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Revision as of 23:41, 28 November 2006
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- For the city in Italy, see Ragusa, Italy.
| Republic of RagusaRespublica Ragusina Repubblica di Ragusa | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1358–1809 | |||||||||
Coat of arms
| |||||||||
| Anthem: Unknown | |||||||||
 Borders of the Republic of Ragusa, 1426-1808 | |||||||||
| Capital | Ragusa 42°39′N 18°04′E / 42.650°N 18.067°E / 42.650; 18.067 | ||||||||
| Largest city | Ragusa | ||||||||
| Common languages | Latin, Italian since 1492 | ||||||||
| Religion | Roman Catholic | ||||||||
| Government | Republic | ||||||||
| Duke | |||||||||
| • 1808 | Auguste Marmont | ||||||||
| Historical era | Renaissance | ||||||||
| • Treaty of Zara | June 27 1358 | ||||||||
| • Invasion by France | January 31 1808 | ||||||||
| • Annexation into the Illyrian provinces | October 14 1809 | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 1808? | 1,500 km (580 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
| • 1808? | 30,000 | ||||||||
| Currency | Unknown | ||||||||
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) | ||||||||
| • Summer (DST) | CEST | ||||||||
| |||||||||
The Republic of Ragusa was a maritime city-state centred on the city of Ragusa (now known as Dubrovnik) from the AD 14th century until 1808. It was located in the southern part of modern-day Croatia. In the 14th century the Communitas Ragusina (Latin for "Raguesan municipality" or "community") was renamed Respublica Ragusina (Latin for "Ragusa Republic"). It is known as Dubrovačka Republika in modern Croatian and Repubblica di Ragusa in modern Italian.
The Republic ruled a compact area of southern Dalmatia - its final borders were formed by 1426 - comprising the mainland coast from Neum to the Prevlaka peninsula as well as the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Lastovo and Mljet, as well as a number of smaller islands off Lastovo and Dubrovnik such as Koločep, Lopud, and Šipan. It reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries before being conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire in 1808. It had a population of about 30,000 people, of which 5,000 lived within the city walls.
History
- See also Dubrovnik.
Origins
The origin of the city are similar to the origins of other Adriatic cities as Venice, Grado, Capodistria (today Koper), etc., all built on small islands near the coast, as a shelter against the raids during the Migrations period. The city was established during the 7th century (according to the tradition in 614) after Avar and Slav raiders destroyed the city of Epidaurum (in Croatian: Cavtat; in Italian Ragusavecchia).
Some of the Latin survivors then moved to a small island close to the coast, about 25 kilometers north where they founded a new city, Ragusium or Rausa. The channel that divided the city from the coast was filled in the 12th century, and Ragusa was merged with the slavic settlement of 'Dubrovnik', that was meanwhile built on the mainland-side of the channel. The filled channel is today the main street of the city, the famous "stradun".
It has been claimed that a second raid by Croats in 656, resulted in the total destruction of Epidaurum. .
Though the new location offered more protection, there was hardly any fertile soils and the new inhabitants had to resort to land which by that time had already been in possession of the Slavic speaking population. In return they paid tribute.
According to another theory Epidaurum was destroyed a first time in 265 by the Goths and probably "Rausium (or Ragusa) was founded long before Epidaurus was finally destroyed, and that the various irruptions of barbarians, in the third and succeeding centuries, had led to the original establishment of this place of refuge".
Ragusa derives its name from Lausa (from the Greek xau, "precipice"); it was later altered in Rausium, or Rausia (even Lavusa, Labusa, Raugia and Rachusa) and finnaly into Ragusa. The slavic name Dubrovnik is derived from the Slavonic word dubrava, "oak wood". ; it became in use, beside "Ragusa" in the 14th century.
Early centuries
The Saracens laid siege to Ragusa in from 866 and 867 which lasted for fifteen months and was raised after the intervention of the Greek Emperor, Basil the Macedonian, with his fleet..
With the weakening of Byzantium, Venice began to see Ragusa as a rival which needed to be brought under her control, but the attempt to conquer the city in 948 failed. The citizens of the city attributed this to Saint Blaise (in Croatian: Sveti Vlaho; in Italian San Biagio) whom they adopted as the patron saint.
In 1050, the city got hold of the harbour of Gruž and extended its boundaries to Zaton, 16km north of the original city by the grant of Stephen who claimed the title of ruler of Bosnia and Dalmatia.
