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Hinduism (known as Hindū Dharma in some modern Indian languages) is a religion that originated on the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also referred to as Sanātana Dharma (सनातन धर्म), a Sanskrit phrase meaning "eternal law".
With its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic civilization, it has no known founder, being itself a conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. It is considered the world's oldest extant religion, and has approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 890 million live in India, placing it as the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam. Other countries with large Hindu populations include Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Hinduism provides a vast body of scriptures.joe black neck is Divided as revealed and remembered and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on a broad of range of theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of dharma (religious living). Among such texts, Hindus revere the Vedas and the Upanishads and consider these as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Tantras and the sectarian Agamas, the Purāṇas and the epic Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise excerpted from the Mahābhārata, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.
Etymology
The Persian term Hindu comes from the Sanskrit Sindhu, i.e. the Indus River. In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their land as Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers of the northwestern Indian subcontinent, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta-Hendu in the Avesta (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism of Iran. The term was used for people who lived in the Indian subcontinent beyond the "Sindhu".
Beliefs
Core concepts
Hinduism originates from the ancient Vedic tradition and other indigenous beliefs, incorporated over time. Prominent themes in Hinduism include Dharma (ethics and duties), Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of samsara). Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share traits with Hinduism, because these religions originated in India and focus on self-improvement with the general aim of attaining personal (first hand), spiritual experiences. They along with Hinduism are collectively known as Dharmic religions.
Concept of God
Hinduism is sometimes considered to be a polytheistic religion, but such a view tends to oversimplify a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism and even atheism. For instance, the Advaita Vedanta school holds that there is only one causal entity (Brahman), which manifests itself to humans in multiple forms while many scholars consider the Samkhya school of thought to have had atheistic leanings.
Brahman
Main article: BrahmanAccording to the monistic/panentheistic theologies of Hinduism, Brahman (the greater Self or God) is in the highest sense One and nondifferentiated from the world and its beings (hence 'nondualist'). In connoting Brahman's absolutely unparalleled nature, it is also called Parambrahman, where the Sanskrit prefix param- denotes "ultimate". Brahman is also sometimes seen as synonymous with the concept of Paramatma (Supreme Spirit). Beyond time and space, both immanent and transcendent, Brahman is often described succinctly as sacchidananda, meaning 'Truth-Consciousness-Bliss', not only possessing the qualities but also being their very essence. Advaita philosophy declares that ultimately Brahman (the impersonal God) is beyond mere intellectual description and can be understood only through direct spiritual experience, where the 'knower' and the 'known' are subsumed into the act of 'knowing'. The goal is to "wake up" and realize that one's atman, or soul, is really identical to Brahman, the uber-soul.
On the other hand, monotheistic (typically Dvaita Vedanta) and related devotional (bhakti) schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti depending on the sect. Brahman is seen as fundamentally separate from its reliant souls (humanity) so, in achieving liberation, individual beings experience God as an independent being, a living personality, and retain their individual identities.
Ishvara
Main article: IshvaraWhen God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called Ishvara ("The Lord";), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One";), or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"). Ishvara thus refers to the personal aspect of God in general; it is not specific to a particular deity. Ishvara transcends gender, yet can be looked upon as father, mother, friend, child, or even as sweetheart. Some schools of Hindu philosophy do not believe in Ishvara, while others interpret Ishvara in different ways. Some schools do not distinguish between Ishvara and Brahman. The Dvaita school holds that Ishvara is not incorporeal, but is infinite and a personal being.
Devas and devis
Main article: Deva (Hinduism)The Hindu scriptures also speak about many celestial entities, called Devas ("The shining ones", also called devatās). The word Devas may be translated into English as gods, demigods, deities, celestial spirits or angels. The feminine of deva is devī.
The Vedas and Purānas depict traditional stories about individual devas. The latter lauds the Trimurti of Mahādevas ("Great Gods"), which are the three aspects of God, Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva. Numerous other Devas have been worshipped throughout Hinduism's history. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons. In their personal religious practices, Hindus worship primarily one or another of these deities, known as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal. The particular form of God worshipped as one's chosen ideal is a matter of individual preference and needs, influenced by regional and family traditions.
