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In 1947, at the time of the ], British offered the various princely states in the sub-continent the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan, or staying on as an independent state. | In 1947, at the time of the ], British offered the various princely states in the sub-continent the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan, or staying on as an independent state. | ||
At the time of the ], the State of Hyderabad was the largest of all princely states in India. It covered {{convert|82698|sqmi|km2}} of fairly homogenous territory and comprised a population of roughly 16.34 million people (as per the 1941 census) of which a majority (85%) was ]. Hyderabad State had its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and radio broadcasting service. However, administration, military and police was dominated by close confidants of Nizam. | At the time of the ], the State of Hyderabad was the largest of all princely states in India. It covered {{convert|82698|sqmi|km2}} of fairly homogenous territory and comprised a population of roughly 16.34 million people (as per the 1941 census) of which a majority (85%) was ]. Hyderabad State had its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and radio broadcasting service. However, administration, military and police was dominated by close confidants of Nizam. Local Hinuds had very little say in administration of the state. Even in legislative assembly of state, Hindus were outnumbered by muslims. | ||
Nizam refused to send his representatives to Constituent Assembly of India and Pakistan after announcement of British government's plan of 3 June 1947. He made it clear that he will resume status of independent sovereign on 15 August 1947. On July 11, Nizam sent delegation to meet Lord Mountbatten and demanded that Hyderabad State shall be granted dominion status under Indian Independence Act, 1947. This demand was rejected by Mountbatten. | |||
Thereafter, Hyderabad State joined as member of negotiation committee set up by Chamber of Princes on 25 July 1947. The purpose of this committee was to discuss terms of standstill agreement and instrument of accession. However, on 31 July 1947, Hyderabad state decided not to take part in negotiations. Lord Mountbatten tried to persuade him that the course of action he was pursuing | |||
was not in the interests of Hyderabad, but on 31 July the Nawab wrote again to say that he adhered to his original decision and suggested the appointment of a second Negotiating Committee, consisting only of such States as had decided to stand out of the Indian Constituent | |||
Assembly. He was anxious, too, that the negotiations should be with representatives of both India and Pakistan and that the agreement should be a tripartite one. | |||
Indian government was of the firm opinion that Hyderabad State must take opinion of its people to decide whether to accede to India or remain independent. The Government of India would be content to accept whatever might be the result of such a referendum and would be prepared to include Berar in any such plan. | |||
Accordingly Lord Mountbatten wrote to the Nizam on 27 August making the offer of a referendum under the supervision of British officers. The Nizam rejected the offer next day in a brief communication in which he said, 'the problem and constitutional position of Hyderabad | |||
are such that the question of referendum does not arise.'<ref>https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf Page 223-225</ref> | |||
During this time, Kazim Razvi visited Sardar Patel and other officials in Indian government. He declared that Hyderabad would never surrender its independence and that the Hindus were happy under the Nizam. If the Government of India insisted on a plebiscite, the final arbiter could only be the sword.<ref>https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf Page 229</ref> | |||
On 29 November 1947, Nizam signed Standstill agreement and Instrument of accession to India. The Standstill Agreement contained only five articles. The preamble emphasized that it was the aim and policy of the Dominion of India and of the Nizam to work together in close | |||
association and amity for the mutual benefit of both. The first Article laid down that, until new arrangements in this behalf were made, all the agreements and administrative arrangements on matters of common concern, including defence, external affairs and communications, which had existed between the Grown Representative and the Nizam before the transfer of power, would be continued as between the Government of India and the Nizam; but that the Agreement did not impose any obligation or confer any right on the Dominion either to send | |||
troops to assist the Nizam in the maintenance of internal order, or to station troops in the State except in time of war. By Article II, the Government of India and the Nizam agreed toappoint their agents in Hyderabad and Delhi respectively, and to give them every facility for the discharge of their functions. Article III stressed that under the Agreement the Government of India would not exercise any paramountcy functions in their relations with Hyderabad ; and that nothing in the Agreement should be deemed to create in favour of either party any right continuing after its termination, or derogate from any right which, but for the Agreement, would have been exercisable by either party after the date of its termination. Article IV laid down that any dispute arising out of the Agreement should be referred to two arbitrators, one to be appointed by each of the parties, and an umpire selected by those arbitrators. Article V stipulated that the Agreement would come into force immediately and would remain in force for a period of one year. | |||
The Nizam also wrote a secret letter to Lord Mountbatten undertaking not to accede to Pakistan. This letter contained two other points: firstly, that if the Indian Union decided to secede from the Commonwealth, the Nizam would regard himself as being at liberty to | |||
reconsider his position; and secondly, that in the event of a war between India and Pakistan, he would remain neutral. Both these points were noted by the Government of India. | |||
In accordance with Article II of the Standstill Agreement, the Government of India appointed K. M. Munshi as their Agent-General in Hyderabad. | |||
Almost before the ink was dry on the Standstill Agreement, the Nizam's Government issued two ordinances in quick succession. The first imposed restrictions on the export of all precious metals from Hyderabad to India. The second declared Indian currency to be not legal tender in the State. | |||
The activities of the Razakars had meanwhile increased in intensity. Razvi had thrown all restraint to the winds and was indulging in most objectionable speeches, calculated to inflame communal passions both inside and outside Hyderabad. In one of his speeches he alleged that | |||
the Government of India were supplying arms and materials illicitly to the Hindus of Hyderabad; in another he declared that the Razakars were the liberators of the Muslims of India. Munshi had several discussions with Laik Ali with a view to curbing the activities of the | |||
Razakars. Their agreed conclusion was that as a first step there should be simultaneous action by both Governments. Hyderabad should prohibit the Razakars from assisting the police in maintaining law and order, while the Government of India should take action against the | |||
Communists on their side of the border. This matter was to have been discussed with Sardar when Laik Ali and Munshi came to Delhi, but for the reason already stated this was not possible. About this time the Government of Madras asked for military assistance in border areas to ward off the incursions of the Razakars and Hyderabad troops into Indian territory. <ref>https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf Page 233</ref> | |||
Supported by the Razakars, the ruling clique in Hyderabad was now in a militant mood. The Hyderabad radio went to the extent of announcing that if there was a war against Hyderabad thousands of Pathans would march into India. The Razakars continued to meet every night at different centres and their leaders made the wildest speeches. El Edroos, the Commander-in-Chief of the Hyderabad forces, called upon the | |||
people in a radio talk to be ready for any emergency.<ref>http://blog.lkadvani.in/blog-in-english/the-%E2%80%98operation-polo%E2%80%99-in-hyderabad</ref> | |||
Indian government decided to invade in September 1948, India launched a military operation named '']'', led by ], then ] and ]. The Indian Police forces entered the State of Hyderabad to forcefully annex to state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=K/KtVO4bQNg=&ParentID=a2GSpnDbruI=|title=Official Website of Indian Army|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyderabad.co.uk/policeaction.htm|title=Hyderabad on the Net|work=hyderabad.co.uk}}</ref> | Indian government decided to invade in September 1948, India launched a military operation named '']'', led by ], then ] and ]. The Indian Police forces entered the State of Hyderabad to forcefully annex to state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=K/KtVO4bQNg=&ParentID=a2GSpnDbruI=|title=Official Website of Indian Army|publisher=|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyderabad.co.uk/policeaction.htm|title=Hyderabad on the Net|work=hyderabad.co.uk}}</ref> |
Revision as of 09:23, 31 May 2016
This article is about the princely state in British India ruled by the Nizam from 1724 to 1948. For other uses, see Hyderabad (disambiguation).