In 1191, the city's merchants were granted the right to trade freely in the Byzantium by its emperor Isaac II Angelus. Similar privileges were obtained several years earlier from Serbia (1186) and from Bosnia (1189). The treaty with Bosnian Ban Kulin is also the first official document where the city is referred to as Dubrovnik..
The Venetian period (1205 - 1358)
When in 1205 Venetian authority was reestablished in Dalmatia through the Fourth Crusade, Ragusa/Dubrovnik became an important source of supplies for Venice (hides, wax, silver and other metals). The exports from the city were exempted from customs duties in Venice. Moreover, Ragusa/Dubrovnik enjoyed protection from Venice from the princes in its vicinity. In return Venice used the city as its main naval base in the lower Adriatic. Unlike Zadar there was little friction between Ragusa and Venice as the city had not yet begun to compete with Venice as an alternate carrier in the trade between East and West.
In the middle of the thirteenth century the island of Lastovo was added to the original territory. In 1333, Pelješac Peninsula was purchased from Serbia . In 1345, the island Mljet was acquired.
In January 1348, the outbreak of the Black Death was recognized in the city.
Independence (1358)
In 1358, the city accepted the mild hegemony of King Louis the Great of Hungary after Venice was forced by the Treaty of Zara (February 18) to yield all claim to Dalmatia. On June 27 1358, the final agreement was reached at Visegrád between Louis and the Archbishop Giovanni Saraca. The city recognized Hungarian sovereignty, but the local nobility continued to rule with little interference from Buda. The Republic profited from the suzerainty of Louis of Hungary, whose kingdom was not a naval power, and with whom they could have little conflict of interest.
In 1399 the city acquired the area between Ragusa and Pelješac, called the Primorje. Moreover, between 1419 and 1426, the Konavli region south of Astarea, including the city of Cavtat, were added to the territories in the possession of the city .
Ottoman suzerainty
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In 1458, the Republic signed a treaty with the Ottoman Empire which made it a tributary of the Sultan. Moreover, it was obliged to send an ambassador to the Sultan by the 1st of November of each year in order to deliver the tribute.
When in 1481 the city passed under Ottoman protection, it was to pay a tribute of 12,500 ducats. For all other purposes, however, Ragusa was virtually independent. It could enter into relations with foreign powers and make treaties with them. Besides, its ships sailed under its own flag. Ottoman vassalage also conferred special rights in trade that extended within the Empire. Ragusa also handled the Adriatic trade on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, and its traders received special tax exemptions and trading benefits from the Porte. It also operated colonies that enjoyed extraterritorial rights in major Ottoman cities.
Merchants from Ragusa could also enter the Black Sea which was otherwise closed to non-Ottoman shipping. They also paid less in customs duties than other foreign merchants. The city-state also enjoyed diplomatic support from the Ottoman administration in trade disputes with the Venetians.
For their part, Ottomans regarded Ragusa as a port of major importance. After all, most of the traffic between Florence and Bursa, the latter being an Ottoman port in today's northwestern Turkey, was carried out via Ragusa. Florentine cargoes would leave the Italian ports of Pesaro, Fano or Ancona to reach Ragusa. From that point on they would take the land route Bosnasaray (Sarajevo)-Novibazar-Skopje-Plovdiv-Edirne.
When in the late sixteenth-century Ragusa placed its merchant marine at the disposal of the Spanish Empire, on condition that its participation in the Spanish military ventures would not affect the interest of the Ottoman Empire, the latter tolerated the situation as the trade of Ragusa permitted the importation of goods from states with which the Ottoman Empire was at war.
Along with England, Spain and Genoa, Ragusa was one of the Republic of Venice's most damaging competitors in the 15th century on all seas, even in the Adriatic. Thanks to its proximity to the unexhausted oak forests of Gargano, it was able to bid cargoes away from the Venetians.
Decline of the Republic
With the great Portuguese explorations which discovered new ocean routes, the spice trade went no more through the Mediterranean sea. Moreover, the discovery of America started a crisis of Mediterranean shipping. That was the beginning of the decline of both the Venetian and Ragusan Republic.
On 6 April 1667, an earthquake struck, and killed over 5,000 citizens, including the Duke, and leveled most of the public buildings, leaving only the outers walls intact. Buildings in the Gothic and Renaissance styles - palaces, churches and monasteries - were in ruins, only the Sponza Palace and the front of the Rector's Palace at Luza Square survived. Gradually, the city was rebuilt in the more modest Baroque style. With great effort Ragusa recovered a bit, but still remained a shadow of the former Republic.