Avataras
Main article: Avatar
Many denominations of Hinduism teach that from time to time God descends to Earth in corporeal form to help humans along in their struggle toward enlightenment in the form of bhakti or liberation from rebirth known as moksha. In a related capacity, God's incarnations bring the dharmic order back into balance whenever necessary. Such an incarnation of God is called an avatāra. The most famous avatars are of Vishnu, the two most popular being Rama, whose life is depicted in the Ramayana, and Krishna, who is a central figure in the Mahabharata and whose life is depicted in the Srimad Bhagavatam.
Atheism
Main article: Atheism in HinduismMainstream Hindu philosophy talks about the existence of God, being heavily influenced by the Vedanta school, the dominant philosophical school of Hinduism. Nonetheless, there were earlier atheistic schools such as Samkhya, which did not acknowledge the existence of God.
Atman
Main article: ĀtmanMost Hindus believe that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the ātman, is eternal; as is Brahman, which may be seen as either the greater Self or as God, depending on the outlook. According to the Advaita (non-dualist) schools of philosophy, the individual self and greater Self are not fundamentally distinct. They argue that the core spirit, or "Self", of every individual person is identical with the greater Spirit. Referring to 'brahman' unequivocally as God may reveal problems of semantics, where certain traditions understand God to be a motivating agency with personality and others that it is without personality and form, beyond any sort of definition and thus non-equivalent to the 'God' as understood by dualist schools of Hinduism or Abrahamic understandings of God. According to the Upanishads, whoever gains insight into the depths of his own nature and becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of his own Self will realize his identity with Brahman and will thereby reach Moksha. According to the Dvaita (dualist) school, (often associated with Vaishnavism), the ātman is not identical with Brahman, which is seen as being God with personality (though not limited); instead, the ātman is dependent on God. Moksha depends on the cultivation of love for God and on God's grace.
Karma, samsara and moksha
Main article: Karma in HinduismKarma translates literally as action, work or deed and is often described as the "moral law of cause and effect". According to the Upanishads, an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops samskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual. Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of free will and destiny.
This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in much of Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:
As a person puts on new clothes, discarding old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)
Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However only escaping the world of samsara through moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness or peace. It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth. The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, advaita vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as part of Brahman. The followers of dualistic schools such as dvaita on the other hand, expect to spend eternity in a loka, or heaven, in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said, the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."
The goals of life
Main article: PurusharthasClassical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma.
The Grihastha Dharma recognize four goals as noble; these are known as the puruṣhārthas, and they are:
- kāma: Sensual pleasure and enjoyment
- artha: Worldly prosperity and success
- dharma: Following the laws and rule that an individual lives under
- moksha: Liberation from the cycle of samsara
Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role: dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon.
The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described below, the Grihasthi eventually enters this dharma as an eventual stage of life. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in.
Yoga: multiple paths to the goal
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Someone who practices yoga is called a yogi. The chief texts dedicated to Yoga are the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi, or nirvana) include:
- Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion),
- Karma Yoga (the path of right action),
- Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) and
- Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom).
An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some followers of the Dvaita school hold that Bhakti ("devotion") is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for the majority of people, based on their belief that the earth is currently in the age of Kali yuga (one of four stages, or epochs, that are part of the Yuga cycle). Practice of one yoga does not exclude the others. In fact, many schools believe that the different yogas naturally imply, blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa. Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.
Bhakti Yoga
Main article: Bhakti yogaThe bhakti traditions emphasize cultivation of love and devotion for God as the path to perfection. Followers of bhakti typically worship God as a divine personal being or avatar, such as Rama or Krishna. Followers of the bhakti path strive to purify their minds and activities through the chanting of God's names (japa), prayer, devotional hymns (bhajan) and treating all living creatures with compassion. Bhakti followers seek to enjoy a loving relationship with God, rather than seek to merge their consciousness with Brahman as the followers of jnana yoga and raja yoga do.
Karma Yoga
The followers of karma yoga seek to achieve freedom by acting without attachment to the results of their actions. According to Hinduism, action is inevitable, and has one great disadvantage—any act done with attachment to its fruits generates karmic or psychological bondage. Followers of karma yoga follow the injunction in the Bhagavad Gita:
Without being attached to the fruits of activities, one should act as a matter of duty; for by working without attachment, one attains the Supreme.
