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'''Teen dating violence''' is the ], ], or ] / ] ] (or ]) within a dating relationship among adolescents.<ref name=CDC>, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> Intimate partner violence has been a well examined and documented phenomenon in adults, however there has not been nearly as much study on violence in adolescent dating relationships, meaning it is not as well understood. Intimate partner violence in adolescents is an important realm of study as, in addition to the usual negative effects of abuse, this violence occurs at a critical period in the social and mental development of a person. This is also an important topic from a gender studies perspective as almost 32% of male adolescents engage in some form of violence, whether sexual, physical or emotional, towards their partners while adolescent violence from females is nearly half of that rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bachman|first1=Ronet|last2=Peralta|first2=Robert|title=The relationship between drinking and violence in an adolescent population: does gender matter?|journal=Deviant Behavior|date=2002|volume=23|issue=1|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/016396202317192008#.VTWxpiFViko|accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref> Also, according to the United States public health authority, the ] (CDC), "dolescents and adults are often unaware that teens experience dating violence." <ref name=CDC/> In a 2009 survey, the CDC found that 9.8% of high school students in the U.S. reported having been intentionally physically hurt by their boyfriend or girlfriend in the preceding 12&nbsp;months.<ref name=CDC/> The CDC also reports that approximately 1 in 5 women and 1 in 7 men who have been a victim of ] (IPV) first experienced IPV between the ages of 11 and 17.<ref name=CDC/> The ages between 16 and 24 are when youth are the most susceptible to dating violence. Also, according to the CDC, one in ten teens will be physically abused between seventh and twelfth grade. Because of this abuse, victims are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol, employ precarious sexual conduct, develop eating disorders, and attempt suicide.<ref name=CDC /> The above numbers are notable in their magnitude and in their discrepancy, indicating that at some point between birth and high school a huge number of males are learning that it is useful and acceptable to abuse their dating partners in some way. The reciprocal of males learning violent behaviors is that women are not learning this fact and are instead learning through our culture and through violence directed at them that they are to be submissive. Males learning violent behaviors coupled with females thinking it normative creates a cycle of women being abused, learning to accept it and imparting this idea to their children and repeating the process. Adolescent dating violence is a subject which must be understood in order for true equality between the sexes to be achieved and to help stop partner violence in adults before it occurs. '''Teen dating violence''' is the ], ], or ] / ] ] (or ]) within a dating relationship among adolescents.<ref name=CDC>, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> ] has been a well examined and documented phenomenon in adults; however, there has not been nearly as much study on violence in adolescent dating relationships, and it is therefore not as well understood. The research has mainly focused on Caucasian youth, and there are yet no studies which focus specifically on IPV in adolescent same-sex romantic relationships.<ref name="O'Donohue">{{cite book|authors=William T. O'Donohue, Lorraine T. Benuto, Lauren Woodward Tolle|title=Handbook of Adolescent Health Psychology|publisher=]|isbn=1461466334|page=193|year=2014|accessdate=November 15, 2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KX29BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193}}</ref>

Intimate partner violence in adolescents is an important realm of study as, in addition to the usual negative effects of abuse, this violence occurs at a critical period in the social and mental development of a person. This is also an important topic from a ] perspective as almost 32% of male adolescents engage in some form of violence, whether sexual, physical or emotional, towards their partners while adolescent violence from females is nearly half of that rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bachman|first1=Ronet|last2=Peralta|first2=Robert|title=The relationship between drinking and violence in an adolescent population: does gender matter?|journal=Deviant Behavior|date=2002|volume=23|issue=1|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/016396202317192008#.VTWxpiFViko|accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref> Also, according to the United States public health authority, the ] (CDC), "dolescents and adults are often unaware that teens experience dating violence."<ref name=CDC/>
⚫ ==Examples==
⚫ # When a friend and the aggressor (the violent significant other) are together, the last one calls the victim names or puts her/him down in front of other people.
⚫ # The aggressor acts extremely jealous when the victim talks to other person of the aggressor's sex, even when it is completely innocent.
⚫ # The victim apologizes for the aggressor's behavior and makes excuses for him/her.
⚫ # The victim frequently cancels plans at the last minute, for reasons that sound untrue.
⚫ # The aggressor is always checking up on the victim, calling or paging her/him, and demanding to know where the victim has been and with whom has been.
⚫ # The aggressor loses his/her temper, maybe even break or hit things when mad.
⚫ # The victim seems worried about upsetting the aggressor or making him/her angry.
⚫ # The victim is giving up things that used to be important to her/him, such as spending time with friends or other activities, and is becoming more and more isolated.
⚫ # The victim's weight, appearance or grades have changed dramatically. These could be signs of depression, which could indicate abuse.
⚫ # The victim has injuries she/he cannot explain, or the explanations given do not make sense.<ref>{{cite book|last=Liz Clairborne Inc|title=What You Need to Know About Dating Violence: A Teen's Handbook|year=2000}}</ref>


==Gender differences== ==Gender differences==
The literature on IPV among adolescents indicates that the rates are similar for the number of girls and boys in heterosexual relationships who report experiencing IPV, or that girls in heterosexual relationships are more likely than their male counterparts to report perpetrating IPV.<ref name="O'Donohue"/><ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book|author=Connie Mitchell|title=Intimate Partner Violence : A Health-Based Perspective: A Health-Based Perspective|publisher=]|isbn=019972072X|page=514|year=2009|accessdate=November 15, 2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q04QO7UmyowC&pg=PA514}}</ref><ref name="Williams"> Williams, J. R., Ghandour, A. M., & Kub, J. E. (2008). Female perpetration of violence in heterosexual intimate relationships: Adolescence through adulthood. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 9(4), 227-249. doi: 10.1177/1524838008324418</ref> Rapp-Paglicci et al. stated that, unlike domestic violence in general, equal rates of IPV perpetration is a unique characteristic with regard adolescent dating violence, and that this is "perhaps because the period of adolescence, a special developmental state, is accompanied by sexual characteristics that are distinctly different from the characteristics of adult."<ref name="Rapp-Paglicci">{{cite book|authors=Lisa A. Rapp-Paglicci, Albert R. Roberts, John S. Wodarski|title=Handbook of Violence|publisher=]|isbn=0471214442|page=36|year=2002|accessdate=November 15, 2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YtOvUULaNZEC&pg=PA36}}</ref> Wekerle and Wolfe theorized that "a mutually coercive and violent dynamic may form during adolescence, a time when males and females are more equal on a physical level" and that this "physical equality allows girls to assert more power through physical violence than is possible for an adult female attacked by a fully physically mature man."<ref name="Rapp-Paglicci"/>
Although studies show that both genders engage in physical abuse, the form varies. Females are more likely to use less dangerous forms of physical violence (e.g. pushing and slapping), while males are more likely to punch and threaten with weapons.<ref name=Poet>{{cite journal|last1=Poet|first1=A|last2=Swiderski|first2=C. R.|last3=McHugh|first3=M. C.|title=Developing Teen Relationships: The Role of Violence|journal=The psychology of teen violence and victimization, vols 1 and 2: From bullying to cyberstalking to assault and sexual violation; prevention strategies for families and schools|date=2011|volume=1 & 2|pages=221–241|url=http://search.proquest.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/docview/1015240097}}</ref> Males are also more likely to use sexual aggression, although both genders are equally likely to pressure their partner into sexual activities.<ref name=Poet/> In addition, females are four times more likely to respond as having experienced ] and are also more likely to suffer fatal injuries inflicted by their partner.<ref name=Poet/>

⚫ Along with form, motivations for violence also vary by gender: females are likely to perpetrate violence in self-defense, while males are likely to perpetrate violence to exert power or control.<ref name=Edwards/> This theory is strengthened by findings that previous victimization is a stronger predictor of perpetration in females than males.<ref name=Edwards>{{cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=K. M.|last2=Dardis|first2=C. M.|last3=Gidycz|first3=C. A.|title=The role of victimization experiences in adolescent girls and young women's aggression in dating relationships|journal=The psychology of teen violence and victimization, vols 1 and 2: From bullying to cyberstalking to assault and sexual violation; prevention strategies for families and schools|date=2011|volume=1 & 2|pages=71–82|url=http://search.proquest.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/docview/1015240116}}</ref>


⚫ Regarding studies that indicate that girls are more likely than boys to commit IPV, the authors emphasize that substantial differences exist between the genders, including that girls are significantly more likely than boys to report having experienced severe IPV, such as being threatened with a weapon, punched, strangled, beaten, burned, or raped, and are also substantially more likely than boys to need psychological help or experience physical injuries that require medical help for the abuse, and to report sexual violence as a part of dating violence. They are also more likely to take IPV more seriously. By contrast, boys are more likely to report experiencing less severe acts, such as being pinched, slapped, scratched or kicked. Girls are more likely to report committing less serious forms of IPV, including as a means of self-defense, whereas boys are more likely to report committing more severe acts of IPV, including threats, physical violence and controlling a partner.<ref name="O'Donohue"/><ref name="Mitchell"/> That girls are more likely to engage in IPV as a result of self-defense is supported by findings that previous victimization is a stronger predictor of perpetration in females than in males.<ref name=Edwards>{{cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=K. M.|last2=Dardis|first2=C. M.|last3=Gidycz|first3=C. A.|title=The role of victimization experiences in adolescent girls and young women's aggression in dating relationships|journal=The psychology of teen violence and victimization, vols 1 and 2: From bullying to cyberstalking to assault and sexual violation; prevention strategies for families and schools|date=2011|volume=1 & 2|pages=71–82|url=http://search.proquest.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/docview/1015240116}}</ref>
==Controversies and arguments== ==Controversies and arguments==
There is a common misconception that aggression is stable over time. That is, young people who are labeled as or considered to be violent and aggressive at any point in time are then assumed to be dangerous for the rest of their lives.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Loeber|first1=Rolf|last2=Stouthamer-Loeber|first2=Magda|title=Development of juvenile aggression and violence: Some common misconceptions and controversies|journal=American Psychologist|date=1998|volume=53|issue=2|pages=242–259}}</ref> This is a contentious issue because there is a desire to protect both parties involved (or that have the potential to become involved) in teen dating violence. While classifying the perpetrator as a threat may be detrimental to his or her life and future relationships, not classifying the perpetrator this way may put future partners at risk. There is a common misconception that aggression is stable over time. That is, young people who are labeled as or considered to be violent and aggressive at any point in time are then assumed to be dangerous for the rest of their lives.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Loeber|first1=Rolf|last2=Stouthamer-Loeber|first2=Magda|title=Development of juvenile aggression and violence: Some common misconceptions and controversies|journal=American Psychologist|date=1998|volume=53|issue=2|pages=242–259}}</ref> This is a contentious issue because there is a desire to protect both parties involved (or that have the potential to become involved) in teen dating violence. While classifying the perpetrator as a threat may be detrimental to his or her life and future relationships, not classifying the perpetrator this way may put future partners at risk.


There is considerable debate over whether we as a society have an accurate picture of the prevalence and severity of teen dating violence by gender. It is important to note that although male and female adolescents do not differ in “overall frequency of violence in dating relationships,” females are subject to “significantly higher levels of severe violence”.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Molidor|first1=Tolman|title=Gender and Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating Violence|journal=Violence Against Women|date=1998|volume=4|issue=2|pages=180–194}}</ref> This fact begs the question of whether abuse should be evaluated based on “severity” and how that can and should be measured, or if all abuse should be considered equally harmful. There is considerable debate over whether we as a society have an accurate picture of the prevalence and severity of teen dating violence by gender. It is important to note that although male and female adolescents do not differ in "overall frequency of violence in dating relationships," females are subject to "significantly higher levels of severe violence".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Molidor|first1=Tolman|title=Gender and Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating Violence|journal=Violence Against Women|date=1998|volume=4|issue=2|pages=180–194}}</ref> This fact begs the question of whether abuse should be evaluated based on “severity” and how that can and should be measured, or if all abuse should be considered equally harmful.


Age of consent is an issue that cannot be ignored in the discussion of teenage dating violence. Teenage sex is regulated in such a way that “age of consent laws render teenagers below a certain age incapable of consent to sexual activity with adults, and sometimes with peers”.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=Kate|title=From Jailbird to Jailbait: Age of Consent Laws and the Construction of Teenage Sexualities|journal=William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law|date=2003|volume=9|issue=3|pages=313–349}}</ref> In some cases, the adult may be just a few months older than the minor. There are a number of states in which “age of consent statutes are used to prosecute consensual sex between two persons both under the age of consent.” This type of prosecution has been deemed unconstitutional in some states by citing violation of privacy rights, but remains in effect in other states. Sexual behavior and aggression can be so deeply intertwined that the legality of underage consensual sex is sure to have an effect on teen dating violence. ] is an issue that cannot be ignored in the discussion of teenage dating violence. Teenage sex is regulated in such a way that "age of consent laws render teenagers below a certain age incapable of consent to sexual activity with adults, and sometimes with peers".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=Kate|title=From Jailbird to Jailbait: Age of Consent Laws and the Construction of Teenage Sexualities|journal=William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law|date=2003|volume=9|issue=3|pages=313–349}}</ref> In some cases, the adult may be just a few months older than the minor. There are a number of states in which "age of consent statutes are used to prosecute consensual sex between two persons both under the age of consent." This type of prosecution has been deemed unconstitutional in some states by citing violation of privacy rights, but remains in effect in other states. Sexual behavior and aggression can be so deeply intertwined that the legality of underage consensual sex is sure to have an effect on teen dating violence.


==Nature vs. nurture== ==Nature vs. nurture==
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Overall, because children are exposed to relationships early in their life through their parents and being so malleable at a young age, most evidence points to an adverse experience or experiences in childhood as fodder for such behavior in adolescence. Overall, because children are exposed to relationships early in their life through their parents and being so malleable at a young age, most evidence points to an adverse experience or experiences in childhood as fodder for such behavior in adolescence.


==Prevalence and approaches==
⚫ ==United Kingdom==
The literature on IPV among adolescents primarily focuses on Caucasian youth, and there are yet no studies which focus specifically on IPV in adolescent same-sex romantic relationships.<ref name="O'Donohue"/>
⚫ In 2010, a campaign by the ] featured adverts targeting "boys and girls aged 13 to 18" via television, radio, Internet, and poster campaigns. The campaign followed research by the ] indicating that approximately one-quarter of 13- to 17-year-old females had experienced physical abuse from a dating partner.<ref>((cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk/8515601.stm|title=Teenage domestic violence tackled by advert campaign|accessdate=2014 November 19))</ref>
⚫ ===United States===

====Statistics====
⚫ ;United Kingdom organizations
⚫ While dating, domestic and sexual violence affect women regardless of their age, teens and young women are especially vulnerable. Young people ages 12 to 19 experience the highest rates of rape and sexual assault,<ref>{{cite web|last=Truman|first=Jennifer|title=Criminal Victimization, 2008|url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/cv08.htm|work=U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice}}</ref> and people age 18 and 19 experience the highest rates of stalking. Approximately one in three adolescent girls in the United States is a victim of physical, emotional, or verbal abuse from a dating partner—a figure that far exceeds victimization rates for other types of violence affecting youth<ref>{{cite journal|last=Davis|first=Antoinette|title=Interpersonal and Physical Dating Violence among Teens|journal=The National Council on Crime and Delinquency Focus|year=2008|url=http://www.nccd-crc.org/nccd/pubs/2008_focus_teen_dating_violence.pdf}}</ref> ], former Wisconsin Representative said "if the numbers we see in domestic violence (dating violence) were applied to terrorism or gang violence, the entire country would be up in arms, and it would be the lead story on the news every night".<ref>{{cite web|last=Savacool|first=Julia|title=Our Most Important Mission Ever: Stop Violence Against Women Now, 2005|url=http://www.marieclaire.com/world-reports/news/domestic-violence-stop}}</ref> According to '']'', "81% of parents surveyed either believed dating violence is not an issue or admit they don't know if it's an issue",{{Cn|date=September 2015}} this is concerning because of the growth of dating abuse in teenagers relationships.{{Cn|date=September 2015}} Dating violence has advanced{{Clarify|date=September 2015}} through the years by the means of communication technology. A survey conducted by Teenage Research Unlimited stated that " percent of teens have been threatened physically via e-mail, IM, text messaging, chat rooms, etc."
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⚫ *
⚫ *
⚫ *