The fate of Ragusa was linked to that of the Ottoman Empire. Ragusa and Venice lent technical assistance to the Ottoman-Egyptian-Calicut-Gujarati alliance that was defeated by the Portuguese in the battle of Diu in the Indian Ocean (1509).
In 1684, the emissaries renewed an agreement contracted in Visegrad in the year 1358 and accepted the sovereignty of the Austrian Emperor over Ragusa as a Croatian-Hungarian King, with an annual tax of 500 ducats. At the same time Ragusa continued to recognise the sovereignty of Turkey; which was nothing unusual in those days. After this even greater opportunities opened up for Ragusa ships in ports all along the Dalmatian coast, in which they anchored frequently.
In 1683 the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Kahlenberg outside Vienna. The Field marshall of the Austrian army was Francesco de Gondola(Franco Gundulic). In the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699, the Ottomans ceded all of Hungary, Transylvania, Slavonia, Dalmatia and Podolia to the victorious Habsburgs, Venetians, and Poles.
The Ottoman Empire was no longer a threat to Christian Europe. After this, Venice captured a part of Ragusa's inland area and approached its borders. They presented the threat of completely surrounding and cutting off Ragusa's trade inland. In view of this danger, expecting the defeat of the Turks by Vienna in 1684 and hoping that the Austrian Army would capture Bosnia and Hercegovina, Dubrovnik sent emissaries to the Austrian Emperor, Leopold, in Vienna.
With a 26 January 1699 peace agreement, the Republic of Ragusa ceded two patches of its coast to the Ottoman Empire so that the Republic of Venice would be unable to attack from land, only from the sea. One of them, the northwestern land border with the small town of Neum, is today the only outlet of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Adriatic Sea. The southeastern border village of Sutorina later became part of Montenegro, which has coastline to the south.
Ragusa continued its policy of strict neutrality in the War of Austrian succession (1741-1748) and in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
In 1776, The Republic of Ragusa became the first foreign power to recognize the government of the United States.
End of the Republic
Around 1800, the Republic had a highly organized network of consulates and consular offices in more than eighty cities and ports around the world. In 1806, the Republic surrendered to forces of the French Empire to end a months-long siege by the Russian-Montenegrin fleets (during which 3,000 cannonballs fell on the city). The French lifted the siege and saved Ragusa. The French army, led by Napoleon, entered Ragusa 1806. In 1808, Marshal Marmont abolished the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamated its territory into the French Illyrian Provinces, himself becoming the Rector of Ragusa. Later, in the 1814 Battle of Paris, Marmont abandoned Napoleon and was named a traitor. The word "ragusade" was coined in French to signify treason and "raguser" meant a cheat. In 1814, led by general Todor Milutinovic, the Austrian army marched into Ragusa. With them came the British army and the local insurgents against the French occupation. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Ragusa was made a part of the crown land of the Kingdom of Dalmatia, ruled by Austria-Hungary, which it remained a part of until 1918.
In 1815, nobles of the former Ragusa Government met for the last time with efforts to reestablish the Republic of Ragusa in vain. After the fall of the Republic most of the aristocracy died out or emigrated overseas, just about one fifth of the noble families were recognized by the Austrian empire. Some of the families that were recognized and survived were Ghetaldi-Gondola, Gozze, Caboga, Sorgo, Zlataric, Zamagna, and Pozza.
The city of Ragusa officially changed its name to Dubrovnik in 1918 with the fall of Austria-Hungary and the incorporation of the area into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
Government of Ragusa Republic
The city was ruled by aristocracy, and marriage between members of three different social classes was strictly forbidden. The nominal head of state was the Duke, or during Venetian suzerainty the Rector (Rettore). Real power, however, was in the hands of three councils that were held by the nobility.
The Ragusan Archives document, "Speculum Maioris Consilii Rectores", lists all the persons that were involved in the Republic's government between September 1440 to June 1860. There were 4397 rectors elected; 2764 (63%) were from "old patrician" families: Gozze, Bona, Caboga, Cerva, Gondola, Ghetaldi, Giorgi, Gradi, Pozza, Saraca, Sorgo, and Zamanya.
- in 17th century, 50% of the dukes and senators were from the following families: Bona, Gondola,
Goze, Menze, Sorgo.
- in 18th century, 56% of senators were from these families: Sorgo, Goze, Zamagna,
Caboga, Georgi.
- in the last eight years of the Republic, 50% of dukes were from the Sorgo, Goze,
Gradis, Bona, or Ragnina families.