Many followers of karma yoga offer the results of every action to God, thus combining karma yoga with bhakti yoga. However, it is possible for even an atheist to follow karma yoga by remaining mentally detached from the fruits of their actions. Benefits of karma yoga include purification of the heart, freedom from bondage to the ego, humility, and the growing understanding that Brahman is in all people.
Raja Yoga
Main article: Raja yogaThe followers of Raja yoga seek direct experience of spiritual truth through meditation and yoga practices. Raja yoga is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which has eight 'limbs' that describe the stages a yogi must pass through to reach the goal of samadhi. The eight limbs begin with right action (yamas and niyamas) and perfect meditative posture (asana), and continue with control of the body's life force (pranayama). From there, the yogi practices techniques of meditation that take him through the progressive stages of interiorization (pratyahara), concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana). The final goal of the raja yogi—and the eighth limb of Patanjali's Sutras—is samadhi, or oneness with Brahman.
Jnana Yoga
Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom, or true knowledge, and appeals to people with an intellectual nature. The jnana yogi typically practices the four interrelated means to liberation:
- Viveka: discrimination between what is real (the immortal Atman, or true self), and unreal (the changing universe)
- Vairāgya, dispassion for the pleasures of this world.
- Shad-Sampat, the six virtues, which bring about mental control and discipline.
- Mumukshutva, intense desire for liberation.
These practices lead to the unfoldment of wisdom (intuitive perception), rather than mere intellectual knowledge. Through discrimination and introspection, the jnana yogi eventually realizes the highest truth, that "I am Brahman, the pure, all-pervading Consciousness."
History
Main article: History of HinduismOrigins
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism dates back as far as the late neolithic, to the early Harappan period (ca. 5500–3300 BCE). The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (ca. 1500-500 BCE) are called the "Vedic religion". The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rigveda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence.
The Vedic period
Main article: Historical Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda, centers on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras. However, they built no temples or icons. Animals were sacrificed in larger yajñas as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism, as well as to other Indo-European religions.
Epic and Puranic periods
The epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 400 BCE to 200 CE, although they were transmitted orally for hundreds of years prior to this period. The Ramayana and Mahabharata contain secular and mythological stories of the rulers and wars of ancient India as well as on the avatars Rama and Krishna respectively. They are interspersed with treatises on various Hindu philosophical concepts and themes, including the nature of the atma, karma, dharma, moksha, and the organisation of society and government. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.
The age of Mahajanapadas
Main article: MahajanapadasDuring the Iron Age in India, several schools of thought arose and developed in Hindu philosophy such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. Three key revolutions underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought: these were the spiritual upheaval initiated by the Upanishads, and the arrival of Mahavira (founder of Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism). Charvaka, the leader of an atheistic materialist school, also came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE. The Upanishads, Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system; the Buddha went a step further and claimed that even the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary. In this intellectual ferment, many Hindus became followers of Buddhism while others were influenced by Buddhist and Jain teachings.
Islam and Bhakti
Beginning around 1173 CE, successive waves of armies from Muslim countries invaded and to varying degrees, gained control over North India. During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and many Hindus converted to Islam. Some Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and otherwise persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar, were more tolerant.
Hinduism underwent one of the most profound changes in its history, due in large part to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which was consolidated by the philosopher Adi Shankara a few centuries before, to a focus on the more accessible avataras, especially Krishna and Rama. A new attitude toward God—emotional, passionate love—replaced the old approaches of sacrificial rite and meditation on the formless Brahman.
The 19th to 20th Centuries
This period saw largely unprecedented interaction between Hinduism and European thought (in the form of Abrahamic religions and Western Philosophy). These intercultural conversations catalyzed developments in Indology, formations of new schools of Hindu thought, the spread of Hinduism across the world, and changes in many areas of Hindu society. At the same time, many traditional systems of Hinduism witnessed revivals or new developments that flourished independently of the globalization trend.
