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Antifeminism is an ideology that is broadly defined as an opposition to feminism or some aspect of feminism. This opposition has taken various forms across time and cultures. For example, in the late 1800s and early 1900s an antifeminist might have resisted women's suffrage. Antifeminism may be motivated by general hostility towards women's rights, the belief that feminist theories of patriarchy and disadvantages suffered by women in society are incorrect or exaggerated, or that feminism as a movement encourages misandry and seeks to harm or oppress men. For example, in the late 1800s and early 1900s it resisted women's suffrage; in the late 20th century, it opposed the Equal Rights Amendment.

Definition

Feminist sociologist Michael Flood argues that an antifeminist ideology rejects at least one of what he identifies as the three general principles of feminism: 1. That social arrangements among men and women are neither natural nor divinely determined (see sociology of gender). 2. That social arrangements among men and women favor men (see patriarchy), and, 3. That there are collective actions that can and should be taken to transform these arrangements into more just and equitable arrangements (see timeline of women's rights (other than voting) and timeline of women's suffrage).

Michael Kimmel, a feminist men's studies scholar, defines antifeminism as, "the opposition to women's equality." He says that antifeminists oppose "women's entry into the public sphere, the re-organization of the private sphere, women's control of their bodies, and women's rights generally." Kimmel further writes that antifeminist argumentation relies on, "religious and cultural norms", while, sometimes, proponents of antifeminism advance their cause as a means of, "'saving' masculinity from pollution and invasion." He argues that antifeminists consider the, "traditional gender division of labor as natural and inevitable, perhaps also divinely sanctioned."

Canadian sociologists, Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri, write that antifeminist thought has primarily taken the form of an extreme version masculinism, in which, "men are in crisis because of the feminization of society". However, in the same article, they also note that, "little research has been done on antifeminism whether from the perspective of the sociology of social movements or even of women's studies," indicating that an understanding of what the full range of antifeminist ideology consists of is incomplete.

"Antifeminist" is also used to describe female authors, some of whom define themselves as feminists, based on their opposition to some or all elements of feminist movements. Other feminists label writers such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Katie Roiphe and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese with this term because of their positions regarding oppression and lines of thought within feminism. Daphne Patai and Noreta Koertge argue that by labeling these women antifeminists, the intention is to silence them and prevent any debate on the state of feminism.

The meaning of antifeminism has varied across time and cultures and the antifeminist ideology attracts both men and women. Some women, for example the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League campaigned against women's suffrage. Emma Goldman, for example, was widely considered antifeminist during her fight against suffragism in the US. Decades later, however, she was heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism.

Antifeminist stances

Some antifeminists have argued that feminism has resulted in changes to society's previous norms relating to sexuality, which they see as detrimental to traditional values or conservative religious beliefs. For example, the ubiquity of casual sex and the decline of marriage are mentioned as negative consequences of feminism. Many of these traditionalists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, and the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families. Antifeminists argue that a change of women's roles is a destructive force that endangers the family, or is contrary to religious morals. For example, Paul Gottfried maintains that the change of women's roles "has been a social disaster that continues to take its toll on the family" and contributed to a "descent by increasingly disconnected individuals into social chaos".

Some antifeminists view feminism as a denial of innate differences between the genders, and an attempt to reprogram people against their biological tendencies. Antifeminists also frequently argue that feminism, despite espousing equality, ignores rights issues unique to males. Some believe that the feminist movement has achieved its aims and now seeks higher status for women than for men via special rights and exemptions.

History

19th century

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2014)

In the 19th century, the centerpiece of antifeminism was opposition to women's suffrage. Opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women. In Sex in Education: or, a Fair Chance for the Girls (1873), Harvard professor Edward Clarke predicted that if women went to college, their brains would grow bigger and heavier, and their wombs would atrophy. Other antifeminists opposed women's entry into the labor force, or their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality.