⚫ ==United States==


A 2008 ], which examined 62 ] studies between 1996 and 2006, relating to domestic violence in heterosexual intimate relationships from adolescence through to adulthood in the United States, reported on research findings that consistently show that adolescent females commit significantly more acts of domestic violence in intimate relationships than adolescent males. It stated, however, that the "data also suggest that females who commit acts of domestic violence may experience more violent or frequent IPV victimization than males" and that "he highest rates were found for emotional violence, followed by physical and sexual violence. Prevalence rates varied widely within each population, most likely due to methodological and sampling differences across studies." The authors added, "Few longitudinal studies existed, limiting the extent to which we could identify developmental patterns associated with female perpetrated intimate partner violence." They found a few studies which reported prevalence rates of IPV perpetration among females at two or more time points, which they stated made "it difficult to obtain a clear picture of the developmental patterns associated with this type of violence." There was also only one study that reported on prevalence rates over time for female perpetrated IPV among adolescents. "This study found a significant increase in prevalence over a six month period; however, they measured lifetime perpetration of IPV, therefore, it is unclear if there was an actual increase or simply an accumulation of violence," stated the authors. "Together, these studies provide very limited evidence that female perpetration of IPV may follow a similar developmental trajectory as other forms of violence. Unfortunately, many of the studies included in this review used modified or alternative instruments making it difficult to accurately compare prevalence estimates."<ref name="Williams"/>
===Prevalence of teen dating violence===
While dating, domestic and sexual violence affect women regardless of their age, teens and young women are especially vulnerable. Young people ages 12 to 19 experience the highest rates of rape and sexual assault,<ref>{{cite web|last=Truman|first=Jennifer|title=Criminal Victimization, 2008|url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/cv08.htm|work=U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice}}</ref> and people age 18 and 19 experience the highest rates of stalking.


In a 2009 survey, the CDC found that 9.8% of high school students in the U.S. reported having been intentionally physically hurt by their boyfriend or girlfriend in the preceding 12&nbsp;months.<ref name=CDC/> The CDC also reports that approximately 1 in 5 women and 1 in 7 men who have been a victim of ] (IPV) first experienced IPV between the ages of 11 and 17.<ref name=CDC/> The ages between 16 and 24 are when youth are the most susceptible to dating violence. Also, according to the CDC, one in ten teens will be physically abused between seventh and twelfth grade. Because of this abuse, victims are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol, employ precarious sexual conduct, develop eating disorders, and attempt suicide.<ref name=CDC /> The above numbers are notable in their magnitude and in their discrepancy, indicating that at some point between birth and high school a huge number of males are learning that it is useful and acceptable to abuse their dating partners in some way. The reciprocal of males learning violent behaviors is that women are not learning this fact and are instead learning through our culture and through violence directed at them that they are to be submissive. Males learning violent behaviors coupled with females thinking it normative creates a cycle of women being abused, learning to accept it and imparting this idea to their children and repeating the process. Adolescent dating violence is a subject which must be understood in order for true equality between the sexes to be achieved and to help stop partner violence in adults before it occurs.
⚫ Approximately one in three adolescent girls in the United States is a victim of physical, emotional, or verbal abuse from a dating partner—a figure that far exceeds victimization rates for other types of violence affecting youth<ref>{{cite journal|last=Davis|first=Antoinette|title=Interpersonal and Physical Dating Violence among Teens|journal=The National Council on Crime and Delinquency Focus|year=2008|url=http://www.nccd-crc.org/nccd/pubs/2008_focus_teen_dating_violence.pdf}}</ref> ], former Wisconsin Representative said "if the numbers we see in domestic violence (dating violence) were applied to terrorism or gang violence, the entire country would be up in arms, and it would be the lead story on the news every night".<ref>{{cite web|last=Savacool|first=Julia|title=Our Most Important Mission Ever: Stop Violence Against Women Now, 2005|url=http://www.marieclaire.com/world-reports/news/domestic-violence-stop}}</ref>


A 2011 CDC nationwide survey of the United States population, reported that 23% of females and 14% of males who ever experienced rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, first experienced some form of partner violence between 11 and 17 years of age.<ref name="CDC 2">{{cite web|title=Teen Dating Violence|publisher=] (CDC)|date=June 29, 2015|accessdate=November 15, 2015|url=http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/teen_dating_violence.html}}</ref>
According to '']'', "81% of parents surveyed either believed dating violence is not an issue or admit they don't know if it's an issue",{{Cn|date=September 2015}} this is concerning because of the growth of dating abuse in teenagers relationships.{{Cn|date=September 2015}} Dating violence has advanced{{Clarify|date=September 2015}} through the years by the means of communication technology. A survey conducted by Teenage Research Unlimited stated that " percent of teens have been threatened physically via e-mail, IM, text messaging, chat rooms, etc."