A big problem of Ragusan noble families was also that by decrease of their number and lack of noble families in the neighborhood (the surroundings of Dubrovnik was under Turkish control) they were becoming more and more closely related (1566 - quasi tutti siamo congionti in quarto grado di consanguinita et affinita, the marriages between relatives of the 3rd and 4th degree were frequent.
An 1802 list of Dubrovnik Republic's governing bodies showed that 6 of the 8 Small Council and 15 of the 20 Great Council members were from the same 11 families.
The Republican Constitution of Ragusa was strictly aristocratic. The population was divided into three classes: nobility, citizens, and artisans or plebeians. All effective power was concentrated in the hands of aristocracy. The citizens were permitted to hold only minor offices, while plebeians had no voice in government. Marriage between members of different classes of the society was forbidden.
The organization of the government was based on the model of the Venetian model: the administrative bodies were the Grand Council (supreme governing body) and the Small Council (executive power) (from 1238.) and the Senate (from 1253). The head of the state was the Duke, elected for a term of office for one month.
Grand Council (Consilium Maior) consisted of exclusively members of the aristocracy; every noble took his seat at the age of 18. Every year, 11 members of the Small Council (Consilium minus) were elected. Together with a duke, the Small Council had both executive and representative functions. The main power was in the hands of the Senat (Consilium rogatorum) which had 45 members elected for one year. This organization prevented any single family, unlike the Medici in Florence, from prevailing. Nevertheless the historians agree that the Sorgo family was all the time among the most influential
Small Council (Consilium Minor) consisted first of 11 members and after 1667 of 7. The Small Council was elected by the Rector. The Senate was added in 1235 as a consultative body. It consisted of 45 invited members (over 40 years of age). While the Republic was under the rule of Venice the Rector was Venetian, but after 1358 the Rector was always a Ragusan. The length of the Rector's service was only one month and a person was eligible for reelection after two years. The rector lived and worked in Rector's Palace but his family remained living in their own house. The government of the Republic was liberal in character and early showed its concern for justice and humanitarian principles, e.g. slave trading was abolished since 1418.
The government of Ragusa was liberal in some other ways. The Republic's flag had the word Libertas (freedom) on it, and the entrance to the Saint Lorenz fortress (Lovrijenac) just outside the Ragusa city walls bears the inscription "Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro," meaning "liberty is not sold for any kind of gold." The Republic abolished the slave trade in 1418. However, the Republic was a staunch opponent of the Eastern Orthodoxy and only Roman Catholics could acquire Ragusan citizenship.
Languages and nationality of Ragusans
The Ragusan literature in which Latin, Italian and Croatian languages coexisted blossomed in the 15th and 16th century. . As for the Dalmatian language, the Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, mentions its southern variety called "Ragusan" of which "is known from a few brief texts, foremost among them two letters dated 1325 and 1397 respectively, and a handful of other medieval texts".
The Senate of the city decided in 1472 that the official language of the Republic for debates and public acts was Italian . Other sources claims that the official language was the Old Ragusan and that the use of Slavonic i.e. Croatian was forbidden "which seems to indicate that the Ragusan language was still alive but it was felt to be under threat". . These sources do not mention the reason because an 'official language' is know only for 'brief texts', and why the laws were published in Italian.
Accroding to Graubard "during the Renaissance era, Venetian-ruled Dalmatia and Ragusa gave birth to influential intellectuals - mostly minor aristocrats and clergymen, Jesuits especially - who kept alive the memory of Croatia and the Croatian language when they composed or translated plays and books from Italian and Latin into the vernecular. No matter that the dialects of Dalmatia and Dubrovnik were different from each other and both these dialects were somewhat different from the dialect of Zagreb, capital of the Hapsburg-ruled north. They still thought of it as Croatian. The Dubrovnik poet Dominko Zlatarić (1555-1610) explained on the frontispiece of his 1597 translation of Sophocles' tragedy Elektra and Tasso's Aminta that it had been "iz veće tudieh jezika u Hrvacki izlozene," "translated from the great foreign languages in Croatian."
Croat language was normally used among lower classes, Italian in the upper ones. Ragusans were in general bilingual. Literary works of famous Ragusans were written in Croat and Italian language.
