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Child abuse

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Child abuse is the physical or psychological maltreatment of a child by an adult often synonymous with the term child maltreatment or the term child abuse and neglect.

There are many forms of abuse and neglect and many governments have developed their own legal definition of what constitutes child maltreatment for the purposes of removing a child and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. In the United States, the Federal Government puts out a full definition of child abuse and neglect and creates a summary of each State definition. To view, go to Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect: Summary of State Laws that is part of the 2005 State Statute series by the National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information.

Distribution of child abuse and neglect in the United States

By perpetrator characteristics

The majority (78%) of maltreated children were maltreated by their birth parents. Birth parents were responsible for 62% of the abuse cases and 91% of the neglect cases.

Birth parents were the most closely related perpetrators for 72% of physically abused children and 81% of emotionally abused children. Of the children who were abused by their birth parents the majority (75%) were abused by their mothers and a sizable minority (46%) were abused by their father (some children were abused by both parents). By contrast, children who were abused by other parents or parent-substitutes were more likely to be mistreated by a male (80-85%) than by females (14-41%)

The pattern was distinctly different for child sexual abuse. Almost-one half of sexually abused children were sexually abused by someone other than a parent or a parent-substitute. Just over one-fourth were sexually abused by a birth parent and one-fourth were sexually abused by parent-substitute (corrected NIS-3 typo). A sexually abused child was most likely to sustain serious injury or impairment when a birth parent was the perpetrator (see incest). Male perpetrators committed 89% of known child sexual abuse versus only 12% by females but this statistic fails to include non-contact forms of child sexual abuse that females often prefer (see covert incest) which causes serious psychological injury and impairment. It also fails to mention social double standards, lack of research, reporting biases and other serious obstacles that hinder the gathering of credible data on overt (contact) female sexual abuse of children.

Neglected children were more often neglected by female perpeprators (87%) than by male perpetrators 43%. Since the vast majority (91%) of neglected children were neglected by their birth parents, this means that birth mothers committed the majority of neglect cases as opposed to birth fathers. This finding is congruent with the fact that mothers tend to be the primary caretakers and are the primary parents held accountable for any ommissions and/or failings in caretaking. This knowledge was summarized from the NIS-3 Executive Summary which was written by two women and which makes no mention of commissions, ommissions, and/or failings in parental daretaking which is no a less essential criteria for child health.

By family characteristics

Children of single parents were at higher risk of physical abuse and all types of neglect and were over-represented among seriously injured, moderately injured and endangered children. Compared with their counterparts living with both parents, children in single-parent families had:

  • a 77-percent greater risk of being harmed by physical abuse.
  • an 87-percent greater risk of being harmed by physical neglect.
  • a 74-percent greater risk of being harmed by emotional neglect.
  • a 220-percent (or more than three times) greater risk of being educationally neglected.
  • a 120-percent greater (more than two times) greater risk of being endangered by some type of child abuse or neglect.

Among children in single parent households, those living with only their father were approximately one and two-thirds more likely to be sexually abused than those living only with their mothers. Based on the data above, children living only with their mother were far more likely to be neglected than those living only with their fathers.

Children in families with income below $15,000 dollars a year were 14-56 times more likely to suffer specific forms of serious child abuse vs children from families with incomes of $30,000 per year or more. Family income was significantly related to incidence rate of nearly every category of maltreatment. Children from families with income below $15,000 are over 31 times more likely to be considered endangered, although not yet injured, by some type of abusive or neglectful treatment than those from families with incomes of $30,000 per year or more.

Family size was connected with a huge increases in the levels of educational and physical neglect. Children in the largest families (those with four or more children) were almost three times more likely to be educationally neglected and nearly two and two fifths more likely to be physically neglected. Surprisingly 'only' children suffered more neglect than children in families of two-three children. However, children in the largest families were physically neglected at nearly three times the rate of those who came from 'only' child households.

By child characteristics

Girls were sexually abused about three times more often than boys. However, this data is based on definitonal guidelines that permit inference of injury of harm to girls that occurred in connection with more extreme forms of sexual abuse. In addition, there is evidence to suggest (see rape and incest) that women commit sexual abuse against their own children in far greater numbers than are being reported, often with covert, non-contact methods, and that they can conceal both overt and covert child sexual abuse much more easily inside their families than can men. Given that female sexual abuse of children is rarely reported (see incest links) it is impossible to know how many boys versus girls are sexually abused by birth mothers and other female caretakers.

Boys were at significantly (24%)l greater risk of serious injury than girls. In addition, the trends in fatal injuries moved in opposite directions between NIS-2 and NIS-3 studies with the incidence of fatally injured girls declining slightly while the incidence of fatally injured boys rose. Boys are also significantly more likely to be emotionally neglected than girls (boys' risk was 18% greater than girls').

Children under age 12, and especially those ages 6-11 were at highest risk for all forms of mistreatment. However, one form of abuse, the sexual abuse of children has a strikingly low age transition in the distribution of incidence rates. The rate of child sexual abuse was very low for 0-2 year olds, but then relatively constant for children ages 3 and older, indicating a very wide range of vulnerability from pre-school age on.

This study found no race-related differences in maltreatment incidence.

Reporting abuse and neglect in the United States

Anyone in the United States may make an anonymous report of abuse, neglect or sexual abuse by reporting to the emergency services by dialing 911 or calling the local police department.

