Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 16:53, 21 August 2012

This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (August 2012)

Syrian civil war
Part of the Arab Spring
File:قسم متظاهري إدلب جمعة متظاهري حماة (Idlib protesters).jpg Demonstration in Idlib
Date 15 March 2011 (2011-03-15) – ongoing (13 years, 9 months and 2 weeks) Location Syria Status ongoing conflict
Belligerents
Syrian Arab Republic Syrian Armed Forces Syrian Army Syrian Navy Syrian Air Force Republican Guard General Security Directorate Political Security Directorate Shabiha File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg Hezbollah Political, economic and/or military support:  Iran  Russia	Syrian opposition Free Syrian Army Syrian Liberation Army Liwaa Al-Umma Economic and military support:  Turkey  Saudi Arabia  Qatar  United States (coordination of weapons supply and tactical advice)  United Kingdom (communications equipment and intelligence) Mujahideen Al-Nusra Front to Protect the Levant al-Qaeda in Iraq Fatah al-Islam Ahrar al-Sham Sukur al-Sham Kurdish Supreme Committee Popular Protection Units Military support from: Iraqi Kurdistan Peshmerga
Commanders and leaders
Bashar al-Assad President of Syria Wael Nader al-Halqi Prime Minister Fahd Jassem al-Freij Minister of Defense Dawoud Rajiha † Minister of Defense (August 2011 – July 2012) Ali Abdullah Ayyoub Chief of Army Staff Maher al-Assad (WIA) Republican Guard Commander Namir al-Assad Shabiha leader Assef Shawkat † Deputy Defense Minister (September 2011 – July 2012) Ali Mamlouk National Security Minister Rustum Ghazaleh Political Security Directorate Mohammad al-Shaar (WIA) Interior Minister Walid Muallem Foreign Affairs and Expatriates Minister Hisham Bekhityar † Intelligence head (until July 2012) Hassan Turkmani † Deputy Vice President (until July 2012)	Abdulbaset Sieda Syrian National Council (SNC) Chairman Burhan Ghalioun Former SNC Chairman (August 2011 – June 2012) Riad al-Asaad Free Syrian Army Commander Mustafa al-Sheikh Higher Military Council Head Ali al-Bayanouni Muslim Brotherhood Leader Haitham al-Maleh Council of Syrian Revolutionary Trustees Head Abdul Razzaq Tlass Farouq Battalion Commander Abdul Halim Khaddam Vice President of Syria (March 1984– June 2005) File:Liwaa Al-Umma logo.png Mahdi al-Harati Liwaa Al-Umma commander (Libyan volunteer) Abu Muhammad al-Julani Al-Nusra Front leader Salih Muslim Kurdish Democratic Union Party Head Abdul Hakim Bashar Kurdish National Council Head
Strength
Syrian Armed Forces: 304,000 (at peak) General Security Directorate: 8,000 Shabiha militiamen: 10,000 fighters	40,000–60,000 fighters 18,000–30,000 defectors File:Liwaa Al-Umma logo.png 6,000 Liwaa Al-Umma fighters (including 600 foreigners) 500–900 foreign Mujahideen
Casualties and losses
Syrian security forces 5,923 soldiers and policemen killed, 97 militiamen killed File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg Hezbollah 147 allegedly killed Iranian Basij 85 allegedly killed	Syrian rebels and protesters 5,634 fighters* (see here) and 979–1,837 protesters killed, 28,080 protesters and fighters captured Foreign Mujahideen 38 killed
23,337–23,442 Syrians killed overall (opposition claims)** 265 foreign civilians (see here) and 2 Turkish F4 Phantom pilots killed 1.5 million displaced and refugees
Number possibly higher due to the opposition counting rebels that were not defectors as civilians. **Numbers do not include foreign combatants from both sides or Shabiha militiamen who have been killed.

The Syrian civil war, also referred to as the Syrian uprising, is an ongoing internal armed political conflict in Syria. The conflict began on 15 March 2011 with public demonstrations as part of the wider Arab Spring and developed into a nationwide uprising, and a civil war in 2012. Protesters have demanded the end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule, as well as the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad.

In the spring of 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising. Several cities have been besieged, and soldiers were reportedly ordered to open fire on civilians. According to witnesses, soldiers who refused to open fire on civilians were summarily executed by the Syrian Army. Civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, and unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army, fighting in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacks an organized leadership. The Syrian government characterizes the insurgency as "armed terrorist groups". The argument that the opposition should negotiate with the regime about reform was never popular because of the regime's rejection of compromise and its record of detaining critics.

According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 23,335–30,850 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 11,930 armed combatants consisting of both the Syrian army and rebel forces and up to 1,840 opposition protesters. According to the UN, about 1.5 million Syrians have been displaced within the country. To escape the violence, tens of thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Iraqi Kurdistan, Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey. Iraq has closed its border to Syrian refugees, while no Syrian refugees have yet arrived at the Israeli border. In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned, and there have been reports of widespread torture in the government's prisons. International organizations have also accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields, of intentionally targeting civilians and of adopting a scorched earth policy. Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha, and soldiers. HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals. The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature, and also has documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible for displacement of civilians.

The Arab League, United States, European Union, GCC states and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters. China and Russia have opposed attempts to agree to a UN resolution condemning Assad's actions, and advised against sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis, but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis. A further attempt to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan as a special envoy. U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon had repeatedly stated that the Syrian conflict could emerge into an "all-out civil war".

On 15 July 2012 the International Committee of the Red Cross assessed the Syrian conflict as a "non-international armed conflict" (the ICRC's legal term for civil war), thus applying the international humanitarian law under the Geneva Conventions in Syria.

Background

History

Part of a series on
Ba'athism
Organizations Arab Ba'ath 1940–1947 Arab Ba'ath Movement 1940–1947 Ba'ath Party 1947–1966 Baath Party (pro-Iraqi) 1968–2003 Baath Party (pro-Syrian) 1966–present
Variants Neo-Ba'athism 1966–2024 Saddamism 1979–2003
People Zaki al-Arsuzi Michel Aflaq Salah al-Din al-Bitar Abdullah Rimawi Wahib al-Ghanim Fuad al-Rikabi Salah Jadid Hafez al-Assad Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Saddam Hussein Bashar al-Assad Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
Literature On the Way of Resurrection The Battle for One Destiny The Genius of Arabic in Its Tongue
History Ba'athist Iraq Ramadan Revolution November 1963 coup d'état 17 July Revolution 1979 Ba'ath Party Purge Iran–Iraq War Gulf War UN sanctions Iraq War De-Ba'athification Ba'athist Syria Syrian Committee to Help Iraq 1963 / 1966 coup d'états Corrective Revolution Intervention in Lebanon Syrian occupation of Lebanon Syrian civil war Fall of the Assad regime
Regional organizations Algeria pro-Iraq pro-Syria Bahrain pro-Iraq pro-Syria Egypt pro-Iraq pro-Syria Iraq pro-Iraq pro-Syria Jordan pro-Iraq pro-Syria Kuwait pro-Iraq Lebanon pro-Iraq pro-Syria Libya pro-Iraq Mauritania pro-Iraq pro-Syria Palestine pro-Iraq pro-Syria Sudan pro-Iraq pro-Syria Syria pro-Iraq pro-Syria Tunisia pro-Iraq pro-Syria Yemen pro-Iraq pro-Syria
Splinter groups Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party 1960–1962/63 Socialist Lebanon 1965–1970 Arab Revolutionary Workers Party 1966–present Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party 1970–present Sudanese Ba'ath Party 2002–present
Armed groups Arab Liberation Front Al-Awda Al-Abud Network Jeish Muhammad Rejectionists Snake Party Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation Naqshbandi Army General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries Free Iraqi Army
Related topics Arab nationalism Arab socialism Assadist-Saddamist conflict Nasserism Pan-Arabism Unity, Freedom, Socialism
Politics portal Socialism portal
v t e

Syria became an independent republic in 1946. In March 1949, democratic rule was overturned by an American-supported coup. Two more military coups took place that same year. A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 catalyzed a mutiny that saw the army transfer power to civilians. Free elections resulted in Shukri al-Quwatli, who had been the President at the time of the March 1949 coup, to be elected to that post in 1955. A brief union with Egypt in 1958 resulted in Syria's parliamentary system being replaced by a highly centralized presidential system. The union ended in 1961 with Syria's secession. A 1963 military coup d'état brought the Ba'ath Party to power, and was followed by another coup in 1966 which overthrew the traditional leaders of the party; Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. In 1970, then Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power and declared himself President, a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the Ba'ath Party has remained the sole authority in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by referendum and do not hold multi-party elections for the legislature. In 1982, at the height of a six-year Islamist insurgency throughout the country, Assad conducted a scorched earth policy against the town of Hama to quell an uprising by the Sunni Islamist community, including the Muslim Brotherhood and others. This became known as the Hama massacre, which left tens of thousands dead.

The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the 1999 Latakia protests, when violent protests and armed clashes erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother Rifaat. Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured. Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from pulmonary fibrosis. He was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.

Bashar al-Assad, who speaks fluent English and whose wife is British-born, initially inspired hopes for reform; a "Damascus Spring" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001. The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as Riad Seif, Haitham al-Maleh, Kamal al-Labwani, Riyad al-Turk and Aref Dalila were important in mobilizing the movement. The most famous of the forums were the Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience. Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist Michel Kilo collaborated with other leading opposition figures to launch the Damascus Declaration, which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, totalitarian and cliquish" and called for democratic reform.

Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas since 2004. That year, riots broke out against the government in the northeastern city of Qamishli. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised Kurdish flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and Arab groups, at least 30 people were killed, with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people. Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.

The al-Assad family comes from the minority Alawite sect, an offshoot of Shiite Islam that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the Syrian population. It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims, a sect that makes up about three quarters of Syria's population. Minority Kurds have also protested and complained. Bashar al-Assad initially asserted that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt. Bouthaina Shaaban, a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as Qatar-based Yusuf al-Qaradawi in a sermon in Doha on 25 March. According to The New York Times, the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother Maher al-Assad commands the army's Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, was the deputy minister of defense.

Socio-economics

Socio-economic complaints have been reported, such as a deterioration in the country's standard of living, a reduction of state support for the poor resulting from the gradual transition towards a free market economy, the erosion of subsidies for basic goods and agriculture, free trade without suitable support to the local industry, and particularly high youth unemployment rates.

Human rights

The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations. The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention. The Syrian government has justified this by pointing to the fact that the country has been in a continuous state of war with Israel. After taking power in 1970, Hafez al-Assad quickly purged the government of any political adversaries and asserted his control over all aspects of Syrian society. He developed an elaborate cult of personality and violently repressed any opposition, most notoriously in the 1982 Hama Massacre. After his death in 2000 and the succession of his son Bashar al-Assad to the Presidency, it was hoped that the Syrian government would make concessions toward the development of a more liberal society; this period became known as the Damascus Spring. However, al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from Human Rights Watch stating that he had failed to improve the state of human rights since taking power ten years prior. All other political parties have remained banned, thereby making Syria a one-party state without free elections.

Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled in Syria. The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and tortured in poor prison conditions. While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as Amazon, Facebook, Misplaced Pages and YouTube were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for high speed Internet, and those sites were allowed. However, a 2007 law requires Internet cafes to record all comments that users post on online chat forums.

In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen indicated a "new era" was coming to the Middle East, and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.

Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector. Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962, and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners" until 2011, when 120,000 out of roughly 200,000 stateless Kurds were granted citizenship on 6 April. Because the government is dominated by the Alawite sect, it has had to make some gestures toward the majority Sunni sects and other minority populations in order to retain power.

Uprising and civil war

Beginnings of protests

Before the uprising began in mid-March, protests were relatively modest in Syria, considering the wave of unrest that was spreading across the Arab world. Syria remained what Al Jazeera described in a report a “kingdom of silence,” due to strict security measures, a relatively popular president, religious diversity, and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like that seen in neighboring Iraq.

The events began on 26 January 2011, when Hasan Ali Akleh from Al-Hasakah poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the Syrian government". Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in Ar-Raqqah to protest the killing of two soldiers of Kurdish descent.

On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4-5 February on social media websites Facebook and Twitter; however, protests failed to materialize within the country itself. Hundreds marched in Al-Hasakah, but Syrian security forces dispersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators. A protest in late February at the Libyan Embassy in Damascus to demonstrate against the government of Muammar Gaddafi, facing his own major protests in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from Syrian police moving to disperse the demonstration against a friendly regime.

On 6 March young boys were arrested in the city of Daraa for writing the slogan "the people want to overthrow the regime," on walls across the city. The following day 13 political prisoners went on a hunger strike protesting "political detentions and oppression," in their country demanding the implementation of civil and political rights. Three days later dozens of Syrian Kurds started their own hunger strike in solidarity with these other strikers. During this time, Ribal al-Assad, a government critic, said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next domino in the burgeoning Arab Spring.

Revolt and escalating protests

The protests, unrest and confrontations began in earnest on 15 March, when the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria. In Damascus, a crowd of 150 was heard chanting “The revolution has started!”

