Misplaced Pages

Winter Olympic Games: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 15:49, 8 February 2018 edit331dot (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Administrators182,292 editsm Reverted 1 edit by Wd2 club (talk) to last revision by 331dot. (TW)Tag: Undo← Previous edit Revision as of 15:52, 8 February 2018 edit undoWd2 club elite leader twin (talk | contribs)5 editsNo edit summaryNext edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
{{for|a list of winter Olympic Games|#List of Winter Olympic Games{{!}}the list below}} {{for|a list of winter Olympic Games|#List of Winter Olympic Games{{!}}the list below}} ethan i think wikipeda is sooo dumb do u think???
{{Redirect|Winter Olympics|the TV episode of the The Goodies|Winter Olympics (The Goodies)|the video game|Winter Olympics (video game)}} {{Redirect|Winter Olympics|the TV episode of the The Goodies|Winter Olympics (The Goodies)|the video game|Winter Olympics (video game)}}
{{good article}} {{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2016}} {{Use British English|date=August 2016}}
{{Olympic Games infobox}} {{Olympic Games infobox}}
{{infobox {{infobox
| above = Olympic Winter Games | above = Olympic Winter Games

Revision as of 15:52, 8 February 2018

For a list of winter Olympic Games, see the list below.

ethan i think wikipeda is sooo dumb do u think???

"Winter Olympics" redirects here. For the TV episode of the The Goodies, see Winter Olympics (The Goodies). For the video game, see Winter Olympics (video game).

Olympic Games
Olympic Rings
Main topics
Games
Regional games
Defunct games
Olympic Winter Games
The tower with flame at the top. The background is sky with fireworks.The Olympic flame in Sochi during the 2014 Winter Olympics
Games
Sports (details)

The Olympic Winter Games (official name) (Template:Lang-fr) is a major international sporting event held once every four years, for sports practiced on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France. Olympic games was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.. The original five sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating). The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 by World War II, and resumed in 1948. Until 1992 the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four-year cycles in alternating even-numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994.

The Winter Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Some others, including curling and bobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it. Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address several criticisms, internal scandals, the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter (as well as Summer) Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems.

The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries. The Games have been held in the United States four times (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002); in France three times (1924, 1968, 1992); and in Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948) twice. Also, the Games have been held in Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), and Russia (2014) once. The IOC has selected Pyeongchang, South Korea, to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. As of 2017 no city in the southern hemisphere had applied to host the cold-weather-dependent Winter Olympics, which are held in February at the height of the southern hemisphere summer.

As of 2017 twelve countries – Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States – have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games. Six of those – Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States – have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games, and only one – the United States – has earned gold at each Games. Norway leads the all-time medal table. Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games.

History

Early years

a man standing on ice in figure skates
Ulrich Salchow
at the 1908 Olympics.

A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organised by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in Stockholm, Sweden in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10-time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.

Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports. The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.

The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate "International Winter Sports Week" under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week" (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the Winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.

St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years.

The next Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid, New York, was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was long and expensive for most competitors, who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title, and Eddie Eagan of the United States, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold medal in the men's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.

The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6–16 February. This was the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.

World War II

World War II interrupted the holding of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. The Games were then to be held at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 Games were cancelled following the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Due to the ongoing war, the 1944 Games, originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled.

1948 to 1960

An open air arena with crowds in the stands and people on the playing field surrounding a rostrum
The opening ceremonies of the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo

St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals—more than any Games to that point.

The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim, and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition.

After not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Soviet immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete". The USSR entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full-time. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom.

The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. It was an undeveloped resort in 1955, so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US$80,000,000. The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney. The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first winter Olympics to have a dedicated athletes' village, the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time due to the cost of building a bobsleigh run.

1964 to 1980

An empty arena with the sheet of ice and the score board
The Herb Brooks Arena
in Lake Placid (c. 2007), site of the "Miracle on Ice" in 1980

The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was asked to transport snow and ice to the sport venues. Soviet speed-skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by sweeping all four speed-skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes. Luge was first contested in 1964, although the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run.

Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 37 nations and 1,158 athletes competing in 35 events. Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men's alpine skiing events. The organising committee sold television rights for US$2 million, which was more than twice the price of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games. Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes' villages. The organisers claimed this was required to accommodate technological advances. Critics disputed this, alleging that the layout was necessary to provide the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the expense of the athletes.