Among them are the works of writers Džore Držić, Marin Držić -, Ivan Bunić Vučić, Ignjat Đurđević, Ivan Gundulić, Šišmundo (Šiško) Menčetić, Dinko Ranjina; and following writers, beside others from 16th - 19th century (before the Age of Romantic National Awakenings) were explicit in declaring themselves as Croats and theirs language as Croatian: Vladislav Menčetić, Dominko (Dinko) Zlatarić (see above), Bernardin Pavlović, Mavro Vetranović, Nikola Nalješković, Junije Palmotić, Jakov Mikalja, Joakim Stulli, Marko Bruerović, Peter Ignaz Sorgo, Michael Anton Sorgo (1749. 1826), Giovanni Francesco Sorgo(1706. 1771)
The Croatian-language works from Ragusa had a large role in the developing of Croatian literature, as well as modern Croatian standard language.
Patrician families
The Ragusan aristocracy evolved in the 12th century through the 14th century. It was finally established by statute in 1332. New families were accepted only after the earthquake in 1667.
In the Republic of Ragusa all political power was owned by noble males older than 18
years. They were formed the Great Council (Consilium majus) which had
the legislative function.
Every year, 11 members of the Small Council (Consilium minus) were elected. Together with the duke (who was elected for a period of one
month) it had both executive and representative functions.
The main power was
in the hands of the Senat (Consilium rogatorum) which had 45 members elected
for one year.
This organization prevented any single family, unlike the Medici in Florence,
from prevailing. Nevertheless the historians agree that the Sorgo family was all
the time among the most influential.
Original patriciate:
- House of Basilio
- House of Bona
- House of Bonda
- House of Caboga
- House of Cerva
- House of Georgi
- House of Ghetaldi (Getaldić)
- House of Gondola (Gundulic)
- House of Gozze (Gučetić)
- House of Gradi
- House of Menze
- House of Pozza
- House of Saraca
- House of Tudisi
- House of Zamagna
Families that joined the patriciate after the earthquake of 1667:
- House of Bosdari
- House of Bucchia (Bučić)
- House of Natali
- House of Pauli
- House of Ragnina
- House of Resti
- House of Slatarich (Zlatarić)
Other non patrician families
- House of Boscovich (Bošković)
Notable Ragusans
- Antonio Aglich (- 1830)
- Giorgio Baglivi (Gjuro Baglivi) (1668–1707), physician
- Savino de Bobali (1530–1585), writer
- Nicolò Vito di Gozze (1549–1610), Politilogist, historic, philosofer
- Giovanni Bona Boliris (1520 - 1572)
- Roger Joseph Boscovich (Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich / Ruđer Josip Bošković) (1711–1787), scientist, mathematician, philosopher, writer, Jesuit
- Marc Bruère Desrivaux (Marko Bruerović) (Lyon 1770 – Cyprus 1823), writer
- Vice Bune (Vincent Bune, 1559-1612), early explorer of Pacific and discoverer of Melanesia, then Spanish vice-king in Mexico
- Bernhard Graf Caboga-Cerva, 1785–1855
- Serafino Cerva (1696–1759)
- Raimondo Cunich (1719–1794), writer
- Sebastiano Dolci (Sebastijan Slade) (1699–1777)
- Džore Držić (Giorgio Darsa) (1461–1501), writer
- Marin Držić (Marino Darsa) (1508–1567), writer
- Marco Faustino Gagliuffi (1765–1834)
- Giorgio Ferrich(1739–1820), general-bicar
- Marin Getaldić (Marino Ghetaldi) (1568–1626), scientist, mathematician
- Biagio Ghetaldi (Vlaho Getaldić) (1788–1872)
- Francesco Ghetaldi-Gondola (1833–1899)
- Segismondo Ghetaldi-Gondola (Šiško Getaldić-Gundulić) (1795–1860)
- Ignazio Giorgi / Ignjat Đurđević (1675–1737), writer
- Francesco Gondola (Fran Gundulić) (1632–1700)
- Giovanni Gondola / Ivan Gundulić (1589–1638), writer
- Giovanni Segismondo Gondola (Ivan Šiškov Gundulić) (1677–1721)
- Segismondo Gondola (Šišmundo Gundulić) (1634–1667)
- Maria Gondola Gozze (Marija Gundulić Gučetić)
- Stefano Gradi / Stjepan Gradić (1613–1683), philosopher, scientist
- Nikola Vitov Gučetić (Nicolò Vito di Gozze) (1549–1610), statesman, philosopher, scientist
- Dobric Dobricevic/ (Bonino de Bonini (1454 –1528), printer
- Trojan Gundulic, printer
- Hieronimus Liubibratich de Trebinia (1716- 1779)
- Vladislav Menčetić (1617- 1666)
- Sigismondo Menze / Šišmundo Menčetić (1457- 1576)
- Giovanni Mane Giornovichi / Ivan Mane Jarnovic(1740-1804), classic music composer
- Jakov Mikalja (Giacomo Micaglia) (1601–1654), linguist
- Nikola Nalješković 1505-1587
- Junije Palmotić (Giustino Palmotta) (1607–1657), writer
- Ludovico Pasquali (1500–1551)
- Bernardin Pavlović
- Medo Pucić (Conte Orsato Pozza) (1821–1882)
- Niko Pucić (Conte Nicola Pozza) (1820–1883)