On 16 March, some 200 people gathered in front of the Interior Ministry, calling for the release of political prisoners. Thousands of protesters gathered in al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and Hama. There were some clashes with security, according to reports from dissident groups. In Damascus, a smaller group of 200 men grew spontaneously to about 1,500 men. Damascus has not seen such uprising since the 1980s.

These events lead to a “Friday of Dignity” on 18 March, when large-scale protests broke out in several cities, including Banias, Damascus, al-Hassake, Daraa, Deir al-Zor and Hama. Police responded to the protests with tear gas, water canonons, beatings and even live ammunition. At least 6 people were killed and many others injured.Over the next few days the security forces broke up a silent gathering in Marjeh square in Damascus. The protest saw to 150 people holding up pictures of their family and friends who were imprisoned by the regime. Security forces also shot people dead in Daraa. This incident led to thousands taking to the streets calling for democracy. The security crackdown on these protesters led to several more days of protests and even more civilians shot dead by the security forces.

Increasingly, the city of Daraa became the focal point for the growing uprising, with large demonstrations day after day. This city has been straining under the influx of internal refugees who were forced to leave their northeastern lands due to a drought which was exacerbated by the government's lack of provision. Over 100,000 people reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed. Protests also spread to other Syrian cities, including Homs, Hama, Baniyas, Jassem, Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead.

Domestic response

Arrests and torture

Even before the uprising began, the Syrian government conducted numerous arrests of protestors, political activists and human rights campaigners, many of whom were labeled "terrorists" by al-Assad. In early Februrary, authorities arrested several activists, including businessman Ghassan al-Najar, leader of the Islamic Democratic movement, the writer Ali al-Abdallah, Abbas Abbas, from the Syrian Communist Party and several other political personalities of Kurdish background, such as Adnan Mustafa.

The police often responded to the protests violently, not only using water cannons and tear gas, but also beating protesters and firing live ammunition.

As the uprising began, the Syrian government waged a campaign of arrests that had caught tens of thousands of people, according to lawyers and activists in Syria and human rights groups. In response to the uprising, Syrian law had been changed to allow the police and any of the nation’s 18 security forces to detain a suspect for eight days without a warrant. After that, they need one, a requirement, some activists say, is routinely ignored even though it can be easily arranged. Arrests have focused on two groups: political activists, and men and boys from the towns that the Syrian Army has besieged or has retaken from the armed opposition.

Many of those detained experienced various forms of torture and ill-treatment. Many detainees were cramped in tight rooms and were given limited resources, and some were beaten, electrically jolted, or debilitated. At least 27 torture centers, run by Syrian intelligence agencies were revealed by Human Rights Watch on 3 July 2012.

Some of the prisoners were also subject to humiliation by anti-Islamist officers. One man who was detained for more than a month said that prisoners were often forced to kiss photographs of Mr. Assad or say that “There is no God but Bashar,” a riff on the Muslim declaration of belief “There is no god but God.” He also said they were forbidden to pray and were subjected to taunts against God and the Prophet Muhammad.

Concessions

On 15 February, Syrian state television announced that the government would hold a referendum on a new constitution on 26 February, in an attempt to end the conflict. One of the amendments in the draft would replace the old article 8, which entrenches the power of the Ba'ath party, with a new article reading: The state's political system is based on political pluralism and power is practiced democratically through voting. Syrians voted in favour of the new constitution on 26 February. Parliamentary elections were held in May after the ratification of the new constitution. After the elections, Mohammad Jihad al-Laham was elected as the new Syrian speaker of parliament.

On 16 February, government critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of Rifaat al-Assad and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power". In a 5 April interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war.

Starting in mid-March, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protesters. On 19 March 2011 by legislative decree 35, Assad shortened the length of mandatory army conscription from 21 months to 18 months. On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.

On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa. On 24 March, Assad's media adviser, Buthaina Shaaban, said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 Syrian pounds ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase press freedom, create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.

On 27 March, al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners. An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted, and Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari.

The government, dominated by the Alawite sect, also made some concessions to the majority Sunni and some minority populations in April. On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the niqab, and that the government had closed the country's only casino. Of the 200,000 descendants of Syrian Kurds denied citizenship in 1962, 120,000 who were labeled "foreigners" were granted citizenship.

On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law. Two days later, Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law, together with decrees abolishing the Supreme State Security Court and regulating the right to peaceful demonstration. On 30 April, Prime Minister Adel Safar announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.

Crackdown

In April 2011, just days after lifting the country’s decades-old state of emergency, Assad set off the first of what became a series of withering crackdowns, sending tanks into restive cities as security forces opened fire on demonstrators. In retrospect, the attacks appeared calculated to turn peaceful protests violent, to justify an escalation of force.

During April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, leading to at least 10 deaths. Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed. Tens of thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction did not prevent widespread protests in many Syrian cities. Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli and Homs. There were also protests in Douma and Harasta, suburbs of Damascus. Firing throughout the country resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloodiest day so far. Tanks and soldiers entered Daraa and Douma and the border with Jordan was also closed. According to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa. On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions against the Syrian government.

Human rights violations

The "vast majority" of human rights violations, including the international crimes, documented have been committed by the Syrian armed and security forces and their allied militia. Some violations are so serious, deliberate and systematic as to constitute crimes against humanity and war crimes. Human Rights Watch accused the Assad government of creating an "archipelago of torture centers". The key role in the repression, and particularly torture, is played by the mukhabarat: the Department of Military Intelligence, the Political Security Directorate, the General Intelligence Directorate, and the Air Force Intelligence Directorate.

In October, Amnesty International published a report showing that at least 30 Syrian dissidents living in Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, faced intimidation by Syrian embassy officials, and that in some cases, their relatives in Syria were harassed, detained and tortured. Syrian embassy officials in London and Washington, D.C. were alleged to have taken photographs and videos of local Syrian dissidents and sent them to Syrian authorities, who then retaliated against their families.

With regard to armed opposition groups, the UN accused them of: unlawful killing; torture and ill-treatment; kidnapping and hostage taking; and the use of children in dangerous non-combat roles.

Censorship of events

Since demonstrators began calling for Assad's ouster in March, the regime has imposed a blackout on independent news coverage, barring foreign reporters from entering and reporting freely, and detaining and attacking local journalists who try to cover protests. Numerous journalists have gone missing or been detained without charge, and many said they were tortured in custody. International media have relied heavily on footage shot by citizen journalists in very dangerous conditions. Several journalists had been killed on duty. In its campaign to silence media coverage, the government disabled mobile phones, landlines, electricity, and the Internet. Authorities have routinely extracted passwords of social media sites from journalists through beatings and torture. The pro-government online group the Syrian Electronic Army has frequently hacked websites to post pro-regime material, and the government has been implicated in malware attacks targeted at those reporting on the crisis.

In August 2011, Syrian security forces attacked the country's best-known political cartoonist, Ali Farzat, a noted critic of Syria's government and its crackdown. Relatives of the severely beaten humorist told Western media that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat, who recently celebrated his 60th birthday, was hospitalized with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head. Also, government loyalists have been blamed for cutting the vocal chords of poets and other censorship crimes of this nature.

Protests and military sieges

As protests continued, the Syrian government used tanks and snipers to force people off the streets. Water and electricity were shut off in the city of Daraa, and security forces began confiscating flour and food. A similar situation was reported in Homs. In May, the Syrian army entered the cities of Baniyas, Hama, Homs, Talkalakh, Latakia, the Al-Midan and Douma districts of Damascus, and several other towns.

Baniyas was besieged in early May, and divided into zones of de facto control, with protesters largely controlling the south and security forces enforcing the laws of the government in the north. Major demonstrations saw nearly 20 deaths on 6 May, and the government said 11 soldiers were shot by "armed groups" on the same day. The violent suppression of protests in Homs, Daraa, and other rebellious cities continued throughout the month. A 17 May report of claims by refugees coming from Telkalakh on the Lebanese border indicated that sectarian attacks may have been occurring. Sunni refugees said that uniformed Alawite Shabiha militiamen were killing Sunnis in the town of Telkalakh. The reporter also stated that according to arms dealers, "sales of black market weapons in Lebanon have skyrocketed in recent weeks driven almost entirely by demand in Syria."

Early June, the Syrian government said more than 20 Syrian demonstrators were shot dead at the Golan Heights by Israeli forces, when trying to cross the cease-fire line during Naksa Day demonstrations. This was perceived by Israelis as a way for the Syrian government to divert attention from the Syrian unrest by allowing demonstrators to reach all the way to the Golan Heights. The army also besieged the northern cities of Jisr ash-Shugur and Maarat al-Numaan near the Turkish border. The Syrian Army claimed the towns were the site of mass graves of Syrian security personnel killed during the uprising and justified the attacks as operations to rid the region of "armed gangs", though local residents claimed the dead Syrian troops and officers were executed for refusing to fire on protesters. The siege of Daraa continued in the meantime, with a French journalist reporting famine-like conditions in the town. On 20 June, in a speech lasting nearly an hour, in response to the demands of protesters and foreign pressure, Assad promised a "national dialogue" involving movement toward reform, new parliamentary elections, and greater freedoms. He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on a small number of "saboteurs". The speech received mixed reactions domestically and abroad and was largely dismissed by protesters. On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in Aleppo (Syria's second largest city) which were labeled the "Aleppo volcano".

In mid-July, pro-government protesters attacked the US and French embassies in Damascus, responding to those countries' support for the opposition. Attacks on protests continued throughout July, with government forces repeatedly firing at protesters and employing tanks against demonstrations, as well as conducting arrests. On 31 July, a siege of Hama escalated during a so-called "Ramadan Massacre", in which at least 136 people were killed and hundreds wounded when Syrian forces attacked demonstrators across the country, employing tanks, artillery and snipers. Most of the deaths occurred in Hama.

Formation of the Free Syrian Army

On 29 July, a group of defected officers announced the formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA), which would become the main opposition army. Composed of defected Syrian Armed Forces personnel and civilian volunteers, the rebel army seeks to remove Bashar al-Assad and his government from power. This began a new phase in the conflict, with more armed resistance against the government crackdown. The FSA would grow in size, to about 20,000 by December, and to an estimated 40,000 by June 2012.

On 23 August, a coalition of anti-government groups was formed, the Syrian National Council. The opposition, including the FSA, remained a fractious collection of political groups, longtime exiles, grass-roots organizers and armed militants, divided along ideological, ethnic or sectarian lines.

Syrian forces continued to bombard Hama in early August 2011, along with attacks in other cities and towns. On the first full weekend of Ramadan, the Arab League and several Gulf Cooperation Council member states led by Saudi Arabia broke their silence on the events in Syria to condemn the government's response. Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests.

On 14 August, fighting in Latakia continued as the Syrian Navy became involved in the military crackdown. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods. Up to 28 people were killed. Eight more civilians were killed elsewhere in the country. Throughout the next few days, the Siege of Latakia dragged on, with government forces and shabiha militia continuing to fire on civilians in the city, as well as throughout the country over the following days. On 30 August, during the first day of Eid ul-Fitr, thousands of people demonstrated in Homs, Daraa, and suburbs of Damascus. Nine people were killed when security forces fired on these demonstrations. Eid celebrations in the country were reportedly muted, with people trying to visit the graves of their loved ones being killed. Protests continued into the following months, with security forces and militia continuing to fire at demonstrators and raid towns and neighborhoods across the country.

Six months into the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remain largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests. The two cities central squares have seen rallies in the tens of thousands in support of Assad and his government. Analysts and even opposition activists themselves acknowledge that without mass participation in the protest movement from these two cities, the government will survive and avoid the fate of its counterparts in Egypt and Tunisia.

The first major confrontation between the FSA and the Syrian armed forces occurred in Rastan. From 27 September to 1 October, Syrian government forces, backed by tanks and helicopters, led a major offensive on the city of Rastan in Homs province, which had been under opposition control for a couple weeks. There were reports of large numbers of defections in the city, and the Free Syrian Army reported it had destroyed 17 armoured vehicles during clashes in Rastan, using RPGs and booby traps. The Harmoush battalion also reported that it killed 80 loyalist soldiers in fighting. A defected officer in the Syrian opposition claimed that over a hundred officers had defected as well as thousands of conscripts, although many had gone into hiding or home to their families, rather than fighting the loyalist forces. The Battle of Rastan between the government forces and the Free Syrian Army was the longest and most intense action up until that time. After a week of fighting, the FSA was forced to retreat from Rastan. To avoid government forces, the leader of the FSA, Col. Riad Asaad, retreated to the Turkish side of Syrian-Turkish border.

By the beginning of October, clashes between loyalist and defected army units were being reported fairly regularly. During the first week of the month, sustained clashes were reported in Jabal al-Zawiya in the mountainous regions of Idlib province. In mid-October, other clashes in Idlib governorate include the city of Binnish and the town of Hass in Idlib governorate near the mountain range of Jabal al-Zawiya. In late October, other clashes occurred in the northwestern town of Maarat al-Numaan in Idlib province between loyalists and defected soldiers at a roadblock on the edge of the town, and near the Turkish border, where 10 security agents and a deserter were killed in a bus ambush. It was not clear if the defectors linked to these incidents were connected to the Free Syrian Army.