State of Hyderabad ریاست حیدرآباد హైదరాబాద్ రాష్ట్రం हैदराबाद राज्य ಹೈದರಾಬಾದ್ ಪ್ರಾಂತ್ಯ | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1724–1948 Continued as an Indian state until 1956 Hyderabad State (1948–56) | |||||||||||
Flag Coat of arms | |||||||||||
Hyderabad (dark green) and Berar Province not a part of Hyderabad State but also the Nizam's Dominion between 1853 and 1903 (light green). | |||||||||||
Status | Independent Kingdom (1724-1803) Princely state of British India (1803–1947) Unrecognised state (1947–1948) State of India (1948–1956) | ||||||||||
Capital | Aurangabad (1724–1763) Hyderabad (1763–1948) | ||||||||||
Common languages | Urdu (Official), Dakhini (National & Cultural), Persian (Historical), Marathi, Telugu, Kannada | ||||||||||
Religion | Islam | ||||||||||
Government | Independent Kingdom (1724-1803) Princely State (1803–1948) Province of the Dominion of India (1948–1950) State of the Republic of India (1950–1956) | ||||||||||
Nizam | |||||||||||
• 1724–48 | Qamaruddin Khan (first) | ||||||||||
• 1911–48 | Osman Ali Khan (last) | ||||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||||
• 1724–1730 | Iwaz Khan (first) | ||||||||||
• 1947–1948 | Mir Laiq Ali (last) | ||||||||||
History | |||||||||||
• Established | 1724 | ||||||||||
• Telangana Rebellion | 1946 | ||||||||||
• Accession in India | 18 September 1948 Continued as an Indian state until 1956 Hyderabad State (1948–56) | ||||||||||
• States Reorganisation Act | 1 November 1956 | ||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||
215,339 km (83,143 sq mi) | |||||||||||
Currency | Hyderabadi rupee | ||||||||||
|
Princely state |
---|
Individual residencies |
Agencies |
|
Lists |
Hyderābād State (pronunciation) was an Indian princely state located in the south-central region of India, and was ruled, from 1724 until 1948, by a hereditary Nizam. The capital city was Hyderabad.
The Asaf Jahi Dynasty was a dynasty of Turkic origin from the region around Samarkand in modern-day Uzbekistan, who came to India in the late 17th century, and became employees of the Mughal Empire. The region became part of the Mughal Empire in the 1680s. When the empire began to weaken in the 18th century, Asif Jah defeated a rival Mughal governor's attempt to seize control of the empire's southern provinces, declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Mughal emperor, under renewed attack from the Marathas, was unable to prevent it.
Following the decline of the Mughal power, India saw the rise of Maratha Empire, Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas. Some of the major battles fought between Marathas and Nizam include the Battle of Rakshasbhuvan, the Battle of Palkhed and the Battle of Kharda, all of which resulted in Maratha victory and suzerainty over the territory of Nizam and collection of tributary by the Marathas.
In 1798 Hyderabad became a princely state under the British East India Company's suzerainty. By a subsidiary alliance it had ceded to the British East India company the control of its external affairs. In 1903 the Berar region of the state was separated and merged into the Central Provinces of British India, to form the Central Provinces and Berar.
In 1947, at the time of the partition of India, British offered the various princely states in the sub-continent the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan, or staying on as an independent state.
At the time of the partition of India, the State of Hyderabad was the largest of all princely states in India. It covered 82,698 square miles (214,190 km) of fairly homogenous territory and comprised a population of roughly 16.34 million people (as per the 1941 census) of which a majority (85%) was Hindu. Hyderabad State had its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and radio broadcasting service. However, administration, military and police was dominated by close confidants of Nizam. Local Hinuds had very little say in administration of the state. Even in legislative assembly of state, Hindus were outnumbered by muslims.
Nizam refused to send his representatives to Constituent Assembly of India and Pakistan after announcement of British government's plan of 3 June 1947. He made it clear that he will resume status of independent sovereign on 15 August 1947. On July 11, Nizam sent delegation to meet Lord Mountbatten and demanded that Hyderabad State shall be granted dominion status under Indian Independence Act, 1947. This demand was rejected by Mountbatten.