Indology as an academic discipline studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought much of the Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature, philosophy, religion, and practice back to European and American universities. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform.
This period also saw the emergence of diverse movements which were more traditional in origin, though nevertheless innovative, sometimes based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON) translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have been instrumental in raising the profiles of traditional Yoga and Vedanta in the West.
In the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism is still practised by the majority of India's inhabitants although the number in the areas of modern Pakistan and Bangladesh have dwindled due to the Partition of India. Hinduism is also the official religion of the Kingdom of Nepal, which is thus the world's only Hindu state. Indonesia has experienced a Hindu revival in recent years, due to the efforts of Parisada Hindu Dharma.
See also: British Raj, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, ISKCON, and Ramakrishna MathScriptures and theology
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times." The scriptures were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, the teachings were refined by other sages, and the canon expanded. The majority of the sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Sanskrit continues to be used today in religious and literary settings. The scripture are collectively referred to as Shastras and are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.
Shruti: Vedic literature
Main article: Śruti
Shruti (lit: that which has been heard) refers to the Vedas (वेद, Knowledge) which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While they have not been dated with much certainty, even the most conservative estimates date their origin to 1200 BCE or earlier.
Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths, revealed to ancient sages (Ṛṣis) through meditation. Many of these sages were women, called Ṛṣikās. Most Hindus do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.
There are four Vedas (called Rik-, Sāma- Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and the most important Veda. Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras in verse. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose, which are historically believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are: the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts are called the Karmakāṇḍa (the ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (the knowledge portion).
The Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophy whereas the Vedas focus on rituals. These texts constitute a major portion of the Jnāna Kānda, and contain much of the Vedas' philosophical teachings. The Upanishads discuss Brahman and reincarnation. While the Vedas are not read by most lay Hindus, they are yet revered as the eternal knowledge whose sacred sounds help bring spiritual and material benefits. Theologically, they take precedence over the Smriti.
See also: Śrauta
Smriti: non-Vedic literature
Main article: Smriti
Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory).
The most notable of the smritis are the Itihāsa (epics), which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. Bhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the epic Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical sermons told by Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, to the Pāṇḍava prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of the Vedas.
Also widely known are the Purāṇas ("ancient histories"), which illustrate Vedic ideas through vivid narratives dealing with deities, and their interactions with humans. Other key texts are the Devī Mahātmya, the Yoga Sūtras, the Tantras as well as the Mahanirvāṇa Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sutras. Another important set of scriptures with a more sectarian nature are the Hindu Āgamas, which dedicate to rituals and worship associated with Vishnu, Shiva and Devī. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti or "Code of Manu", is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the Brahminical caste system.
Most Hindu scriptures, especially the epics and Puranas, are not typically interpreted literally and more importance is attached to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings derived from them. Hindu exegesis leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones.
"Many scriptures, many paths"
In contrast to the scriptural canons in some other religions, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed even today. Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways. Some Hindus even venerate the scriptures of other religions, since they believe that God reveals itself in innumerable ways. One much-quoted verse from the Rigveda that emphasizes the diversity of paths to the one goal is:
- ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadanty
- Truth is one, the wise call it in many different ways
- —Rig Veda 1.164.46
This openness means that there is little theological quarrel between Hindu denominations although these denominations may view God in a different form or sense.
Schools of philosophy
Main article: Hindu philosophyThe six Āstika or orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas, are Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (also called Mīmāṃsā), and Uttara Mīmāṃsā (also called Vedānta). The Heterodox Nāstika schools, which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas, are Buddhism, Jainism and Lokāyata. Although these philosophies are studied formally mainly by scholars, they influence the beliefs of average Hindus.
Practices
Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. According to Swami Vivekananda:
"The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like best, and then see Him in another. So on you go . . . Take your time and you will achieve your end."
Puja (worship)
Main article: PujaHindus may engage in some type of formal worship (Sanskrit: pūjā, worship or veneration) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Veneration may involve offering food, water, or flowers and may be expressed through the burning of incense, lighting of candles or oil-lamps, ringing a bell, waving a fan, or sounding a conch-shell. Other practices of Puja include meditation, the chanting of mantras, and the recitation of scriptures.