The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted outside North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism became contentious during the Sapporo Games. Three days before the Games IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar a number of alpine skiers from competing because they participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States. Brundage reasoned that the skiers had financially benefited from their status as athletes and were therefore no longer amateurs. Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than all the other skiers, was not allowed to compete. Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues. Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first (and as of 2017 only) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal; he triumphed in the slalom.

The 1976 Winter Olympics had been awarded in 1970 to Denver, United States, but in November 1972 the voters of the state of Colorado voted against public funding of the games by a 3 to 2 margin. The IOC turned to offer the Games to Vancouver-Garibaldi, British Columbia, which had been a candidate for the 1976 Games. However, a change in provincial government brought in an administration which did not support the Olympic bid, so the offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, a candidate for the 1972 Games, offered itself, but the IOC opted to ask Innsbruck, which had maintained most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games. Despite only having half the time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973. Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time the Austrian town had hosted the Games. The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track, in neighbouring Igls. The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal.

In 1980 the Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first boycott of a Winter Olympics took place in 1980, when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem. The IOC was attempting to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem used by Taiwan. As a result, China participated for the first time since 1952. American speed-skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or world record in each of the five events he competed in, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter). Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist. In the "Miracle on Ice" the American hockey team compised of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, and then went on to win the gold medal.

1984 to 1998

Alberto Tomba in hat and ski clothes
Alberto Tomba, winner of five Olympic medals in Calgary, Albertville and Lillehammer

Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front-runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well-organised and not affected by the run-up to the war that engulfed the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won a silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean. Their performance to Ravel's Boléro earned the pair the gold medal after achieving unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression.

The Olympic Torch from the 1988 Winter Olympic Games in Calgary

In 1988 the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span 16 days. New events were added in ski-jumping and speed skating; while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their appearance as demonstration sports. For the first time the speed skating events were held indoors, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race. Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport. Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East German Christa Rothenburger won the women's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.

The 1992 Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were hosted in the French Savoie region in the city of Albertville, though only 18 events were held in the city. The rest of the events were spread out over the Savoie. Political changes of the time were reflected in the Olympic teams appearing in France: this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion. New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women's slalom.

In 1986 the IOC had voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years. This change became effective for the 1994 Games, held in Lillehammer, Norway, which became the first Winter Olympics to be held separately from the Summer Games. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts. The women's figure skating competition drew media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding. Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was controversially won by Oksana Baiul, Kerrigan won silver. Baiul became Ukraine's first Olympic champion. Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. Juan Antonio Samaranch described Lillehammer as the best Olympic Winter Games ever in his closing ceremony speech.

The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes. The men's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States, with their many NHL players, were favoured to win the tournament. Neither won any hockey medals however; the Czech Republic prevailed. Women's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal. Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall. Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-g and the giant slalom. Tara Lipinski of the United States, age 15, became the youngest female gold medalist in an individual event ever when she won figure skating, a record that had stood since Sonja Henie of Norway won the same event, also at age 15, in St. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set in speed skating because of the introduction of the clap skate.

2002 to 2010

Interwoven steel frame several stories high with the lit flame at the top
Olympic flame during the Opening Ceremony of the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City

The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City, United States, hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports. These games were the first to take place since the September 11 attacks of 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremonies of the games saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing "God Bless America", and honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members.

German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics. Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men's and women's ice hockey gold medals. Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians. The only exception was the French judge, Marie-Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games. Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short-track speed skating event.

Close-up of the Olympic Flame during the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin
Close-up of the Olympic Flame during the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin

The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short-track speed skating events. Sun-Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun-Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze. In the women's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009 Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation" and received a two-year suspension, which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team. This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver.

A memorial to Nodar Kumaritashvili in Whistler, photographed on 20 March 2010

In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games. Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events. The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze. The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations. In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games. Russia's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind the implementation of a doping scheme alleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under-performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty-one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea, Japan and China.

2014

Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city of the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia hosted a Winter Olympics. Over 2800 athletes from 88 countries participated in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 mi) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana.

