

Abortion, eugenics and euthanasia

The fascist government in Italy banned abortion and literature on birth control in 1926, declaring them both crimes against the state. The fascist government began the "Battle for Births" in 1927, a measure against birth control and abortion.

Nazi eugenics placed the improvement of the Germanic race through eugenics at the center of their concerns, and targeted humans they identified as "life unworthy of life" (German Lebensunwertes Leben), such as mentally and physically disabled, homosexual, feeble-minded, insane, and weak people. Adolf Hitler decriminalized abortion in cases in which fetuses had racial or hereditary defects, while the abortion of healthy "pure" German, "Aryan" unborn remained strictly forbidden. For non-Aryans, abortion was not only allowed, but often compelled. Their eugenics program stemmed also from the "progressive biomedical model" of Weimar Germany. Like their forebears, neo-Nazis oppose abortion not because of concerns about preservation of life, but about propagation of their race. The Aryan Nations security chief stated: "I’m just against abortion for the pure white race. For blacks and other mongrelized races, abortion is a good idea."

Culture and gender roles

Fascism tends to promote principles of masculine heroism, militarism, and discipline; and rejects cultural pluralism and multiculturalism.

The Italian Fascist government during the "Battle for Births" gave financial incentives to women who raised large families as well as policies designed to reduce the number of women employed to allow women to give birth to larger numbers of children. Mussolini perceived women's primary role as childbearers while men should be warriors such, once saying "war is to man what maternity is to the woman".

The British Union of Fascists staunchly promoted patriarchal society, believing that it was unnatural for women to have more influence in a relationship with a man.

Nazi propaganda sometimes promoted pre- and extramarital sexual relations, unwed motherhood, and divorce and at other times opposed such behaviour. The growth of Nazi power, however, was accompanied by a breakdown of traditional sexual morals with regard to extramarital sex and licentiousness.

Multiple fascist movements and governments opposed homosexuality. The Italian Fascist government declared homosexuality illegal in Italy in 1931. The British Union of Fascists opposed homosexuality and pejoratively questioned their opponents' sexual orientation, especially of male anti-fascists. The Romanian Iron Guard opposed homosexuality as undermining society. The Nazis' opposed to homosexuality because they thought that homosexuality was degenerate, effeminate, perverted and undermined the masculinity which they promoted; and because they did not produce children. Nevertheless the Nazis considered homosexuality curable through therapy. They explained it though modern scientism and the study of sexology which said that homosexuality could be felt by "normal" people and not just an abnormal minority. Critics have claimed that the Nazis' claim of scientific reasons for their promotion of racism, and hostility to homosexuals is pseudoscience, in that scientific findings were selectively picked that promoted their pre-existing views, while scientific findings opposing those views were rejected and not taken into account.

Economic policies

The difficulty of characterizing fascist's economics is its fluctuating, changing nature. Economic policies of Fascist Italy strongly varied, being quite liberal at its beginning (suppression of inheritance tax, privatization of telephone companies, etc.), during Alberto De Stefani's ministry (1922-1925), and then more corporatist. Fascists explicitly promoted their ideology as a "third position" between capitalism and communism. Italian Fascism often involved corporatism, but German Nazism officially rejected corporatism. What fascists did have in common was the goal of a new national multiclass economics which is either labeled national corporatist, national socialist or national syndicalist. Thus, Third Position economics stipulates fascists' opposition to the elements of capitalist and communist political and economic systems. Fascism opposes the demands by capitalist systems for little government intervention, opposes capitalism's unequivocal support of free trade (i.e. fascists enacted protectionist policies), opposes capitalism's support for free international movement of capital, and opposes capitalism's support of individualism. Fascism opposes communism for its promotion of a class-based world society where nations would cease to exist. Fascists see communism as unpatriotic and a major enemy to their agenda.

National corporatism, national socialism and national syndicalism

While fascists support the unifying of proletariat workers to their cause along corporatistic, socialistic, or syndicalistic lines, fascists specify that they advocate a nationalized form of such economic systems such as national corporatism, national socialism, or national syndicalism which promotes the creation of a strong proletarian nation, but not a proletarian class. Fascists also make clear that they have no hostility to the Petite bourgeoisie (lower middle-class) and small businesses and promise these groups protection alongside the proletariat from the upper-class bourgeoisie, big business, and Marxism.

Ferenc Szalasi, leader of the Arrow Cross Party stated:"The ideological basis of the national economy and programme of Hungarism is social nationalism and its conscious practice. The individual can become a conscious national socialist only through the ideology and function of social nationalism. National socialism is a nationalist order in socialism, and social nationalism is a social order within nationalism."

In the case of Italy, Fascism arose in the 1920s as a mixture of national syndicalist notions with an anti-materialist theory of the state. Many Italian Fascists were former international socialists who abandoned international socialism due to its perceived unpatriotic nature for being unwilling to support Italy's war against Austria-Hungary in World War I as international socialists condemned the conflict as being a "bourgeois war". While others with nationalist sympathies saw the war as necessary to reunite Italian territories in Austria to Italy to end what they perceived as national oppression of Italians in Austria-Hungary. Mussolini and other ex-socialists formed the Fascist movement in 1919 with a left-wing platform combined with nationalism in the Fascist Manifesto of 1919. Over time the Italian Fascists would drift rightward on social and economic policies, such as abandoning previous hostility to the monarchy, the Roman Catholic Church, and businesses in order to attract more support for the Fascist regime while retaining its nationalist agenda Upon being ousted in 1943 and a new Fascist regime being created in the German puppet state of the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini briefly returned to earlier left-wing promises to attempt to regain support for the Fascist movement, such as advocating major nationalization of property and promoting the Fascist movement as a left-wing movement.

Fascists accused parliamentary democracy of producing division and decline, and wished to renew the nation from decadence. Fascists dismissed the Marxist concept of "class struggle" and oppose international socialists' promotion of internationalism instead of nationalism, by advocating "class collaboration" devoted to unifying the nation. Fascism seeks class collaboration as a means to resolve class conflict and create a unified society across class lines. Fascism blames capitalist liberal democracies for creating class conflict and in turn blames communists for exploiting class conflict.

Mixed economy

Fascist economies are typically in between laissez-faire capitalist and statist socialist economic systems. Unlike laissez-faire capitalist systems, fascist economies involve significant government intervention such as regulations, objectives, and nationalization of certain enterprises. Unlike statist socialist systems, fascist economies for the most part protect the right of private property and allowed significant independence for private free enterprise except in areas deemed vital to the national interest where private enterprise was not able to meet economic expectations of the state, in which such enterprises are nationalized. In Italy, the Fascist period presided over the creation of the largest number of state-owned enterprises in Western Europe such as the nationalization of petroleum companies in Italy into a single state enterprise called the Italian General Agency for Petroleum (Azienda Generale Italiani Petroli, AGIP).

Fascists made populist appeals to the middle class (especially the lower middle class) by promising to protect small business and small property owners from communism, and by promising an economy based on competition and profit while pledging to oppose big business.

Economic planning

Fascists opposed laissez-faire economic policies dominant in the era prior to the Great Depression. After the Great Depression began, many people from across the political spectrum blamed laissez-faire capitalism for the Great Depression, and fascists promoted their ideology as a "third way" between capitalism and communism. Fascists declared their opposition to finance capitalism, interest charging, and profiteering. Nazis and other anti-Semitic fascists, considered finance capitalism a "parasitic" "Jewish conspiracy". Fascist governments nationalized some key industries, managed their currencies and made some massive state investments. Fascist governments introduced price controls, wage controls and other types of economic interventionist measures. Fascist governments instituted state-regulated allocation of resources, especially in the financial and raw materials sectors.