In October, the Free Syrian Army began to get involved in the Siege of Homs, leading to heavy street fighting in several neighborhoods. During the early stages of the uprising, Homs was one of the most restless of all major cities. It experienced fierce crackdowns by security forces, as the protests began to evolve into an armed rebellion. Homs became what the opposition sometimes called the “Capital of the Revolution,” as the newly formed FSA began to gain ground and control of several quarters of the city.

Armed clashes and escalation

Throughout August, September, and October Syrian forces continued to suppress protests, with hundreds of killings and arrests reportedly having taken place. The crackdown continued into the first three days of November. On 3 November, the government accepted an Arab League plan that aims to restore the peace in the country. According to members of the opposition, however, government forces continued their suppression of protests. Throughout the month, there were numerous reports of civilians taken from their homes turning up dead and mutilated, clashes between loyalist troops and defectors, and electric shocks and hot iron rods being used to torture detainees.

The Arab Parliament recommended the suspension of Arab League member state Syria on 20 September 2011, over persistent reports of disproportionate violence against regime opponents and activists during the uprising. A vote on 12 November agreed to formally suspend Syria four days after the vote, giving Assad a last chance to avoid suspension. Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen voted against the motion, while Iraq abstained. Syria remained suspended as the Arab League sent in December a commission "monitoring" Syria's violence on protestors. By the end of January the Arab League suspended its monitoring mission in the country due to worsening conditions and rising violence across the country.

Since 14 November, fighting between armed rebels and security forces began to intensity in Daraa Governorate, in Syria's south. Rebels engaged in ambushes against Syrian soldiers, and security forces attempted raids on restless towns.

On 14 November, more than 70 people were killed across Syria as the army clashed with defectors and shot at civilians. Some 34 soldiers and 12 defectors were killed, along with 27 civilians.

Activists said security forces killed up to 70 army defectors on 19 December as they were deserting their military posts near the Turkish border. At least 30 other people died in other violence across the country, the activists said. If accurate, it would be one of the heaviest daily tolls of the entire revolt up until December.

On 23 December two suicide bombs hit two security facilities in Damascus, killing 30 civilians and soldiers. The government stated the attack "carried the blueprint of al-Qaeda", whereas opposition members blamed the government, and hinted that the government itself may have been behind the attacks to make its case to Arab League observers who arrived in the country only the day before. Government officials brought the advance team of Arab League observers to the scene to see the wreckage. Omar Idilbi, a member of the Syrian National Council thought the explosions "very mysterious because they happened in heavily guarded areas that are difficult to be penetrated by a car." Two days earlier, Lebanese authorities had warned that al-Qaeda members were entering Syria from North Lebanon.

January saw intense fighting in the opposition stronghold of Homs, as the opposition claimed to have gained control of 2/3 of the city. However, starting in 3 February, the Syrian army launched a major offensive to retake rebel-held neighborhoods in the city. In early March, weeks artillery bombardments and heavy street fighting, the Syrian army eventually captured the district of Baba Amr, a major rebel stronghold. The Syrian Army also captured the district of Karm al-Zeitoun by 9 March, before activists claimed that government forces killed 47 women and children. By the end of March, the Syrian army retook control of half a dozen districts, leaving them in control of 70 percent of the city.

On 1 February, Riad al-Asaad, commander of the Free Syrian army, claimed that "Fifty percent of Syrian territory is no longer under the control of the regime," and that half of the country was now effectively a no-go zone for the security forces. He said the morale of government troops was extremely low. "That’s why they are bombing indiscriminately, killing men, women and children," he said.

Protests have drifted abroad to the doorsteps of Syrian embassies. After the opposition had claimed that more than 200 people perished in the massacre in Homs on 2 February 2012, both Syrian and non-Syrian protesters in Cairo, Kuwait City, and London damaged their respective Syrian embassy.

In an attack on buildings used by Syrian military intelligence in Aleppo, at least 28 people died and 235 were injured on 10 February 2012. The Free Syrian Army, through colonel Arif Hamood, claimed responsibility for the attacks in an interview with France 24, saying mortars and RPGs had been used instead of car bombs as was initially reported. However, shortly thereafter another FSA leader, Riad al-Asaad, denied FSA involvement and asserted a false-flag conspiracy in which the Assad government is presented as the perpetrator of the attack on its own buildings. A correspondent for the Dutch public broadcaster NOS described the latter as an unlikely explanation for the attacks, pointing out that the FSA have earlier indicated that one of their targets is military intelligence, which they hold responsible for a major part of the violence against the opposition.

Ceasefire attempt

Kofi Annan's peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people. Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued. On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative. The peace plan practically collapsed by early June and the UN mission was withdrawn from Syria. Annan officially resigned on 2 August 2012.

Renewed fighting

Following the Houla massacre and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the cease fire practically collapsed towards the end of May 2012, as FSA began nation-wide offensives against the government troops. On 1 June, the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad vowed to crush an anti-regime uprising, after the rebel Free Syrian Army (FSA) announced that it was resuming "defensive operations."

On 2 June, 57 soldiers were killed in Syria, the largest number of casualties the military has suffered in a single day since the uprising broke out in mid-March 2011.

Since 5 June, the Syrian army has been battling rebels around the city of Latakia, using tanks and helicopter gunships.

On 6 June, 78 civilians were killed in the Al-Qubair massacre. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before pro-government militia, the Shabiha, moved in. The UN observers rushed to the village in a hope to investigate the alleged massacre but were met with a road-block and small arms fire before the village and were forced to retreat.

At the same time, the conflict has started moving into the two largest cities (Damascus and Aleppo) that the government claimed were being dominated by the silent majority, which wanted stability, not government change. In both places there has been a revival of the protest movement in its peaceful dimension. Shopkeepers across the capital staged a general strike and in several Aleppo commercial districts mounted a similar but smaller protest. This has been interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities has become weak.

On 22 June, a Turkish F-4 fighter jet was shot down by Syrian government forces. Both pilots were killed. Syria stated that it had shot the fighter down using anti-aircraft artillery near the village of Om al-Tuyour, while it was flying over Syrian territorial waters one kilometre away from land. Turkey's foreign minister stated the jet was shot down in international airspace after accidentally entering Syrian airspace, while it was on a training flight to test Turkey's radar capabilities. Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan vowed retaliation, saying: "The rules of engagement of the Turkish Armed Forces have changed ... Turkey will support Syrian people in every way until they get rid of the bloody dictator and his gang." Ankara acknowledged that the jet had flown over Syria for a short time, but said such temporary overflights were common, had not led to an attack before, and alleged that Syrian helicopters had violated Turkish airspace five times without being attacked and that a second, search-and-rescue jet had been fired at. Assad later expressed regret over the incident. In August 2012, reports appeared in some Turkish newspapers claiming that the Turkish General Staff had deliberately misinformed the Turkish government about the fighter's location when it was shot down. The reports said that a NATO command post at Izmir and a British base in Cyprus had confirmed that the fighter was shot down inside Syrian waters and that radar intelligence from U.S. forces had disproved any "accidentally entered Syrian waters" flightpath error. The General Staff denied the claims.

Attempts by the international community to agree a transitional government of national unity failed at the beginning of July after Russia insisted the agreement should not preclude Assad from being part of it. Syrian opposition groups rejected the UN-brokered peace plan, arguing that it was ambiguous and vowing not to negotiate with President Assad or members of his regime.

In early July, Manaf Tlass, a Brigadier General of the Republican Guard, defected from Syria, making him the highest-level military defector yet since the uprising began. Western diplomats said his flight is a sign of Assad's weakening inner circle. Nawaf al-Fares, the Syrian ambassador to Iraq who has sympathized with the opposition movement since it began in March 2011, defected to the opposition in mid-July 2012.

Battles of Damascus and Aleppo

By mid-July fighting had spread across the country. Acknowledging this, the International Committee of the Red Cross declared the conflict a civil war. Fighting in Damascus intensified, with a major rebel push to take the city.

On 18 July, Syrian Defense Minister Dawoud Rajha, former defense minister Hasan Turkmani, and the president's brother-in-law General Assef Shawkat were killed by a bomb attack in the city. The Syrian intelligence chief Hisham Bekhityar who was injured in the same explosion later succumbed to his wounds. Both the Free Syrian Army and Liwa al-Islam claimed responsibility for the assassination. The fate of the interior minister Mohammad Ibrahim al-Shaar was initially the subject of conflicting reports, variously reporting him as injured but alive, and dead. There were also rumors that President Assad may also have been injured in the attack due to his lack of recent public appearance, but days after images of the President since the attack surfaced. The assassinations were the first of such high-ranking members of Assad's elite in the 17-month revolt. In an interview later that month, General Mohammad Al-Zobi of the rebel forces stated that the explosion had been carried out using 15 kilos of explosives smuggled into the building, then detonated remotely.

On 19 July, Russia and China vetoed a U.N. resolution that would add sanctions against the Syrian government, showing again the divide in international opinion towards the conflict. Russia and China, who are major trade allies with Syria, want to see a more balanced resolution calling on both sides to equally halt violence. On the same day, Iraqi officials reported that the Free Syrian Army has gained control of all four border checkpoints between Syria and Iraq, increasing concerns of the safety of Iraqis trying to escape the violence in Syria. At one point during the day, almost all Internet access from Syria was cut off for a period of 40 minutes.

The conflict reached a decisive phase in late July. Government forces managed to break the rebel offensive on Damascus, by pushing out most of the opposition fighters. After this, the focus shifted to the battle for control of Aleppo.

On 25 July, multiple sources reported that the Assad government was using fighter jets to attack rebel positions in the cities of Aleppo and Damascus. On 1 August, the UN observers in Syria witnessed government fighter jets firing on rebels in Aleppo, the country’s largest city.

In early August, Army forces recaptured most of Aleppo’s Salaheddin district. Rebel attacks on Aleppo's airport and the main prison were also repelled.

Non-state parties in the conflict

Syrian National Council

The Syrian opposition met several times in conferences held mostly in Turkey and formed a National Council.

The Federation of Tenseekiet Syrian Revolution helped in the formation of a Transitional National Assembly on 23 August in Istanbul "to serve as the political stage of the Revolution of the Syrian people". The creation of the Syrian National Council was celebrated by the Syrian protestors since the Friday protest following its establishment was dubbed "The Syrian National Council Represents Me". The Syrian National Council gained the recognition of a few countries, including "sole legitimate interlocutor" by the United States. The SNC is said to have developed a debilitating democratic deficit, and some opposition actors on the ground in Syria subsequently refuse to work with it.

Free Syrian Army

In late July 2011, a web video featuring a group of uniformed men claiming to be defected Syrian Army officers proclaimed the formation of a Free Syrian Army (FSA). In the video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend protesters from violence by the state. Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA. The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 as of December 2011. Nir Rosen, who spent time with the FSA in Syria, claims the majority of its members are civilians rather than defectors, who had taken up arms long before the formation of the FSA was announced. He also stated they have no central leadership. The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fighting under the FSA's banner.

As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted guerilla-style tactics against security forces inside cities. Its primary target has been the shabiha militias. Most FSA attacks however are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to bring security reinforcements. Sometimes the vehicle occupants are taken as hostages, in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with roadside bombs or through hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted power lines and water mains in "retaliation against Hezbollah’s provocations." To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods rife with opposition, guarding streets while protests take place, and attacking shabiha members. However, the FSA engaged in street battles with security forces in Deir ez-Zor, Al-Rastan, and Abu Kamal. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor, and Daraa, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a no-fly zone. The Free Syrian Army numbers about 15,000 men according to a statement its leader Riad al-Asaad made on Al Jazeera, and he added that these were almost exclusively reserve troops that defected from the Syrian army, and thus were no match against the government's highly trained active-duty troops.

More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces have been killed, which the Syrian government states is due to "armed gangs" being among the protesters, yet the opposition blames the deaths on the government. Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the black market since the beginning of the protests. Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist. On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post. The main centers of unrest – Daraa near Jordan, where the uprising began, Talkalakh, Homs, Talbiseh, and Al-Rastan near Lebanon, and Jisr ash-Shugur near Turkey – have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.

In September 2011, the Syrian government claimed to have killed a total of 700 insurgents.

Daniel Byman believes the political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other, and thus uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism is crucial. The latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern. Others would say that part of Byman's analysis represents a failure to understand that the leadership within Syria is decentralised out of necessity, that this is a good thing, and that decentralisation is not the same thing as fragmentation, and certainly does not represent an absence of strong leadership. Whichever view one accepts, there are undeniably rivalries between different strands and disagreement between those advocating peaceful protests and those backing armed struggle.