The 2014 Winter Olympics, officially the XXII Olympic Winter Games, or the 22nd Winter Olympics, took place from 7 to 23 February 2014. A record 2,800 participants from 88 countries competed. The Games were the most expensive so far, with a cost of £30 billion (USD 51 billion). Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £600 million in elite sport, the host nation initially topped the medal table, taking 33 medals including 13 golds. However Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had had the assistance of the Russian Federal Security Service in opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so samples with banned substances could be replaced with "clean" urine. A subsequent investigation commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency led by Richard McLaren concluded that a state-sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from "at least late 2011 to 2015" across the "vast majority" of Summer and Winter Olympic sports. As of 23 December 2017, the IOC Disciplinary Commission has disqualified 43 Russian athletes and stripped 13 medals, knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, and putting Norway in the lead. On the snow, Norwegian biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen took two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen took three golds: her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most medals, alongside Raisa Smetanina and Stefania Belmondo. Snowboarder Ayumu Hirano became the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in the halfpipe competition at the age of 15. On ice, the Dutch dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the 12 medal events. Ireen Wüst was their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first skater to break the 100-point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, luger Armin Zöggeler took a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games.

Future

On 6 July 2011, the IOC selected the city of Pyeongchang, South Korea, to host the 2018 Winter Olympics. On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that Russia is banned with immediate effect due to the state-sponsored doping scandal.

The host city for the XXIV Olympic Winter Games, also known as the 2022 Winter Olympics, is Beijing, elected on 31 July 2015, at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur. Beijing will be the first city to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics.

Controversy

Main article: Olympic Games scandals and controversies § Winter Olympics
a head shot of Juan Antonio Samaranch with dark glasses on
Juan Antonio Samaranch, former IOC president, was implicated in a bidding scandal for the 2002 Winter Olympics.

The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical". Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities.

Host city legacy

According to the IOC, the host city is responsible for, "...establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services etc., as well as operations during the Games." Due to the cost of hosting an Olympic Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. By comparison the Torino Games of 2006 cost $3.6 billion to host. The organisers claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee hoped that the exposure of the Olympic Games, and the expedited access to Nagano from Tokyo, would be a boom to the local economy for years afterward. Nagano's economy did experience a two-year post-Olympic spurt, but the long-term effects have not materialised as planned. The possibility of heavy debt, coupled with unused sports venues and infrastructure that saddle the local community with upkeep costs and no practical post-Olympic value, is a deterrent to prospective host cities.

To mitigate these concerns the IOC has enacted several initiatives. First it has agreed to fund part of the host city's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the IOC limits the qualifying host countries to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation. This eliminates a large portion of the developing world. Finally, cities bidding to host the Games are required to add a "legacy plan" to their proposal. This requires prospective host cities and the IOC, to plan with a view to the long-term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region.

Doping

In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs. The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug-testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.

The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team's residence during the Games where they seized blood-doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of haemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.

The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with.

Politics

Cold War

A postage stamp with a blue background and two figure skaters skating, the date 1968 is centered on the top of the stamp along with the Olympic rings. The word "Winterspiele" is written down the right side, the words "X Olympische" are written down the left side. The number 25 is in the lower left corner and the letters "DDR" are in the lower right corner
A postage stamp issued by East Germany in 1968 in commemoration of their first Winter Olympics as an independent country

The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the '90s.

The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games. East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host-city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.

Boycott

The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the "People's Republic of China" (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China" (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China". The IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei" and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day.

Sports

The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to "those ... which are practised on snow or ice." Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are: more parity in the national medal tables; more interest in the Winter Olympics; and higher global television ratings.