Other than nationalization of certain industries, private property was allowed, but property rights and private initiative were contingent upon service to the state. For example, "an owner of agricultural land may be compelled to raise wheat instead of sheep and employ more labor than he would find profitable." According to historian Tibor Ivan Berend, dirigisme was an inherent aspect of fascist economies. The Labour Charter of 1927, promulgated by the Grand Council of Fascism, stated in article 7: "The corporative State considers private initiative, in the field of production, as the most efficient and useful instrument of the Nation", then goes on to say in article 9: "State intervention in economic production may take place only where private initiative is lacking or is insufficient, or when are at stakes the political interest of the State. This intervention may take the form of control, encouragement or direct management."

Fascists thought that private property should be regulated to ensure that "benefit to the community precedes benefit to the individual." They also introduced price controls and other types of economic planning measures.

Fascism had Social Darwinist views of human relations and promoted "superior" individuals and saw people who were weak as being inferior. In terms of economic practice, this meant promoting the interests of successful businesses while banning trade unions and other workers' organizations.

In Nazi economic planning, in place of ordinary profit incentive to guide the economy, investment was guided through regulation to accord to the needs of the State. The profit incentive for business owners was retained, though greatly modified through various profit-fixing schemes: "Fixing of profits, not their suppression, was the official policy of the Nazi party." However the function of profit in automatically guiding allocation of investment and unconsciously directing the course of the economy was replaced with economic planning by Nazi government agencies.

Social welfare

Benito Mussolini promised a "social revolution" that would "remake" the Italian people, which was only achieved in part. The people who primarily benefited from Italian fascist social policies were members of the middle and lower-middle classes, who filled jobs in the vastly expanding government workforce, which grew from about 500,000 to a million jobs in 1930. Health and welfare spending grew dramatically under Italian fascism, with welfare rising from 7% of the budget in 1930 to 20% in 1940. The Italian fascist government advocated several policies to improve living standards for labourers, such as the creation of the nationwide Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro in 1925. The Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro was a state-sponsored organization that created numerous municipal clubs across Italy that allowed lower-income citizens to attend recreational activities, watch movies and listen to musical performances, etc.

While fascists promote social welfare for ameliorating negative economic conditions that are affecting their nation or race as whole, they do not not support social welfare for egalitarian reasons. Fascists abhor egalitarianism for preserving the weak; they promote social Darwinist views and claim that nations and races must preserve and promote their strengths to ensure survival in a world that is in a perpetual state of national and/or racial conflict and competition. Adolf Hitler was opposed to egalitarian and universal social welfare because, in his view, it encouraged the preservation of the degenerate and feeble. While in power, the Nazis created social welfare programs to deal with the large numbers of unemployed. However, those programs were neither egalitarian nor universal, but instead residual, as they excluded multiple minority groups and certain other people whom they felt were incapable of helping themselves, and who would pose a threat to the future health of the German people.

Foreign policy

Italian fascists described expansionist imperialism as a necessity. The 1932 Italian Encyclopedia stated: "For Fascism, the growth of empire, that is to say the expansion of the nation, is an essential manifestation of vitality, and its opposite a sign of decadence." Similarly the Nazis promoted territorial expansionism to in their words provide "living space" to the German nation. Fascists oppose pacificism and believe that a nation must have a warrior mentality. Benito Mussolini spoke of war idealistically as a source of masculine pride, and spoke of pacifism in negative terms:

War alone brings up to their highest tension all human energies and puts the stamp of mobility upon the peoples who have the courage to meet it. Fascism carries this anti-pacifist struggle into the lives of individuals. It is education for combat...war is to man what maternity is to the woman. I do not believe in perpetual peace; not only do I not believe in it but I find it depressing and a negation of all the fundamental virtues of a man.

Joseph Goebbels of the Nazi Party compared World War II to childbirth, and described war as a positive transformative experience:

Every birth brings pain. But amid the pain there is already the joy of a new life. It is a sign of sterility to shy away from new life on the account of pain Our age too is an act of historical birth, whose pangs carry with them the joy of richer life to come. The significance of the war has grown as its scale has increased. It is relentlessly at work, shattering old forms and ideas, and directing the eyes of human beings to new, greater objectives.

Racism and racialism

Fascists have not been unified on the issues of racism and racialism. In the 1920s, Italian fascists recognized the existance of races, and Benito Mussolini declared that the white race in Europe was threatened by coloured races, in terms of social decline in cities and the rapid birthrate of coloured people, and said in 1928:

city dies, the nation—deprived of the young life—blood of new generations—is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race.

However, in 1933-1934, when Germany and Italy were in dispute over the issue of Austrian independence, Mussolini opportunistically criticized Nazi racial policies and claimed that the concept of a biologically pure and superior race as believed by Adolf Hitler was flawed and impossible.. In 1933, Mussolini contradicted his earlier statements on the important role of races in society and instead dismissed the role of races in society, and said:

Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. National pride has no need of the delirium of race. Benito Mussolini, 1933.

Hitler believed that race and racism was fundamental, and many of his policies reflected that. Under pressure from Germany, Mussolini enacted racist policies in the late 1930s, including anti-Semitism, which was highly unpopular in Italy and in the Italian fascist movement itself.

Following World War II, the terms fascism or neo-fascism have been associated with white supremacy, anti-Semitism and racism. However, fascist movements have existed in non-white societies and racially mixed societies such as Brazil, Japan and the former Zaire (under the rule of Mobutu Sese Seko). Plínio Salgado and his Integralists of Brazil opposed racism, but Gyula Gömbös and his M.O.V.E. party in Hungary supported racism.

Religion

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The attitude of fascism toward religion has run the spectrum from persecution, to denunciation, to cooperation, to embrace. Stanley Payne notes that fundamental to fascism was the foundation of a purely materialistic "civic religion" which "would displace preceding structures of belief and relegate supernatural religion to a secondary role, or to none at all" and that "though there were specific examples of religious or would-be 'Christian fascists,' fascism presupposed a post-Christian, post-religious, secular, and immanent frame of reference."

According to a biographer of Mussolini, "Initially, fascism was fiercely anti-Catholic" - the Church being a competitor for dominion of the people's hearts. Mussolini, originally a socialist internationalist and atheist, published anti-Catholic writings and planned for the confiscation of Church property, but eventually moved to accommodation. Mussolini endorsed the Roman Catholic Church for political legitimacy, as during the Lateran Treaty talks, Fascist officials engaged in bitter arguments with Vatican officials and put pressure on them to accept the terms that the regime deemed acceptable.. Protestantism in Italy and Spain was not as significant as Catholicism and the Protestant minority was persecuted. Mussolini's sub-secretary of Interior, Bufferini-Guidi issued a memo closing all houses of worship of the Italian Pentecostals and Jehovah's Witnesses, and imprisoned their leaders. In some instances, people were killed because of their faith.

Nazis arrested and killed thousands of Catholic clergy (18% of the priests in Poland were killed), consigning thousands of them to concentration camps (2600 died in Dachau alone). While Jews were the greatest and primary target, Hitler also sent Roman Catholics to concentration camps and killed 3 million Catholic Poles along with three million Jewish Poles. The Nazi party had pagan elements. Although both Hitler and Mussolini were anticlerical, some believe they both understood that it would be rash to begin their Kulturkampfs prematurely, such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, being put off while they dealt with other enemies.