Devotional singing is an important part of bhakti. Devotional singing occurs in temples, in ashrams, on the banks of holy rivers, at home and elsewhere. Hymns are in Sanskrit or in modern Indian languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali or Tamil. Musical instruments accompanying devotional singing include the manjeera, tanpura, harmonium, and tabla. Another form of community worship is Satsang (fellowship), the practice of gathering for study or discussion of scriptures and religious topics as well as chanting mantras.
Vedic rites of icon-less fire-oblation (yajna), with traditional Vedic chanting, are now only occasional practices although they are highly revered in theory. In a Hindu wedding ceremony, however, the presence of sacred fire as the divine witness, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras is still the norm.
Worship of God through icons
Main article: MurtiHindus may worship God through icons (murti), such as statues or paintings symbolic of God's power and glory. The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God. Another view is that the image is a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity. A few Hindu sects, such as the Arya Samaj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.
Temples
Main article: MandirHindu temples are a place of worship for Hindus. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities. However, some temples are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the āgama shāstras and many are sites of pilgrimage. An important element of temple architecture and many Hindu households in general is Vaastu Shastra, the science of aesthetic and auspicious design.
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus. Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals, though others do so more regularly. Temples are not used for funerals, or as social hubs but some are used for weddings(e.g. temple of Dnyaneshwar at Alandi, Maharashtra). Many Hindus view the four Shankaracharyas (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath, Puri, Shringeri and Dwarka — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at Kanchi is also added) as the Patriarchs of Hinduism.
Hindu iconography
Main article: Hindu iconography
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The symbols Om (which represents the Parabrahman), Swastika (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings like tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular devas. These associations distinguish the physical representations of the deities in sculptural or printed form and are based upon allegorical references in Hindu mythology. While most representations of deities are largely anthropomorphic there are exceptions. For instance the deity Shiva is worshipped in the form of a pillar-like stone called a lingam.
The guru-disciple tradition
Main article: Guru-shishya traditionIn many Hindu sects, spiritual aspirants are encouraged to adopt a personal spiritual teacher, called a guru. Traditionally, during brahmacharya (see Ashramas) a Guru taught a disciple all things necessary to lead a dharmic life. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to have a spiritual life. The guru's recompense paid by the student is known as gurudakshina; in many traditions, this may not be monetary.
Japa and mantra
Main articles: Japa and MantraMantras are prayers or chants that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a person focus their mind on holy thoughts or to express devotion to God. Mantras are meant to give courage in exigent times and invoke one's inner spiritual strength.
After the pranava or "fundamental" mantra of "Aum", one of the most revered mantras in Hinduism is the Gayatri Mantra. Hindus are initiated into this most sacred mantra at the time of their Upanayanam (thread ceremony). Many Hindus perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri or Mahamrityunjaya mantras.
Japa (ritualistic chanting) is extolled as the greatest duty for the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age), in the epic Mahabharata. Following this direction, many Hindu traditions adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition chanting the Hare Krishna mantra is one such example.
Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism. Nevertheless, many Hindus undertake one or more pilgrimages during their lifetimes. There are many Hindu holy places in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of Varanasi. Other holy places in India include Kedarnath and Badrinath in the Himalayas, the Jagannath temple at Puri, Rishikesh and Haridwar in the foothills of the Himalayas, Prayag (today Allahabad), Rameshwaram in the South and Gaya in the east. The largest single gathering of pilgrims is during the annual Kumbh Mela fair held in one of four different cities on a rotating basis. Another important "set" of pilgrimages are the 51 "Shakti Peethas," where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya, which are incidentally major points of confluence for practitioners of Tantra and those who seek their guidance. Vaishno Devi, the Shakti temple near Katra, Jammu and Kashmir is the second most visited religious shrine in India, after Tirupati Balaji Mandir.