Current sports

Sport Years Events Medal events contested in 2014
Alpine skiing Since 1936 11 Men's and women's downhill, super G, giant slalom, slalom, and combined, and parallel slalom.
Biathlon Since 1960 11 Sprint (men: 10 km; women: 7.5 km), the individual (men: 20 km; women: 15 km),
pursuit (men: 12.5 km; women: 10 km), relay (men: 4x7.5 km; women: 4x6 km; mixed: 2x7.5 km+2x6 km),
and the mass start (men: 15 km; women: 12.5 km).
Bobsleigh 1924–1956
since 1964 		3 Four-man race, two-man race and two-woman race.
Cross-country
skiing 		Since 1924 12 Men's sprint, team sprint, 30 km pursuit, 15 km, 50 km and 4x10 km relay;
women's sprint, team sprint, 15 km pursuit, 10 km, 30 km and 4x5 km relay.
Curling 1924
since 1998 		3 Men's, women's and mixed doubles. tournaments.
Figure skating Since 1924 5 Men's and women's singles; pairs; ice dancing and team event.
Freestyle skiing Since 1992 10 Men's and women's moguls, aerials, ski cross, superpipe, and slopestyle.
Ice hockey Since 1924 2 Men's and women's tournaments.
Luge Since 1964 4 Men's and women's singles, men's doubles, team relay.
Nordic combined Since 1924 3 Men's 10 km individual normal hill, 10 km individual large hill and team.
Short track
speed skating 		Since 1992 8 Men's and women's 500 m, 1000 m, 1500 m;
women's 3000 m relay; and men's 5000 m relay.
Skeleton 1928; 1948
Since 2002 		2 Men's and women's events.
Ski jumping Since 1924 4 Men's individual large hill, team large hill; men's and women's individual normal hill.
Snowboarding Since 1998 8 Men's and women's parallel, half-pipe, snowboard cross, and slopestyle.
Speed skating Since 1924 14 Men's and women's 500 m, 1000 m, 1500 m, 5000 m, Massstart
and team pursuit; women's 3000 m; men's 10,000 m.

Note 1. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics.
Note 2. A men's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics.
Note 3. The IOC's website now treats Men's Military Patrol at the 1924 games as an event within the sport of Biathlon.

Demonstration events

Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski-acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled-dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It included cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.

Ten most successful nations

Main article: All-time Olympic Games medal table § Winter Olympics

According to official data of the International Olympic Committee.

   Defunct nation
No. Nation Games Gold Silver Bronze Total
1  Norway (NOR) 22 118 111 100 329
2  United States (USA) 22 96 102 84 282
3  Germany (GER) 11 78 78 53 209
4  Soviet Union (URS) 9 78 57 59 194
5  Canada (CAN) 22 62 56 52 170
6  Austria (AUT) 22 59 78 81 218
7  Sweden (SWE) 22 50 40 54 144
8  Switzerland (SUI) 22 50 40 48 138
9  Russia (RUS) 6 45 32 34 111
10  Finland (FIN) 22 42 62 57 161

List of Winter Olympic Games

Games Year Host Opened by Dates Nations Competitors Sports Disci-
plines 		Events Top Nation Ref
Total Men Women
I 1924 France Chamonix, France Undersecretary Gaston Vidal 25 January – 5 February 16 258 247 11 6 9 16  Norway (NOR)