Relations were close in the likes of the Belgian Rexists (which was eventually denounced by the Church). In addition, many Fascists were anti-clerical in both private and public life. In Mexico the fascist Red Shirts not only renounced religion but were vehemently atheist, killing priests, and on one occasion gunned down Catholics as they left Mass.

Others have argued that there has been a strong connection between some versions of fascism and religion, particularly the Catholic Church. Religion did play a real part in the Ustasha in Croatia which had strong religious (Catholic) overtones and clerics in positions of power. The fascist movement in Romania known as the Iron Guard or the Legion of Archangel Michael invariably preceded its meetings with a church service and "their demonstrations were usually led by priests carrying icons and religious flags." Similar to Ayatollah Khomeini's Shi'a Islamist movement in Iran, it promoted a cult of "suffering, sacrifice and martyrdom." In Latin America the most important Fascist movement was Plinio Salgado's Brazilian "Integralism." Built on a network of lay religious associations, its vision was of an "integral state," that `comes from Christ, is inspired in Christ, acts for Christ, and goes toward Christ.` Salgado, however, criticised the "dangerous pagan tendencies of Hitlerism" and maintained that his movement differed from European fascism in that it respected the "rights of the human person". According to Payne, such "would be" religious fascist only gain hold where traditional belief is weakened or absent, as fascism seeks to create new nonrationalist myth structures for those who no longer hold a traditional view. Hence, the rise of modern secularism in Europe and Latin America and the incursion and large scale adoption of western secular culture in the mideast leave a void where this modern secular ideology, sometimes under a religious veneer, can take hold.

One theory is that religion and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person. Along these lines, Yale political scientist, Juan Linz and others have noted that secularization had created a void which could be filled by a total ideology, making totalitarianism possible, and Roger Griffin has characterized fascism as a type of anti-religious political religion. Such political religions vie with existing religions, and try, if possible, to replace or eradicate them. Hitler and the Nazi regime attempted to found their own version of Christianity called Positive Christianity which made major changes in its interpretation of the Bible which said that Jesus Christ was the son of God, but was not a Jew and claimed that Christ despised Jews, and that the Jews were the ones solely responsible for Christ's death. By 1940 however, it was public knowledge that Hitler had abandoned even the syncretist idea of a positive Christianty.

Variations and subforms

Movements identified by scholars as fascist hold a variety of views, and what qualifies as fascism is often a hotly contested subject. The original movement which self-identified as Fascist was that of Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party. Intellectuals such as Giovanni Gentile produced The Doctrine of Fascism and founded the ideology. The majority of strains which emerged after the original fascism, but are sometimes placed under the wider usage of the term, self-identified their parties with different names. Major examples include; Falangism, Integralism, Iron Guard and Nazism as well as various other designations.

Italian Fascism

Italian Fascism was the first form of fascism to emerge and the originator of the name. Founded by Benito Mussolini, it is considered to be the model for the other fascisms.

Fascism was born during a period of social and political unrest following World War I. The war had seen Italy, born from the Italian unification less than a century earlier begin to appreciate a sense of nationalism, rather than the historic regionalism. Despite the Kingdom of Italy being a fully fledged Allied Power during the war against the Central Powers, Italy was given what nationalists considered an unfair deal at the Treaty of Versailles; which they saw as the other allies "blocking" Italy from progressing to a major power. A significant example of this was when the other allies told Italy to hand over the city of Fiume at the Paris Peace Conference, this saw war veteran Gabriele d'Annunzio declaring the independent state Italian Regency of Carnaro. He positioned himself as Duce of the nation and declared a constitution, the Charter of Carnaro which was highly influential to early Fascism, though he himself never became a fascist.

An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages was the fact that it opposed discrimination based on social class and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war. Fascism instead supported nationalist sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great Roman past. Mussolini did not ignore the plight of the working class, however, and he gained their support with stances such as those in The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle, published in June 1919. The Manifesto demanded the end of the Italian monarchy and the creation of a republic, restricting the power of the Roman Catholic clergy, the creation of a minimum wage, large-scale nationalization of property, showing the same confidence in labor unions (which prove to be technically and morally worthy) as was given to industry executives or public servants, voting rights for women, and the systemisation of public transport such as railways. Much of the Manifesto was moderated or cancelled, moving the Fascists away from republicanism to a pro-monarchy stance, from anti-clericalism to support of the Roman Catholic Church, and moving away from advocating large nationalization of property to advocating protection of private property while allowing nationalization when private enterprise was failing.

Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist; because this was vastly different from anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way". The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called Blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, due in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time and was later appointed as Prime Minister by the King in 1922. He then went on to install a dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti, who had finished writing The Fascist Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination, by Amerigo Dumini and others agents of the Ceka secret police created by Mussolini.

Influenced by the concepts of the Roman Empire, with Mussolini viewing himself as a modern day Roman Emperor, Italy set out to build the Italian Empire whose colonialism would reach further into Africa in an attempt to compete with British and French colonial empires. Mussolini dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923. Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and forcibly ended a rebellion in Libya, which had been a colony (loosely) since 1912. It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean.

Early Falangism (Spain)

Falangism is a form of fascism founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera in 1933, emerging during a complex political time during the Second Spanish Republic. Primo de Rivera was the son of Miguel Primo de Rivera who was appointed Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Spain by Bourbon monarch Alfonso XIII of Spain; José's father would serve as military dictator from 1923—1930. In the Spanish general election, 1931 the winners were socialists and radical republican parties; this saw Alfonso XIII "suspending the exercise of royal power" and going into exile in Rome. Spain had turned from a kingdom into a far-left republic overnight. A liberal Republican Constitution was instated, giving the right of autonomy to regions, stripping the nobility of juristic status and stripping from the Catholic Church its schools.

It was in this environment that José Antonio Primo de Rivera looked at Mussolini's Italy and found inspiration. Primo de Rivera founded the Falange Española party; the name is a reference to the formidable Ancient Greek military formation phalanx. Just a year after foundation Falange Española merged with the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista party of Ramiro Ledesma and Onésimo Redondo. The party and Primo de Rivera revealed the Falange Manifesto in November 1934; it promoted nationalism, unity, glorification of the Spanish Empire and dedication to the national syndicalism economic policy, inspired by integralism in which there is class collaboration. The manifesto supported agrarianism, looking to improve the standard of living for the peasants of the rural areas. It supported anti-capitalism, anti-Marxism, repudiating the latter's divisive class war philosophy, and was directly opposed to the ruling Republican regime. The Falange participated in the Spanish general election, 1936 with low results compared to the far-left Popular Front, but soon after increased in membership rapidly, with a membership of 40,000. José Antonio Primo de Rivera wrote in the Falange Manifesto:

We reject the capitalist system, which disregards the needs of the people, dehumanizes private property, and transforms the workers into shapeless masses that are prone to misery and despair. Our spiritual and national awareness likewise repudiates Marxism. We shall channel the drive of the working classes, that are nowadays led astray by Marxism, by demanding their direct participation in the formidable task of the national State.