Abuse and neglect may only be reported at the state or local level, not to the U.S. government. Most states have a toll-free hotline staffed by trained call screeners. When contacted, they will either open the case for investigation or log the report. Depending on available resources and the department's legal mandate, one report may not be sufficient to open a case, but a detailed report about a potentially serious case, or multiple reports (by different reporters), may suffice. At that point, someone from a legally designated agency will investigate the report. The investigators may determine there is no evidence of maltreatment, that there is evidence enough to offer support to the family in the home, or that there is evidence enough to remove the child from the home.

Some professionals who work with children are mandatory reporters. Each U.S. state and territory designates individuals, typically by occupational group, who are mandated by law to report child maltreatment. Such individuals often include health care workers, school personnel, child care providers, social workers, law enforcement officers, and mental health professionals.

Some U.S. states also mandate animal control officers, veterinarians, commercial film or photograph processors, substance abuse counselors, and firefighters to report abuse or neglect. Four states--Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, and South Dakota--include domestic violence workers on the list of mandated reporters. Approximately eighteen states require all citizens to report suspected abuse or neglect regardless of profession.

In any state, an adult in charge of a child who has actual knowledge of child abuse (for example, who sees a stranger, a friend, or a family member abusing the child), and fails to report the abuse, can be charged with one or more crimes. However, prosecutions under "mandated reporter" statutes remain uncommon.

Childhelp USA

Founded in 1959 by Sara O'Meara and Yvonne Fedderson, Childhelp USA is one of the largest and oldest national nonprofit organizations dedicated to the prevention of child abuse, neglect as well as to the treatment of its victims in the United States. Childhelp's programs, which directly serve abused children and their families, focus on meeting the children's physical, emotional, educational and spiritual needs. In 2005, Sara and Yvonne were both nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.

Reporting abuse and neglect in Australia

Child abuse and neglect is the subject of mandatory reporting in most Australian jurisdictions. Usually professional people such as doctors, nurses and teachers are bound to report strong evidence of abuse or neglect. State authorities, such as the Child Protection Unit of the Department of Human Services (Victoria), have statutory authority to investigate and deal with child abuse.

Reporting abuse and neglect in United Kingdom

Childline is a telephone contact agency provided for children to discuss any concerns they have with a team of trained volunteers.

NSPCC is the umbrella organisation now funding this project. The NSPCC also provides a telephone helpline for anyone to contact professionally trained social workers regarding concerns about children, as well as a variety of other projects.

The NSPCC forward any concerns they receive on to the relevant Local Authority (where the child concerned lives) which would then make enquiries regarding those concerns.

Authorities

Depending on the country, the agencies responsible for investigating child abuse may be run nationally, regionally, or locally. These agencies may be called Child Protective Services (CPS), Department of Children and Family Services (DCFS), or by other similar names. In the U.S., these agencies are usually listed in the state government section of the telephone book under "Children" or "Health" or "Human Services". In a few instances in the U.S., some of the functions of these agencies are outsourced to private individuals or companies.

People who investigate claims of child abuse may be called a "children's social worker" (CSW) or a case worker.

Child abuse by authorities

Schools and correctional facilities are occasionally charged with child abuse. One such program is the Tranquility Bay operation on Jamaica run by the World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools.

Effects of child abuse on the child and development

The National Adoption Center found that 52% of adoptable children (meaning those children in U.S. foster care freed for adoption) had symptoms of attachment disorder. A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltread infants exhibited attachment disorder symtoms (disorganized subtype). Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).

Children with histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, are at risk of developing severe psychiatric problems . These children are likely to develop Reactive attachment disorder . These children may be described as experiencing trauma-attachment problems. The trauma experienced is the result of abuse or neglect, inflicted by a primary caregiver, which disrupts the normal development of secure attachment. Such children are at risk of developing a disorganized attachment . Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms , as well as depressive, anxiety, and acting-out symptoms .

Treatment

Main article: Complex post-traumatic stress disorder

,

Main article: Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy

,

Main article: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Treatment for those experiencing Complex post-traumatic stress disorder, which is caused by early chronic maltreatment, should address each dimension. Often treatment must be multi-modal. Children who have experienced complex trauma caused by chronic maltreatment can be treated effectively with Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy . In addition Cognitive Behavioral Therapy interventions, education, EMDR and other approaches can be effectively used.

See also

Foster care

Adoption

Child Welfare

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder

Attachment theory

Attachment disorder

Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy

Notable incidents of child abuse

References

  1. Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1995). Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants’ attachments to their caregivers. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds), Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 135-157). NY: Cambridge University Press.
  2. Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (1996). Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning. Child Abuse and Neglect 20, 549-559
  3. Malinosky-Rummell, R. & Hansen, D.J. (1993) Long term consequences of childhood physical abuse. Psychological Bulletin 114, 68-69
  4. ^ Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520-554). NY: Guilford Press
  5. Greenberg, M. (1999). Attachment and Psychopathology in Childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.). Handbook of Attachment (pp.469-496). NY: Guilford Press
  6. Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.) (1999). Attachment Disorganization. NY: Guilford Press
  7. Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents’ Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Ciccehetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention (pp161-184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  8. Carlson, E.A. (1988). A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment. Child Development 69, 1107-1128
  9. Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, 64-73
  10. Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development 64, 572-585
  11. Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D., (Eds.) (2005) Creating Capacity For Attachment, Wood 'N' Barnes, OK. ISBN 1885473729
  12. Becker-Weidman, A., (2006). Treatment for Children with Trauma-Attachment Disorders: Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy, Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. Vol. 13 #1, April 2006.

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