Thereafter, Hyderabad State joined as member of negotiation committee set up by Chamber of Princes on 25 July 1947. The purpose of this committee was to discuss terms of standstill agreement and instrument of accession. However, on 31 July 1947, Hyderabad state decided not to take part in negotiations. Lord Mountbatten tried to persuade him that the course of action he was pursuing was not in the interests of Hyderabad, but on 31 July the Nawab wrote again to say that he adhered to his original decision and suggested the appointment of a second Negotiating Committee, consisting only of such States as had decided to stand out of the Indian Constituent Assembly. He was anxious, too, that the negotiations should be with representatives of both India and Pakistan and that the agreement should be a tripartite one.
Indian government was of the firm opinion that Hyderabad State must take opinion of its people to decide whether to accede to India or remain independent. The Government of India would be content to accept whatever might be the result of such a referendum and would be prepared to include Berar in any such plan.
Accordingly Lord Mountbatten wrote to the Nizam on 27 August making the offer of a referendum under the supervision of British officers. The Nizam rejected the offer next day in a brief communication in which he said, 'the problem and constitutional position of Hyderabad are such that the question of referendum does not arise.'
During this time, Kazim Razvi visited Sardar Patel and other officials in Indian government. He declared that Hyderabad would never surrender its independence and that the Hindus were happy under the Nizam. If the Government of India insisted on a plebiscite, the final arbiter could only be the sword.
On 29 November 1947, Nizam signed Standstill agreement and Instrument of accession to India. The Standstill Agreement contained only five articles. The preamble emphasized that it was the aim and policy of the Dominion of India and of the Nizam to work together in close association and amity for the mutual benefit of both. The first Article laid down that, until new arrangements in this behalf were made, all the agreements and administrative arrangements on matters of common concern, including defence, external affairs and communications, which had existed between the Grown Representative and the Nizam before the transfer of power, would be continued as between the Government of India and the Nizam; but that the Agreement did not impose any obligation or confer any right on the Dominion either to send troops to assist the Nizam in the maintenance of internal order, or to station troops in the State except in time of war. By Article II, the Government of India and the Nizam agreed toappoint their agents in Hyderabad and Delhi respectively, and to give them every facility for the discharge of their functions. Article III stressed that under the Agreement the Government of India would not exercise any paramountcy functions in their relations with Hyderabad ; and that nothing in the Agreement should be deemed to create in favour of either party any right continuing after its termination, or derogate from any right which, but for the Agreement, would have been exercisable by either party after the date of its termination. Article IV laid down that any dispute arising out of the Agreement should be referred to two arbitrators, one to be appointed by each of the parties, and an umpire selected by those arbitrators. Article V stipulated that the Agreement would come into force immediately and would remain in force for a period of one year.
The Nizam also wrote a secret letter to Lord Mountbatten undertaking not to accede to Pakistan. This letter contained two other points: firstly, that if the Indian Union decided to secede from the Commonwealth, the Nizam would regard himself as being at liberty to reconsider his position; and secondly, that in the event of a war between India and Pakistan, he would remain neutral. Both these points were noted by the Government of India.
In accordance with Article II of the Standstill Agreement, the Government of India appointed K. M. Munshi as their Agent-General in Hyderabad.
Almost before the ink was dry on the Standstill Agreement, the Nizam's Government issued two ordinances in quick succession. The first imposed restrictions on the export of all precious metals from Hyderabad to India. The second declared Indian currency to be not legal tender in the State.
The activities of the Razakars had meanwhile increased in intensity. Razvi had thrown all restraint to the winds and was indulging in most objectionable speeches, calculated to inflame communal passions both inside and outside Hyderabad. In one of his speeches he alleged that the Government of India were supplying arms and materials illicitly to the Hindus of Hyderabad; in another he declared that the Razakars were the liberators of the Muslims of India. Munshi had several discussions with Laik Ali with a view to curbing the activities of the Razakars. Their agreed conclusion was that as a first step there should be simultaneous action by both Governments. Hyderabad should prohibit the Razakars from assisting the police in maintaining law and order, while the Government of India should take action against the Communists on their side of the border. This matter was to have been discussed with Sardar when Laik Ali and Munshi came to Delhi, but for the reason already stated this was not possible. About this time the Government of Madras asked for military assistance in border areas to ward off the incursions of the Razakars and Hyderabad troops into Indian territory.
Supported by the Razakars, the ruling clique in Hyderabad was now in a militant mood. The Hyderabad radio went to the extent of announcing that if there was a war against Hyderabad thousands of Pathans would march into India. The Razakars continued to meet every night at different centres and their leaders made the wildest speeches. El Edroos, the Commander-in-Chief of the Hyderabad forces, called upon the people in a radio talk to be ready for any emergency.
Indian government decided to invade in September 1948, India launched a military operation named Operation Polo, led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, then Minister of Home Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister of India. The Indian Police forces entered the State of Hyderabad to forcefully annex to state.
Seven Nizams had ruled Hyderabad State for two centuries until the Indian conquest of Hyderabad in 1948 brought about the end of the dynasty. The Asaf Jahi rulers were great patrons of literature, art, architecture, culture, jewellery, and rich food. The Nizams patronized aspects of a Persianate society from their Turco-Mongol Mughal overlords, and which became central to the Hyderabadi Muslim identity. They also introduced electricity, developed the railways and the roads, air communications, irrigation and reservoirs. The last Nizam was well known for his huge wealth and jewelry collection; he had been the richest man in the world until the end of his reign. Indeed, all major public buildings in Hyderabad City were built during his reign, while the British Raj was supreme. He pushed education, science, and the establishment of Osmania University.
Early history
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The Nizam of Hyderabad was earlier the Mughal Viceroy of the Deccan. The Asaf Jahi was a dynasty of Turkic origin from the region around Samarkand in modern-day Uzbekistan, who came to India in the late 17th century, and became employees of the Mughal Empire. As the Turco-Mongol Mughals were great patrons of Persian culture, language, literature: the family found a ready patronage. However, with the decline of the Mughals the Deccan attained independence, though the first Nizam continued to owe allegiance to the Mughal Emperor. The Deccan territories were thus the last survivors of the Mughal empire, along with the Princely state of Awadh (in North India). These territories soon came to be known as the 'Nizam's Dominions', which (in the year 1760) included areas from south of Maharashtra to the southern end of Andhra Pradesh, encompassing vast territories in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. However, Hyder Ali administered the regions in and around Mysore and did not owe any allegiance to the Nizam.
With the Mughal empire in disarray, this was a time when the French and British were competing for supremacy in the Indian sub-continent. The French exercised considerable influence in the Deccan from their stronghold of Pondicherry. In fact, the Nizam had a French regent stationed at Hyderabad in the later years of the 18th century as an important adviser, and there remains to this day a street of Hyderabad city named Troop Bazaar, which recalls where the French originally had their military barracks. The Nizam's dominions were at their greatest territorial extent at the time of the first Nizam, Nizam-ul-mulk, Asaf Jah-I. However, after his death there arose a succession struggle, with the British and French supporting competing factions. This resulted in a period of internal instability as two Nizams (Nasir Jung and Muzaffar Jung) ruled in rapid succession, each being assassinated by a rival faction. The combined duration of their rule was just four years. The fourth Nizam, Mir Ali Salabat Jung, came to the throne on French instigation and his rule prevailed for 12 years. This period marked the height of French influence in the Nizam's dominions.
Mir Ali Salabat Jung's successor was Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah II, who gained the territories of Aurangabad, Bidar and Sholapur in various battles with the Marathas. Though Asaf Jah-II ruled for over 50 years, the Nizam's dominions lost considerable power and more importantly, land to both the British and the French due to infighting and debts owed to the foreign powers. He ceded the territory of Northern Circars (present day Coastal Andhra region of the state of Andhra Pradesh) to the French as a gift 'for perpetuity', while British, French and Hyder Ali annexed the Carnatic regions. The Nizam was criticized for failing to form an alliance with Hyder Ali of the Kingdom of Mysore, a move which could have countered the increasing influence of the British in the Deccan. In this time, with the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo, the British also replaced the French as the supreme colonial power in the Indian sub-continent. The British also fought a war with Mysore, which increased its clout in the Deccan and, by 1800, the Nizam's dominions came into a state of near-suzerainty under the British.
During the British Raj
See also: Northern CircarsBy 1801, the Nizam's dominion assumed the shape it is now remembered for: that of a landlocked princely state with territories in central Deccan, bounded on all sides by British India, whereas 150 years earlier it had considerable coastline on the Bay of Bengal.
During the Mutiny of 1857, Salar Jung chose to side with the British, thereby earning the title of 'Faithful Ally' for Hyderabad. This action causes some regret among modern patriots, because had the Nizam's dominions sided with the rebel forces, the British would have been greatly weakened. Hyderabad was as important to the South of India as Delhi was to the North. However, this did not happen and Hyderabad was one of several independent kingdoms of India to side with the British. In 1857, when the rule of the East India Company came to an end and British India came under the direct rule of the Crown, Hyderabad continued to be one of the most important of the princely states. Twenty years later, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.
The senior-most (23-gun) salute state during the period of British India, Hyderabad was an 82,000 square mile (212,000 km²) region in the Deccan, ruled by the head of the Asif Jahi dynasty, who had the title of Nizam and on whom was bestowed the style of "His Exalted Highness" by the British. Development within the state of Hyderabad grew as Salar Jung and the Nizams founded schools, colleges, madrasas and a university that imparted education in Urdu. Inspired by the elite and prestigious Indian Civil Service, the Nizam founded the Hyderabad Civil Service. The pace with which the last Nizam, Osman Ali Khan, amassed wealth made him one of the world's richest men in the 1930s. Carrying a gift, called Nazrana, in accordance with one's net worth while meeting the Nizam, was a de facto necessity.
Industries in Hyderabad under the Nizams
Various major industries emerged in various parts of the State of Hyderabad before its incorporation into the Union of India, especially during the first half of the twentieth century. Hyderabad city had a separate powerplant for electricity. However, the Nizams focused industrial development on the region of Sanathnagar, housing a number of industries there with transportation facilities by both road and rail.
Company | Year |
---|---|
Karkhana Zinda Tilismat | 1920 |
Singareni Collieries | 1921 |
Vazir Sultan Tobacco Company, Charminar cigarette factory | 1930 |
Azam Jahi Mills Warangal | 1934 |
Nizam Sugar Factory | 1937 |
Allwyn Metal Works | 1942 |
Praga Tools | 1943 |
Deccan Airways Limited | 1945 |
Hyderabad Asbestos | 1946 |
Sirsilk | 1946 |
Banking
The Imperial Bank of India opened a branch in Hyderabad in 1868, and a second branch in Secunderabad in 1906. Central Bank of India opened its branch in Hyderabad in 1918 and a second branch in Secunderabad in 1925.
Until 1948, Gulbarga district, now part of Karnataka state, was part of Hyderabad state. Saraswati Bank, established in Gulbarga in 1918, had a branch in Hyderabad. The Gulbarga Banking Company, established in 1930, however, did not.
In 1935 Raja Pannalal Pitti founded the Mercantile Bank of Hyderabad.
In 1942 the Nizam established Hyderabad State Bank to conduct treasury operations for the state government, and other banking. In 1947 there was a proposal that Hyderabad State Bank would be allowed to establish a branch in Karachi, and that as a quid-pro-quo Habib Bank would be allowed to establish a branch in Hyderabad. Partition and Operation Polo, the Indian invasion of Hyderabad that annexed Hyderabad to India, put an end to this idea. Then in 1952-53, Hyderabad State Bank acquired Mercantile Bank. Next, in 1956 State Bank of India took over Hyderabad State Bank, which in 1959 became State Bank of Hyderabad, a subsidiary bank of State Bank of India.
After Indian Independence (1947–48)
Main article: Operation PoloIn 1947 India gained independence and Pakistan came into existence; the British left the local rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one or the other, or to remain independent. On 11 June 1947, the Nizam issued a declaration to the effect that he had decided not to participate in the Constituent Assembly of either Pakistan or India.
On 9 July 1947, in a letter to the Crown Representative, the Nizam requested that Hyderabad be accorded dominion status. This was, however, problematical. Given the Nizam's determination not to join India, this would leave Hyderabad as an independent country entirely surrounded by the new Union of India. The Nizam was a Muslim but the Hindus outnumbered the Muslims by about eight to one in the State.
Keeping in mind Hyderabad's geographical position and the existence of a Hindu majority in his state, and countering India's insistence on accession, pending a settlement the Nizam signed a Stand-still Agreement with India on 29 November 1947. The Agreement was to remain in force for a period of one year. The Agreement provided that disputes arising out of it could be referred to the arbitration of two arbitrators, one appointed by each of the parties, and an umpire appointed by those arbitrators.
The Nizam was in a weak position as his army numbered only 24,000 men, of whom only some 6,000 were fully trained and equipped. The Indian government refused to accept Hyderabad's independence and prepared to carry out a so-called "Hyderabad Police Action" against the Nizam.
On 21 August 1948, the Secretary-General of the Hyderabad Department of External Affairs requested the President of the United Nations's Security Council, under Article 35(2) of the United Nations Charter, to consider the "grave dispute, which, unless settled in accordance with international law and justice, is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security."
On 4 September the Prime Minister of Hyderabad Mir Laiq Ali announced to the Hyderabad Assembly that a delegation was about to leave for Lake Success, headed by Moin Nawaz Jung. The Nizam also appealed, without success, to the British Labour Government and to the King for assistance, to fulfil their obligations and promises to Hyderabad by "immediate intervention". Hyderabad only had the support of Winston Churchill and the British Conservatives.
At 4 a.m. on 13 September 1948, India's Hyderabad Campaign, code-named "Operation Polo" by the Indian Army, began. Indian troops entered Hyderabad from all points of the compass. On 13 September 1948, the Secretary-General of the Hyderabad Department of External Affairs in a cablegram informed the United Nations Security Council that Hyderabad was being invaded by Indian forces and that hostilities had broken out. India maintained that Hyderabad dispute is purely domestic one and did not recognize Nizam's claim to invoke office of United Nations. The Security Council took notice of it on 16 September in Paris. The representative of Hyderabad called for immediate action by the Security Council under chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. The Hyderabad representative responded to India's excuse for the intervention by pointing out that the Stand-still Agreement between the two countries had expressly provided that nothing in it should give India the right to send in troops to assist in the maintenance of internal order. However, on 23 September, Nizam sent his cable to withdraw his case from Security council.
At 5 p.m. on 17 September the Nizam surrendered. India then incorporated the state of Hyderabad into the Union of India and Nizam was continued as Constitutional head of the state. The annexation of Hyderabad was generally welcomed by many Hindus in the state. However some emphasized the unlawfulness of the invasion. Some Muslims migrated to Pakistan, mainly to Karachi, which has a sizeable Hyderabadi muhajir community.
On 6 October 1948, Pakistan's Foreign Minister Sir Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, requested the President of the United Nations' Security Council that Pakistan be permitted to participate in the discussion of the Hyderabad question in accordance with Article 31 of the United Nations' Charter.
Hyderabad became a state of India.
Communal violence
Prior to the operation
In the 1936–37 Indian elections, the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah had sought to harness Muslim aspirations and had won the adherence of MIM leader Nawab Bahadur Yar Jung, who campaigned for an Islamic State centred on the Nizam as the Sultan dismissing all claims for democracy. The Arya Samaj, a Hindu revivalist movement, had been demanding greater access to power for the Hindu majority since the late 1930s and was curbed by the Nizam in 1938. The Hyderabad State Congress joined forces with the Arya Samaj as well as the Hindu Mahasabha in the State.
Noorani regards the MIM under Nawab Bahadur Yar Jung as explicitly committed to safeguarding the rights of religious and linguistic minorities. However, this changed with the ascent of Qasim Razvi after the Nawab died in 1944.
Even as India and Hyderabad negotiated, most of the sub-continent had been thrown into chaos as a result of communal Hindu-Muslim riots pending the imminent partition of India. Fearing a Hindu civil uprising in his kingdom, the Nizam allowed Razvi to set up a voluntary militia of Muslims called the 'Razakars'. The Razakars – who numbered up to 200,000 at the height of the conflict – swore to uphold Islamic domination in Hyderabad and the Deccan plateau in the face of growing public opinion amongst the majority Hindu population favouring the accession of Hyderabad into the Indian Union.
According to an account by Mohammed Hyder, a civil servant in Osmanabad district, a variety of armed militant groups, including Razakars and Deendars and ethnic militias of Pathans and Arabs claimed to be defending the Islamic faith and made claims on the land. "From the beginning of 1948, the Razakars had extended their activities from Hyderabad city into the towns and rural areas, murdering Hindus, abducting women, pillaging houses and fields, and looting non-Muslim property in a widespread reign of terror." "Some women became victims of rape and kidnapping by Razakars. Thousands went to jail and braved the cruelties perpetuated by the oppressive administration. Due to the activities of the Razakars, thousands of Hindus had to flee from the state and take shelter in various camps". Precise numbers are not known, but 40,000 refugees were received by the Central Provinces. This led to terrorising of the Hindu community, some of whom went across the border into independent India and organised raids into Nizam's territory, which further escalated the violence. Many of these raiders were controlled by the Congress leadership in India and had links with extremist religious elements in the Hindutva fold. In all, more than 150 villages (of which 70 were in Indian territory outside Hyderabad State) were pushed into violence.
Hyder mediated some efforts to minimise the influence of the Razakars. Razvi, while generally receptive, vetoed the option of disarming them, saying that with the Hyderabad state army ineffective, the Razakars were the only means of self-defence available. By the end of August 1948, a full-blown invasion by India was imminent.