===Legislation=== ====Legislation====
In the United States, the National Conference of State Legislators (NCSL) states that "olicymakers can play a role in preventing teen dating violence"<ref name=NCSL> on NCSL.ogv, retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> and lists those states that currently have laws requiring school boards to develop and adopt programs to address this issue. Further, according to NCSL "n 2011 at least eight states have introduced legislation to address teen dating violence".<ref name=NCSL/> In the United States, the National Conference of State Legislators (NCSL) states that "olicymakers can play a role in preventing teen dating violence"<ref name=NCSL> on NCSL.ogv, retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> and lists those states that currently have laws requiring school boards to develop and adopt programs to address this issue. Further, according to NCSL "n 2011 at least eight states have introduced legislation to address teen dating violence".<ref name=NCSL/>
On January 31, 2011, President Obama proclaimed February 2011 to be "National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month".<ref> on whitehouse.gov, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> In 2006 the U.S. first recognized "National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Week", sponsored by Senator ], to "increase public awareness and education of the prevalence of teen dating violence among our nation's teens".<ref name=Crapo> on crapo.senate.gov, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> The first week in February was so recognized through 2009. Beginning in 2010, Senator Crapo joined the Department of Justice in recognizing the month of February as Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month.<ref name=Crapo/> On January 31, 2011, President Obama proclaimed February 2011 to be "National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month".<ref> on whitehouse.gov, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> In 2006 the U.S. first recognized "National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Week", sponsored by Senator ], to "increase public awareness and education of the prevalence of teen dating violence among our nation's teens".<ref name=Crapo> on crapo.senate.gov, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.</ref> The first week in February was so recognized through 2009. Beginning in 2010, Senator Crapo joined the Department of Justice in recognizing the month of February as Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month.<ref name=Crapo/>


===National helpline=== ====National helpline and organization====
The National Dating Abuse Helpline, created by ], is a 24-hour nationwide Web-based and telephone resource created to help teens and young people who are experiencing dating abuse. They offer information on building healthy relationships and how to recognize warning signs. It is the only helpline in the country serving all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.<ref></ref> The National Dating Abuse Helpline, created by ], is a 24-hour nationwide Web-based and telephone resource created to help teens and young people who are experiencing dating abuse. They offer information on building healthy relationships and how to recognize warning signs. It is the only helpline in the country serving all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.<ref></ref>


===Teen dating violence organizations based in the United States===
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
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* ] * ]


⚫ ===United Kingdom===
===Association with sexual activity===
⚫ In 2010, a campaign by the ] featured adverts targeting "boys and girls aged 13 to 18" via television, radio, Internet, and poster campaigns. The campaign followed research by the ] indicating that approximately one-quarter of 13- to 17-year-old females had experienced physical abuse from a dating partner.<ref>((cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk/8515601.stm|title=Teenage domestic violence tackled by advert campaign|accessdate=2014 November 19))</ref>
{{See also|Adolescent sexuality in the United States}}
Surveys indicate that the majority of American teens who have actually had sex wish they had waited. Among sexually active girls, two-thirds say they did not want to lose their virginity when they did or that they had mixed feelings about it.<ref name="teens2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_024.pdf|title=Teenagers in the United States: Sexual Activity, Contraceptive Use, and Childbearing, 2002|accessdate=2008-04-29|publisher=National Center for Health Statistics|year=2002|work=Vital and Health Statistics|format=PDF}}</ref>


⚫ ;United Kingdom organizations
Only a small percentage of women who had sex before age 18 said it was completely wanted. Just 1% chose to have sex when they were 13 or younger, 5% at 14 or 15&nbsp;years old, and 10% at 16 or 17&nbsp;years old. Another 42% reported that losing their virginity before age 18 was not completely wanted, while the remaining portion of the sample waited until age 18 or older to have sex (wanted, 22%; unwanted, 21%).<ref name="Paik">{{cite journal | author=Anthony Paik| title=Adolescent Sexuality and the Risk of Marital Dissolution| journal=Journal of Marriage and Family| year=2011| volume=73| issue=2| page=472| doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00819.x}}</ref>
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⚫ ==Other organizations==
A first sexual experience that was unwanted or not completely wanted was strongly associated with future divorce.<ref name="Paik"/> "If the sex was not completely wanted or occurred in a traumatic context, it is easy to imagine how that could have a negative impact on how women might feel about relationships, or on relationship skills", Anthony Paik, associate professor of sociology at the ], said. "The experience could point people on a path toward less stable relationships".

⚫ ==Examples==
⚫ # When a friend and the aggressor (the violent significant other) are together, the last one calls the victim names or puts her/him down in front of other people.
⚫ # The aggressor acts extremely jealous when the victim talks to other person of the aggressor's sex, even when it is completely innocent.
⚫ # The victim apologizes for the aggressor's behavior and makes excuses for him/her.
⚫ # The victim frequently cancels plans at the last minute, for reasons that sound untrue.
⚫ # The aggressor is always checking up on the victim, calling or paging her/him, and demanding to know where the victim has been and with whom has been.
⚫ # The aggressor loses his/her temper, maybe even break or hit things when mad.
⚫ # The victim seems worried about upsetting the aggressor or making him/her angry.
⚫ # The victim is giving up things that used to be important to her/him, such as spending time with friends or other activities, and is becoming more and more isolated.
⚫ # The victim's weight, appearance or grades have changed dramatically. These could be signs of depression, which could indicate abuse.
⚫ # The victim has injuries she/he cannot explain, or the explanations given do not make sense.<ref>{{cite book|last=Liz Clairborne Inc|title=What You Need to Know About Dating Violence: A Teen's Handbook|year=2000}}</ref>

⚫ ==Other teen dating violence organizations==
;Canada
*, Provided by the Canadian Red Cross, give information to teens, parents, and teachers about abuse in dating relationships *, Provided by the Canadian Red Cross, give information to teens, parents, and teachers about abuse in dating relationships

==Conclusion==
Although dating abuse (see ]) is not as widely studied in adolescents as in adults, this formidable stage of life is viewed as a “window of opportunity for prevention” <ref name=NCSL /> of not only continued harmful behavior now, but also future destructive behaviors toward oneself and others. Because trauma in adolescence is such a strong predictor for future actions, <ref name=CDC /> it is important that society begins to take a deeper look into the issue and becomes more conscious of its prevalence and severity of its impact. Despite the controversies over severity of violence and hormone development and expression between sexes, society is beginning the move toward understanding teen dating violence and the necessity for change in the way it is handled. The freshly garnered attention that the issue is receiving from both President Obama and state policymakers, including working with health officials to gather new surveillance data to strengthen awareness of prevalence, <ref name=NCSL /> is leading society into a promising direction towards recognition and prevention.


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}}
<references/>


==External links== ==External links==

Revision as of 20:21, 19 November 2015

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This article is about dating violence among teens. For general topic, see Dating abuse.

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Teen dating violence is the physical, sexual, or psychological / emotional abuse (or violence) within a dating relationship among adolescents. Intimate partner violence has been a well examined and documented phenomenon in adults; however, there has not been nearly as much study on violence in adolescent dating relationships, and it is therefore not as well understood. The research has mainly focused on Caucasian youth, and there are yet no studies which focus specifically on IPV in adolescent same-sex romantic relationships.

Intimate partner violence in adolescents is an important realm of study as, in addition to the usual negative effects of abuse, this violence occurs at a critical period in the social and mental development of a person. This is also an important topic from a gender studies perspective as almost 32% of male adolescents engage in some form of violence, whether sexual, physical or emotional, towards their partners while adolescent violence from females is nearly half of that rate. Also, according to the United States public health authority, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "dolescents and adults are often unaware that teens experience dating violence."

Examples

  1. When a friend and the aggressor (the violent significant other) are together, the last one calls the victim names or puts her/him down in front of other people.
  2. The aggressor acts extremely jealous when the victim talks to other person of the aggressor's sex, even when it is completely innocent.
  3. The victim apologizes for the aggressor's behavior and makes excuses for him/her.
  4. The victim frequently cancels plans at the last minute, for reasons that sound untrue.
  5. The aggressor is always checking up on the victim, calling or paging her/him, and demanding to know where the victim has been and with whom has been.
  6. The aggressor loses his/her temper, maybe even break or hit things when mad.
  7. The victim seems worried about upsetting the aggressor or making him/her angry.
  8. The victim is giving up things that used to be important to her/him, such as spending time with friends or other activities, and is becoming more and more isolated.
  9. The victim's weight, appearance or grades have changed dramatically. These could be signs of depression, which could indicate abuse.
  10. The victim has injuries she/he cannot explain, or the explanations given do not make sense.

Gender differences

The literature on IPV among adolescents indicates that the rates are similar for the number of girls and boys in heterosexual relationships who report experiencing IPV, or that girls in heterosexual relationships are more likely than their male counterparts to report perpetrating IPV. Rapp-Paglicci et al. stated that, unlike domestic violence in general, equal rates of IPV perpetration is a unique characteristic with regard adolescent dating violence, and that this is "perhaps because the period of adolescence, a special developmental state, is accompanied by sexual characteristics that are distinctly different from the characteristics of adult." Wekerle and Wolfe theorized that "a mutually coercive and violent dynamic may form during adolescence, a time when males and females are more equal on a physical level" and that this "physical equality allows girls to assert more power through physical violence than is possible for an adult female attacked by a fully physically mature man."

Regarding studies that indicate that girls are more likely than boys to commit IPV, the authors emphasize that substantial differences exist between the genders, including that girls are significantly more likely than boys to report having experienced severe IPV, such as being threatened with a weapon, punched, strangled, beaten, burned, or raped, and are also substantially more likely than boys to need psychological help or experience physical injuries that require medical help for the abuse, and to report sexual violence as a part of dating violence. They are also more likely to take IPV more seriously. By contrast, boys are more likely to report experiencing less severe acts, such as being pinched, slapped, scratched or kicked. Girls are more likely to report committing less serious forms of IPV, including as a means of self-defense, whereas boys are more likely to report committing more severe acts of IPV, including threats, physical violence and controlling a partner. That girls are more likely to engage in IPV as a result of self-defense is supported by findings that previous victimization is a stronger predictor of perpetration in females than in males.

Controversies and arguments

There is a common misconception that aggression is stable over time. That is, young people who are labeled as or considered to be violent and aggressive at any point in time are then assumed to be dangerous for the rest of their lives. This is a contentious issue because there is a desire to protect both parties involved (or that have the potential to become involved) in teen dating violence. While classifying the perpetrator as a threat may be detrimental to his or her life and future relationships, not classifying the perpetrator this way may put future partners at risk.

There is considerable debate over whether we as a society have an accurate picture of the prevalence and severity of teen dating violence by gender. It is important to note that although male and female adolescents do not differ in "overall frequency of violence in dating relationships," females are subject to "significantly higher levels of severe violence". This fact begs the question of whether abuse should be evaluated based on “severity” and how that can and should be measured, or if all abuse should be considered equally harmful.

Age of consent is an issue that cannot be ignored in the discussion of teenage dating violence. Teenage sex is regulated in such a way that "age of consent laws render teenagers below a certain age incapable of consent to sexual activity with adults, and sometimes with peers". In some cases, the adult may be just a few months older than the minor. There are a number of states in which "age of consent statutes are used to prosecute consensual sex between two persons both under the age of consent." This type of prosecution has been deemed unconstitutional in some states by citing violation of privacy rights, but remains in effect in other states. Sexual behavior and aggression can be so deeply intertwined that the legality of underage consensual sex is sure to have an effect on teen dating violence.

Nature vs. nurture

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Significant research has been done on the causes behind violent behavior in adolescent dating relationships with the intention of guiding the creation of dating violence prevention programs, and in turn has provided findings on the roles of nature and nurture in the development of such behavior with a strong favor towards nurture factors. A study published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health examined the potential association between a spectrum of childhood adverse experiences and physical violence in relationships before age 21 for both members. The subjects were asked questions about violence in their adolescent relationships, as either victim or perpetrator, and their childhood surrounding twelve different adversities: parental death, parental divorce, long-term separation from parent, parental mental illness, parental substance abuse disorder, parental criminality, inter-parental violence, serious physical illness in childhood, physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and family economic adversity. The results demonstrated a strong positive correlation between ten out of the twelve childhood adversities and physically violent behavior in a teen relationship, with 13.8% responding with experiences of sexual violence, and 11.6% experiencing inter-parental violence. This points to a strong influence of experience, or nature, on violent tendencies in adolescent relationships. Multiple other studies corroborate these findings, citing childhood bullying, assault, and maltreatment as significant indicators for future violence in adolescent dating. Though there has been little explicit study of the relationship between nature and teen dating violence, there has been proven correlation between testosterone levels and violent tendencies that could come to fruition in adolescent dating relationships. Higher testosterone levels “manifests itself in various intensities and forms from; thoughts, anger, verbal aggressiveness, competition, dominance behavior, to physical violence.” A study published in the International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism reported, “Testosterone plays a significant role in the arousal of these behavioral manifestations in the brain centers involved in aggression and on the development of the muscular system that enables their realization. There is evidence that testosterone levels are higher in individuals with aggressive behavior, such as prisoners who have committed violent crimes.” However, the study also noted that many cases of high testosterone levels are disarmed through socialization. Overall, because children are exposed to relationships early in their life through their parents and being so malleable at a young age, most evidence points to an adverse experience or experiences in childhood as fodder for such behavior in adolescence.

Prevalence and approaches

The literature on IPV among adolescents primarily focuses on Caucasian youth, and there are yet no studies which focus specifically on IPV in adolescent same-sex romantic relationships.

United States

Statistics

While dating, domestic and sexual violence affect women regardless of their age, teens and young women are especially vulnerable. Young people ages 12 to 19 experience the highest rates of rape and sexual assault, and people age 18 and 19 experience the highest rates of stalking. Approximately one in three adolescent girls in the United States is a victim of physical, emotional, or verbal abuse from a dating partner—a figure that far exceeds victimization rates for other types of violence affecting youth Mark Green, former Wisconsin Representative said "if the numbers we see in domestic violence (dating violence) were applied to terrorism or gang violence, the entire country would be up in arms, and it would be the lead story on the news every night". According to Women's Health, "81% of parents surveyed either believed dating violence is not an issue or admit they don't know if it's an issue", this is concerning because of the growth of dating abuse in teenagers relationships. Dating violence has advanced through the years by the means of communication technology. A survey conducted by Teenage Research Unlimited stated that " percent of teens have been threatened physically via e-mail, IM, text messaging, chat rooms, etc."

A 2008 meta-analyses, which examined 62 empirical research studies between 1996 and 2006, relating to domestic violence in heterosexual intimate relationships from adolescence through to adulthood in the United States, reported on research findings that consistently show that adolescent females commit significantly more acts of domestic violence in intimate relationships than adolescent males. It stated, however, that the "data also suggest that females who commit acts of domestic violence may experience more violent or frequent IPV victimization than males" and that "he highest rates were found for emotional violence, followed by physical and sexual violence. Prevalence rates varied widely within each population, most likely due to methodological and sampling differences across studies." The authors added, "Few longitudinal studies existed, limiting the extent to which we could identify developmental patterns associated with female perpetrated intimate partner violence." They found a few studies which reported prevalence rates of IPV perpetration among females at two or more time points, which they stated made "it difficult to obtain a clear picture of the developmental patterns associated with this type of violence." There was also only one study that reported on prevalence rates over time for female perpetrated IPV among adolescents. "This study found a significant increase in prevalence over a six month period; however, they measured lifetime perpetration of IPV, therefore, it is unclear if there was an actual increase or simply an accumulation of violence," stated the authors. "Together, these studies provide very limited evidence that female perpetration of IPV may follow a similar developmental trajectory as other forms of violence. Unfortunately, many of the studies included in this review used modified or alternative instruments making it difficult to accurately compare prevalence estimates."

In a 2009 survey, the CDC found that 9.8% of high school students in the U.S. reported having been intentionally physically hurt by their boyfriend or girlfriend in the preceding 12 months. The CDC also reports that approximately 1 in 5 women and 1 in 7 men who have been a victim of intimate partner violence (IPV) first experienced IPV between the ages of 11 and 17. The ages between 16 and 24 are when youth are the most susceptible to dating violence. Also, according to the CDC, one in ten teens will be physically abused between seventh and twelfth grade. Because of this abuse, victims are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol, employ precarious sexual conduct, develop eating disorders, and attempt suicide. The above numbers are notable in their magnitude and in their discrepancy, indicating that at some point between birth and high school a huge number of males are learning that it is useful and acceptable to abuse their dating partners in some way. The reciprocal of males learning violent behaviors is that women are not learning this fact and are instead learning through our culture and through violence directed at them that they are to be submissive. Males learning violent behaviors coupled with females thinking it normative creates a cycle of women being abused, learning to accept it and imparting this idea to their children and repeating the process. Adolescent dating violence is a subject which must be understood in order for true equality between the sexes to be achieved and to help stop partner violence in adults before it occurs.