Mid 20th century

The first documented act of antifeminism can be found with the same novel that sparked the second Red Scare in 1951 when two journalists published Washington Confidential. It claimed that Communist leaders used their men and women to recruit a variety of minorities in the nation’s capital, such as females, colored males, and homosexual males. The vast popularity of the book caused such a buzz that the Civil Service Commission had to create a “publicity campaign to improve the image of federal employees” in hopes to save their federal employees from losing their jobs. This ploy failed once the journalists linked feminism to communism in their novel and ultimately reinforced antifeminism by implying that defending the “white, Christian, heterosexual, patriarchal family” was the only way to oppose communism.

Once the second Red Scare was in action, conservatives used their new influence on media to maintain race and gender hierarchies by associating anyone who ignored those hierarchies as spies. Several government officials that were women and/or colored lost their jobs as a result. This antifeminist popularity went on throughout the New Deal and the Truman administration, so the conservatives could be praised for attacking said political events.

Late 20th Century

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment, an amendment that grants equal rights and opportunities to every citizen of the United States, regardless of his/her demographics, (specifically sex). This motion was supported by both major parties and was immensely popular, yet it was defeated when it failed to get the vote of thirty-eight legislatures in 1982. The campaigning, voting, and political influence to get the ERA an opposing majority is a blatant presentation of the spread of antifeminism and its impact on society.

According to Val Burris’ “Who Opposed the ERA? An Analysis of the Social Bases of Antifeminism,” certain demographics made the majority of the opposition of the ERA, including housewives, citizens in rural areas, and high-income Caucasian males.

Jerome Himmelstein hypothesized that housewives opposed the ERA because they were content with being “economically dependent on their husbands” and did not like the idea of working for a living. Those housewives’ high-income husbands opposed the amendment because they would gain the least with it being passed. In fact, those men had the most to lose since the ratification of the ERA would mean more competition for their privileged jobs and possibly a lowered self-esteem. The rural-residing citizens are the best example of antifeminism in media. The large impact that the second Red Scare had most likely reached even the farms and small towns with little contact to urban society. Because of their separation from the outside world and their strong religious faith, opposing the ERA seemed like the most intelligent idea to them, regardless of the opportunities being lost as a result.

Another method that the antifeminists used was getting the votes of politicians, who had the largest impact on the destiny of the ERA. Because of the support of antifeminism from conservatives and the constant “conservative reactions to liberal social politics,” like the New Deal attacks, the attack on the ERA has been called a “right-wing backlash”. This backlash linked antifeminism to a broader ideology of marriage, gender roles, and even male and female restrooms. This engulfment created a new tactic for the antifeminists: the proposal that feminism destroys families.

Antifeminists maintained this proposal wholeheartedly. This new motive was driven by the “beliefs about the family and personal morality” and not so much for the mere social status. Their methods grew to actions like, “insults proffered in emails or on the telephone, systematic denigration of feminism in the media, Internet disclosure of confidential information (e.g. addresses) on resources for battered women” and more.

Masculinism

After the ERA was rejected, antifeminism grew a branch: masculinism. Once feminists began suggesting ideologies like homosexual marriage, single mother households, and ultimately opposing the root purpose of antifeminism, it created a division of antifeminism that feels the “masculine identity has been spurned”. Consisting of mostly white men, it is debated whether masculinism is a social movement or a scapegoat to the people who made them have to fight for the roles in life that they feel are due onto them. Regardless, masculinism does follow the typical pattern of social movements and focuses its purpose towards the rights of men and fathers.

21st century

Contemporary issues surrounding antifeminism include concerns of fairness in matters of family law, regarding things like child custody, paternity liability, and child support payment. Concerns of sex or gender inequality in the criminal justice system, such as fairness in sentencing for like crimes.

BBC and Time, among others, have covered the 2014 social media trend "Women Against Feminism". These antifeminists say that feminism demonizes men (misandry) and that women are not oppressed in 21st century Western countries.