II 1928 Switzerland St. Moritz, Switzerland President Edmund Schulthess 11–19 February 25 464 438 26 4 8 14  Norway (NOR)
III 1932 United States Lake Placid, United States Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt  4–15 February 17 252 231 21 4 7 14  United States (USA)
IV 1936 Germany Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Chancellor Adolf Hitler  6–16 February 28 646 566 80 4 8 17  Norway (NOR)
1940 Awarded to Sapporo, Japan; cancelled because of World War II
1944 Awarded to Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy; cancelled because of World War II
V 1948 Switzerland St. Moritz, Switzerland President Enrico Celio 30 January – 8 February 28 669 592 77 4 9 22  Norway (NOR)
 Sweden (SWE)
VI 1952 Norway Oslo, Norway Princess Ragnhild 14–25 February 30 694 585 109 4 8 22  Norway (NOR)
VII 1956 Italy Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy President Giovanni Gronchi 26 January – 5 February 32 821 687 134 4 8 24  Soviet Union (URS)
VIII 1960 United States Squaw Valley, United States Vice President Richard Nixon 18–28 February 30 665 521 144 4 8 27  Soviet Union (URS)
IX 1964 Austria Innsbruck, Austria President Adolf Schärf 29 January – 9 February 36 1091 892 199 6 10 34  Soviet Union (URS)
X 1968 France Grenoble, France President Charles de Gaulle  6–18 February 37 1158 947 211 6 10 35  Norway (NOR)
XI 1972 Japan Sapporo, Japan Emperor Hirohito  3–13 February 35 1006 801 205 6 10 35  Soviet Union (URS)
XII 1976 Austria Innsbruck, Austria President Rudolf Kirchschläger  4–15 February 37 1123 892 231 6 10 37  Soviet Union (URS)
XIII 1980 United States Lake Placid, United States Vice President Walter Mondale 13–24 February 37 1072 840 232 6 10 38  Soviet Union (URS)
XIV 1984 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Sarajevo, Yugoslavia President Mika Špiljak  8–19 February 49 1272 998 274 6 10 39  East Germany (GDR)
XV 1988 Canada Calgary, Canada Governor General Jeanne Sauvé 13–28 February 57 1423 1122 301 6 10 46  Soviet Union (URS)
XVI 1992 France Albertville, France President François Mitterrand  8–23 February 64 1801 1313 488 6 12 57  Germany (GER)
XVII 1994 Norway Lillehammer, Norway King Harald V 12–27 February 67 1737 1215 522 6 12 61  Russia (RUS)
XVIII 1998 Japan Nagano, Japan Emperor Akihito  7–22 February 72 2176 1389 787 7 14 68  Germany (GER)
XIX 2002 United States Salt Lake City, United States President George W. Bush  8–24 February 78 2399 1513 886 7 15 78  Norway (NOR)
XX 2006 Italy Turin, Italy President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 10–26 February 80 2508 1548 960 7 15 84  Germany (GER)
XXI 2010 Canada Vancouver, Canada Governor General Michaëlle Jean 12–28 February 82 2566 1522 1044 7 15 86  Canada (CAN)
XXII 2014 Russia Sochi, Russia President Vladimir Putin 7–23 February 88 2873 1714 1159 7 15 98  Russia (RUS)
XXIII 2018 South Korea Pyeongchang, South Korea President Moon Jae-in (expected) 9–25 February Future event 7 15 102
XXIV 2022 China Beijing, China 4–20 February Future event Future event Future event Future event

Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.

Map of Winter Olympics locations. Countries that have hosted one Winter Olympics are shaded green, while countries that have hosted two or more are shaded blue.

See also

Notes

  1. "French and English are the official languages for the Olympic Games.", .(..)
  2. ^ The official website of the Olympic Movement now treats Men's Military Patrol at the 1924 games as an event within the sport of Biathlon. However, the 1924 Official Report treats it as an event and discipline within what was then called Skiing and is now called Nordic Skiing.
  3. At the closing of the 1924 games a prize was also awarded for 'alpinisme' (mountaineering), a sport that did not lend itself very well for tournaments: Pierre de Coubertin presented a prize for 'alpinisme' to Charles Granville Bruce, the leader of the expedition that tried to climb Mount Everest in 1922.
  4. The US beat the Soviets as part of a medal round that also included Finland and Sweden, so they didn't actually win the gold medal until they beat Finland a few days later.

References

  1. "Biathlon Results - Chamonix 1924". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
  2. "Olympic Games Medals, Chamonix 1924". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
  3. Official Report (1924), p 646: Le Programme ... II. — Epreuves par équipes - 12. Ski : Course militaire (20 à 30 kilomètres, avec tir). (The Programme ... II. — Team events - 12. Skiing : Military Race (20 to 30 kilometres, with shooting)).
  4. Official Report (1924), p 664: CONCOURS DE SKI - Jurys - COURSE MILITAIRE. (Skiing Competitions - Juries - Military Race)
  5. ^ Edgeworth, Ron (May 1994). "The Nordic Games and the Origins of the Winter Olympic Games" (PDF). International Society of Olympic Historians Journal. 2 (2). LA84 Foundation. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
  6. "1908 Figure Skating Results". CNNSI.com. Archived from the original on 11 February 2001. Retrieved 9 March 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  7. "Figure Skating History". CNNSI.com. Archived from the original on 14 August 2004. Retrieved 9 March 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  8. Judd (2008), p. 21
  9. ^ "1924 Chamonix, France". CBC Sports. CBC.ca. 18 December 2009. Archived from the original on 2 March 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2010. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  10. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 283
  11. ^ "Chamonix 1924". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
  12. "1924 Chamonix Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 12 March 2009.
  13. Findling and Pelle (2004), pp. 289–290
  14. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 290
  15. "1928 Sankt Moritz Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 12 March 2009.
  16. "St. Moritz 1928". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
  17. ^ "Lake Placid 1932". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
  18. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 298
  19. Seligmann, Davison, and McDonald (2004), p. 119
  20. ^ "Garmisch-Partenkirchen Olympics". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  21. Lund, Mortund (December 2001). "The First Four Olympics". Skiing Heritage Journal. International Skiing History Association: 21. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
  22. Mallon and Buchanon (2006), p. xxxii
  23. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 248
  24. ^ "St. Moritz 1948". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  25. Findling and Pelle (2004), pp. 250–251
  26. "Oslo 1952". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  27. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 255
  28. "1952 Oslo Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
  29. "Speed Skating at the 1952 Oslo Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
  30. "1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
  31. ^ Guttman (1986), p. 135
  32. "Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
  33. ^ Benjamin, Daniel (27 July 1992). "Traditions Pro Vs. Amateur". Time. Retrieved 18 March 2009.
  34. Schantz, Otto. "The Olympic Ideal and the Winter Games Attitudes Towards the Olympic Winter Games in Olympic Discourses—from Coubertin to Samaranch" (PDF). Comité International Pierre De Coubertin. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  35. "Chiharu Igaya". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  36. Judd (2008), pp. 27–28
  37. Shipler, Gary (February 1960). "Backstage at Winter Olympics". Popular Science. Bonnier Corporation: 138. Retrieved 6 August 2009.
  38. ^ Judd (2008), p. 28
  39. "Innsbruck 1964". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
  40. Judd (2008), p. 29
  41. "Grenoble 1968". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
  42. ^ Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 277
  43. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 286
  44. Fry (2006), pp. 153–154
  45. Podnieks, Andrew; Szemberg, Szymon (2008). "Story #17–Protesting amateur rules, Canada leaves international hockey". International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
  46. ^ "Factsheet Olympic Winter Games" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. January 2008. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  47. "Colorado only state ever to turn down Olympics". denver.rockymountainnews.com. Archived from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 23 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  48. Fry (2006), p. 157
  49. ^ "Innsbruck 1976". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
  50. ^ Findling and Pelle (1996), p. 299
  51. Judd (2008), pp. 135–136
  52. "Lake Placid 1980". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  53. Huber, Jim (22 February 2000). "A Golden Moment". CNNSI.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  54. "LAKE PLACID 1980 - USA ice hockey team". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  55. "LAKE PLACID 1980 - Photo - Finland v USA". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  56. "1984 Sarajevo". CNNSI.com. Archived from the original on 18 July 2004. Retrieved 18 March 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  57. ^ "Sarajevo 1984". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 18 March 2009.