Kurdish stance

Syrian Kurds represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic and social rights. Additionally, since 1962, they and their children had been denied Syrian nationality, a situation that led to other problems relating to personal status and an inability to seek employment in the public sector. When protests began, Assad's government, in an effort to try and neutralise potential Kurdish opposition, finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds. This concession on citizenship, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish underrepresentation in the Syrian National Council, has meant that Kurds have participated in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab counterparts. Consequently, violence and repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe. According to Ariel Zirulnick of the Christian Science Monitor, the Assad government "has successfully convinced many of Syria's Kurds and Christians that without the iron grip of a leader sympathetic to the threats posed to minorities, they might meet the same fate" as minorities in Lebanon and Iraq. In terms of a post-Assad Syria, Kurds reportedly desire a degree of autonomy within a decentralised state.

On 7 October 2011, prominent Kurdish rights activist Mishaal al-Tammo was assassinated when masked gunmen burst into his flat, with the Syrian government blamed for his death. At least 20 other civilians were also killed during crackdowns on demonstrations across the country. The next day, more than 50,000 mourners marched in Al-Qamishli to mark Tammo's funeral, and at least 14 were killed when security forces fired on them.

In 2012, several cities with large Kurdish populations, such as Qamishli and Al-Hasakah, began witnessing protests of several thousand people against the Syrian government, which responded with tanks and fired upon the protesters.

Senior Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) leader Cemil Bayik stated that if Turkey were to intervene against Assad, the PKK would fight on the Syrian side. The PKK's Syrian branch is alleged to be involved in the targeting of Kurds participating in the uprising.

In May 2012, a delegation of the Kurdish National Council of Syria (KNCS), a coalition of ten Syrian-Kurdish parties established in October 2011, was invited to Washington for talks. Amongst others the delegation met Robert Ford, the former U.S. ambassador to Syria.

On 15 June, it was reported that Kurds had helped government soldiers defeat FSA fighters in the town of Atma. However, head of Kurdish Democratic Party (PYD) Salih Muslim, whose militia now control much of Kurdish territories, claims that their group is not fighting on government side, but rather keeping the Kurdish territory out of FSA control in order to protect its citizens from Syrian army response. He also described Syrian regime as brutal, which won't leave Syria until it kills all Syrians.

On 19 July, Kurdish militias from Kurdish Democratic Union Party and Kurdish National Council forced out government forces from several areas, including town of Ayn al-Arab, or Kobanê in Kurdish. Kurdish militias then denied access of FSA whose fighters came upon hearing news of Kurdish victory, arguing that Kurds can take care of Kurdish areas alone. Nuri Brimo, spokesperson for the Kurdish Democratic Party announced that "liberation" of Kobane is beginning of battle for whole Syrian Kurdistan.

Shabiha

Shabiha (Template:Lang-ar; from the word شبح "ghost") have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad’s regime"; "gunmen loyal to Assad"; "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the regime." Some "shabiha" operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunni, however. Bassel al-Assad is reported to have created the secretive militia for the government in times of crisis.

According to a Syrian citizen, shabiha is a term that was used to refer to gangs involved in smuggling during the Syrian occupation of Lebanon: "They used to travel in ghost cars without plates; that's how they got the name Shabbiha. They would smuggle cars from Lebanon to Syria. The police turned a blind eye, and in return Shabbiha would act as a shadow militia in case of need". Witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region say that the shabiha have been intimately involved in the killing, looting and destruction.

Sectarianism

At the uprising's outset, some protesters reportedly chanted "Christians to Beirut; Alawites to the coffin". While many in the opposition view the conflict as a sectarian one, some have accused the government of fomenting sectarianism; in a TIME report, an anti-Assad activist claimed that the Syrian government had paid government workers to write anti-Alawite graffiti and chant sectarian slogans at opposition rallies. Alawites who have taken refugee to the coast and Alawite mountains as well as in Lebanon have also told journalists that they were offered money by the Syrian government to spread sectarianism through chants and graffiti. Due to Turkey's stance regarding the civil war, the government has been accused of persecuting Turkmens living in Syria.

The rising sectarianism feared against the Alawite community has led to speculation of a re-creation of the Alawite State as a safe haven for Asad and the leadership should Damascus finally fall. Latakia Governorate and Tartus Governorate both have Alawite majority population and historically made up the Alawite State that existed between 1920–1936. These areas have so far remained relatively peaceful during the Syrian civil war. The re-creation of an Alawite State and the breakup of Syria is however seen critically by most political analysts. King Abdullah II of Jordan has called this scenario the "worst case" for the conflict, fearing a domino effect of de-fragmentation of the country along sectarian lines with consequences to the wider region.

The reaction of Palestinians in Syria has been mixed: many just want to stay out of the situation, some (particularly younger people) have actively supported the protests, but the PFLP-General Command is widely accused of actively supporting the repression (Assad has sheltered the group for years). Due to this, six Palestinian officers were assassinated between January and June 2012.

The Global Post reported that Christians living in Aleppo started to arm themselves, often supplied by the Syrian Army. Christians feared the Islamists and the scenario that happend to the Christians in Iraq.

Foreign involvement

The Syrian conflict has been interpreted as part of a proxy war between Sunni states, such as Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar, who support the Sunni-led opposition, and Iran and Hezbollah in Lebanon, who support the Alawite-led government in Syria.

In February 2012 German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle warned that a proxy war in Syria could "cause a confrontation that drags in even Moscow and Beijing". Before his departure to the 2012 G8 Summit the Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev warned, that "actions, which undermine state sovereignty" may well end in "a full-blown regional war" and even the "use of nuclear weapons". Syrian state institutions are regime-centred, thus another Brookings scholar, citing post-invasion Iraq, cautioned against the goal of an immediate purge of all Ba'athists.

Reuters suggested that the prospect of British special forces entering Syria on the ground is growing, following unconfirmed reports from an Israeli website that SAS Commandos were conducting covert operations within Syrian territory, operating from Turkey on 26 June 2012. In July 2012, Switzerland ceased arms exports to the UAE after it emerged Swiss weapons were finding their way to opposition fighters. The Swiss decision came shortly after the UN human rights chief, Navi Pillay, called for an urgent stop to arms transfers to government and opposition forces so as to avoid "further militarisation" of the conflict. The director of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy had previously argued that, while "uncontrolled militarization will turn the Syrian uprising into a wider conflict that could draw in jihadis and other extremists from across the Muslim World", militarisation was inevitable, and so the US should help facilitate and guide it. Marc Lynch argued the opposite in February 2012, as the provision of weapons from Saudi Arabia and Qatar was being mooted: "It is unlikely that arms from the outside would come close to evening the balance of power, and would only invite escalations from Syrian regime forces". Lynch was correct: according to the Syrian National Council, the increasingly fierce air and artillery assaults by the government after March 2012 were intended to counter the improved weaponry, coordination and tactics among the opposition forces that arrived from Arab states via Turkey and US facilitation; in June, Amnesty International said the fighting during spring had escalated to "the level and intensity of a non-international armed conflict", while the UN's head of peacekeeping, Herve Ladsous said the country was now in a state of "civil war"; and in July, the head of the UN monitoring mission to Syria, General Robert Mood, warned that violence was reaching an "unprecedented level", as EU foreign policy chief, Catherine Ashton, noted the level of violence and number of casualties had risen to "unimaginable levels" over previous weeks. At a conference in Paris shortly afterward, Western and Sunni Arab countries nonetheless announced they were going to "massively increase" aid to the Syrian opposition. Opposition violence has reportedly alarmed some of the peaceful protesters and activists who first drove the uprising.

Support for the opposition

Turkey provided refuge for Syrian dissidents. Syrian opposition activists convened in Istanbul in May to discuss regime change, and Turkey hosts the head of the Free Syrian Army, Colonel Riad al-Asaad. Turkey has become increasingly hostile to the Assad government's policies, has encouraged reconciliation among dissident factions. Beginning in May 2012, some Syrian opposition fighters began being armed and trained by the Turkish Intelligence. As of August 2012, Turkey is reportedly supplying the rebels with FIM-92 Stinger anti-aircraft missiles.

Some countries have cut ties with the Assad government including: the Gulf States, Libya, Tunisia, Britain, Spain, Turkey, the United States and Belgium. Canada has closed its visa office but maintains an embassy in Damascus.

On 1 November 2011, NATO said it had no intention of taking military action in Syria, after it closed its seven-month campaign in Libya.

In July 2012, the United States government granted a non-governmental organization called Syrian Support Group a license to fund the Free Syrian Army.

Sunni Islamist group Hizb ut-Tahrir has voiced its support for the Syrian opposition, as has Hamas prime minister of Gaza, Ismail Haniya, though Hamas leader Salah al-Bardaweel added that this does not mean severance of ties with the Assad government. Bardaweel's claims are at odds with repeated leaks by his group showing that they were prepared to evacuate Syria and had already reduced their presence there. The Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood provided active assistance.

Al-Qaeda and affiliates are anti-Assad. American officials believe that Al-Qaeda in Iraq has conducted bomb attacks against government forces, and al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri condemned Assad. On 23 April, one of the leaders of Fatah al-Islam, Abdel Ghani Jawhar, was killed during the Battle of Al-Qusayr, after he blew himself up while making a bomb. A member of the Abdullah Azzam Brigades in Lebanon admitted that his group had sent fighters to Syria, while a group thought linked to al-Qaeda and calling itself the al-Nusra Front claimed for a suicide bomb attack on 6 January 2012 in the central Damascus neighbourhood of al-Midan killed 26 people, most of whom were civilians, as well as for truck bombs that killed 55 people and injured 370. Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012. In May 2012, Syria's U.N. envoy Bashar Ja'afari declared that dozens of foreign fighters from Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Britain, France elsewhere had been captured or killed, and urged Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey to stop "their sponsorship of the armed rebellion". Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012. In June, it was reported that hundreds of foreign fighters, many linked to al-Qaeda, had gone to Syria to fight against Assad. In July, Iraq's foreign minister again warned that members of al-Qaeda in Iraq were seeking refuge in Syria and moving there to fight. When asked if the United States would arm the opposition, Hillary Clinton expressed fears that such weapons could fall into the hands of al-Qaeda or Hamas.

A crucial line of support began in spring 2012 as Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced they would begin arming and bankrolling the opposition. Paul Salem, director of the Carnegie Middle East Centre in Beirut, and Emile Hokayem of the International Institute of Strategic Studies argued such support would be unlikely to immediately make a decisive impact. A ship carrying weapons from Libya believed destined for Syria's rebels has also been intercepted. According to SNC e-mails leaked to Al Akhbar, Saudi support came with undesirable conditions attached, and played a negative, divisive role in Homs.

According an interview of a Syrian senior official of Assad transmitted by Abkhazian News Agency Anna, former members of Kosovo Liberation Army are fighting in Syria with Syrian opposition. He said that the Syrian Army of Assad killed 400 rebels in Syria, including Kosovan. Syrian official said that all Kosovan have been member of Kosovo Liberation Army.

On August 16, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) suspended Syria's membership in the OIC, despite opposition by Iran, due to President Assad's violent suppression of the uprising.

Support for the Syrian government

Russia

In January 2012, Human Rights Watch criticised Russia for "repeating the mistakes of Western governments" in its "misguided" support of Assad. Amnesty International, noting the Syrian government's headlong deployment of military helicopters, criticised Russia of "a wanton disregard for humanity." Human Rights Watch warned Russia's state-owned arms-trading company Rosoboronexport in a letter that, under international law, "providing weapons to Syria while crimes against humanity are being committed may translate into assisting in the commission of those crimes", and called on governments and companies around the world to stop signing new contracts and consider suspending current dealings with the Russian company. Not long after, however, the US bought Mi-17 helicopters from Rosoboronexport worth hundreds of millions of dollars. One of Russia's interests is access to the port of Tartus, home to its only remaining military base outside the former USSR and thus a key source of its influence in the eastern Mediterranean. The Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies, a leading Russian think tank, played down Tartus and other allegedly important national interests, though, arguing instead that Russian support was "irrational". In July 2012, however, Vyacheslav Dzirkaln, deputy director of Russia's Federal Service for Military Technical Co-operation, announced a halt to any new weapons transfers. A joint group of 10 Russian warships and an equal number of escort vessels led by an anti-submarine destroyer and including landing ships with marines on board, entered the Meditarranean early this week. The task force has been deployed at the time of escalating fighting in Syria with the United States avowing to “intensify” its efforts “outside the Security Council.” The British, French and U.S. navies are planning a larger deployment of warships in Eastern Mediterranean in autumn for naval exercises. In July 2012, Vice-Adm. Viktor Chirkov made the statement that should the base come under attack, the Russian base would be forced to evacuate.

Iran

Iran's supreme leader, Ali Khamenei, was vocally in favor of the Syrian government. The Guardian reported that the Iranian government is assisting the Syrian government with riot control equipment and intelligence monitoring techniques. The Economist said that Iran had, by February 2012, sent the Syrian government $9 billion to help it withstand Western sanctions. It has also shipped fuel to the country and sent two warships to a Syrian port in a display of power and support.

U.S. President Barack Obama and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice accused Iran of secretly aiding Assad in his efforts to quell the protests, and there have been reports of Syrian protesters hearing security-force members speaking Persian. The city of Zabadani is vitally important to Assad and to Iran because, at least as late as June 2011, the city served as the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps's logistical hub for supplying Hezballah.

According to a U.N. panel in May 2012, Iran supplied the Syrian government with arms during the previous year despite a ban on weapons exports by the Islamic Republic. Turkish authorities captured crates and a truck in February 2012, including assault rifles, machine guns, explosives, detonators, 60mm and 120mm mortar shells as well as other items on its border. It was believed these were destined for the Syrian government. The confidential report leaked just hours after an article appeared in the Washington Post revealing how Syrian opposition fighters started to receive more, and better, weapons in an effort paid for by Persian Gulf Arab states and co-ordinated partly by the US. The report investigated three large illegal shipments of Iranian weapons over the past year and stated "Iran has continued to defy the international community through illegal arms shipments. Two of these cases involved (Syria), as were the majority of cases inspected by the Panel during its previous mandate, underscoring that Syria continues to be the central party to illicit Iranian arms transfers."

In March 2012, anonymous U.S. intelligence officials claimed a spike in Iran­ian-supplied arms and other aid for the Syrian government. Iranian security officials also allegedly traveled to Damascus to help deliver this assistance. A second senior U.S. official said members of Iran's main intelligence service, the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, are assisting Syrian counterparts in charge of the crackdown. More anonymous sources were cited by the UN in May 2012, as it claimed arms were moving both ways between Lebanon and Syria, and alleged weapons brought in from Lebanon were being used to arm the opposition. The alleged spike in Iranian arms was likely a response to a looming influx of weapons and ammunition to the rebels from Gulf states that had been reported shortly before.

According to US journalist Geneive Abdo, the Iranian government provided the Syrian government with technology to monitor e-mail, cell phones and social media. Iran developed these capabilities in the wake of the 2009 protests and spent millions of dollars establishing a "cyber army" to track down dissidents online. Iran's monitoring technology is believed to be among the most sophisticated in the world, perhaps only second to China. On 24 July 2012, Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corp commander Massoud Jazayeri said Iranians will not allow enemy plans to change Syria's political system to succeed.

In August 2012, Leon Panetta accused Iran of setting up a pro-Government shia/alawite militia to fight in Syria, and chairman of the joint chiefs of staff General Martin Dempsey compared it to the Mahdi Army of Iraqi Shia leader Muqtada al-Sadr. Panetta said that there was evidence that the Iranian Revolutionary Guards are attempting to "train a militia within Syria to be able to fight on behalf of the regime." 48 Iranians were captured by the FSA in Damascus, and U.S. officals said that the men who were captured were “active-duty Iranian Revolutionary Guard members."

Other parties

According to a top official of the Iranian revolutionary guard corps, Hezbollah operatives took part in fighting on the ground against the opposition in Damascus and in the Battle of Zabadani.

In August, The Jerusalem Post reported that protesters enraged at Hezbollah's support for Assad's government burned Hezbollah flags and images of its leader Hassan Nasrallah in several places in Syria. Pro-government protestors have carried posters of Hassan Nasrallah. Hezbollah states they support a process of reforms in Syria and that they also are against what they term US plots to destabilize and interfere in Syria.

China has vetoed a UN Security Council resolution in tandem with Russia; Jerusalem Post correspondent Oren Kessler reported that Beijing's veto was enacted in the interests of preserving its ties with Russia. China was named in a May 2012 Security Council report as a transit hub for illegal arms shipments from North Korea, with UN investigators investigating reports of such shipments to the Syrian government.

In February 2012, it was reported that Hugo Chavez' government in Venezuela had been shipping tens of millions of dollars of diesel to Syria, which can be used to fuel army tanks. The following month, as it prepared a third shipment, Venezuela confirmed that it would continue sending diesel to the country. The Wall Street Journal obtained documents showing that a fourth big shipment of diesel was being readied in July 2012: "the deals are structured to bring other benefits, including shielding Syria's dwindling foreign-exchange reserves". The paper also noted that even "Syria's political opposition is split on the issue of cutting off all energy exports to the country. While they would like to see Mr. Assad's tanks run out of fuel, they also worry that a shortage of diesel could equally undermine the political and military opposition inside Syria." Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez has openly expressed his support to Assad government.

A Greece-based trading company, Naftomar, is reputedly the last firm arranging deliveries of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), but, unlike the fuel sent from Venezuela and Russia, LPG is a peaceful material that plays a vital role in countries like Syria that have limited infrastructure for piping gas. International sanctions do not apply to LPG for humanitarian reasons.

WikiLeaks revelations beginning in July 2012 led to accusations that the subsidiary of an Italian arms company had provided communications equipment to the Syrian military in May 2011, and that, as late as February 2012, its engineers gave training on the use of the communications technology, including how it could be installed in helicopters. The company said the equipment was for civilian use and said it had not sold any technology to Syria since the beginning of the uprising.

Deaths

Estimates of deaths in the conflict vary with figures from 23,300 to 30,850.

The particular problem has been to ascertain the number of armed combatants who have died due to opposition policy of counting rebel fighters who were not defectors as civilians. Although, at least half of those killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including almost 6,000 government soldiers. In addition, UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed. Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.

International reaction

The Arab League, European Union, Secretary-General of the United Nations, and nearly all democratic governments condemned the violence and the Syrian government's response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech. China and Russia supported the government against international sanctions. Russia, whose Mediterranean fleet's primary naval base is in Syria, denounced the use of violence by the opposition and the presence of "terrorists" within its ranks. On 3 August 2012 United Nations passed a second non binding resolution condemning the Syrian government as well as the Security Council for failing to stop the violence. The resolution stressed "grave concern" over the deteriorating conflict in the country.The Saudi sponsored resolution was passed with an overwhelming majority of 133-12 with 31 abstentions. On Thursday Aug 16, 2012, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, which represents 1.5 billion Muslims, suspended Syria at a summit in Saudi Arabia "billed as a diplomatic showdown between Sunni Saudi Arabia and Shi'ite Iran". In the 57-nation body only Algeria voted with Iran against Syria's suspension.

See also

• List of articles related to the Syrian Civil War

References

1. "Iran's Hizbullah sends more troops to help Assad storm Aleppo, fight Sunnis | World Tribune". Worldnewstribune.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
2. ^ Wright, Nate; Hider, James (17 February 2012). "Syrian regime 'importing snipers' for protests". The Australian. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
3. ^ "Iran 'sending arms to Syria despite ban'". Al Jazeera. 17 May 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
4. Saeed Kamali Dehghan. "Syrian army being aided by Iranian forces". Guardian. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
5. "Iranian Guards, Mahdi Army troops enter Syria's Druze Mountain". Nowlebanon.com. 15 February 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
6. Barry, Anya (9 February 2012). "Adding Fuel to Syria's Fire". FPIF. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
7. Elder, Miriam., The Guardian, Thursday 28th June 2012., Syria will receive attack helicopters from Russia, Kremlin confirms http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/28/syria-receive-attack-helicopter-risussia?newsfeed=true
8. Rosenberg, Steve. "Why Russia Sells Syria Arms". BBC News. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
9. Mohammed Zargham, ed. (12 May 2011). "Envoys: Russia blocks UN report on Iran arms". MSNBC. Reuters. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
10. "Russia, China block 2nd draft of resolution on Syria". Voice of Russia. 10 June 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
11. Khaled Yacoub Oweis (23 August 2011). "U.S. envoy visits Syria town, U.N. launches inquiry". Reuters. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
12. MacFarquhar, Neil (5 October 2011). "With Rare Double U.N. Veto on Syria, Russia and China Try to Shield Friend". New York Times. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
13. ^ "Defecting troops form 'Free Syrian Army', target Assad security forces". The World Tribune. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
14. "Syrian Rebels Plot Their Next Moves: A TIME Exclusive". TIME. 11 February 2012.
15. ^ Fitzgerald, Mary (28 July 2012). The Irish Times http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2012/0728/1224320949538.html. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
16. ^ Schmitt, Eric (21 June 2012). "C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
17. ^ Justin Vela (13 June 2012). "Exclusive: Arab states arm rebels as UN talks of Syrian civil war". The Independent. London. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
18. ^ Abouzeid, Rania (22 June 2012). "Opening the Weapons Tap: Syria's Rebels Await Fresh and Free Ammo". Time. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
19. "C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition". New York Times. 21 June 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
20. Hosenball, Mark (1 August 2012). "Exclusive: Obama authorizes secret U.S. support for Syrian rebels". Reuters. Retrieved 6 August 2012. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
21. "Syria conflict: UK to give extra £5m to opposition groups". BBC. 10 August 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
22. "Syria Rebels 'Aided By British Intelligence'". Yahoo! News. 19 August 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
23. ^ Jaber, Hala (17 February 2012). "Sunni fighters bring jihad across border". The Australian. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
24. "TIME Exclusive: Meet the Islamist Militants Fighting Alongside Syria's Rebels". World.time.com. 26 July 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
25. Sherlock, Ruth (12 July 2012). "Al-Qaeda tries to carve out a war for itself in Syria". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
26. Al Qaeda Taking Deadly New Role in Syria Conflict
27. Dozier, Kimberly; Klapper, Bradley (29 October 2011). "US officials warn al-Qaida gaining foothold in Syria". Kypost.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
28. ^ "Lebanon's Most Wanted Sunni Terrorist Blows Himself Up in Syria". LB: Yalibnan.com. 23 April 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
29. "Arab Islamist fighters eager to join Syria rebels". Dailystar.com.lb. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
30. "Syria rebels see future fight with foreign radicals". In.reuters.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
31. "Kurds Give Ultimatum to Syrian Security Forces". Rudaw.net. 21 July 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
32. "Iraqi Kurdistan training Syrian Kurds". Al Akhbar. 31 July 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
33. "Syrian Kurds given military training in northern Iraq, says Barzani". Zaman. 27 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
34. Dougherty, Jill (9 August 2012). "Al-Assad's inner circle, mostly family, like 'mafia'". CNN. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
35. Karadsheh, Jomana (28 July 2012). "Libya rebels move onto Syrian battlefield". CNN. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
36. "More Kurdish Cities Liberated As Syrian Army Withdraws from Area". Rudaw.net. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
37. "Syria Military Strength". Globalfirepower.com. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
38. Holliday, Joseph (2012), Syria's Maturing Insurgency (PDF), Middle East Security Report 5, Institute for the Study of War, p. 7, retrieved 9 July 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
39. Graeme Smith (2 July 2012). "Syrians in Ontario give rebels reinforcements from afar". Theglobeandmail.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
40. "Syria Army Lost 6% of Armored Force – Report". Israelnationalnews.com. 7 May 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
42. ^ "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights". Syriahr.com. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
43. 19 killed in Dec. 2011, 1 killed in Jan. 2012 in Daraa, 4 killed in Qusayr Feb. 2012, 11 killed in Damascus suburbs of Maidya in 2012, 7 killed in Irbin in 2012, 26 killed in Darat Izza, 2 killed in Aleppo, 27 killed in Aleppo (31 July), total of 97 confirmed killed
44. ^ Kelley, Michael (8 March 2012). "Iranian Fighters Are Killing Syrian Troops Who Refuse to Fire On Protesters". Articles.businessinsider.com. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
45. ^ "Over 120 Hezbollah, Basij fighers killed in Syria, report". LB: Yalibnan.com. 9 December 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
46. ^ "Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed". Ansamed.ansa.it. 3 January 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
47. ^ "891 Martyrs, may God's mercy be on them all". Syrianshuhada.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
48. ^ "Violations Documenting Center" (in Arabic). Violations Documenting Center. 18 August 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
49. Al, Suleiman. "Arab Islamist fighters eager to join Syria rebels". Reuters.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
50. "1.5 مليون نازح ولاجئ سوري". Al-Jazeera. 21 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
51. ^ "More than 13,000 killed in Syria since March 2011: NGO". Agence France-Presse. 27 May 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
52. "Syria: France calls for UN to enforce Annan plan". BBC News. 13 June 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
53. "UN peacekeeping chief calls Syria conflict a civil war". Fox News. 13 June 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
54. "UN: Syria now in state of civil war, death toll at more than 4,000". Haaretz. 17 July 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
55. "Exclusive: Syria now an "internal armed conflict" – Red Cross". Reuters. 15 July 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
56. "Timeline: Syrian uprising". Globalnews. 23 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
57. "Syria's uprising: From rocks to RPGs". CNN. 29 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
58. "Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama'". BBC News. 5 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
59. "'Dozens killed' in Syrian border town". Al Jazeera. 17 May 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
60. "'Defected Syria security agent' speaks out". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
61. "'Defected Syria security agent' speaks out". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
62. By the CNN Wire Staff (7 April 2012). "Opposition: 127 Dead As Syrian Forces Target Civilians". Thedenverchannel.com. Retrieved 8 July 2012. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
63. The Guardian, 20 August 2012
64. "Syrian Martyrs". Free Syria. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
65. "Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath'". USA Today. 22 December 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
66. "Number as a civil / military". Syrian Martyrs. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
67. Enders, David (19 April 2012). "Syria's Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border". Myrtlebeachonline.com. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
68. Memmott, Mark (10 August 2012). "Fighting Has Forced More Than 1.5 Million Syrians To Move, U.N. Says". NPR. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
69. 30 Syrian soldiers flees to Iraq's Kurdish region: official
70. "Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed". News24. 12 March 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
71. "Syrian Refugees May Be Wearing Out Turks' Welcome". NPR. 11 March 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
72. "Syria crisis: Turkey refugee surge amid escalation fear". BBC News. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
73. "Israel will stop any flood of Syrian refugees: Barak". Reuters. 19 July 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
74. "UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria". The Courier-Mail. 8 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
75. Peralta, Eyder (3 February 2012). "Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way". NPR. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
76. "Syria: Local Residents Used as Human Shields". Huffington Post. 26 March 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
77. "UN report accuses Syrian troops of torturing and executing children, and of using children as "human shields"". Blogs.aljazeera.net. 12 June 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
78. "Syria accused of war crimes by Amnesty International". BBC News. 14 June 2012.
79. "Syria: Armed Opposition Groups Committing Abuses". Human Rights Watch. 20 March 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
80. "Syria conflict: Aleppo shootings by rebels condemned". BBC News. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
81. "Open Letter to the Leaders of the Syrian Opposition Regarding Human Rights Abuses by Armed Opposition Members". Human Rights Watch. 20 March 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
82. Syria's leadership making mistakes, says Russia, BBC, 20 March 2012
83. Russia and China: Sabotaging U.N. with vetoes, CNN, 8 February 2012
84. MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). "Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
85. U.N. worried about Syria's effect on neighboring Lebanon, civil war risk Reuters, Reuters, 21 May 2012
86. ^ "Syria in civil war, Red Cross says". BBC. 15 July 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
87. Gendzier, Irene L. (1997). Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958. Columbia University Press. p. 98. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
88. Wilson, Scott (25 April 2011). "Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
89. ^ "Protests In Syria Pose Challenges for the U.S." NPR. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
90. Shadid, Anthony (26 April 2011). "International Outcry Grows Over Syria Crackdown". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
91. Landler, Mark (26 March 2011). "Chaos in Syria and Jordan Alarms U.S." The New York Times.
92. ^ George, Alan (2003). Syria:Neither Bread nor Freedom. New York, NY: Zed Books. pp. 56–58. ISBN 1-84277-213-9.
93. European World Year Book 2004. Vol. 2. Europa Publications. 2004. p. 4056.
94. "No Room to Breathe: State Repression of Human Rights Activism in Syria". Human Rights Watch. 19 (6): 8–13. October 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
95. "Syria Smothering Freedom of Expression: the detention of peaceful critics". Amnesty International. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
96. "The Damascus Declaration for Democratic National Change". 15 October 2005. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
97. Brandon, James (21 February 2007). "The PKK and Syria's Kurds". Terrorism Monitor. 5 (3). Washington, DC: The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
98. Isseroff, Ami (24 March 2004). "Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo". MideastWeb. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
99. Heneghan, Tom (23 December 2011). "Syria's Alawites are secretive, unorthodox sect". Reuters. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
100. Worth, Robert F. (24 April 2011). "Syrian Crisis Tests the Mettle of Its Autocratic Ruler". The New York Times. Cairo. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
101. "International Religious Freedom Report 2006". US State Department. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
102. "Syria Kurd leader vows to keep up democracy struggle". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
103. "Is Syria The Next Egypt?". Fox News. 2 February 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
104. "US will not intervene in Syria as it has in Libya, says Hillary Clinton". The Guardian. London. 27 March 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
105. "Message to Communists of the World". Syrian Communist Party (Unified). 31 May 2011.
106. "Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions". Journalist's Resource. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
107. "World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010", p. 555.
108. ^ "Syria". Amnesty International. 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
109. Black, Ian (16 July 2010). "Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says". The Guardian. London.
110. ^ Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004, Human Rights Watch 2005. ISBN 1-56432-331-5.
111. "Red lines that cannot be crossed". The Economist. 24 July 2008.
112. "Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria". Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
113. "Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad". The Wall Street Journal. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
114. ^ "Stateless Kurds in Syria granted citizenship". CNN. 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
115. "International unity needed on Syria: Clinton". Google News. Washington. Agence France-Presse. 3 July 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
116. "Syria: 'A kingdom of silence'". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
117. "أبرز محطات الثورة السورية خلال الأيام الماضية.wmv". Al Jazeera. 24 April 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
118. "Information on the death of a young man who burned himself in Al Hasakah". free-syria.com. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
119. "Syrian suicider is "Hasan Ali Akleh". Damascus has banned a demonstration in support of Egypt". Middle East Transparent. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
120. "Demonstration in Ar-Raqqa, Syria". free-syria.com. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
121. "'Day of Rage' Protest Urged in Syria". MSNBC. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
122. "Demonstration on the day of anger in Hasaka and Syrian authorities arrested dozens". free-syria.com. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
123. Williams, Lauren (24 February 2011). "Syria clamps down on dissent with beatings and arrests". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
124. ^ Iddon, Paul (30 July). "A recap of the Syrian crisis to date". Digital Journal. Retrieved 3 August 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
125. "Is Syria the next domino?". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
126. "Middle East unrest: Syria arrests Damascus protesters". BBC News. 16 March 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
127. "In Syria, Demonstrations Are Few and Brief". New York Times. 16 March 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
128. "Fresh Protests Erupt in Syria". theepochtimes.com. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
129. "ردّدوا هتافات تدعو لمحاربة الفساد وفتح باب الحريات". Al Arabiya. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
130. "مظاهرة شباب الثورة في تركيا". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
131. Michael Gunning (26 August 2011). "Background to a Revolution". n+1.
132. "25 March 2011 Syrian Protests". NOW Lebanon. Agence France-Presse. 25 March 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
133. "Arrest of leader of the Islamic Democratic movement in Syria". Elaph. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
134. "Start of the trial exhibits and the Syrian writer Ali Abdullah". free-syria.com. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
135. "Jailed prominent Syrian opposition for seven and a half years". free-syria.com. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
136. "Syrian authorities detain national identity Adnan Mustafa Abu Ammar". free-syria.com. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
137. "In Syria, Crackdown After Protests". New York Times. 18 March 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
138. ^ "Syrian Arrests Are Said to Have Snared Tens of Thousands". New York Times. 27 June 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
139. "Syria: Torture Centers Revealed". Human Rights Watch. 3 July 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
140. "Syrian referendum on new constitution announced for 26 Feb". Russia Today. 15 February 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
141. "Syria to hold referendum on new draft constitution". Metronews.ca. 15 February 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
142. "Syria holds vote on constitution". The Daily Star. 26 February 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
143. "Syria parliament election 90 days after new constitution". Reuters. 15 February 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
144. "1st Meeting of People's Assembly, Mohammad Jihad al-Laham Elected as Speaker". Syrian Arab News Agency. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
145. "Opposition leader Ribal Al-Assad is optimistic to changes in Syria". Elaph. 16 February 2011. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
146. "Assad's exiled cousin warns Syria risks civil war". NOW Lebanon. Agence France-Presse. 5 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
147. "Syrian mourners call for revolt, forces fire tear gas". Reuters. 19 March 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
148. "Syria to free child prisoners". Al Jazeera. 20 March 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2011.
149. "President al-Assad Issues Decree on Discharging Governor of Daraa from His Post". Syrian Arab News Agency. 24 March 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
150. "In Syrian flashpoint town, more deaths reported". CNN. 25 March 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
151. Shadid, Anthony. "Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
152. "Syria 'to lift emergency law'". Al Jazeera. 27 March 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
153. "Syrian cabinet resigns amid unrest". Al Jazeera. 29 March 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
154. "Syria Reverses Ban on Islamic Face Veil in Schools". Al Arabiya. Damascus. Associated Press. 6 April 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
155. "Syria to lift decades-old emergency law". Al Jazeera. 19 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
156. Oweis, Khaled Yacoub; Karouny, Mariam; al-Khalidi, Suleiman; Aboudi, Sami (21 April 2011). "Syria's Assad ends state of emergency". Beirut, Amman, Cairo. Reuters. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
157. "Cabinet: Comprehensive Plan for Reform in Various Fields, Employment Programs in Private Sector". Syrian Arab News Agency. 1 May 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
158. ^ Mackey, Robert. "Syria News". New York Times. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
159. "At least 10 killed in Syria". Ynetnews. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
160. Spencer, Richard (8 April 2011). "Syria: government troops in violent reaction to fresh protests". The Daily Telegraph. London.
161. "Thousands in Syria march toward Damascus demanding further reforms". Haaretz. Associated Press. 15 April 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
162. ^ Oweis, Khaled (22 April 2011). "Almost 90 dead in Syria's bloodiest day of unrest". Reuters. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
163. "Syrians hold 'Great Friday' protests". Al Jazeera. 22 April 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
164. Oweis, Khaled Yacoub; al-Khalidi, Suleiman (25 April 2011). "Syria sends tanks into Deraa where uprising began". Reuters. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
165. "Toll rises as army storms Syrian towns". Al Jazeera. 25 April 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
166. "Scores killed on Syria's 'day of rage'". Al Jazeera. 29 April 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
167. Preliminary report of the High Commissioner on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF), UN Human Rights Council, 14 June 2011, retrieved 30 June 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
168. ^ Periodic Update of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF), UN Human Rights Council, 24 May 2012, retrieved 25 June 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
169. ^ Deadly Reprisals: deliberate killings and other abuses by Syria's armed forces (PDF), Amnesty International, 2012, retrieved 25 June 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
170. ^ Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF), UN Human Rights Council, 23 November 2011, retrieved 23 June 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
171. ^ Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF), UN Human Rights Council, 15 September 2011, retrieved 30 June 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "OHCHR Sep11" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
172. "We've Never Seen Such Horror": Crimes against Humanity by Syrian Security Forces (PDF), Human Rights Watch, 2011, retrieved 3 July 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
173. ^ Torture Archipelago: Arbitrary Arrests, Torture and Enforced Disappearances in Syria's Underground Prisons since March 2011 (PDF), Human Rights Watch, 2012, retrieved 3 July 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
174. Mozgovaya, Natasha (7 June 2011). "U.S. raps Syria over claim of photographing D.C. demonstrations". Haaretz. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
175. "10 Most Censored Countries". Committee to Protect Journalists. Retrieved 6 August 2012.
176. Ali, Nour (25 August 2011). "Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
177. "Fresh Violence Hits Syrian Town". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
178. "Video, Syria: Troops Storm Damascus Suburb and Arrest Hundreds of People". Sky News. 5 May 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
179. "Syrian Tanks Enter 'Protest Hub' Baniyas". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
180. "Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama'". BBC News. 5 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
181. "Syria mourns 11 soldiers killed by "armed groups": SANA". People's Daily. 8 May 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
182. "Child Reported Killed as Syrian Forces Crack Down". MSNBC. 8 May 2011. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
183. "Shallow grave yields several bodies in Syrian city marked by unrest". CNN. 16 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
184. Blanford, Nicholas; Syrian refugees describe gangs fomenting sectarian strife, Christian Science Monitor, 17 May 2011
185. "'Israeli Forces Kill 23 Protesters' On Border". Sky News. 6 June 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
186. "Syrian army starts crackdown in northern town". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
187. "'Many killed' amid fresh Syria protests". Al Jazeera. 10 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
188. "Syrian army reports finding mass grave". United Press International. 15 June 2011. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
189. "European powers step up pressure on Syria". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
190. Clanet, Christian (10 June 2011). "A French Journalist in Dara'a, Syria's 'Ghetto of Death'". Time. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
191. "Syrians protest despite Assad promises on reform". Euro News. 20 June 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
192. "Syria unrest: Protests in Aleppo as troops comb border". BBC News. 30 June 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
193. "Protesters attack U.S. Embassy in Damascus". CBS News.
194. "'Scores dead' as Syrian tanks storm Hama city". Al Jazeera. 31 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
195. Timur, Safak (1 December 2011). "Syria's opposition, rebels hold talks in Turkey". Google News. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
196. "Why Syrian Army Can't Crush Opposition". CNN. 25 June 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
197. "UN Debates Resolution Condemning Syria As Unrest Continues". Voice of America. 2 August 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
198. "Syria's Assad Replaces Defense Minister, Arab Nations Recall Envoy". Voice of America. 8 August 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
199. Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (14 August 2011). "Tank, navy attack on Syria's Latakia kills 26-witnesses". Amman. Reuters. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
200. "Syrian forces kill seven protesters as Muslims celebrate first day of Eid". Al Arabiya. 30 August 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
201. "Life in Syria's Capital Remains Barely Touched by Rebellion". New York Times. 5 September 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
202. ^ "Syria: What motivates an Assad supporter?". Global Post. 24 June 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
203. "Syria forces storm main town, fight defectors-residents". Reuters. 27 September 2011.
204. ^ "Pro-Assad forces regain rebel Syrian town: agency". Reuters. 1 October 2011.
205. Fielding, Abigail (29 September 2011). "Syrian defectors battle Assad's army". Financial Times. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
206. ^ Zoi Constantine (30 September 2011). "Thousands of troops desert from Syrian army". The National. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
207. "Defected brigade says it has killed 80 members of Assad's forces". Al Arabiya. 29 September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
208. Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (4 October 2011). "Dissident Syrian colonel flees to Turkey". Reuters. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
209. Scores dead as army and deserters clash; U.N. says 2,900 killed in Syria crackdown. Al Arabiya (2011-10-06). Retrieved on 23 March 2012.
210. "Activist group: Fourteen killed in Syrian violence". The Jerusalem Post. Reuters. 13 October 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
211. "Activists: Syrian forces fight defectors; 5 killed". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Associated Press. 17 October 2011. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
212. "Assad forces fight deserters at northwestern town". Reuters. 25 October 2011.
213. 20 Syrian soldiers killed in 'clashes with deserters' Bangkok Post (2011-10-30). Retrieved on 23 March 2012.
214. "20 Syrian soldiers killed in 'clashes with deserters'". The Jakarta Globe. Agence France-Presse. 30 October 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
215. 11 troops killed as UN chief urges end to Syria violence. The Jakarta Globe (2011-10-18). Retrieved on 23 March 2012.
216. "Syrian army operations continue in Homs". Aljazeera. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
217. "Arab League parliament urges Syria suspension". Al Jazeera. 20 September 2011. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
218. MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). "Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria Over Crackdown". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
219. D. Kenner, "The World's Worst Human Rights Observer." Foreign Policy, 27 December 2011. As Arab League monitors work to expose President Bashar al-Assad's crackdown, the head of the mission is a Sudanese general accused of creating the fearsome "janjaweed," which was responsible for the worst atrocities during the Darfur genocide. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/12/27/the_worlds_worst_human_rights_observer
220. "Syrian activists slam Arab League mission head," CNN, 28 December 2011, http://articles.cnn.com/2011-12-28/middleeast/world_meast_syria-opposition-al-dabi_1_ali-kushayb-local-coordinating-committees-syrian-opposition
221. "Violence in second Syrian city ahead of Arab League monitors' visit," The Guardian, 28 December 2011,http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/dec/28/syria-egypt
222. "Syrian Soldiers Killed in Clash With Defectors". Foxnews.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
223. Queenann, Gavriel (16 November 2011). "70+ Killed as Syria Violence Escalates". Israel National News. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
224. "Syria to allow Arab monitors, 100 dead in violence". The Times Of India. Beirut. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
225. Fahim, Kareem (23 December 2011). "Syria Reports Suicide Bomber Attacks in Damascus". The New York Times.
226. "40 die in Damascus suicide blasts". The Independent. London. Associated Press. 23 December 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
227. "Syria blames al-Qaeda for twin suicide attacks in Damascus; at least 44 dead". Al Arabiya. 23 December 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
228. "More than 11,100 killed in Syria in 13 months: NGO". Channel News Asia. Agence France-Presse. 16 April 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
229. "Russia, China oppose 'forced regime change' in Syria; Lavrov warns of 'bigger drama'". Al Arabiya. 1 February 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
230. "Syrian embassies in London and Cairo attacked over Homs massacre". The Guardian. 4 February 2012.
231. "Free Syrian Army claims responsibilty(sic) for twin Aleppo blasts". France 24. 10 February 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
232. Todd, Tony (10 February 2012). "Free Syrian Army blames Assad for Aleppo bombing". France 24. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
233. "Wie pleegde aanslagen Aleppo?". Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (in Dutch). 10 February 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
234. "Syria: Repression continues despite Annan plan hopes". Amnesty International. 3 April 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
235. "Iran reaffirms full support for Annan's Syria peace plan". Al Arabiya News. 10 July 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
236. Holliday, Joseph. "Syria's Maturing Insurgency" (PDF). Middle East Security Report. Institute for the Study of War. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
237. Ghaith Abdul-Ahad. "Inside Syria: rebels and regime trapped in cycle of destruction". Deir el-Zour: Guardian. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
238. ^ "Deadly violence flares in Syria as EU-Russia seek solutions". Al Arabiya. 4 June 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
239. "Assad names new Syrian PM, army battles rebels". Trust.org. Reuters. 6 June 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
240. "New 'massacre' reported in Syria's Hama province". BBC News. 7 June 2012.
241. "Syria UN team 'shot at' near Qubair 'massacre site'". BBC News. 7 June 2012.
242. "Syrian army blocks U.N. monitors entering Hama 'massacre' site: activists, U.N. official". Al Arabiya. 7 June 2012. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
243. Ivan Watson (12 June 2012) "Syria: Battle for the cities". CNN.
244. "Turkey confirms Syria shot down F-4 military jet, search for pilots ongoing". Al Arabiya. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
245. "Bodies of Turkish jet crew shot down by Syria found". BBC News. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
246. "Military Spokesman: Anti-Air Defenses Intercepted a Target That Violated Syrian Airspace Over Territorial Waters, Shot It Down West of Lattakia". Syrian Arab News Agency. 23 June 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
247. "Turkey goes to Nato over plane it says Syria downed in international airspace". The Guardian. London. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
248. ^ "Turkey dubs Syria 'a clear threat', vows to retaliate". The Nation. Agence France-Presse. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
249. Borger, Julian; Chulov, Martin; Elder, Miriam (26 June 2012). "Syria shot at second Turkish jet, Ankara claims". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
250. "Syria-Turkey tension: Assad 'regrets' F-4 jet's downing". BBC News. 3 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
251. Hurriyet Daily News, August 11-12 2012, page 5, "No Misinformation on Downed Jet: Army".
252. Khalaf, Roula; Fielding-Smith, Abigail (1 July 2012). "Syria talks fail to satisfy opposition". Financial Times. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
253. Karam, Zeina (1 July 2012). "Syrian opposition rejects new international plan". Associated Press. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
254. Dagher, Sam (6 July 2012). "In Paris, Diplomats Cheer Syria General's Defection". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
255. "Syrian opposition reports 'massacre' in Hama province". CNN. 13 July 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
256. Ruth Sherlock and Adrian Blomfield (17 July 2012). "Syrian rebels launch campaign to 'liberate' Damascus". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
257. ^ Damien McElroy (18 July 2012). "Assad's brother-in-law and top Syrian officials killed in Damascus suicide bomb". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
258. Gianluca Mezzofiore (18 July 2012). "Syria Civil War: Assad Brother-in-Law Assef Shawkat Killed in Damascus Suicide Bombing". International Business Times. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
259. "Syria blast: Security chief Ikhtiar dies from wounds". BBC News. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
260. Solomon, Erika (18 July 2012). "Two Syrian rebel groups claim Damascus attack". Reuters. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
261. . Now Lebanon. 18 July 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); External link in |title= (help)
262. "Moscow condemns Damascus blast". The Voice of Russia. 18 July 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
263. "Assad Reappears Preview". BBC News. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
264. Luke Harding (27 July 2012). "Syrian army supply crisis has regime on brink of collapse, say defectors". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
265. Gladstone, Rick (19 July 2012). "Russia and China Veto Resolution on Syria". New York Times. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
266. "Fighting Embroils in Syria Preview". CNN News. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
267. Arango, Tim (19 July 2012). "Iraq Says Rebels in Syria Control Border Posts". New York Times. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
268. Doug Madory (19 July 2012). "Syria Briefly Disconnects". Renesys. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
269. Aneja, Atul (28 July 2012). "A decisive battle being waged over Aleppo". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
270. "Syria crisis: Assad strikes back with jets in Aleppo and Damascus – live updates}publisher=The Guardian". 2012-07=25. Retrieved 25 July 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
271. "Syria using fighter jets against rebels: UN". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Associated Press. 1 August 2012.
272. "Syrian forces advance steadily in Aleppo". 12-08-2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
273. Sarra Grira (13 January 2012) "Cracks emerge in Syrian opposition amid ongoing anti-government protests", France 24.
274. Amal Hanano (18 April 2012) "Any given Friday", Foreign Policy.
275. Jones, Dorian (1 April 2012). "Gulf Nations to Pay Syrian Rebel Salaries, US Offers Non-Lethal Support". Voice of America. Istanbul. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
276. O'Bagy, Elizabeth (7 June 2012), Syria's Political Struggle: Spring 2012 (PDF), Institute for the Study of War, retrieved 9 July 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
277. Torvov, Daniel (1 December 2011). "Free Syrian Army Partners with Opposition: What's Next for Syria?". International Business Times. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
278. "Ranks of Free Syrian Army 'gaining strength'". Al Jazeera. 2 December 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
279. Rosen, Nir (21 February 2012). "Q&A: Nir Rosen on Syria's armed opposition". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
280. ^ Holliday, Joseph (2012), Syria's Armed Opposition (PDF), Middle East Security Report 3, Institute for the Study of War, p. 25, retrieved 9 July 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
281. Michael Weiss: Hezbollah's secret war on Syrian rebels NOW Lebanon, 2 February 2012
282. "Syrian Opposition Call for No-Fly Zone". Turkish Weekly. 8 October 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
283. Shadid, Anthony (6 May 2011). "Protests Across Syria Despite Military Presence". The New York Times.
284. Alami, Mona (14 May 2011). "As Arab Spring continues, black markets boom". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
285. Sands, Phil (17 May 2011). "Tribal justice blamed for deaths of 120 Syrian police and soldiers". The National. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
286. Karouny, Mariam (6 June 2011). "Syria to send in army after 120 troops killed". Reuters. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
287. Blanford, Nicholas (9 June 2011). "Has Syria's peaceful uprising turned into an insurrection?". Christian Science Monitor.
288. "Foreign media overstate Syria death toll". PressTV. 14 September 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
289. Byman, Daniel (10 February 2012). "Can we help Syria without making things worse?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
290. Byman, Daniel (2 February 2012). "Finish Him: Why the World Needs to Take Out Bashar al-Assad Now". FP.com. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
291. O'Bagy, Elizabeth (29 June 2012). "Disorganized Like a Fox". FP.com. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
292. Solomon, Erika (27 April 2012). "Rebel rivalry and suspicions threaten Syria revolt". Reuters. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
293. Blair, Edmund; Saleh, Yasmine (4 July 2012). "Syrian opposition rifts give world excuse not to act". Reuters. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
294. ^ Muscati, Samer (14 May 2012). "Syrian Kurds Fleeing to Iraqi Safe Haven". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
295. Weiss, Michael (16 November 2011). "New Republic: Will Kurds Determine Syria's Fate?". NPR. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
296. Erlich, Reese (27 October 2011). "In Syria, Kurds Split Over Support for Assad Regime". Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
297. Zirulnick, Ariel (5 October 2011). "Who backs Syria's Assad? Top 4 sources of support". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
298. Blair, Edmund; Saleh, Yasmine (4 July 2012). "Syria opposition rifts give world excuse not to act". Reuters. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
299. "Syria security forces 'open fire at Kurd's funeral'". BBC News. 8 October 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
300. "Syrian police open fire on Kurdish rally". The News. 13 March 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
301. "Syria's Kurds: are they about to join the uprising against Assad?". Kurdish Globe. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
302. Kurdish National Council of Syria KNCS invited to US to discuss the Kurdish issue ekurd.net, 12 May 2012
303. Bastian, Marc (15 June 2012). "Syrians take up arms and dig graves". Google News. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
304. "PYD Leader Salih Muslim: Syrian Government Has Lost Control in Kurdish Areas". Rudaw.net. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
305. "Political Groups to Run Liberated Kurdish Cities in Syria Through Joint Committee". Rudaw.net. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
306. "Kurds seize power in Kobani in Syria". En.firatnews.com. 19 July 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
307. Holmes, Oliver (15 August 2011). "Assad's Devious, Cruel Plan to Stay in Power By Dividing Syria—And Why It's Working". TNR.
308. ^ "Analysis: Assad retrenches into Alawite power base". Reuters. 4 May 2011.
309. Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (3 February 2012). "Uprising finally hits Syria's "Silk Road" city". Reuters. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
310. "Bashar Al-Assad's transformation". Saudi Gazette. 15 May 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
311. ^ "The Two Homs: On the ground with critics—and supporters—of Bashar al-Assad's regime". Harper's Magazine. 8 June 2011. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
312. Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (15 September 2011). "Armored Syrian forces storm towns near Turkey border". Amman. Reuters. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
313. "Mideast church leaders worried about Christians if Syria has civil war". Catholic News. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
314. May, Cliff (21 July 2011). "The Great Alawite Hope". Townhall. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
315. May, Cliff (25 October 2011). "Syrian Refugees: Itching for a Fight with Assad and His Regime". Time magazine. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
316. ^ Baker, Aryn (1 March 2012). "Eyewitness from Homs: An Alawite Refugee Warns of Sectarian War in Syria". Time. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
317. Kanbolat, Hasan (07 August 2012). "Spending time with the Free Syrian Army in Hatay's Reyhanlı district". Time. Retrieved 17 August 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
318. "Syria Conflict: Breakaway Alawite State May Be President Bashar Assad's Last Resort". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
319. Jensen, Benjamin (22 July 2012). "Alawi split from Syria would spell disaster". FT.com. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
320. Faisal Al Yafai (12 August 2012). "Assads' family rule makes an Alawite state impossible - The National". Thenational.ae. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
321. "Idea of an Assad Alawite state". Al Arabiya. 29 July 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
322. Loveday Morris (8 August 2012). "Formation of a breakaway Alawite state may be Assad's 'Plan B' if he loses control of Syrian capital Damascus - Middle East - World". The Independent. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
323. Nordland, Rod; Mawad, Dalal (30 June 2012). "Palestinians in Syria Are Reluctantly Drawn Into Vortex of Uprising". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
324. "Inside Syria: Aleppo's Christians arm against Islamists". Global Post. 31 July 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
325. Kitfield, James (16 February 2012). "The Global Dangers of Syria's Looming Civil War". The Atlantic. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
326. Cooke, Shamus. "Proxy War in Syria Threatens Catastrophe for the Middle East". Global Research. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
327. Syrienkonflikt: Westerwelle warnt vor Flächenbrand in der Region in Tagesspiegel, 26 February 2012.
328. Medvedev Warns of ‘Full-Blown Wars’ RIA Novosti, 17 May 2012
329. Byman, Daniel (20 March 2012). "Preparing for Failure in Syria". ForeignAffairs.com. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
330. Rabinovich, Itamar (2 May 2012). "The Anarchy Factor in Syria". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
331. Epps, Peter (27 June 2012). "Analysis: Syria's Assad faces growing rebel, foreign threat". Reuters UK. Reuters. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
332. "Switzerland halts arms exports to U.A.E., as report says Swiss arms used by Syria rebels". Haaretz. 5 July 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
333. "UN rights chief Navi Pillay plea on Syria weapons". BBC News. 2 July 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
334. Cofman Wittes, Tamara (19 April 2012). "Options for U.S. Policy in Syria". Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Brookings Institution. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
335. Lynch, Marc (21 February 2012). "Helping Syria Without War". Abu Aardvark's Middle East Blog. FP.com. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
336. ^ Schmitt, Eric (21 June 2012). "C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
337. "Syria in civil war, says UN official Herve Ladsous". BBC News. 12 June 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
338. ^ Peel, Michael; Fielding-Smith, Abigail (5 July 2012). "Iraq warns over al-Qaeda flux to Syria". Financial Times. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
339. "EU: Syria Risks Slipping Into Civil War". RTTNews. 6 July 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
340. Nakhoul, Samia; Vinocur, Nicholas (6 July 2012). "Friend flees Assad as U.S. pressures Russia". Reuters. Retuers. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
341. Peel, Michael (5 July 2012). "Syria opposition chooses its battles". Financial Times. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
342. "Syrian dissidents convene in Turkey to discuss regime change". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 1 June 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
343. Karam, Zeina (5 October 2011). "Syrian dissident colonel takes refuge in Turkey". The Guardian. Beirut. Associated Press. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
344. Stack, Liam (27 October 2011). "In Slap at Syria, Turkey Shelters Anti-Assad Fighters". New York Times. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
345. Weiss, Michael (22 May 2012). "Syrian rebels say Turkey is arming and training them". London: telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
346. "Clinton: Chemical warfare is planned for. Rebels get first anti-air Stingers". Debka.com. 11 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
347. "Syrian Rebels Claim to Have Brought Down a Jet". New York Times. 13 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
348. "Tunisia "to withdraw recognition" of Syria government". Reuters. 4 February 2012.
349. Bar, Zvi (30 January 2012). "Assad takes a page out of Russia's book in his war against rebels". Haaretz. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
350. "Canada Reduces Staff at Embassy in Syria". Canada International. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
351. "NATO Rules Out Syria Action". Voice of America. 1 November 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
352. "US Authorizes Financial Support For the Free Syrian Army - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
353. "Hizb ut Tahrir Syria calls on armed forces to remove regime and establish Khilafah". Hizb ut-Tahrir. 19 February 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
354. Akram, Fares (24 February 2012). "Hamas Supports Syrian Opposition". The New York Times.
355. "Hamas denies rupture of diplomatic relations with Syria". Russia Today. 25 February 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
356. Holliday, Joseph (15 December 2011). "ISW in brief: Hamas to abandon Syria, Iran". Institute for the Study of War. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
357. Landay, Jonathan S. "Top U.S. intelligence officials confirm al Qaida role in Syria". McClatchy Newspapers. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
358. Kennedy, Elizabeth A. (12 February 2012). "Ayman al-Zawahri, Al-Qaeda Chief, Urges Muslims To Help Syrian Rebels". Huffington Post. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
359. "Suicide attack kills and wounds dozens in Damascus". Russia Today. 6 January 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
360. ^ Macleod, Hugh; Flamand, Annasofie (13 May 2012). "Iraq-style chaos looms as foreign jihadists pour into Syria". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
361. Yacoub, Khaled (9 May 2012). "Syria rebels kill 7, bomb explodes near U.N. monitors". Reuters. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
362. "Syria's UN ambassador says two Britons killed in Idlib". BBC News. 17 May 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
363. Jaber, Hala (17 June 2012). "Jihadists pour into Syrian slaughter". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
364. Andrews, Wyatt (26 February 2012). "Hillary Clinton: Assad regime dishonors Syria". WorldWatch. CBSNews.com. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
365. DeYoung, Karen (2 March 2012). "Saudi, Qatari plans to arm Syrian rebels risk overtaking cautious approach favored by U.S." The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
366. "Syria says nearly 90% of voters approve new constitution amid bloodshed". Al Arabiya News. 27 February 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
367. ^ Naylor, Hugh (17 May 2012). "Syria rebels 'buy arms with Gulf and US help' ". The National. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
368. Black, Ian; Borger, Julian (5 April 2012). "Gulf states warned against arming Syria rebels". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
369. "Lebanon halts ship with arms 'destined for Syria' ". France 24. 28 April 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
370. "SNC Emails: Clinton, Kilo, and Al-Farouq Batallion". Al Akhar English. 3 May 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
371. Abkhazia akuzon UÇK-në për pjesëmarrje dhe vrasje në Siri, Shqiptarja.com, 2012-08-02 (in Albanian)
372. "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Reuters. 16 August 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
373. "Russia Repeats Western Mistakes in Arab Spring". Human Rights Watch. 23 January 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
374. "Syria: Reports of helicopter shipments underscore need for arms embargo". Amnesty International. 19 June 2012. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
375. "Isolate Syria's Arms Suppliers". HRW. 3 June 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
376. "US defends Russian arms deal despite Syria link". Google News. Agence France-Presse. 12 June 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
377. "Wait and sea". The Economist. 14 January 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
378. Clover, Charles (26 June 2012). "Think-tank questions Russia backing for Syria". Financial Times. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
379. Grove, Thomas (9 July 2012). "Russia to suspend new arms to Syria – agencies". Reuters. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
380. Radyuhin, Vladimir (28 July 2012). "Russian, Western navies to face off near Syria". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
381. "Russian Navy to evacuate Syrian base in emergency". Russia Today. 28 November 2011. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
382. ^ "How Iran Keeps Assad in Power in Syria". Inside Iran. 5 September 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
383. Tisdall, Simon (9 May 2011). "Iran helping Syrian regime crack down on protesters, say diplomats". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
384. "Syria's crisis: The long road to Damascus: There are signs that the Syrian regime may become still more violent", The Economist, dated 11 February 2012.
385. "Iran warships enter Mediterranean via Suez Canal". BBC. 18 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
386. "Obama Condemns 'Outrageous' Syria Violence, Iran Aid". Google News. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
387. Navon, Emmanuel (27 March 2011). "'Iran, Hezbollah assisting in Syria protest suppression'". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
388. Charbonneau, Louis (16 May 2012). "Exclusive: Iran flouts U.N. sanctions, sends arms to Syria: panel". Reuters. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
389. Warrick, Joby; Sly, Liz (2 March 2012). "U.S. officials: Iran is stepping up lethal aid to Syria". Washington Post. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
390. "Weapons being smuggled both ways between Lebanon and Syria: U.N. envoy". Al Arabiya. 9 May 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
391. Aneja, Atul (27 July 2012). "Iran pledges solid support amid escalating Syrian offensive". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
392. "Iran accused of setting up pro-Assad militias". Al Jazeera. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
393. "U.S. officials confirm captured Iranians in Syria are 'active' military: report". Al Arabiya. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
394. Navon, Emmanuel. "Syria uprising stirs old divisions in neighboring Lebanon". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
395. "Hezbollah has no role at Syria's crackdown on protesters". Dp-news.com. 28 July 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
396. "WikiLeaks: U.S. secretly backed Syria opposition". CBS News.
397. "China veto on Syria was gesture to Russia". Jerusalem Post. 17 February 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
398. Charbonneau, Louis; Nichols, Michelle (17 May 2012). "Exclusive: U.N. probes possible North Korea arms trade with Syria, Myanmar". Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
399. Marianna Parraga (21 February 2012). "Exclusive: Venezuela ships fuel to war-torn Syria: traders". Reuters. Retrieved 17 March 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
400. Marianna Parraga (6 March 2012). "Venezuela to ship more fuel to Syria as crackdown spreads". Reuters. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
401. Solomon, Jay; Johnson, Keith (9 July 2012). "To Power Syria, Chávez Sends Diesel". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
402. "Chavez slams West, expresses support for Syria". Press TV. 5 March 2012.
403. "Chavez supports Syrian President Bashar al-Assad". TeleSUR. 5 April 2012.
404. Jessica Donati (12 March 2012). "The firm that keeps heating fuel flowing to Assad's Syria". Reuters. Retrieved 17 March 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
405. Squires, Nick (5 July 2012). "WikiLeaks begins publishing tranche of Syria emails". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
406. MacKenzie, James (9 July 2012). "Finmeccanica confirms disposal plans". Reuters. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
407. "Syria violence kills 12 as revolt toll tops 14,100". ABC-CBN News. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
408. "Over 14,400 killed in 15-month Syria revolt". Thesundaily.my. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
409. "UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria unrest". Google News. Geneva. Agence France-Presse. 7 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
410. "UNICEF: 500 children died in Syrian war". UPI.com. 23 March 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
411. "UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria". The Courier-Mail. 8 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
412. Peralta, Eyder (3 February 2012). "Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way". NPR. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
413. Fahim, Kareem (5 January 2012). "Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says". The New York Times.
414. "Saudi Arabia withdraws ambassador from Syria". BBC. 7 August 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
415. "EU condemns 'unacceptable' repression in Syria". Middle East Online. 22 March 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
416. "UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests". Al Jazeera. 18 March 2011.
417. "Canada condemns violence in Yemen, Bahrain, Syria". Google News. Agence France-Presse. 21 March 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
418. "Obama Condemns 'Abhorrent Violence' of Syrian Gov't". Ynetnews. Reuters. 9 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
419. Gordts, Eline (5 October 2011). "Russia, China Veto Syria Sanctions". Independent. Associated Press. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
420. "Russia urges Syrian opposition to end violence". RIA Novosti. 3 October 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
421. "U.N. resolution on Syria slams regime, upbraids Security Council". CNN. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
422. "Syria crisis: UN Assembly condemns Security Council". BBC. 3 August 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
423. "Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Reuters. 16 August 2012.
424. "Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". CNN. 15 August 2012.

Further reading

• Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution?". International Affairs. 88 (1): 95–113. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x.
• Lawson, Fred Haley, ed. (1 February 2010). Demystifying Syria. Saqi. ISBN 978-0-86356-654-7.
• Van Dam, Nikolaos (15 July 2011). The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84885-760-8.
• Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East. New York, NY: Penguin Press. pp. 212–261. ISBN 1-59420-111-0.
• Ziadeh, Radwan (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. London, GB: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-434-5.
• International Crisis Group (13 July 2011). "Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regimes Slow-Motion Suicide" (PDF). Middle East/North Africa Report N°109 – 13 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
• Rashdan, Abdelrahman. Syrians Crushed in a Complex International Game. OnIslam.net. 21 March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.

External links

• Syria Uprising collected coverage at Al Jazeera
• Guide: Syria Crisis at BBC News Online
• Syria collected news and commentary at The Guardian
• Syria protests (2011) collected coverage at The New York Times
• Syrian uprising: A year in turmoil at The Washington Post
• Live updates on Syria’s uprising at NOW Lebanon
• The Reality of Events at Syrian Arab News Agency
• Syria News Latest News @ Syria
• Syria Tribune 3 Articles You Must Read
• Top

Template:Anti-government protests in the 21st century

• Use dmy dates from August 2012
• Articles that may be too long from August 2012
• Syrian Civil War
• 2010s civil wars
• 2011 in Syria
• 2011 protests
• 2012 in Syria
• 2012 protests
• Arab Spring by country
• Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia
• Conflicts in 2011
• Conflicts in 2012
• Counter-terrorism in Syria
• Politics of Syria
• Protests in Syria
• Rebellions in Syria
• Riots and civil disorder in Syria
• Torture in Syria