- Domenico Ragnina / Dinko Ranjina
- Giunio Resti (1755–1814), politician, writer
- Benedetto Rogacci (1646–1719)
- Giorgio Sagrivi
- Giovanni Francesco Sorgo (1706–1771)
- Pietro Ignazio Sorgo (Peter Ignaz Sorgo) (1749–1826)
- Antun Sorkočević (Antonio Sorgo) (1775–1841), diplomat, witer, composer
- Benedetto Stay (1714–1801)
- Domenico Stoich (–1853)
- Joakim Stulli (Gioacchino Stulli) (1730–1817), lexicographer
- Luca Stulli (1772–1828), scientist
- Mauro Vetrani / Mavro Vetranović (1482 or 1483–1576),
- Ivan Bunić Vučić (Giovanni Bona de Boliris) (1591–1658), politician, writer
- Dominko (Dinko) Zlatarić / Domenico Slatarich (1558–1613), writer
- Bernardo Zamagna (1735–1820), scientist, Jesuit
- Cvijeta Zuzoric (Fiore Zuzori) (1552 -1648), writer
- Franco Sacchetti
See also
References
- Peter F. Sugar (1983). Southeastern Europe Under Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804, University of Washington Press, ISBN 0295960337.
- David Rheubottom (2000). Age, Marriage, and Politics in Fifteenth-Century Ragusa, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198234120
- http://www.roth37.it/COINS/Ragusa/abstract.html
- Andrew Archibald Paton (1861). Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic; Or Contributions to the Modern History of Hungary and Translvania, Dalmatia and Croatia, Servia and Bulgaria, Brockhaus
- Andrew Archibald Paton (1861). Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic; Or Contributions to the Modern History of Hungary and Translvania, Dalmatia and Croatia, Servia and Bulgaria, Brockhaus
- Peter F. Sugar (1983). Southeastern Europe Under Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804, University of Washington Press, ISBN 0295960337.
- John Gardner Wilkinson (1848). Dalmatia and Montenegro, J. Murray
- John Gardner Wilkinson (1848). Dalmatia and Montenegro, J. Murray
- Croatia. (2006) In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 23, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service:
- H.T. Norris (1994). Islam in the Balkans, C. HURST & CO. PUBLISHERS, ISBN 1850651671
- A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (1985). A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521274850
- A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (1985). A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521274850
- Peter F. Sugar (1983). Southeastern Europe Under Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804, University of Washington Press, ISBN 0295960337.
- Frederic Chapin Lane (1973). Venice, a Maritime Republic, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 080181460X
- Peter F. Sugar (1983). Southeastern Europe Under Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804, University of Washington Press, ISBN 0295960337.
- A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (1985). A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521274850
- OLE J Benedictow (1973). The Black Death, 1346-1353, Boydell & Brewer, ISBN 0851159435
- Kenneth Meyer Setton (1978). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571 Vol. 2, DIANE Publishing, ISBN 0871691272
- Peter F. Sugar (1983). Southeastern Europe Under Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804, University of Washington Press, ISBN 0295960337.
- Theoharis Stavrides (2001). The Sultan of Vezirs, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004121064
- Barbara Jelavich (1983). History of the Balkans, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521274583
- Suraiya Faroqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quataert, Sevket Pamuk (1997). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521574552
- Halil Inalcik (1997). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521574560
- Suraiya Faroqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quataert, Sevket Pamuk (1997). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521574552
- Frederic Chapin Lane (1973). Venice, a Maritime Republic, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 080181460X
- Heinrich F. Plett (1993). Renaissance Rhetoric/Renaissance-Rhetorik, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3110135671
- Giorgio Gozzi Ragusa in Difesa Adriatica n° 11 - 1972
- Price (2000). Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0631220399
- Stephen R. Graubard (1998). A New Europe for the Old?, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0765804654
- http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/preprint/Joc00.pdf