  58. ^ "Calgary 1988". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  59. "Yvonne van Gennip". The Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad. Archived from the original on 3 February 2009. Retrieved 20 March 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ "Albertville 1992". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  61. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 400
  62. Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 402
  63. "Lillehammer 1994". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  64. Araton, Harvey (27 February 1994). "Winter Olympics; In Politics and on ice, neighbors are apart". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  65. "Harding-Kerrigan timeline". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. 1 March 1999. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  66. Barshay, Jill J (3 March 1994). "Figure Skating; It's Stocks and Bouquets as Baiul returns to Ukraine". The New York Times. Associated Press. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  67. Phillips, Angus (1 March 1999). "Achievements still burn bright". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  68. "Johann-Olav Koss". ESPN.com. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
  69. ^ "Nagano 1998". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  70. Judd (2008), p. 126
  71. "Ten Famous Olympic Skiers". 29 October 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  72. Nevius, C.W. (5 February 1998). ""Clap" Skate draws boos from traditionalists". San Francisco Chronicle. Hearst Communications Inc. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
  73. ^ "Salt Lake City 2002". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 21 March 2009.
  74. Roberts, Selena (17 February 2002). "The pivotal meeting; French judge's early tears indicating controversy to come". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
  75. Bose, Mihir (17 February 2002). "Skating scandal that left IOC on thin ice". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
  76. "Australia win first ever gold". BBC Sport. 17 February 2002. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  77. ^ "Turin 2006". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 21 March 2009.
  78. Berglund, Nina (20 February 2006). "Canadians hail Norwegian coach's sportsmanship". Aftenposten. Aftenposten.no. Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 21 March 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  79. Crouse, Karen (11 December 2009). "Germany's Claudia Pechstein Tries to Restore Reputation". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  80. Dunbar, Graham (26 January 2010). "Claudia Pechstein's Doping Appeal Denied". The Huffington Post. HuffingtonPost.com. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  81. "Canadian Statistics – Population by selected ethnic origins, by census metropolitan areas (2001 Census)". StatCan. 25 January 2005. Archived from the original on 19 May 2006. Retrieved 31 May 2006. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  82. "Vancouver 2010". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  83. Longman, Jere (13 February 2010). "Quick to Blame in Luge, and Showing No Shame". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  84. Jones, Tom (28 February 2010). "Best and worst of the Winter Olympics in Vancouver". St. Petersberg Times. Tampabay.com. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  85. "Russia's president calls for resignations". ESPN.com. 1 March 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  86. Pavitt, Michael (26 October 2017). "Biathlete Gregorin confirmed as athlete who failed Vancouver 2010 doping retest". Inside the Games. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
  87. Armour, Nancy (28 February 2010). "Surprising success bodes well for South Korea". The Seattle Times. Associated Press. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  88. Sappenfield, Mark (12 February 2010). "Winter Olympics: Who will win the most medals?". The Christian Science Monitor. CSMonitor.com. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  89. ^ "Sochi 2014". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  90. Pinsent, Matthew (15 October 2011). "Sochi 2014: A look at Russia's Olympic city". BBC News Online. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
  91. Barretto, Lawrence (23 February 2014). "Sochi 2014: Russia top medal table as Olympics come to an end". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  92. "Russia state-sponsored doping across majority of Olympic sports, claims report". bbc.co.uk. 18 July 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  93. "List of Russia Olympic medals stripped; new Sochi medal standings". NBC Sports. 27 November 2017.
  94. "Russia toppled from Sochi 2014 medals first place but final count unknown". Reuters. 28 November 2017.
  95. "IOC sanctions six Russian athletes and closes one case as part of the Oswald Commission findingsdate=December 12, 2017". olympic.org. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
  96. Kim, Rose; Moore, Niki (6 July 2011). "Pyeongchang Beats Munich, Annecy to Host 2018 Winter Olympics". Bloomberg.
  97. "IOC suspends Russian NOC and creates a path for clean individual athletes to compete in Pyeongchang 2018 under the Olympic Flag" (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 5 December 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  98. ^ "Olympics corruption probe ordered". BBC News. 22 December 1998. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  99. Cashmore (2005), p. 444
  100. Cashmore (2005), p. 445
  101. Cashmore (2003), p. 307
  102. Payne (2006), p. 232
  103. Miller, Lawrence and McCay (2001), p. 25
  104. Abrahamson, Alan (6 December 2003). "Judge Drops Olympic Bid Case". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
  105. "Samaranch reflects on bid scandal with regret". Deseret News. WinterSports2002.com. Archived from the original on 26 February 2002. Retrieved 22 March 2002. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  106. "Roles and Responsibilities during the Olympic Games" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. January 2010. pp. 4–5. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  107. Berkes, Howard (1 October 2009). "Olympic Caveat:Host cities risk debt, scandal". National Public Radio. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  108. ^ Payne, Bob (6 August 2008). "The Olympic Effect". MSNBC.com. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  109. Koba, Mark (11 February 2010). "The money pit that is hosting Olympic Games". CNBC.com. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  110. Preuss (2004), p. 277