Primo de Rivera was captured by Republicans on 6 July 1936 and held in captivity at Alicante. The Spanish Civil War broke out on 17 July 1936 between the Republicans and the Nationalists, with the Falangistas fighting for Nationalist cause. Despite his incarceration Primo de Rivera was a strong symbol of the cause, referred to as El Ausente, meaning "the Absent One"; he was summarily executed on 20 November after a trial by socialists. After this, Francisco Franco, who was not as ideological as his predecessor, became leader of the Falangists and continued the nationalist fight, with aid from Italy and Germany against the republicans who were supported by the Soviet Union. A merger between the Falange and the Carlist traditionalists who support a different line of the monarchy to that of exiled Alfonso XIII took place in 1937, creating the FET y de las JONS, essentially a move away from fascism. This is somewhat controversial in Falangist circles because some elements argue that it was a move away from "authentic Falangism". Regardless nationalists won the Civil War, inserting the Spanish State in 1939 and under a single-party system Franco ruled. Franco managed to balance several different interests of elements in his party, in an effort to keep them united, especially in regards to the question of monarchy. The Francoist state was strongly nationalist, anti-communist and anti-separatist throughout with his Movimiento Nacional; he supported traditional values such as Christianity, in contrast to the anti-clerical violence of the republicans. Whether or not Francoist Spain itself constituted a genuine form of fascism is debated, for example scholar Stanley Payne, has asserted: "scarcely any of the serious historians and analysts of Franco consider the generalissimo to be a core fascist".

The ideas of Falangism were also exported, mainly to parts of the Hispanosphere, especially in South America. In some countries these movements were obscure, in others they had some impact. The Bolivian Socialist Falange under Óscar Únzaga provided significant competition to the ruling government during the 1950s until the 1970s. Falangism was significant in Lebanon through the Kataeb Party and its founder Pierre Gemayel. The Lebanese Falange fought for the countries independence which was won in 1943; they became significant during the complex and multifaceted Lebanese Civil War which was largely fought between Christians and Muslims.

Nazism (National Socialism, Germany)

Nazism, short for National Socialism, is the political ideology of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party that ruled Germany from 1933 until 1945. The term national socialist is also a descriptive term used to refer to the Austrian National Socialism of a similar ideology, as well as several puppet states under Nazi control, including; the Arrow Cross of Hungary, the Ustaše of Croatia (also heavily influenced by Italian Fascism), and Rexism of Belgium. The Nazis came to prominence in Germany's Weimar Republic through democratic elections in 1932; their leader Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany the following year, subsequently putting into place the Enabling Act, which effectively gave him the power of a dictator. Hitler's book detailing the national socialist ideology Mein Kampf, was authored during the mid-1920s. The NSDAP announced a national rebirth, in the form of the Third Reich nicknamed the Thousand Years Empire, promoted as a successor to the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire.

After Mussolini's successful March on Rome in 1922, Hitler gained profound admiration of Mussolini and shortly after Mussolini gained power, the Nazis presented themselves as a German version of Italian Fascism and through their media outlets constantly compared their movement with Italian Fascism and compared Hitler to Mussolini. Nazi member Hermann Esser proclaimed,

"In Bavaria too we have Italy's Mussolini . His name is Adolf Hitler."

— Hermann Esser, 1922.

In addition, the Nazis attempted to copy the Italian Fascists' March on Rome with a "March on Berlin" to topple what they saw as a "Marxist" government leading Germany (in reality a non-Marxist, social democratic government was in government at the time) and during their march, they would overthrow "red" governments in the German states. A month after Mussolini had risen to power and amid claims by Hitler and the Nazis that they were equivelant to Mussolini the Italian Fascists, Hitler's personal popularity in Germany began to grow and large crowds beginning to attend the Nazi rallies, German media began to pay attention to Hitler's activities with the newspaper Berlin Lokal-Anzeiger featuring a front page article about Hitler, saying "There are a lot of people who believe him to be the German Mussolini".

In private, Mussolini himself did not appreciate Hitler or the Nazis as he saw them as merely imitators of Italian Fascism and when Mussolini met with the Italian Consul in Munich prior to the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, he stated that he thought the Nazis were "buffoons".

Nazi official Joseph Goebbels credited Italian Fascism with starting a conflict against liberal democracy which the Nazis supported, saying,

"The march on Rome was a signal, a sign of storm for liberal-democracy. It is the first attempt to destroy the world of the liberal-democratic spirit which started in 1789 with the storm on the Bastille and conquered one country after another in violent revolutionary upheavals, to let...the nations go under in Marxism, democracy, anarchy and class warfare..."

— Joseph Goebbels, 1934.

Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type of generic fascism, some scholars, such as Gilbert Allardyce, Zeev Sternhell and A.F.K. Organski, argue that Nazism is not fascism– either because the differences are too great, or because they believe fascism cannot be generic. A synthesis of these two opinions, states that German Nazism was a form of racially oriented fascism, while Italian fascism was state-oriented. Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race, especially exhibited as antisemitism, in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state, whereas Nazism saw the individual, as well as the state, as ultimately subservient to the race. Mussolini's fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it was not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry. Where fascism talked of state, Nazism spoke of the Volk and of the Volksgemeinschaft

Roger Griffin, who is a leading exponent of the generic fascism theory wrote:

It might well be claimed that Nazism and Italian fascism were separate species within the same genus, without any implicit assumption that the two species ought to be well-nigh identical. Ernst Nolte has stated that the differences could be easily reconciled by employing a term such as 'radical fascism' for Nazism.
The establishment of fundamental generic characteristics linking Nazism to movements in other parts of Europe allows further consideration on a comparative basis of the reasons why such movements were able to become a real politicial danger and gain power in Italy and Germany, whereas in other European countries they remained an unpleasant, but transitory irritant...

Sternhell views national socialism as separate from fascism:

Fascism can in no way be identified with Nazism. Undoubtedly the two ideologies, the two movements, and the two regimes had common characteristics. They often ran parallel to one another or overlapped, but they differed on one fundamental point: the criterion of German national socialism was biological determination. The basis of Nazism was a racism in its most extreme sense, and the fight against Jews, against 'inferior' races, played a more preponderant role in it than the struggle against communism.

During Hitler's rise to power, Hitler was seen by the media at the time and by himself as associated with fascism and being the "Mussolini of Germany".

Integralism

Brazilian Integralism is a form of fascism originating in Brazil with Plínio Salgado, he was the movement's figurehead and philosophical leader. The movement was founded in 1932 and was known in its native tongue as Ação Integralista Brasileira; rather than a reaction against the far-left which was not strong in Brazil at the time, the Integralists were initially founded to combat national disunity and the perceived weakness of the liberal state, hoping for national rebirth via a fascist form. Many of the ideas were similar to Italian fascism; it was militarised and favoured the creation of a strong centralised state with a corporatist, government directed economic policy. The party's nationalist element was influenced by the thought of Alberto Torres and was inclusionist, looking to create a strong national unity. While many of the members were Catholics, the group supported freedom of religion so as not to isolate Protestants in Brazil. As an ethnically diverse country due to its colonial history, the Integralists held a non-divisionist and anti-racist stance with the phrase, union of all races and all people; the members were mostly of European background such as Italian and Portuguese but there were also some people of Amerindian and African background. As Brazil was already territorially endowed, the Integralists had no need for an expansionist outlook.

Iron Guard (Romania)

The Iron Guard was an antisemitic fascist movement and political party in Romania from 1927 to 1941. It was briefly in power from September 14, 1940 until January 21, 1941. The Iron Guard was founded by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu on 24 July 1927 as the "Legion of the Archangel Michael" (Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail), and it was led by him until his death in 1938. Adherents to the movement continued to be widely referred to as "legionnaires" (sometimes "legionaries"; Template:Lang-ro) and the organization as the "Legion" or the "Legionary Movement" (Mişcarea Legionară), despite various changes of the (intermittently banned) organization's name.

It was strongly anti-Semitic, promoting the idea that "Rabbinical aggression against the Christian world" in "unexpected 'protean forms': Freemasonry, Freudianism, homosexuality, atheism, Marxism, Bolshevism, the civil war in Spain, and social democracy" were undermining society.

The Iron Guard "willingly inserted strong elements of Orthodox Christianity into its political doctrine to the point of becoming one of the rare modern European political movements with a religious ideological structure."

National Corporatism (Ireland)

Eoin O'Duffy was a former Irish soldier and Irish nationalist who led and created a number of fascist political movements that eventually coelesced into the National Corporate Party, which was closely based on Italian fascism. The first movement that O'Duffy was involved in was the Army Comrades Association, which he joined in 1933, one year after the ACA was formed. O'Duffy renamed the organization National Guard and endorsed fascism, along with adapting fascist symbolism such as the straight-armed salute. O'Duffy spoke of having an Irish version of the Italian fascists' March on Rome, which would be called the March on Dublin, but this never proceeded. O'Duffy merged the National Guard with the National Centre Party and the newly created Fine Gael party in 1933. However, O'Duffy and the National Guard had serious disagreements with Fine Gael and broke away and formed the National Corporate Party in June 1935. The National Corporate Party supported the creation of a corporatist state. Irish National Corporatist recruits fought on the side of nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War.

Para-fascism and commonly alleged fascist ideologies

A number of states and movements have had various characteristics that are similar to fascism, but which most scholars have denied being affiliated to fascism. Para-fascism is a term sometimes used to describe authoritarian regimes which appear like fascism on the surface but some scholars claim differ substantially from true fascism when a more than superficial examination is done. Roger Griffin uses the term whereas Stanley Payne uses the term Radical Right. The consensus among scholars rejects these many anti-liberal, anti-communist inter-war movements which lacked fascism's revolutionary goal to create a new national character as fascist. Para-fascists typically eschewed radical change and viewed genuine fascists as a threat. Parafascist states were often unwillingly the home of genuine fascist movements, which they eventually suppressed or co-opted.

Austrian Fatherland Front

"Austrofascism" is a controversial category encompassing various para-fascist and semi-fascist movements in Austria in the 1930s. Especially referring to the Fatherland Front which became Austria's sole legal political party in 1934. The Fatherland Front's ideology was partly based on a fusion of Italian fascism, as expounded by Gentile, and Austria's Political Catholicism. It had an ideology of the "community of the people" (Volksgemeinschaft) that was different from that of the Nazis. They were similar in that both served to attack the idea of a class struggle by accusing leftism of destroying individuality, and thus help usher in a totalitarian state. Engelbert Dollfuß claimed he wanted to "over-Hitler" (überhitlern) Nazism.

Unlike the ethnic nationalism promoted by Italian Fascists and Nazis, the Fatherland Front focused entirely on cultural nationalism such as Austrian identity and distinctness from Germany, such as extolling Austria's ties to the Roman Catholic Church. According to this philosophy, Austrians were "better Germans" (by this time, the majority of the German population was Protestant). The monarchy was elevated to the ideal of a powerful and far-reaching state, a status which Austria lost after the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The notion of the Fatherland Front being fascist was claimed due to the regime's support and similar ideology of Fascist Italy.

Francoism

Spain under the rule of Francisco Franco is not considered by most scholars to be a fascist regime. Francoist Spain, while having some similarities and sometimes showing support towards fascist states, was much more conservative and traditionalist than fascist states which sought societal transformation.

Imperial Rule Assistance Association (Japan)

The Imperial Rule Assistance Association (大政翼賛会, Taisei Yokusankai) was the most influential fascist political organization in Japan, ruling the government from 1940 to 1945. The association was founded from a unification of multiple fascist and nationalist political movements of Japan such as the Imperial Way Faction (皇道派, Kōdōha) and the Society of the East (東方会, Tōhōkai) which were previously competing for power.

The IRAA was formed under the guidance of Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe. Prior to creation of the IRAA, Konoe had already passed the National Mobilization Law, which effectively nationalized strategic industries, the news media, and labor unions, in preparation for total war with China. After Konoe was replaced by Hideki Tōjō (a former member of the Imperial Way Faction), Tōjō entrenched the IRAA as the country's ruling political movement. Tōjō during this period attempted to establish himself as the absolute leader of Japan's government, called by his supporters as a Shogun (an ancient title given to supreme military commanders).

The IRAA pursued a totalitarian course to take control of Japanese society beginning by creating the mandatory Tonarigumi (Neighbourhood Association) system consisting of 10 to 15 households whereby each unit was responsible for allocating rationed goods, distributing government bonds, fire fighting, public health, civil defense and assisting the IRAA's National Spiritual Mobilization Movement, by distribution of government propaganda, and organizing participation in patriotic rallies. All Japanese youth and women were forced to be part of organizations of the IRAA in 1942. All youth organizations were merged into the Great Japan Imperial Rule Assistance Youth Corps (翼賛青年団, Yokusan Shonendan), based on the model of the Nazi Sturmabteilung. After the 1942 general election, all members of the Japanese parliament were forced to become members of the IRAA, making Japan a single-party state.

Notable Fascists

• Ion Antonescu - Kingdom of Romania
• Sadao Araki - Japanese Empire
• Zoltán Böszörmény - Kingdom of Hungary
• Marcelo Caetano - Portugal
• Gustavs Celmiņš - Latvia
• Corneliu Zelea Codreanu - Kingdom of Romania
• Marcel Déat - France
• Léon Degrelle - Belgium
• Engelbert Dollfuß - Austria
• Francisco Franco - Spain
• Giovanni Gentile - Kingdom of Italy/Fascist
• Gyula Gömbös - Kingdom of Hungary
• Adolf Hitler - Nazi Germany
• Dimitrije Ljotić - Kingdom of Serbia/Kingdom of Yugoslavia
• Oswald Mosley - United Kingdom
• Anton Mussert - The Netherlands
• Benito Mussolini - Kingdom of Italy/Fascist Italy
• Seigō Nakano - Japanese Empire
• Eoin O'Duffy - Ireland
• Ante Pavelić - Croatia
• Augusto Pinochet - Chile 1973-1992
• Vidkun Quisling - Kingdom of Norway
• Plínio Salgado - Brazil
• Ferenc Szálasi - Kingdom of Hungary
• Jozef Tiso - Slovak Republic
• Pierre Gemayel - Kataeb Party
• Bachir Gemayel - Founder of the Lebanese Forces

References

Notes

1. Laqueuer, Walter." Comparative Study of Fascism" by Juan J. Linz. Fascism, A Reader's Guide: Analyses, interpretations, Bibliography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976. Pp. 15 "Fascism is above all a nationalist movement and therefore wherever the nation and the state are strongly identified."
2. Laqueur, Walter. Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press, 1997. Pp. 90. "the common belief in nationalism, hierarchical structures, and the leader principle."
3. "Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17-19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state "It enables us to see at once why democracy and Bolshevism, which in the eyes of the world are irrevocably opposed to one another, meet again and again on common ground in their joint hatred of and attacks on authoritarian nationalist concepts of State and State systems. For the authoritarian nationalist conception of the State represents something essentially new. In it the French Revolution is superseded.".
4. Koln, Hans; Calhoun, Craig. The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background. Transaction Publishers. Pp 20.
   University of California. 1942. Journal of Central European Affairs. Volume 2.
5. Kelsen, Hans, Wedberg, Anders (translator). General Theory of Law and State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945. Reprinted 1999 by The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. Pp. 301-302. "The One-party State (Boshevism and Fascism)", "party dictatorship".
6. Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 103-104. "Fascist ideologies were also collectivist. individual freedom could only have meaning through the community or the nation."
7. Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. Pp. 59. city dies, the nation—deprived of the young life—blood of new generations—is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race. - Benito Mussolini, 1928.
8. Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Pp 285. "Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest ans less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict." Alfredo Rocco
9. Kallis, Aristotle A. Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945. Routledge, 2000. Pp. 47 "the idea of living space was gradually put forward as the pivotal object of fascist expansion and the ultimate measure of fascism's success in revitalizing the national community and in promoting its historic universal mission."
10. Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Nasri, William Z. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 62 - Supplement 25 - Automated Discourse Generation to the User-Centered Revolution: 1970-1995. CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 0824720628, 9780824720629. Pp. 69.
11. Welch, David. Modern European History, 1871-2000. Pp. 57. (Speaks of fascism opposing capitalism for creating class conflict and communism for exploiting class conflict).
12. Fest, Joachim C. Hitler. Harcourt Brace Publishing, 1974. Pp. 147. "He had always regarded the NSDAP as strictly opposed to class conflict; his point was that racial conflict was to replace class Antimonies." " 'Along with members of the middle class and the bourgeoisie, very many workers have also followed the National Socialist banner,' a police report of December, 1922, stated. 'The old socialist parties view the NSDAP as a grave danger to their continued existance.' "
13. Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas, 2003, p. 63
14. Giovanni Gentile, quoted in Where Have All the Fascists Gone? by Tamir Bar-On. Ashgate Publishing 2007, p. 118
15. Laqueur, Walter. Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press, 1997. Pp. 90. "All fascisms were antiliberal and anti-Marxist, but they were also anticonservative."
16. Wiskemann, Elizabeth. 2nd ed. "Fascism in Italy: its Development and Influence". The Making of the 20th Century. Macmillan and St, Martin Press. Pp. 35. "Fascism, Mussolini rather ominously stated, was opposed to internationalistic constructions."
17. Roger Griffin, The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology, Chapter published in Alessandro Campi (ed.), Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Roma, 2003, pp. 97-122. " a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti conservative nationalism."
18. Bollas, Christopher. 1993. Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience. Routledge. ISBN 0415088151, 9780415088152. Pp. 205. "War alone brings up to their highest tension all human energies and puts the stamp of mobility upon the peoples who have the courage to meet it.
19. Maier, Hans; Bruhn, Jodi. Totalitarianism and Political Religions. Routledge, 2004. Describes fascism as involving "anti-liberalism, anti-communism..." and "anti-internationalism".
20. Griffen, Roger; Feldman, Matthew. Fascism: Critical Concepts. Pp. 353 "When the Russian revolution occured in 1917 and the 'Democratic' revolution spread after the First World War, anti-bolshevism and anti-egalitarianism rose as very strong "restoration movements" on the European scene. However, by the turn of that century no one could predict that fascism would become such a concrete, political reaction..."
21. Gregor, Mussolini's Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought, Princeton University Press, 2005 ISBN 0691120099 282 pages, page 4
22. New World, Websters. Webster's II New College Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Reference Books. ISBN 0618396012.
23. ^ Payne, Stanley. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299148742.
24. Doordan, Dennis P. In the Shadow of the Fasces: Political Design in Fascist Italy. The MIT Press. ISBN 0299148742.
25. Parkins, Wendy. Fashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, Citizenship. Berg Publishers. ISBN 1859735878.
26. "Pound in Purgatory". Leon Surette. 27 January 2008.
27. "A History of US: Book 9: War, Peace, and All That Jazz 1918-1945". Oxford University Press. 27 January 2008.
28. Gregor, A. James. Phoenix: Fascism in Our Time. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0765808552.
29. ^ Payne, Stanley G. Fascism, Comparison and Definition. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299080641. Cite error: The named reference "deff" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
30. ^ Griffiths, Richard. An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism. Duckworth. Cite error: The named reference "intelligentguide" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
31. Roger Griffin, The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology, Chapter published in Alessandro Campi (ed.), Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Roma, 2003, pp. 97-122.
32. ^ Paxton, Robert. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books.
33. Runciman, Social Science and Political Theory 2nd edition, CUP Archive, 1969 ISBN 052109562X 208 pages page 150: "One of the most interesting analyses of this is an essay by Professor Lipset entitled 'Fascism -- Left, Right and Center'." (S. M. Lipset, Political Man ( 1960), ch. V.)
34. Kallis, The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003 ISBN 0415243599, 513 pages page 112: "...the centre, where fascism is situated, according to Lipset, because of its opposition both to big business and to socialism". (refers to S. M. Lipset, Political Man ( 1960), ch. V.)
35. British Fascism, 1918-39: Parties, Ideology and Culture, Thomas P. Linehan, Manchester University Press, 2000 ISBN 0719050243 306 pages, page 6: "The dispute amongst historians...overlaps with another contentious area of scholarship, the question of whether fascism was an ideology of the right,left or centre."
36. Counts, George Sylvester. Bolshevism, Fascism, and Capitalism: An Account of the Three Economic Systems. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0836918665.
37. Gregor, A. James. Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism. Transaction Pub. ISBN 0765805936.
38. Tucker, Spencer C.; Mary Roberts, Prinscilla; Greene, Jack; Cole C. Kingseed, Cole C.; Muir, Malcom; Zabecki, David T. (DRT); Millett, Allan R. (FRW). 2005. World War II: A Student Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, 2005. ISBN 1851098577, 9781851098576. pp. 1506.
39. Weber, Eugen. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1982. pp. 8
40. ^ Laqueuer, Walter. Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019511793X.
41. http://books.google.com/books?id=9wHNrF7nFecC&pg=RA1-PA16&dq=payne
42. Ludwig von Mises, Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis, Yale University Press edition (1951), Preface to the second German edition
43. ^ Russian Fascism By Stephen Shenfield
44. Irving Louis Horowitz, Winners and Losers: Social and Political Polarities in America, Duke University Press, 1984,pp. 210-217
45. Winners and Losers: Social and Political Polarities in America By Irving Louis Horowitz, Duke University Press, 1984, ISBN 0822306026 ,328 pages, page 214
46. Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science, By Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman, Taylor & Francis, 2004, ISBN 0415290201 528 pages, pp267 et seq
47. Bastow, Steve. Third Way Discourse: European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 074861561X.
48. ^ Macdonald, Hamish. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0748733868. Cite error: The named reference "macdonal" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
49. Woolley, Donald Patrick. The Third Way: Fascism as a Method of Maintaining Power in Italy and Spain. University of North Carolina at Greensboro.
50. Heywood, Andrew. Key Concepts in Politics. Palgrave. ISBN 0312233817.
51. {{cite book |last=Renton |first=Dave |title=Fascism: Theory and Practice|publisher=Pluto Press }
52. Kallis, Aristotle A. The Fascism Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0415243599.
53. ^ Griffin, Roger. The Nature of Fascism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312071329.
54. Parla, Taha. The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gökalp, 1876-1924. Brill. ISBN 9004072292.
55. Durham, Martin. Women and Fascism. Routledge. ISBN 0415122805.
56. Skidelsky, Robert Jacob Alexander. Oswald Mosley. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0030865808.
57. The Political Compass, Analysis
58. "George Orwell: 'What is Fascism?'". Orwell.ru. 8 January 2008.
59. Ebenstein, William. 1964. Today's Isms: Communism, Fascism, Capitalism, and Socialism. Prentice Hall (original from the University of Michigan). Pp 178.
60. Oliver Zimmer, Nationalism in Europe, 1890-1940 (London, Palgrave, 2003), chapter 4, pp.80-107
61. "Fascism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 January 2008.
62. Passmore, Kevin. Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192801554.
63. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. Pp. 44
64. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. Pp. 183
65. "Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17-19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state.
66. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. Pp. 236.
67. Mussolini, Benito. 1935. Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions. Rome: Ardita Publishers. p 14.
68. Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Legal Basis of the Total State" - by Carl Schmitt. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 72.
69. Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Need for a Totalitarian Japan" - by Nakano Seigo. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 239.
70. Linz, Juan José. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes: with a major new introduction. Lynne Rienner Publishers. Pp. 7.
71. Maier, Hans. Totalitarianism and Political Religions. Pp. 6. (Explains how Italian Fascism attempted to form a totalitarian state and how both proponents of fascism and opponents saw it as a totalitarian ideology.)
72. Sugar, Peter F; Hanak, Peter; Frank, Tibor. 1994. A History of Hungary. Indiana University Press. Pp. 331
73. Maier, Hans. Totalitarianism and Political Religions. Pp. 10-11. (Explains how Italian Fascism attempted to form a totalitarian state and how both proponents of fascism and opponents saw it as a totalitarian ideology.)
74. Pauley, Bruce F. 2003. Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century. Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc.
75. Pauley. 2003. Pp. 72, 84
76. Pauley. 2003. Pp. 85
77. Pauley. 2003. Pp. 86
78. Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge, 1996. Pp. 485-486
79. Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Pp 285.
80. Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Pp 282 and 284.
81. Rimlinger, G.V. ‘’Social Policy Under German Fascism’’ in Stagnation and Renewal in Social Policy: The Rise and Fall of Policy Regimes by Martin Rein, Gosta Esping-Andersen, and Lee Rainwater, p. 61, M.E. Sharpe, 1987
82. Gentile, Emilio. The Struggle for Modernity: Nationalism, Futurism, and Fascism. Pp. 86 (Explains how fascism intends to create a "new man" and a "new civilization".)
83. Knight, Patricia Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003
84. Pauley, Bruce F. 2003. Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy. Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc. Pauley, pp. 117.
85. Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge Pp. 220
86. Pauley, 2003. 117-119.
87. De Grazia, Victoria. 2002. How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922-1945. University of California Press. Pp. 55
88. Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of Northern Carolina Press, 1995): 30.
89. McLaren, Angus, Twentieth-Century Sexuality, p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999
90. McLaren, Angus, Twentieth-Century Sexuality p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999
91. Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman , p. 140, Taylor & Francis, 2004 It may be important to have in account that the Nazi politics is only based on the fascism, and in no way equivalent to the Italian or Iberic one.
92. Roger Griffin, The `post-fascism' of the Alleanza Nazionale: a case-study in ideological morphology, Journal of Political Ideologies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1996
93. McDonald, Harmish. 1999. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. Pp. 27
94. Bollas, Christopher. 1993. Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience. Routledge. ISBN 0415088151, 9780415088152. Pp. 205.
95. Gottlieb, Julie V., Linehan, Thomas P. The Culture of Fascism: Visions of the Far Right in Britain. Pp. 93.
96. Ann Taylor Allen. Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germay H-German, H-Net Reviews, January 2006
97. Hau, Michael, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germany (review) Modernism/modernity - Volume 14, Number 2, April 2007, pp. 378-380, The Johns Hopkins University Press
98. McDonald, 1999. Pp. 27
99. Gottlieb, Julie V., Linehan, Thomas P. Pp. 93.
100. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, p. 98, citing N. Cainic, Ortodoxie şi etnocraţie, pp. 162-4)
101. Richard J Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939 pg. 529 The Penguin Press HC, 2005
102. Ann Taylor Allen. Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism January 2006
103. Baumslag, Naomi; Pellgrino, Edmund D. 2005. Murderous medicine: Nazi doctors, human experimentation, and typhus. Greenwood Publishing Group. Pp. 37. Claims Nazi scientific reasoning for racial policy was pseudoscience
104. Lancaster, Roger N.The Trouble of Nature: Sex in Science and Popular Culture. University of California Press. Pp. 10. Claims that Nazi scientific reasoning for anti-homosexual policy was pseudoscience
105. Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168.
106. Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge. Pp. 64
107. Griffen, Roger (editor). Chapter 8: "Extremism of the Centre" - by Seymour Martin Lipset. International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. Arnold Readers. Pp. 101.
108. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. Pp. 224
109. Smith, Denis Mack. Mussolini; A Biography. New York: Vintage Books, 1983. p311
110. Welch, David. Modern European History, 1871-2000. Pp. 57. (Speaks of fascism opposing capitalism for creating class conflict and communism for exploiting class conflict).
111. Schachter, Gustav; Engelbourg, Saul. 2005. Cultural Continuity In Advanced Economies: Britain And The U.S. Versus Continental Europe. Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Pp 302.
112. Griffen, Roger (editor). Chapter 8: "Extremism of the Centre" - by Seymour Martin Lipset. International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. Arnold Readers. Pp. 101.
113. David Baker, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227-250.
114. Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168.
115. Frank Bealey & others. Elements of Political Science. Edinburgh University Press, 1999, p. 202
116. Postone, Moishe. 1986. "Anti-Semitism and National Socialism." Germans & Jews Since the Holocaust: The Changing Situation in West Germany, ed. Anson Rabinbach and Jack Zipes. New York: Homes & Meier.
117. ^ Stanislav Andreski, Wars, Revolutions, Dictatorships, Routledge 1992, page 64
118. James A. Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7
119. Herbert Kitschelt, Anthony J. McGann. The Radical Right in Western Europe: a comparative analysis. 1996 University of Michigan Press. p. 30
120. Tibor Ivan Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 93
121. Richard Allen Epstein, Principles for a Free Society: Reconciling Individual Liberty With the Common Good, De Capo Press 2002, p. 168
122. Alexander J. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge, 1995. pp. 47.
123. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, pp. 48-51.
124. Arthur Scheweitzer (November, 1946), "Profits Under Nazi Planning", The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 61, No. 1: 5 {{citation}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
125. Knight, Patricia, Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003
126. Knight, Patricia, Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003
127. Pollard, John Francis, The Fascist Experience in Italy, p. 80 Routledge 1998
128. Griffen, Roger; Feldman, Matthew. Fascism: Critical Concepts. Pp. 353 "When the Russian revolution occured in 1917 and the 'Democratic' revolution spread after the First World War, anti-bolshevism and anti-egalitarianism rose as very strong "restoration movements" on the European scene. However, by the turn of that century no one could predict that fascism would become such a concrete, political reaction..."
129. Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Pp 285. "Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest ans less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict." Alfredo Rocco, Italian Fascist.
130. Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 103-104. "Fascist ideologies were also collectivist. individual freedom could only have meaning through the community or the nation."
131. Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. Pp. 59. city dies, the nation—deprived of the young life—blood of new generations—is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race. - Benito Mussolini, 1928.
132. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, pgs. 27-28
133. Evans, pgs. 491-492
135. Kershaw, Ian. 2000. Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris. W. W. Norton & Company. Pp. 442
136. Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge, 1996. Pp. 485-486
137. Bollas, Christopher. 1993. Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience. Routledge. ISBN 0415088151, 9780415088152. Pp. 205. Speaks of Italian Fascism supporting war and opposing pacifism.
138. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. Pp. 159
139. Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. Pp. 59.
140. Montagu, Ashley. Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0803946481.
144. ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p.41 1996 Oxford University Press]
145. Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. p.204-9
146. Payne, Stanley, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945], p. 9, Routledge 1996
147. Farrell, Nicholas, Mussolini: A New Life p.5 2004 Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.
148. Pollard, John F. (1985). The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-32. Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press. p53
149. ROCHAT Giorgio, Regime fascista e chiese evangeliche, Torino, Claudiana, 1990
150. BRACCO, Roberto. Persecuzione in Italia . Rome, n.d
151. ROCHAT, Giorgio. Regime fascista e chiese evangeliche. Torino: Claudiana, 1990
152. ^ Craughwell, Thomas J., The Gentile Holocaust Catholic Culture, Accessed July 18, 2008
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154. Laqueur, Walter; Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p.42 1996 Oxford University Press]
155. "Garrido Canabal, Tomás". The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition (2005).
156. The New International Yearbook] p. 442, Dodd, Mead and Co. 1966
157. Millan, Verna Carleton, Mexico Reborn, p.101, 1939 Riverside Press
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159. Parsons, Wilfrid, Mexican Martyrdom], p. 238, 2003 Kessinger Publishing
160. Arjomand, Said Amir, Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran, Oxford University Press, 1988, p.208-9
161. Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future p.148 1996 Oxford University Press]
162. source: Weber, E. "Rumania" in H. Rogger and E. Weber, eds., The European Right: A Historical Profile. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.
163. Nagy-Talavera, N. M. The Green Shirts and the Others. A History of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1970; p.247, 266-70
164. Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. p.208-9
165. Hilton, S. "Acao Integralista Brasiliera: Fascism in Brazil, 1932-38" Lusa Brazilian Review, v.9, n.2, 1972: 12
166. Williams, M.T. "Integralism and the Brazilian Catholic Church." Hispanic American Historical Review, v.54, n.3, 1974: 436-40
167. Payne, Stanley A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, pp. 345-346, Routledge 1996
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192. Del Boca, Angelo. Fascism Today: A World Survey. Pantheon Books.
193. ^ Payne, Stanley G. The Franco Regime, 1936-1975. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299110702.
194. ^ Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977, p. 476 1999 Univ. of Wisconsin Press
195. ^ Chase, Allan. Falange: The Axis Secret Army in the Americas. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
196. Gunson, Phil. The Dictionary of Contemporary Politics of South America. Routledge. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |ibsn= ignored (help)
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198. Katz, Samuel M. Armies in Lebanon 1982-84. Osprey Publishing. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |ibsn= ignored (help)
199. Kallis, Aristotle A. The Fascism Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0415243599.
200. Palmer Domenico, Roy. Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313323623.
201. Chapman, Guy. Why France Fell: The Defeat of the French Army in 1940. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
202. Fulda, Bernhard. Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford University Press, 2009. Pp. 65.
203. Carlsten, F.L. The Rise of Fascism. 2nd ed. University of California Press, 1982. Pp. 80
204. Carlsten, 1982. Pp. 80
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211. Paul H. Lewis (2000). Latin Fascist Elites. Praeger/Greenwood. p. 9. ISBN 0-275-97880-X.
212. Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21
213. Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship, Problems & perspectives of interpretation, 4th Edition. Hodder Arnold 2000, p41
214. Griffin, Roger. Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415290198.
215. Sternhell, Zeev. The Birth of the Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691044864.
216. Leach, Henry Goddard. Forum and Century, v.85 1931 Jan-Jun. University of Michigan, 1931. Pp. 218. "THE GERMAN MUSSOLINI HE MAN behind National Socialism, the would-be Mussolini of Germany, is Adolf Hitler."
217. LeRoy Love, Joseph. São Paulo in the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1937. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804709912.
218. ^ Bacchetta, Paola. Right-wing Women. Routledge. ISBN 0415927773.
219. Spicer, Kevin P. 2007. Antisemitism, Christian ambivalence, and the Holocaust. Indiana University Press on behalf of the Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies. Pp. 142. (Describes the Romanian Iron Guard as a totalitarian nationalist and anti-Semitic movement.
220. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, p. 98, citing N. Cainic, Ortodoxie şi etnocraţie, pp. 162-4)
221. Ioanid, "The Sacralised Politics of the Romanian Iron Guard".
222. Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 3, 2002 Routledge
223. Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis
224. Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 326, 2002 Routledge
225. Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis
226. Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 255, 2002 Routledge
227. Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future p. 13 1996 Oxford University Press]
228. De Menses, Filipe Ribeiro, Franco and the Spanish Civil War, p. 87, Routledge
229. Gilmour, David, The Transformation of Spain: From Franco to the Constitutional Monarchy, p. 7 1985 Quartet Books
230. Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977, p. 347, 476 1999 Univ. of Wisconsin Press
231. Large, Stephen S. 1998. Showa Japan: Political, Economic and Social History, 1926-1989. Taylor & Francis. Pp. 9-10.
232. Pekkanan, Japan's dual civil society. Members without advocates
233. Modern Japan in archives, the Yokusan System, http://www.ndl.go.jp/modern/e/cha4/description15.html
234. ^ Shillony, Ben-Ami (1981). Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan. Oxford University Press. pp. 23–33, 71–75. ISBN 0198202601.

Bibliography

Primary sources

• Gentile, Giovanni. 1932. The Doctrine of Fascism. Enciclopedia Italiana.
• de Oliveira Salazar, António. 1939. Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928-1939. Faber and Faber.
• Mosley, Sir Oswald. 1968. My Life. Nelson Publications.
• de Rivera, José Antonio Primo. 1971. Textos de Doctrina Politica. Madrid.
• Mussolini, Benito. 1998. My Rise And Fall . Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306808641
• Ciano, Galezzo. 2001. The Ciano Diaries, 1939—1943. Simon Publications. ISBN 1931313741
• Mussolini, Benito. 2006. My Autobiography: With "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism". Dover Publications. ISBN 0486447774

Secondary sources

• De Felice, Renzo. 1976. Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice. Transaction Books. ISBN 0878556192
• De Felice, Renzo. 1977. Interpretations of Fascism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674459628.
• Ben-Am, Shlomo. 1983. Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923-1930. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198225962
• Payne, Stanley G. 1987. The Franco Regime, 1936-1975. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299110702
• Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. 1988. Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936-1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas. Routledge. ISBN 0714648698
• Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299148742
• Costa Pinto, António. 1995. Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of Interpretation. Social Science Monographs. ISBN 0880339683
• Griffiths, Richard. 2001. An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism. Duckworth. ISBN 0715629182
• Lewis, Paul H. 2002. Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027597880X
• Payne, Stanley G. 2003. Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism. Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0758134452
• Paxton, Robert O. 2005. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books. ISBN 1400033918

• Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
• Nolte, Ernst The Three Faces Of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965.
• Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
• Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
• Alfred Sohn-Rethel Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism,London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007
• Kallis, Aristotle A. ," To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Apr., 2003), pp. 237-260.
• Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5
• Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London.
• Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X
• Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" pages 404-424 from The American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967.
• Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250
• Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
• Weber, Eugen. 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)

See also

• Fascism as an international phenomenon
• American Nazi Party
• Alain de Benoist
• International Third Position
• National Alliance (United States)
• Neo-fascism and religion
• Neo-Nazism
• Nouvelle Droite

External links

• The Doctrine of Fascism

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• Fascism
• Politics of Italy
• Political ideologies
• Political systems
• Syncretic political movements