A 2011 CDC nationwide survey of the United States population, reported that 23% of females and 14% of males who ever experienced rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, first experienced some form of partner violence between 11 and 17 years of age.

Legislation

In the United States, the National Conference of State Legislators (NCSL) states that "olicymakers can play a role in preventing teen dating violence" and lists those states that currently have laws requiring school boards to develop and adopt programs to address this issue. Further, according to NCSL "n 2011 at least eight states have introduced legislation to address teen dating violence". On January 31, 2011, President Obama proclaimed February 2011 to be "National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month". In 2006 the U.S. first recognized "National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Week", sponsored by Senator Mike Crapo, to "increase public awareness and education of the prevalence of teen dating violence among our nation's teens". The first week in February was so recognized through 2009. Beginning in 2010, Senator Crapo joined the Department of Justice in recognizing the month of February as Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month.

National helpline and organization

The National Dating Abuse Helpline, created by National Domestic Violence Hotline, is a 24-hour nationwide Web-based and telephone resource created to help teens and young people who are experiencing dating abuse. They offer information on building healthy relationships and how to recognize warning signs. It is the only helpline in the country serving all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.

United Kingdom

In 2010, a campaign by the Home Office featured adverts targeting "boys and girls aged 13 to 18" via television, radio, Internet, and poster campaigns. The campaign followed research by the NSPCC indicating that approximately one-quarter of 13- to 17-year-old females had experienced physical abuse from a dating partner.

United Kingdom organizations

Other organizations

  • RespectED, Provided by the Canadian Red Cross, give information to teens, parents, and teachers about abuse in dating relationships

References

  1. ^ "Teen dating violence", URL retrieved 13 August 2011.
  2. ^ Handbook of Adolescent Health Psychology. Springer Science & Business Media. 2014. p. 193. ISBN 1461466334. Retrieved November 15, 2015. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  3. Bachman, Ronet; Peralta, Robert (2002). "The relationship between drinking and violence in an adolescent population: does gender matter?". Deviant Behavior. 23 (1). Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  4. Liz Clairborne Inc (2000). What You Need to Know About Dating Violence: A Teen's Handbook.
  5. ^ Connie Mitchell (2009). Intimate Partner Violence : A Health-Based Perspective: A Health-Based Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 514. ISBN 019972072X. Retrieved November 15, 2015.
  6. ^ Williams, J. R., Ghandour, A. M., & Kub, J. E. (2008). Female perpetration of violence in heterosexual intimate relationships: Adolescence through adulthood. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 9(4), 227-249. doi: 10.1177/1524838008324418
  7. ^ Handbook of Violence. John Wiley & Sons. 2002. p. 36. ISBN 0471214442. Retrieved November 15, 2015. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  8. Edwards, K. M.; Dardis, C. M.; Gidycz, C. A. (2011). "The role of victimization experiences in adolescent girls and young women's aggression in dating relationships". The psychology of teen violence and victimization, vols 1 and 2: From bullying to cyberstalking to assault and sexual violation; prevention strategies for families and schools. 1 & 2: 71–82.
  9. Loeber, Rolf; Stouthamer-Loeber, Magda (1998). "Development of juvenile aggression and violence: Some common misconceptions and controversies". American Psychologist. 53 (2): 242–259.
  10. Molidor, Tolman (1998). "Gender and Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating Violence". Violence Against Women. 4 (2): 180–194.
  11. Sutherland, Kate (2003). "From Jailbird to Jailbait: Age of Consent Laws and the Construction of Teenage Sexualities". William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law. 9 (3): 313–349.
  12. "Adverse Childhood Experiences and Risk of Physical Violence in Adolescent Dating Relationships". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 65 (11): 1006–1013. 2011.
  13. Batrinos, Menelaos (2012). "Testosterone and Aggressive Behavior in Man". International Journal of Endocrinologyand Metabolism. 10 (3): 563–568.
  14. Truman, Jennifer. "Criminal Victimization, 2008". U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics. U.S. Department of Justice.
  15. Davis, Antoinette (2008). "Interpersonal and Physical Dating Violence among Teens" (PDF). The National Council on Crime and Delinquency Focus.
  16. Savacool, Julia. "Our Most Important Mission Ever: Stop Violence Against Women Now, 2005".
  17. "Teen Dating Violence". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). June 29, 2015. Retrieved November 15, 2015.
  18. ^ "Teen Dating Violence" on NCSL.ogv, retrieved 13 August 2011.
  19. "Presidential Proclamation--National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month, 2011" on whitehouse.gov, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.
  20. ^ "Teen Dating Violence Awareness Week" on crapo.senate.gov, URL retrieved 13 August 2011.
  21. Jewish Women International
  22. ((cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk/8515601.stm%7Ctitle=Teenage domestic violence tackled by advert campaign|accessdate=2014 November 19))

External links

Canadian resources
  • RespectED, Provided by the Canadian Red Cross, give information to teens, parents, and teachers about abuse in dating relationships
  • The Fourth R, Provided by the CAMH centre for Prevention Science and the Fourth R program to prevent adolescent dating violence and promote healthy teen relationships.
UK resources
US resources
Abuse
Types
Related topics

Other

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