Hyderabadi military preparations
The Nizam was in a weak position as his army numbered only 24,000 men, of whom only some 6,000 were fully trained and equipped. These included Arabs, Rohillas, North Indian Muslims and Pathans. The State Army consisted of three armoured regiments, a horse cavalry regiment, 11 infantry battalions and artillery. These were supplemented by irregular units with horse cavalry, four infantry battalions (termed as the Saraf-e-khas, paigah, Arab and Refugee) and a garrison battalion. This army was commanded by Major General El Edroos, an Arab. 55 per cent of the Hyderabadi army was composed of Muslims, with 1,268 Muslims in a total of 1,765 officers as of 1941.
In addition to these, there were about 200,000 irregular militia called the Razakars under the command of a civilian leader Kasim Razvi. A quarter of these were armed with modern small firearms, while the rest were predominantly armed with muzzle-loaders and swords.
Skirmish at Kodad
On 6 September an Indian police post near Chillakallu village came under heavy fire from Razakar units. The Indian Army command sent a squadron of The Poona Horse led by Abhey Singh and a company of 2/5 Gurkha Rifles to investigate who was also fired upon by the Razakars. The tanks of the Poona Horse then chased the Razakars to Kodad, in Hyderabad territory. Here they were opposed by the armoured cars of 1st Hyderabad Lancers. In a brief action, the Poona Horse destroyed one armoured car and forced the surrender of the state garrison at Kodad.
Indian military preparations
On receiving directions from the government to seize and annex Hyderabad, the Indian army came up with the Goddard Plan (laid out by Lt. Gen. E. N. Goddard, the Commander-in-Chief of the Southern Command). The plan envisaged two main thrusts – from Vijayawada in the East and Solapur in the West – while smaller units pinned down the Hyderabadi army along the border. Overall command was placed in the hands of Lt. Gen. Rajendrasinghji, DSO.
The attack from Solapur was led by Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri and was composed of four task forces:
- Strike Force comprising a mix of fast-moving infantry, cavalry and light artillery,
- Smash Force consisting of predominantly armoured units and artillery,
- Kill Force composed of infantry and engineering units,
- Vir Force which comprised infantry, anti-tank and engineering units.
The attack from Vijayawada was led by Major General Ajit Rudra and comprised the 2/5 Gurkha Rifles, one squadron of the 17th (Poona) Horse, and a troop from the 19th Field Battery along with engineering and ancillary units. In addition, four infantry battalions were to neutralise and protect lines of communication. Two squadrons of Hawker Tempest aircraft were prepared for air support from the Pune base.
Nehru, in a letter to V. K. Krishna Menon dated to 29 August 1948, wrote that "I am convinced that it is impossible to arrive at any solution of the Hyderabad problem by settlement or peaceful negotiation. Military action becomes essential, we call it as you have called it Police Action." It was also believed that there could be a possible military response by Pakistan. The Time magazine pointed out that if India invaded Hyderabad, Razakars would massacre Hindus, which would lead to retaliatory massacres of Muslims across India.
During and after the operation
There were reports of looting, mass murder and rape of Muslims in reprisals by Hyderabadi Hindus. Jawaharlal Nehru appointed a mixed-faith committee led by Pandit Sunder Lal to investigate the situation. The findings of the report (Pandit Sunderlal Committee Report) were not made public until 2013 when it was accessed from the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in New Delhi.
The Committee concluded that while Muslim villagers were disarmed by the Indian Army, Hindus were often left with their weapons. The violence was carried out by Hindu residents, with the army sometimes indifferent, and sometimes participating in the atrocities. The Committee stated that large-scale violence against Muslims occurred in Marathwada and Telangana areas. It also concluded: "At several places, members of the armed forces brought out Muslim adult males from villages and towns and massacred them in cold blood." The Committee generally credited the military officers with good conduct but stated that soldiers acted out of bigotry. The official "very conservative estimate" was that 27,000 to 40,000 died "during and after the police action." Other scholars have put the figure at 200,000, or even higher. Among Muslims some estimates were even higher and Smith says that the military government's private low estimates were at least ten times the number of murders with which the Razakars were officially accused.
Patel reacted angrily to the report and disowned its conclusions. He stated that the terms of reference were flawed because they only covered the part during and after the operation. He also cast aspersions on the motives and standing of the committee. These objections are regarded by Noorani as disingenuous because the commission was an official one, and it was critical of the Razakars as well.
According to Mohammed Hyder, the tragic consequences of the Indian operation were largely preventable. He faulted the Indian army for neither restoring local administration nor setting up their military administration. As a result, the anarchy led to several thousand "thugs", from the camps set up across the border, filling the vacuum. He stated "Thousands of families were broken up, children separated from their parents and wives, from their husbands. Women and girls were hunted down and raped."
Hyderabad after integration
Main article: Hyderabad State (1948–1956)Detentions and release of people involved
The Indian military detained thousands of people during the operation, including Razakars, Hindu militants, and communists. This was largely done based on local informants, who used this opportunity to settle scores. The estimated number of people detained was close to 18,000, which resulted in overcrowded jails and a paralysed criminal system.
The Indian government set up Special Tribunals to prosecute these. These strongly resembled the colonial governments earlier, and there were many legal irregularities, including denial or inability to access lawyers and delayed trials – about which the Red Cross was pressuring Nehru.
The viewpoint of the government was: "In political physics, Razakar action and Hindu reaction have been almost equal and opposite." A quiet decision was taken to release all Hindus and for a review of all Muslim cases, aiming to let many of them out. Regarding atrocities by Muslims, Nehru considered the actions during the operation as "madness" seizing "decent people", analogous to experience elsewhere during the partition of India. Nehru was also concerned that disenfranchised Muslims would join the communists.
The government was under pressure to not prosecute participants in communal violence, which often made communal relations worse. Patel had also died in 1950. Thus, by 1953 the Indian government released all but a few persons.
Overhaul of bureaucracy
Junior officers from neighbouring Bombay, CP and Madras regions were appointed to replace the vacancies. They were unable to speak the language and were unfamiliar with local conditions. Nehru objected to this "communal chauvinism" and called them "incompetent outsiders", and tried to impose Hyderabadi residency requirements: however, this was circumvented by using forged documents.
See also
References
- Tony Jaques (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33538-9.