  111. Preuss (2004), p. 284
  112. Rogge, Jacques (12 February 2010). "Jacques Rogge: Vancouver's Winter Olympic legacy can last for 60 years". The Daily Telegraph. London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  113. Yesalis (2000), p. 57
  114. The Official Report of XIth Winter Olympic Games, Sapporo 1972 (PDF). The Organising Committee for the Sapporo Olympic Winter Games. 1973. p. 386. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  115. Hunt, Thomas M. (2007). "Sports, Drugs, and the Cold War" (PDF). Olympika, International Journal of Olympic Studie. 16 (1). International Centre for Olympic Studies: 22. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
  116. Mottram (2003), p. 313
  117. Mottram (2003), p. 310
  118. Yesalis (2000), p. 366
  119. "A Brief history of anti-doping". World Anti-Doping Agency. Retrieved 25 March 2009.
  120. ^ Macur, Juliet (19 February 2006). "Looking for Doping Evidence, Italian Police Raid Austrians". New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 25 March 2009.
  121. "IOC to hold first hearings on doping during 2006 Winter Olympics". USA Today. Gannett Co. 9 February 2007. Retrieved 25 March 2009.
  122. "I.O.C. Starts Proceedings Against 28 Russian Athletes Over Sochi Doping". NYTime.com. NYTimes.com. 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  123. Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Schwirtz, Michael (12 May 2016). "Russian Insider Says State-Run Doping Fueled Olympic Gold". The New York Times.
  124. Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Schwirtz, Michael (13 May 2016). "Mystery in Sochi Doping Case Lies With Tamper-Proof Bottle". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  125. Gibson, Owen (1 June 2016). "New doping report will influence decision on Russia's place at Olympics". The Guardian.
  126. "Russian athletics: IAAF upholds ban before Rio Olympics". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
  127. Schantz, Otto. "The Olympic Ideal and the Winter Games Attitudes Towards the Olympic Winter Games in Olympic Discourses—from Coubertin to Samaranch" (PDF). Comité International Pierre De Coubertin. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  128. Hill (1992), p. 34
  129. Hill (1992), p. 35
  130. Hill (1992), pp. 36–38
  131. Hill (1992), p. 38
  132. Hill (1992), pp. 38–39
  133. Hill (1992), p. 48
  134. "History of the Winter Olympics". BBC Sport. 5 February 1998. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
  135. Brownell (2005), p. 187
  136. "Olympic Charter" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 2 August 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
  137. Sappenfield, Mark (25 February 2010). "USA, Canada ride new sports to top of Winter Olympics medal count". The Christian Science Monitor. CSMonitor.com. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  138. "Alpine Skiing". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  139. ^ "Biathlon". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  140. "Bobsleigh". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  141. "Cross Country Skiing". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  142. "Curling". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  143. "Figure Skating". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  144. "Freestyle skiing". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  145. "Ice Hockey". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  146. "Luge". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  147. "Nordic Combined". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  148. "Short Track Speed Sskating". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  149. "Skeleton". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  150. "Ski Jumping". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  151. "Snowboard". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  152. "Speed Skating". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  153. "Olympic Sports". Inside The Games. Archived from the original on 10 July 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  154. "Biathlon history". USBiathlon.org. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
  155. "Figure Skating at the 1908 London Summer Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
  156. "Russian bandy players blessed for victory at world championship in Kazan". Tatar-Inform. 21 January 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2009.
  157. ^ Arnold, Eric (28 January 2010). "Strangest Olympics Sports In History". Forbes. Forbes.com. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
  158. "Freestyle Skiing History". The National Post. Canadian Broadcasting Company. 4 December 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 16 March 2010. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  159. Janofsky, Michael (18 December 1991). "Hitting the slopes in the fast lane". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
  160. The IOC site for the 2002 Winter Olympic Games gives erroneous figure of 77 participated NOCs; however, one can count 78 nations looking through official results of 2002 Games Part 1 Archived 3 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Part 2 Archived 18 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Part 3 Archived 18 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Probably this error is consequence that Costa Rica's delegation of one athlete joined the Games after the Opening Ceremony, so 77 nations participated in Opening Ceremony and 78 nations participated in the Games.

Bibliography

External links

Olympic Games
IOC
Medals
Nations
Host cities
Ceremonies
Media
Symbols
Other
Related
Olympic Games
Summer Olympic rings
Winter
Youth Olympic Games
Summer Youth Olympic Games logo
Winter
  1. Cancelled due to World War I
  2. ^ Cancelled due to World War II
  3. Postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic
National Olympic Committees that have competed at the Olympic Games
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Other
Historical
Olympic Games portal
Winter Olympic Games host cities
Cancelled due to World War II Olympic Games portal
Multi-sport events
Global
Olympic Games
Parasports
Professions
Youth and students
Intercommunity
Other
Regional
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Intercontinental
National
Americas
NCSG,
United States
Asia
Europe
Historical
Pre-Modern Olympics
(in order, from 1900 BC to 1859 AD)
Alternatives to the
Modern Olympics
Defunct regional or
community events
Winter sports
International
Regional
Portal: Categories: