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Due to inconsistencies in the definitions and use of the term, terrorism in the People's Republic of China may be construed to encompass a variety of activities, including (though not limited to) violence committed in the name of nationalist or separatist movements in Xinjiang and Tibet, political campaigns by the Communist Party of China, and in some cases, non-violent acts of political or religious defiance. In contemporary China, violent acts of terrorism are comparatively rare. Many instances of terrorism by non-state actors involve the Uyghur ethnic group in Northwest China.

Etymology and use

There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the proper definition of "terrorism". In a general sense, terrorism can be understood to refer to the use of unlawful violence, force, or threat against civilian populations for the purpose of invoking fear, with of objective of advancing a political, social, or ideological objective. The term terrorism traces its origins to the “Reign of Terror’’ during the French Revolution, and referred to the systematic use of terror by governments against their citizens. Beginning in the 1800s, the term took on new meaning. Terrorist tactics were embraced by Marxist and anarchist radicals as a means of fomenting revolution, and the term increasingly came to denote the use of terror by civilians, typically with the objective of challenging the state or state policies. In the modern context, the term “terrorism” is used almost exclusively to refer to non-state actors.

International law differentiates between acts of terrorism—which are intended to deliberately harm or induce terror in innocent civilians—and acts of political opposition. Even the use of violence against a ruling regime as part of an anti-colonial or secessionist movement is not necessarily categorized as terrorism, though individual state's definitions of terrorism may vary to include a wider range of activities.

Chinese cultural context

The concept of terrorism, as it evolved and is understood in the West, did not exist in imperial China. In that setting, political criminality took the form as violence against the emperor, and was viewed as harmful insofar as it induced fear and caused “chaos.” With the exception of “good” political violence against rulers whose lack of propriety and virtue resulted in loss of the mandate of heaven, violence was seen as contrary to human nature and the Tao. Kam Wong argues that the dynamics of imperial China form the basis for contemporary Chinese understandings of terrorism.

Fear of chaos and social disorder is a powerful factor in mobilizing political will to combat potential threats. In the modern context, any group or force with the potential to challenge the existing social order or the political security of the rulers may be considered a form of terrorism, “to be condemned unrelentingly and suppressed at all costs.”

There is currently no clearly established definition for terrorism, though the National People's Congress is in the process of drafting legislation that would clarify the use of the term. The draft legislation as reported by Xinhua News Agency, classified as terrorism acts that "cause or aim to cause severe harm to society by causing casualties, bringing about major economic losses, damaging public facilities or disturbing social order." Human rights groups charge that the term is frequently applied to non-violent dissidents in China.

State terrorism

See State Terrorism, not to be confused with State-sponsored terrorism

Although contemporary definitions of terrorism most often apply to the actions of sub-state actors, both the historical interpretation of the term as well as some contemporary scholarship allow for actions of the state to be classified as terrorism. University of California Santa Barbara professor and terrorism expert Michael Stohl argues that "the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents,” but also stresses the need to differentiate between state violence and terrorism: “in terrorism the violence threatened or perpetrated has purposes broader than simple physical harm to a victim. The audience of the act or threat of violence is more important than the immediate victim."

Following the Communist Party takeover of China in 1949, several political campaigns under Mao Zedong were labelled as forms of state terror. A 1951 article in Time magazine labelled the mass executions of “counterrevolutionaries” as a new ‘Red Terror’. Of the Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns of 1951, Jean-Louise Margolin wrote that the term “Red Terror” was fitting, as the essential function of these campaigns was “to demonstrate to the urban elite that no one was safe.” The definition of counterrevolutionary “was so vague and so wide that any past or current position that diverged even slightly from the Party line was enough to bring condemnation.” Individuals labelled counterrevolutionaries were subject to imprisonment, interrogation, or public execution. In his book Mao's Great Famine, historian Frank Dikötter described the use of terror and violence as the “foundation of the regime” under Mao, reaching an apogee during the Great Leap Forward. Violence was “arbitrary and ruthless,” widespread enough to evoke fear in everyone, but not necessarily claiming many lives—an example of "killing the chicken to scare the monkey." The use of terror and systematic violence became more important as a policy implement during the Great Leap Forward; with individual incentives to work eliminated through collectivization policies, cadres relied on violence and the threat of starvation to meet production quotas.