- Pradeep Barua (2005). The State at War in South Asia. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1344-1.
- https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf Page 223-225
- https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf Page 229
- https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf Page 233
- http://blog.lkadvani.in/blog-in-english/the-%E2%80%98operation-polo%E2%80%99-in-hyderabad
- "Official Website of Indian Army". Retrieved 13 September 2014.
- "Hyderabad on the Net". hyderabad.co.uk.
- "Top ten richest men of all time". inStash. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
- Time dated 22 February 1937, cover story
- "Kaleidoscopic view of Deccan". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 25 August 2009.
- Lucien D. Benichou, From autocracy to integration: political developments in Hyderabad State, 1938-1948 (2000), p. 19
- Benichou (2000), p. 229
- "The Hyderabad Question" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
- Benichou (2000), p. 230
- Benichou (2000), p. 231
- United Nations Document S/986
- Benichou (2000), p. 232
- United Nations Security Council Document S/1031
- Noorani 2014, pp. 51–61. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNoorani2014 (help)
- Muralidharan 2014, pp. 128–129. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMuralidharan2014 (help)
- ^ Sherman, Taylor C. (2007). "The integration of the princely state of Hyderabad and the making of the postcolonial state in India, 1948 – 56" (PDF). Indian Economic & Social History Review. 44 (4): 489–516. doi:10.1177/001946460704400404. S2CID 145000228.
- By Frank Moraes, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mumbai: Jaico.2007, p.394
- ^ Kate, P. V., Marathwada Under the Nizams, 1724–1948, Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1987, p.84
- Muralidharan 2014, p. 132. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMuralidharan2014 (help)
- Muralidharan 2014, p. 134. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMuralidharan2014 (help)
- Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration 2000, p. 229. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBenichou,_From_Autocracy_to_Integration2000 (help)
- ^ "Bharat Rakshak-MONITOR". Bharat-rakshak.com. Archived from the original on 27 November 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
- Cite error: The named reference
mohanGuruswamy
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - Archived 26 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Osmania Journal of Historical Research. Department of History, Osmania University. 2006. p. 82.
- Hangloo, Rattan Lal; Murali, A. (2007). New Themes in Indian History: Art, Politics, Gender, Environment, and Culture. Black & White. pp. 240–241. ISBN 978-81-89320-15-7.
- Joseph, T.U. (2006). Accession of Hyderabad: The Inside Story. Sundeep Prakashan. p. 176. ISBN 978-81-7574-171-3.
- Nayar, K. (2012). Beyond The Lines: An Autobiography. Roli Books. p. 146. ISBN 978-81-7436-821-8.
- Lubar, Robert (30 August 1948). "Hyderabad: The Holdout". Time. p. 26. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
If the Indian army invaded Hyderabad, Razvi's Razakars would kill Hyderabad Hindus. Throughout India, Hindus would retaliate against Muslims.
- ^ Thomson, Mike (24 September 2013). "Hyderabad 1948: India's hidden massacre". BBC. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
- "Lessons to learn from Hyderabad's past", The Times of India, 16 December 2013, ProQuest 1468149022
- ^ Noorani, A.G. (3–16 March 2001), "Of a massacre untold", Frontline, 18 (5), retrieved 8 September 2014,
The lowest estimates, even those offered privately by apologists of the military government, came to at least ten times the number of murders with which previously the Razakars were officially accused...
- Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration 2000, p. 238. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBenichou,_From_Autocracy_to_Integration2000 (help)
- Muralidharan 2014, p. 136. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMuralidharan2014 (help)
- Muralidharan 2014, p. 135. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMuralidharan2014 (help)
Bibliography
- Benichou, Lucien D. (2000), From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938–1948, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-81-250-1847-6
- Chandra, Bipan; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mukherjee, Mridula (2008) , India Since Independence, Penguin Books India, ISBN 978-0-14-310409-4
- Hyder, Mohammed (2012), October Coup, A Memoir of the Struggle for Hyderabad, Roli Books, ISBN 978-8174368508
- Hodson, H. V. (1969), The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan, London: Hutchinson, ISBN 978-0090971503
- Menon, V. P. (1956), The Story of Integration of the Indian States (PDF), Orient Longman
- Muralidharan, Sukumar (2014). "Alternate Histories: Hyderabad 1948 Compels a Fresh Evaluation of the Theology of India's Independence and Partition". History and Sociology of South Asia. 8 (2): 119–138. doi:10.1177/2230807514524091. S2CID 153722788.
- Noorani, A. G. (2014), The Destruction of Hyderabad, Hurst & Co, ISBN 978-1-84904-439-4
- Raghavan, Srinath (2010), War and Peace in Modern India, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1-137-00737-7
- Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (January 1950), "Hyderabad: Muslim Tragedy", Middle East Journal, 4 (1): 27–51, JSTOR 4322137
- Zubrzycki, John (2006), The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback, Australia: Pan Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-330-42321-2
External links
- Police Action in Hyderabad, 1948 September 13–18 : Should We Celebrate It?
- From the Sundarlal Report, Frontline, 3–16 March 2001
- Exclusive Sundar Lal report on Hyderabad police action, Deccan Chronicle, 30 November 2013.
- In the Nizam's dominion, by Bret Wallach, University of Oklahoma
- A Blog by Narendra Luther on Operation Polo
- Armchair Historian – Operation Polo (Monday, 18 September 2006) – Contributed by Sidin Sunny Vadukut – Last Updated (Monday, 18 September 2006)
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Districts of Hyderabad State
Administratively, Hyderabad State was made up of sixteen districts, grouped into four divisions:
- Aurangabad Division included Aurangabad, Beed, Nanded, and Parbhani districts;
- Gulbarga Division included Bidar District, Gulbarga, Osmanabad, and Raichur District;
- Gulshanabad Division or Medak Division included Atraf-i-Baldah (Hyderabad), Mahbubnagar district, Medak district, Nalgonda district (Nalgundah), and Nizamabad districts, and
- Warangal Division included Adilabad, Karimnagar, and Warangal districts (present Khammam district was part of warangal district).