The Guardian and Jezebel has also reported on an increasing number of women and female celebrities rejecting feminism and instead subscribing to humanism. Several women who identify as being humanist and anti-feminist have argued in an article for the Guardian that feminism is a discriminatory ideology and continues to portray women as victims. This article was written in response to Australian Labor senator, Penny Wong's speech on the 11th of April at the Annual Jessie Street Luncheon where she defended feminism, stating, "Feminism is not an extreme term – it is a mainstream movement that has transformed modern Australia for the better."

However, in retaliation to the social media trend, modern day feminists also began to upload similar pictures to websites such as Twitter and Tumblr in response. Most used the same hashtag, "womenagainstfeminism", but instead made satirical and bluntly parodic comments. In November 2014, Time magazine included "feminist" on its annual list of proposed banished words. After initially receiving the majority of votes (51%), a Time editor apologized for including the word in the poll and removed it from the results.

Organizations

Founded in the U.S. by Phyllis Schlafly in 1972, Stop ERA, now known as "Eagle Forum", lobbied successfully to block the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment in the U.S. It was also Schlafly who forged links between Stop ERA and other conservative organizations, as well as single-issue groups against abortion, pornography, gun control, and unions. By integrating Stop ERA with the thus-dubbed "new right" she was able to leverage a wider range of technological, organizational and political resources, successfully targeting pro-feminist candidates for defeat.

In India, the Save Indian Family Foundation is an antifeminist organization opposed to a number of laws that they claimed to have been used against men. REAL Women of Canada was unsuccessful when it came to preventing decriminalisation of abortion in Canada and same-sex marriage in Canada.

See also

Further reading

Literature about antifeminism

• Nielsen, Kim E. (2001). Un-American womanhood : antiradicalism, antifeminism, and the first Red Scare. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0814250808.
• Redefining the New Woman, 1920-1963 (Antifeminism in America: A Collection of Readings from the Literature of the Opponents to U.S. Feminism, 1848 to the Present), Howard-Zophy
• Faludi, Susan (1991). Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women. Crown Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-517-57698-8.
• Kampwirth, Karen. 2006. "Resisting the Feminist Threat: Antifeminist Politics in Post-Sandinista Nicaragua" NWSA Journal. Vol. 18, No 2. (Summer). pp. 73–100.
• Kampwirth, Karen. 2003. "Arnoldo Alemán Takes on the NGOs: Antifeminism and the New Populism in Nicaragua" Latin American Politics and Society. Vol. 45. No. 2. (Summer) 2003. pp. 133–158.
• Kampwirth, Karen. 1998. "Feminism, Antifeminism, and Electoral Politics in Post-War Nicaragua and El Salvador" Political Science Quarterly Vol. 113, No. 2. (Summer) pp. 259–279.
• Cynthia D. Kinnard, Antifeminism in American Thought: An Annotated Bibliography (Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1986, ISBN 0-8161-8122-5)
• Kipnis, Laura, The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability (Pantheon, 2006).
• Mansbridge, Jane: Why We Lost the ERA, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1986
• Nielsen, Kim E. Un-American Womanhood: Antiradicalism, Antifeminism, and the First Red Scare
• Schreiber, Ronnee (2008). Righting Feminism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533181-3.
• Swanson, G. Antifeminism in America: A Historical Reader (2000) ISBN 0-8153-3437-0