The Cultural Revolution is also frequently described as a campaign of "mass terror", during which the Communist Party encouraged what Gus Martin calls “an ideologically extremist movement.” The campaign, which spanned 1966 to 1976, aimed to eliminate “revisionist” tendencies, and involved large-scale purges, denunciations, and killing of suspected counterrevolutionaries. At least 36 million people were persecuted, and estimates on deaths typically range from 400,000 to 1 million, with some estimates of 3 million. Some of the worst excesses of the period occurred during the three-month "Red Terror" period of 1966, during which Mao encouraged young Red Guards to make violent revolution. According to Suzanne Ogden, the Cultural Revolution was “state-directed terrorism against the alleged enemies of the regime,” involving the “state-sanctioned use of violence against civilians and property for politically motivated objectives.” The terror of the period was enhanced by the arbitrary and unpredictable manner in which violence as “mass justice” was carried out.

Ethnic Separatism

Xinjiang

Most instances of terrorism by non-state actors in contemporary China involve members of the largely Muslim Uyghur ethnic group, who are concentrated in the Northwestern province of Xinjiang. According to Suzanne Ogden, only six incidents in China from 1990 to 2005 were clear cases of terrorism, most involving confirmed or suspected ethnic Uyghurs. Among these was an incident on 6 February 1992 when Muslim separatists (possibly belonging to the East Turkestan Islamic Party) detonated a bomb on a public bus in Urumqi, and a bomb attack on a hotel in Kashgar on 17 June 1992. Instances of violence by ethnic Uyghurs against security forces, organs or infrastructure of the state are far more common, but are distinguished by scholars from terrorism aimed against the civilian population Chinese government authorities make no such distinction, and are often inclined to categorize all forms of violence in Xinjiang as manifestations of separatism or terrorism.

Uyghur terrorism is not seen as an extension of global Islamic terrorism, nor is it religiously motivated. Instead, it is best understood as part of an ethno-nationalistic secessionist movement. For centuries, the region now known as Xinjiang was ruled on and off by China. From 1944 to 1949, the Uyghurs established the East Turkestan Islamic Republic, and fought numerous armed revolts against Chinese rule before coming under the control of Beijing in 1955 Throughout their history, the Uyghurs have resisted assimilation to Han Chinese culture, and identify more closely with the cultures of Central Asia. Uyghur violence and the desire for independence largely stems from resentment over restrictions to religious freedom, political repression and discrimination, ethnic conflict with the ethnic Han population, and ineffective leadership by Han cadres. Resentment is exacerbated by income disparities between ethnic Han and Uyghurs, nuclear missile testing in the region, and concerns that the government in Beijing is exploiting Xinjiang’s natural resource wealth.

Most Uyghurs desire greater autonomy and political participation, with a smaller number seeking the restoration of an independent state or union with the Turkic ethnic groups of Central Asia. Some groups have adopted violent tactics in pursuit of these goals, and outbreaks of ethnic violence in Xinjiang are not uncommon. Groups identified in Chinese government documents as having involvement in violent attacks include the East Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), East Turkistan Liberation Organization (ETLO), United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET), and the Uyghur Liberation Organization (ULO). There are unconfirmed reports of Uyghurs operating within terrorist cells in Central Asia, but no definitive proof.

Tibet

Many Tibetans desire greater cultural and political autonomy, if not full independence, and outbreaks of violent clashes with authorities in the region do occur intermittently. However, Tibetans seldom resort to acts of terrorism. Susan Ogden credits this, in part, to the swift and brutal response from authorities against manifestations of political violence or opposition in Tibet. As a consequence, most Tibetans have adopted a pragmatic, incremental approach to seeking change. The teachings of Buddhism—and of the Dalai Lama in particular—also discourage violence. Nonetheless, there are segments of the Tibetan population who disagree with the Dalai Lama's exhortations against violence, and view violent opposition as the only viable route towards independence.

Terrorism in contemporary China

Legal definition and use

Under China's criminal law, acts of terrorism can carry a prison sentence of up to ten years. Since 2001, over 7,000 Chinese citizens have been convicted on terrorism charges. However, the law does not clearly define what constitutes a terrorist organization or activity. In October 2011, Chinese authorities began crafting a bill that would more clearly define terrorism. According to the state-run Xinhua News Agency, the draft bill defines terrorist acts as those that are intended "induce public fear or to coerce state organs or international organisations by means of violence, sabotage, threats or other tactics...These acts cause or aim to cause severe harm to society by causing casualties, bringing about major economic losses, damaging public facilities or disturbing social order." Human rights and international law experts have raised concerns over the implications of the bills in light of the lack of judicial independence in the People's Republic of China. A representative of Human Rights Watch was reported as saying “strengthening law enforcement powers without appropriate judicial checks and balances is dangerous,” and further noted that it was unclear how and by whom organizations and individuals would be designated as terrorists.

Organizations designated as terrorists

The Ministry of Public Security issued a list of what it considers terrorist organizations on 15 December 2003. These include the Eastern Turkestan Islamic Movement, the East Turkestan Liberation Organization, the World Uyghur Youth Congress, and the East Turkistan Information Center. The Ministry further named eleven individuals as terrorists.

The World Uyghur Youth Congress and East Turkistan Information Center are both non-government organizations based in Germany which, according to Uyghur groups, mainly serve to report information. Chinese government sources say that The Eastern Turkestan Islamic Movement has carried out over 200 terror operations since 1990, and allege the group has ties to al-Qaeda, though they have not produced evidence to support the claim. Chinese authorities have pressured other countries and multilateral organizations to ban the listed organizations as terrorist groups.

The "Three Evils"

The government of the People's Republic of China identifies terrorism as one of "Three Evils" which also include separatism and religious fundamentalism. These forces are seen by Beijing as inter-connected threats to social stability and national security. In particular, terrorism is viewed as a violent manifestation of ethnic separatism, and separatism is understood as a corollary of religious zealotry. Chien-peng Chung writes that the authorities' view of the three evils "means that the root causes of terrorism - religious freedom, cultural autonomy, living standards, and political rights of ethnic minorities - are not addressed directly or earnestly enough by the Chinese authorities." The unspoken source of ethnic strife "is the discriminatory practices in the execution of minority policies of the PRC government, even assuming the purest intent."

Chronology of major events

Following is a partial list of events that have been described as terror attacks or attempted terror attacks by non-state actors in the People's Republic of China. Due to variations in the definitions and applications of the term, the characterization of some events as terrorist attacks may be disputed. In many instances, reports of violence or terror attacks could not be confirmed independently. Foreign journalists have extremely limited access to Xinjiang, and are closely monitored if and when they gain permission to report in the region. As such, foreign reporting on incidents on Xinjiang necessarily relies on information released by the government of China or in the state-run press. In several instances, conflicting narratives of these have emerged from witnesses or from Uyghur groups overseas.

Counter-terrorism

Domestic counter-terrorism

International cooperation

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Kyrgyzstan

The Chinese and Kyrgyz governments increased security along their borders with each other and Tajikistan on 11 January 2007 after Chinese government officials expressed concern that "international terrorists" were traveling through Xinjiang and Central Asia to carry out attacks. The warning followed a high-profile raid on a training camp in Akto County, Xinjiang run by East Turkestan Islamic Movement members. General Sadyrbek Dubanayev, deputy chief of Kyrgyzstan's border guards, said, "After the announcement of the special operation by the Chinese side, we briefed everyone and then Kyrgyzstan and China decided to increase security along the border."

Afghanistan

Chinese Communist Party leader Jia Qinglin said on 22 January 2007, "China appreciates Afghanistan's valuable support on such issues concerning China's core interests as Taiwan, human rights and fighting 'East Turkestan' terrorists." Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Liu Jianchao said, "There should not be double standards in counterterrorism. At the same time, no country wants to see another Al Qaeda in China."

Kazakhstan

The Government of Kazakhstan has consistently extradited Uyghur terrorist suspects to China and in 2006 participated in a large-scale, joint counter-terrorism drill.

Chinese President Hu Jintao led a 150-person delegation to Kazakhstan on 2 July 2005 after visiting Moscow, Russia for four days. The Chinese Government issued a press release saying the Chinese-Kazakh energy and security "relationship deepens constantly." Upon arriving Hu met with President Nazarbayev in an official ceremony. They discussed anti-terrorism, energy, and transportation.

The Governments of China and Kazakhstan held an anti-terror drill, known as the "Tian-Shan-1-2006" drill, from 24–26 August 2006, starting in Almaty, Kazakhstan and ending in Xinjiang, China through the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The drill is the first time China and Kazakhstan have held anti-terrorism maneuvers. The Collective Security Treaty Organization held exercises in the Caspian Sea simultaneously.

The simulation lasted for three days and involved Kazakh forces from border patrol, the Interior Ministry, and the Emergency Situations Ministry, and Chinese law enforcement forces and security services. 700 police officials used armed helicopters and anti-riot vehicles to force the 'enemy' into a narrow valley along the border of Kazakhstan and Xinjiang, China after rescuing 'hostages'. About 100 observers from other SCO nation-members attended the exercises. The first day of exercises began in Almaty and ended in Yining, a city in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. When officials of Radio Free Europe contacted the Foreign and Defense Ministries of both nations, inquiring about the exercises, Islam Dosmailuly, a spokesman for Kazakhstan's National Security Committee, told them he did not "know if will or not. I'm waiting for information. If gets here, we'll certainly comment on it. But, for now, I have no information." Xinhua reported that the policemen practiced freeing hostages.

Some analysts said the simulation practiced securing the Atasu-Alashankou pipeline, which sends petroleum from Kazakhstan to refineries in Xinjiang. Kazakhstan sends about 3.5 million tons through the pipeline annually and wants to increase output to 20 million tons.

Konstantin Syroyezhkin, a senior analyst at Kazakhstan's Strategic Studies and Research Institute, said "there are many common threats and these are already. There is drug trafficking, immigration, and religious extremism and political extremism. There are a number of threats. And these are counter-terrorism exercises, international terrorism. Why should they not hold them? Look, there's a mess in Afghanistan; there must be some mutual cooperation in that matter. And anyway, it is not the first time they have held such exercises. Last year, or before last year, it was organized as a planned maneuver, there is nothing suspicious about that." Kazakhstan has held joint counter-terrorism exercises with NATO under the Partnership for Peace program and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Meng Hongwei, Chinese Vice-Minister of Public Security and commander of the Chinese troops for the drill, warned that the "three evil forces" of terrorism, separatism and extremism and increasing cross-border drug trafficking were affecting the region. Vice-Minister Hongwei said, "the exercise will help establish the SCO's active role in maintaining regional security and stability." SCO nation-members plan to hold another another series of anti-terrorism exercises in Russia in 2007. Vladimir Boshko, first vice-chairman of the Committee of the National Security of Kazakhstan, said the drill would improve anti-terror cooperation among SCO nation-members.

India

The Delhi summit on security took place on 14 February 2007 with the foreign ministers of China, India, and Russia meeting in Hyderabad House, Delhi, India to discuss terrorism, drug trafficking, reform of the United Nations, and the security situations in Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, and North Korea.

The Indian Foreign Ministry released a statement on behalf of all three governments saying, "We shared our thoughts on the political, economic and security aspects of the global situation, the present world order and recent developments in various areas of mutual concern. We agreed that co-operation rather than confrontation should govern approaches to regional and global affairs. There was coincidence of views against terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and on the need to address financing of terrorism and its linkages with narco-trafficking."

See also

• Terrorism in Central Asia
• Terrorism in Russia
• Crime in the People's Republic of China

References

1. ^ Chung Chien-peng. "Confronting Terrorism and Other Evils in China: All Quiet on the Western Front?. In China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, Volume 4 Issue 2, pp 75–87. Accessed 2 January 2010.
2. ^ Gus Martin, "Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues," (Sage Publications: 2003), ISBN 978-0761926160.
3. ^ Ogden, Suzanne. "Inoculation against Terrorism in China" in William J. Crotty ed. Democratic development and political terrorism: the global perspective. Northeaster, 2005.
4. Williamson, Myra (2009). Terrorism, war and international law: the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001. Ashgate Publishing. p. 38. ISBN 9780754674030.
5. Schmid, Alex P. (2011). "The Definition of Terrorism". The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 0-203-82873-9.
6. Martha Crenshaw, “Terrorism in context,” (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), ISBN-10: 0271010150.
7. Williamson, Myra (2009). Terrorism, war and international law: the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001. Ashgate Publishing. p. 38. ISBN 9780754674030.
8. ^ Kam V. Wong, “Police Practices in Global Perspective,” John Eterno ed., (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011).
9. ^ Martin I. Wayne, “China’s war on terrorism: counter-insurgency, politics, and internal security,” (New York, NY: Routeledge, 2008), p 53.
10. ^ BBC News, China draft bill defines terrorism amid 'real threat', 25 October 2011.
11. Amnesty International, "People’s Republic Of China: Uighurs Fleeing Persecution As China Wages Its ‘War On Terror’", 7 July 2004.
12. The Superpowers and International Terror Michael Stohl, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Atlanta, March 27-April 1, 1984).
13. Stohl, National Interests and State Terrorism, The Politics of Terrorism, Marcel Dekker 1988, p.275
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15. Time magazine, “China:Reign of Terror”, 16 April 1951.
16. ^ Jean-Louise Margolin, “China:A Long March Into Night,” in The Black Book of Communism (Harvard University Press, 2004), p 482.
17. ^ Frank Dikötter, “Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe,” (New York, NY: Walker Publishing Company, 2010).
18. ^ Roderick MacFarquhar and Mitch Schoenhals, “Mao’s Last Revolution”, (Harvard University Press, 2008).
19. ^ University of Maryland Minorities at Risk Project, “Chronology for Turkmen in China”.
20. ^ James Millward, "Violent Separatism in Xinjiang:A Critical Assessment", East-West Center, Foreign Studies 6, 2004.
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23. "China identifies Eastern Turkistan terrorist organizations, terrorists". GlobalSecurity.org. 16 December 2003. Retrieved 2 January 2010. BEIJING, 15 Dec. (Xinhuanet) – China's Ministry of Public Security Monday issued a list of the first batch of identified "Eastern Turkistan" terrorist organizations and 11 members of the groups. This is the first time China issued a list of terrorist organizations and terrorists.
24. ^ British Broadcasting Corporation, "China issues 'terrorist' list", 15 December 2003.
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26. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, Terrorism and the Olympics, New York Times, 29 May 2008.
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29. ^ "Bomb at Government Offices Wounds 5 in Tibetan Capital". The New York Times. 30 December 1996. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
30. ^ Hilton, Isabel (2001). The Search for the Panchen Lama. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 295.
31. "Bomb Explodes outside Lhasa Party Headquarters". Tibet Information Network. 22 March 1996. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
32. Buckley, Michael (2006). Tibet. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 133.
33. Poole, Teresa (30 December 1996). "Tibetan activists set off Lhasa bomb". The Independent. UK. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
34. ^ British Broadcasting Service, China 'anti-terror' raid kills 18, 8 January 2007.
35. ^ Ben Blanchard, China foils attempted terror attack on flight, Reuters, 9 March 2008.
36. Geoffrey York, Olympic terror plot foiled, Beijing says, The Globe and Mail, 10 March 2008.
37. Report: China thwarts two terrorist attacks CNN
38. Parry, Richard Lloyd (11 August 2008). "China's Uighur rebels switch to suicide bombs". The Sunday Times. UK. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
39. ^ Moore, Malcolm (10 August 2008). "China beefs up security in Kuqa after new terror attack". The Daily Telegraph. Urumqi. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
40. "Blasts, gunfire kill at least eight in China's far west (2nd roundup)". Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 10 August 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
41. David Barboza, Blast Kills 7 in Restive Chinese Region, New York Times, 19 August 2010.
42. Reuters, China detains four over attack on Xinjiang police, 25 August 2010.
43. ^ Olesen, Alexa (19 July 2011). Associated Press China says 14 extremists killed in Xinjiang attack http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2015665074_apaschinaxinjiang.html China says 14 extremists killed in Xinjiang attack. Retrieved 29 July 2011. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
44. The Economist, http://www.economist.com/node/21524940 “Let them shoot hoops”], 30 July 2011.
45. ^ . BBC News. 8 September 2011 Islamic militant group 'behind Xinjiang attacks' http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14834042 Islamic militant group 'behind Xinjiang attacks'. Retrieved 8 October 2011. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
46. BBC, “China: Unrest in Kashgar, Xinjiang, leaves 15 dead”, 31 July 2011.
47. Michael Wines, “Deadly Violence Strikes Chinese City Racked by Ethnic Tensions”, New York Times, 31 July 2011.
48. Cheng, Yongsun; Yu, Xiaodong (2011). "The Bloody Weekend". News China: 23–25. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
49. Zenn, Jacob (2 September 2011). Kashgar: Asia Times Catch-22 of Xinjiang as a gateway http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/MI22Ad02.html Catch-22 of Xinjiang as a gateway. Retrieved 9 October 2011. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
50. China: Border security tightened amid 'terrorist infiltration' warning RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
51. Terrorism a 'core' issue for China New Kerala
52. Kazakhstan exacerbates "religious threat" by maneuvering between Beijing and Washington Jamestown Foundation
53. ^ Kazakstan Joins China on Counter-Terror Exercise Uyghur American Association
54. China's Hu Arrives In Kazakhstan To Talk Terrorism Space War
55. ^ China/Kazakhstan: Forces Hold First-Ever Joint Terrorism Exercises Uyghur American Association
56. China and Kazakhstan hold war games Global Research Center for Research on Globalization
57. China, Kazakhstan hold anti-terrorism drill The Boston Globe
58. ^ Anti-terror drill targets '3 evil forces' Uygur American Association
59. ^ 'Big three' hold key Delhi talks BBC News
60. Foreign Ministers of India, China, Russia meet to take forward strategic ties New Kerala

External links

• NAPSNet Daily Report Northeast Asia Peace and Security Network
• Senior Chinese official issues Bush rebuke
• China's terror list and its implications
• Explosions in Xinjiang
• Pakistan hands over Muslim separatist leader-China
• Al-Qaeda's China problem
• China's Post 9/11 Terrorism Strategy
• Five Lessons from China's War on Terror
• Violent Separatism in Xinjiang

• Terrorism in China
• Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
• Terrorism by country