Hindu festivals
Main article: Hindu festivalsHinduism has many festivals throughout the year. Their dates are usually prescribed by the Hindu calendar and typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes and occasions of importance in an agrarian society. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Some widely observed Hindu festivals are,
- Dussera, or Durga Puja, celebrates events from Hindu mythology symbolizing the triumph of good over evil;
- Diwali, the festival of lights;
- Ganesh Chaturthi, the festival celebrating Ganesha;
- Maha Shivaratri, the festival dedicated to Shiva;
- Ram Navami, celebrates the birth of Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu;
- Krishna Janmastami, celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu;
- Holi, a spring festival of colors and light;
- Sankranti, a harvest festival of India
Cremation
On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, eunuchs, and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre. Manikarnika Ghat, in Varanasi, is a famous site where bodies are cremated by the side of the river, in full view of the public. Those not cremated may be simply wrapped in cloth, weighted with stones and cast into a river.
Hinduism obliges the closest male relative (son, father, husband, etc.) of the deceased to immerse the cremated remains in the holy river Ganga (Ganges), preferably at the holy city of Haridwar, India. The cremated remains may also be entombed, in case the deceased was a well-known person.
Society
Denominations
Main article: Hindu denominations
Many Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all. However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that God.
Vaishnavas worship Viṣhṇu; Shaivites worship Shiva; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartists believe in the essential sameness of all deities and that they are all Brahman.
There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Ārya Samāj, which condemns image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña). In Tantra, the Goddess is considered the power of Shiva, and thus represents a combination of the Shaiva and shakta denominations.
As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. Heresy is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.
Ashramas: Stages of Grihastha Life
Main article: AshramaTraditionally, the life of a male Hindu was divided into four Āshramas ("phases" or "stages"; unrelated meanings of āshrama include "monastery" or "refuge").
The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth.
Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha within one's married and professional life respectively (see the pursuits of life). Among the moral obligations of a Hindu householder are the duties to support one's parents, children, guests, priests (Brahmins), and monks (sanyāsis).
Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages.
Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).
Monasticism
Main article: SannyasaIn their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs. It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus, or any brahmana, with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.
Varnas and the caste system
Main article: Varnashrama dharmaHindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "color, form, appearance");. It is argued that in ancient times, the Varṇas were merely labels based upon occupation (as opposed to the hereditary caste system currently present in India) —
- the Brahmins: teachers and priests;
- the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings;
- the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
- the Shudras: servants and labourers.
Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom. Although the scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the Varna system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion, and both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the Vedas, place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it rarely and in a cursory manner. A verse from the Rig Veda indicates that a person's caste was not necessarily determined by that of his family:
"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)
In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the Shudras (which later on became the low-castes) listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.
Mobility and flexibility within the varnas belie allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists. Several prominent Hindu figures who were born as Shudras became Brahmins through various actions. For example Valmiki, author of the Ramayana, was originally a thief.
Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination. The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that
"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."
However, it is not only in the modern era that major figures of Hinduism have aggressively denied casteism. Adi Shankaracharya, who lived some time in the 5th century CE, was outspoken against caste, frequently citing scripture in defense of his then heterodox viewpoint. The Tantric movement that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox Hinduism between the 8th and 11th centuries CE also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and caste distinction. However it would be an overgeneralization to say that the Tantrics did away with all caste restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains:
"For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the caste system but in the later Tantras caste elements are pronounced. This is due to the fact that although many of our known Tantric teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were Brāhmaṇas who could not give up their caste prejudices notwithstanding their conversion to Tantrism."
Discrimination based on caste, including untouchability against the so-called low castes, is criminalized by the Indian Constitution.
Ahimsa and vegetarianism
Main articles: Ahimsa, Sacred cow, and Vegetarianism and religionHindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants, insects, and non-human animals. There is no sharp distinction between humans and other forms of life. The term ahiṃsā first appears in the Upanishads, and is the first of the five Yamas (eternal vows/restraints) in Raja Yoga.
In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement of Hinduism, it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%. The food habits usually vary with the community and region, with some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood. Some Hindus avoid even onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic foods. Some avoid meat on specific holy days.
Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for protein-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus, it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. While most contemporary Hindus do not worship the cow, it holds an honored place in Hindu society as a symbol of unselfish giving among all animals. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.
Conversion
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the question of whether Hindus should evangelize is open to interpretation. Those who see Hinduism mainly as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and considering oneself a Hindu. Some view Hinduism as more of an ethnicity than a religion and believe being born a Hindu makes one a Hindu for life. These people tend to believe that there is an assumption that one is Hindu when they come from India. The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.
There is no formal process for conversion to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. Most Hindu sects do not actively recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely. Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion. Examples include the Vedanta Society, Parisada Hindu Dharma, International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Arya Samaj and the Self-Realization Fellowship.
Notes
- such as Hindi, Bengali and other contemporary Indo-Aryan languages, as well as in several Dravidian tongues like Tamil and Kannada
- The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movements (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).
- Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005.
- Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994;
- e.g. in "Hinduism and the Clash of Civilizations" by David Frawley, Voice of India, 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7
- Religion: Hinduism - National Geographic
- Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents, Adherents.com (2005 figure)
- Swami Chidbhavananda. The Bhagavad Gita. pp. 67-74. The Gita Dhyanam is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the Bhagavad Gita. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them.
- "Meaning of Hindu"
- See Indo-European sound laws for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"
- "Polytheism", Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007
- ^ See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, The Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- Swami Bhaskarananda, Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility
- Brahman: Supreme God in Hinduism
- See generally, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda ISBN 81-85301-75-1
- The presence of God within the heart of every living being is mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita at 9.29, 15.15 and 18.61, which says that God is the source of inner direction and that it is through God's power alone that we have consciousness.
- ^ Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary
- ^ See generally, Sinha, H.P. (1993), Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ. ISBN 81-208-2144-0.
- Vedic cosmology
- Blessingsconucopia.com
- Devas once translated as angels
- C.J. Fuller, The Camphor Flame 32 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X
- Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 80 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
- Louis Renou, The Nature of Hinduism 55 (New York 1962)
- Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 106 in Contemporary Hinduism, Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 104 in Contemporary Hinduism, Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- ^ Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 27 (New Delhi 1974)
- ^ Karl Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 37 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2; See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).
- Vaman S. Apte, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, (Nag Publishers, 1997)
- Huston Smith, The World's Religions, pg 64 (HarperSanFrancisco 1991) ISBN 0-06-250799-0
- S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy - Vol.1, pg. 254 (Oxford University Press, 1996) ISBN 0 19 563819 0
- Bhagavad Gita 2.22
- See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20
- See Swami Vivekananda, Jnana Yoga 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)
- Rinehart, Robin, ed., Contemporary Hinduism19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism, 79-86 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- The concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or loka are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God.
- Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9
- Werner, Karel, "A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism", Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
- ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 7
- B-Gita 11.54 "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding."
- B-Gita 5.5 "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are."
- See Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 116 (New Delhi 1974)
- ^ Sivananda, Swami, Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda). Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047.
- Bhagavad Gita 3:19
- Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms II.29, English translation & commentary (side-by-side with original Sanskrit) in Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I, 29 ISBN 81-85301-75-1
- ^ Kriyananda, Swami, The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: Explained by Paramhansa Yogananda, As Remembered by His Disciple, Swami Kriyananda. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1565892194
- Sivananda, Swami, Raja Yoga, Divine Life Society.
- Bhaskarananda, Swami, Meditation, Mind, and Patanjali's Yoga (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3
- Kriyananda, Swami, Art and Science of Raja Yoga. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-8120818767
- ^ Sivananda, Swami, Jnana Yoga. Divine Life Society, 1982.
- Kriyananda, Swami, Awaken to Superconsciousness. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1565891364
- "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".
- T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
- The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Ziu in Germanic mythology. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
- Robin Rinehart, Contemporary Hinduism 28 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- ^ A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9
- Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)
- Olivelle, Patrick, "The renouncer tradition", pp. 273-274; in "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Ed. Flood,Gavin, Blackwell Publ., 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
- J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9
- Constitution of Nepal: Part I, Government of Nepal website. Accessed: April 9, 2007
- Country profile: Nepal , CIA Factbook.Accessed: April 9, 2007
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118-120; Vol. I. 6-7.
- Sargeant, Winthrop, Introduction to The Bhagavad Gita at 3 (New York, 1984) ISBN 0-87395-831-4
- ^ Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 3 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 7 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Coulson, Michael, Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language (2d Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-8442-3825-2
- Hindunet.org
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118.
- "Hindu Wisdom - Women in Hinduism". Retrieved 2006-01-02.
- Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, and are not eternal.
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I. 6-7.
- Swami Harshananda, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas," in Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World (2d Ed.) ISBN 81-7120-121-0
- Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts. See: Hindunet.org
- Hinduwebsite.com explaining the yajnas
- Swami Shivananda's mission
- What is Veda?, Vedah.com
- See Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 166 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
- Monier-Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India 25-41 (New Delhi 1974)
- ISCKON site
- "The Smritis" by Swami Sivananda
- Sarvopaniṣado gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is.
- See Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 8 (5th ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda II.374 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1
- Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at
- See Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 64, 66 (New Delhi 1974)
- "Schools of Philosophy"
- Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta: Voice of Freedom, Ed. Swami Chetanananda (1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9
- MSN Encarta on Hinduism
- Aryabhatt.com
- Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
- Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 137 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.
- Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 157 (Viveka Press 1994)
-
"More pilgrim rush to Vaishno Devi this year". October 08, 2006.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=(help) - Karl Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 73 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
- Religions of the World India and Hinduism - Background of relativism
- S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", 165-68, in Contemporary Hinduism (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- ^ Bhaskarananda, Swami, "The Essentials of Hinduism", Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- R.S. McGregor, The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 0-19-563846-8
- Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
- Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
- Caste System View of Scholars
- Later scriptures, however, such as the Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) state that the four varṇa divisions are created by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the Gītā says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage Vishvāmitra was a king of the Kṣhatriya caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, Vālmiki, once a low-caste robber, became a sage. Veda Vyāsa, another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem. "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics". Page 21).
- White Yajurveda 26.2
- James Silverberg (November 1969). "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium". The American Journal of Sociology. 75 (3): 443–444.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) - Social Structure & Mobility in Economic Development, By Neil J. Smelser, Seymour Martin Lipset, Published 2005
- Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," in Contemporary Hinduism, Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- M, Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda 155 (Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 8th Printing 1992)
- Flood, Gavin, "The Śaiva Traditions" in: Flood (2005; paperback edition of Flood 2003) p.208
- N. N. Bhattacharyya. History of the Tantric Religion, p. 44-5.
- Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)
- Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India", "Indian consumer patterns" and "Agri reform in India". Results indicate that even Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.
- Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.
- Yadav, Y. (August 14, 2006). "The food habits of a nation". The Hindu. Retrieved 2006-11-17.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Krishnakumar, R. (August 30-September 12, 2003). "Beef without borders". Frontline. Narasimhan Ram. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?". Retrieved 2006-11-14.
- Bharatiya Janata Party History The eternal religion's defining moment in time
- Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at
- See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
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- Oberlies, T, "Die Religion des Rgveda", Vienna 1998.
- Osborne, E, "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", Folens Limited, 2005.
- Radhakrishnan, S. (trans.), "Bhagvada Gita", Harper Collins, 1995. ISBN 1-855384-57-4
- Renou, Louis, "The Nature of Hinduism", Walker, 1964.
- Rinehart, Robin (Ed.), "Contemporary Hinduism", 2004. ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- Sargeant, Winthrop, "Introduction to 'The Bhagavad Gita' ", New York, 1984. ISBN 0-87395-831-4
- Sinha, H.P., "Bharatiya darshan ki ruparekha" (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ., 1993. ISBN 81-208-2144-0
- Sivananda, Swami, Jnana Yoga. Divine Life Society, 1982.
- Sivananda, Swami, Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda). Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047
- Supreme Court of India, "Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal".
- Vivekananda, Swami, "Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda". ISBN 81-85301-75-1
- Vivekananda, Swami, "Vedanta, Voice of Freedom:, Ed. Swami Chetanananda, 1990. ISBN 0-916356-63-9
- Vivekananda, Swami, "Jnana Yoga", Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-425482-88-0
- Werner, Karel, "A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism", Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
Further reading
- Guenon, R., "Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines", 2001 (first french edition 1921), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-74-8
- Guenon, R., "Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta", Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-62-4
- Guenon, R., "Studies in Hinduism", Sophia Perennis
See also
Template:Hinduism portal Hinduism
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External links
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