Antifeminist literature

• Helen Andelin, Fascinating Womanhood (1963; reprint 2007) ISBN 0-553-38427-9
• Alan J. Barron, The Death of Eve: Women, Liberation, Disintegration (1986) ISBN 0-949667-36-6
• Alan Carlson, The Family in America: Searching for Social Harmony in the Industrial Age (2003) ISBN 0-7658-0536-7
• Alan Carlson, Family Questions: Reflections on the American Social Crisis (1991) ISBN 1-56000-555-6
• Gilbert K. Chesterton, Brave New Family (1990; essay collection) ISBN 0-89870-314-X
• Danielle Crittenden, What Our Mothers Didn't Tell Us (2000) ISBN 0-684-85959-9
• Midge Decter, The New Chastity and Other Arguments Against Women's Liberation (1974) ISBN 0-399-50307-2
• Thomas Ellis, The Rantings of a Single Male (2005) ISBN 0-9762613-1-6
• Thomas Fleming, The Politics of Human Nature (1988) ISBN 1-56000-693-5
• Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Feminism is Not the Story of My Life (1996) ISBN 0-385-46790-7
• George Gilder, Men and Marriage (1992) ISBN 0-88289-444-7
• Steven Goldberg, The Inevitability of Patriarchy (1973) ISBN 0-8126-9237-3
• F. Carolyn Graglia, Domestic Tranquility: A Brief Against Feminism (1998) ISBN 0-9653208-6-3
• Gertrude Himmelfarb, The De-moralization Of Society (1996) ISBN 0-679-76490-9
• Richard T. Hise, The War Against Men (2004) ISBN 1-930859-61-9
• Thomas P. James, Domestic Violence: The 12 Things You Aren't Supposed to Know (2003) ISBN 1-59330-122-7
• Mary A. Kassian, The Feminist Mistake (2005) ISBN 1-58134-570-4
• Linda Kelly, Disabusing the Definition of Domestic Abuse: How Women Batter Men and the Role of the Feminist State (2003)
• Karen Lehrman, The Lipstick Proviso: Women, Sex & Power in the Real World (1997) ISBN 0-385-47481-4
• Myron Magnet, Modern Sex: Liberation and Its Discontents (2001) ISBN 1-56663-384-2
• Harvey Mansfield, Manliness (2006) ISBN 0-300-10664-5
• Diane Medved and Dan Quayle, The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong (1997) ISBN 0-06-092810-7
• Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture (2001) ISBN 0-7735-2272-7
• Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young, Legalizing Misandry: From Public Shame to Systemic Discrimination Against Men (2006) ISBN 0-7735-2862-8
• Kate O'Beirne, Women Who Make the World Worse (2005) ISBN 1-59523-009-2
• Daphne Patai and Noreta Koertge, Professing Feminism: Cautionary Tales from the Strange World of Women's Studies (1995) ISBN 0-465-09827-4
• John Piper and Wayne Grudem, Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (1991) ISBN 0-89107-586-0
• Erin Pizzey, Prone to Violence (Hamlyn, 1982; ISBN 0-600-20551-7)
• Mary Pride, The Way Home: Beyond Feminism, Back to Reality (1985) ISBN 0-89107-345-0
• Phyllis Schlafly, The Power of the Positive Woman (1977) ISBN 0-87000-373-9
• Phyllis Schlafly, Feminist Fantasies (2003) ISBN 1-890626-46-5
• Christina Hoff Sommers, Who Stole Feminism? (1995) ISBN 0-684-80156-6
• Christina Hoff Sommers, The War Against Boys: How Misguided Feminism is Harming Our Young Men (2001) ISBN 0-684-84957-7
• Howard Schwartz, The Revolt of the Primitive: An Inquiry into the Roots of Political Correctness (2003) ISBN 0-7658-0537-5
• Lionel Tiger, The Decline of Males (2000) ISBN 0-312-26311-2
• Esther Vilar, The Manipulated Man (1972) ISBN 0-9530964-2-4
• Philip Gordon Wylie, A Generation of Vipers (1942) ISBN 1-56478-146-1
• Éric Zemmour, Le Premier sexe (2006) ISBN 2-20725-744-4
• Clarke EH. Sex in Education: Or, A Fair Chance for the Girls. Boston: J.R. Osgood; 1873.
• Faraut M. Women resisting the vote: A case of anti-feminism? WOMENS HISTORY REVIEW. 2003;12:605-621.

References

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External links

• The dictionary definition of antifeminism at Wiktionary
• Template:Dmoz

1. Warren Farrell "The Myth of Male Power," Berkeley Publishing Group, 1996. Books.google.com.au. Retrieved 2014-08-01.

• Articles with inconsistent citation formats
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