1948–56
After the incorporation of Hyderabad State into India, M. K. Vellodi was appointed as Chief Minister of the state on 26 January 1950. He was a Senior Civil servant in the Government of India. He administered the state with the help of bureaucrats from Madras state and Bombay state.
In the 1952 Legislative Assembly election, Dr. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao was elected Chief minister of Hyderabad State. During this time there were violent agitations by some Telanganites to send back bureaucrats from Madras state, and to strictly implement 'Mulki-rules'(Local jobs for locals only), which was part of Hyderabad state law since 1919.
Chief Ministers of Hyderabad State
Hyderabad State included nine Telugu districts of Telangana, four Kannada districts in Gulbarga division and four Marathi districts in Aurangabad division.
No | Name | Term of office | Party | Days in office | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | M. K. Vellodi | 26 January 1950 | 6 March 1952 | Indian National Congress | rowspan=2 width=4px style="background-color: Template:Indian National Congress/meta/color" | | 770 |
2 | Burgula Ramakrishna Rao | 6 March 1952 | 31 October 1956 | 1701 |
Rajpramukhs
Hyderabad State had its last Nizam, HEH Mir Osman Ali Khan (b. 1886 -d. 1967) as Rajpramukh from 26 January 1950 to 31 October 1956.
Dissolution
In 1956 during the Reorganisation of the Indian States based along linguistic lines, the state of Hyderabad was split up among Andhra Pradesh, Bombay state (later divided into states of Maharashtra and Gujarat in 1960 with the original portions of Hyderabad becoming part of the state of Maharashtra) and Karnataka.
In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission was appointed to prepare for the creation of states on linguistic lines. The commission, due to public demand, recommended disintegration of Hyderabad state and to merge Marathi speaking region, Maratwada, with Bombay state and Kannada speaking region with Mysore state. The Telugu speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad state with Andhra state.
Andhra state and Telangana were merged to form Andhra Pradesh state on 1 November 1956 after providing safeguards to Telangana in the form of Gentlemen's agreement Gulshanabad Division or Medak Division and Warangal Division were considered as area of Hyderabad's Telangana. However, when Hyderabad was merged in Andhra Pradesh state, substantial area of Adilabad (the area between Godavari and Penganga/Wardha/Pranahita rivers) was transferred to Maharashtra state. On 2 June 2014, the state of Telangana was formed splitting from the rest of Andhra Pradesh state and formed the 29th state of India, with Hyderabad as its capital.
State institutions
- Hyderabad Civil Service
- Jamia Nizamia
- Nizam College
- City College Hyderabad
- Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway
- Hyderabadi rupee
- State Bank of Hyderabad
- Nizamia observatory
- Osmania University
- Government Polytechnic College, Masab Tank
Palaces of Hyderabad State era
- Asman Garh Palace
- Basheer Bagh Palace
- Bella Vista, Hyderabad
- Chowmahalla Palace
- Errum Manzil
- Falaknuma Palace
- Hill Fort Palace
- Jubilee Hall
- King Kothi Palace
- Malwala palace
- Purani Haveli
- Vikhar Manzil
- Khilwat Palace
- Chowmohalla Palace
See also
4Notes
- This column only names the chief minister's party. The state government he headed may have been a complex coalition of several parties and independents; these are not listed here.
References
- "Mulki agitation in Hyderabad state". Hinduonnet.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
- "SRC submits report". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 1 October 2005. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
Bibliography
- Benichou, Lucien D. (2000), From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938–1948, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-81-250-1847-6
- Chandra, Bipan; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mukherjee, Mridula (2008) , India Since Independence, Penguin Books India, ISBN 978-0-14-310409-4
- Hyder, Mohammed (2012), October Coup, A Memoir of the Struggle for Hyderabad, Roli Books, ISBN 978-8174368508
- Hodson, H. V. (1969), The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan, London: Hutchinson, ISBN 978-0090971503
- Menon, V. P. (1956), The Story of Integration of the Indian States (PDF), Orient Longman
- Muralidharan, Sukumar (2014). "Alternate Histories: Hyderabad 1948 Compels a Fresh Evaluation of the Theology of India's Independence and Partition". History and Sociology of South Asia. 8 (2): 119–138. doi:10.1177/2230807514524091. S2CID 153722788.
- Noorani, A. G. (2014), The Destruction of Hyderabad, Hurst & Co, ISBN 978-1-84904-439-4
- Raghavan, Srinath (2010), War and Peace in Modern India, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1-137-00737-7
- Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (January 1950), "Hyderabad: Muslim Tragedy", Middle East Journal, 4 (1): 27–51, JSTOR 4322137
- Zubrzycki, John (2006), The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback, Australia: Pan Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-330-42321-2
Further reading
- Hyderabad State. Imperial Gazetteer of India Provincial Series. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. 1989.
- Benichou, Lucien D. (2000). From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938–1948. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-250-1847-6.
- Iyengar, Kesava (2007). Economic Investigations in the Hyderabad State 1939-1930. Vol. 1. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4067-6435-2.
- Leonard, Karen. "The Hyderabad Political System and its Participants," Journal of Asian Studies (1971) 30#3 pp. 569–582 in JSTOR
- Pernau, Margrit (2000). The Passing of Patrimonialism: Politics and Political Culture in Hyderabad, 1911–1948. Delhi: Manohar. ISBN 81-7304-362-0.
- Various (2007). Hyderabad State List of Leading Officials, Nobles and Personages. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4067-3137-8.
- Zubrzycki, John (2006). The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback. Australia: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-42321-2.
External links
- Hyderabad City Information Portal
- Hyderabad: A Qur'anic Paradise in Architectural Metaphors
- From the Sundarlal Report – Muslim Genocide in 1948
- Manolya's legal fight
- About Razakars and Islamic ambitions
- Hyderabad
- Genealogy of the Nizams of Hyderabad
- Renaming villages by the Nizam
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Categories:- Use dmy dates from July 2013
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