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In politics and sociology, divide and rule (derived from Latin divide et impera) (also known as divide and conquer) is a combination of political, military and economic strategy of gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into chunks that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy. In reality, it often refers to a strategy where small power groups are prevented from linking up and becoming more powerful, since it is difficult to break up existing power structures.
Maxims "Divide et impera" or "Divide ut regnes" are traditionally identified with the principle of government of the Roman Senate. This attribution is not entirely reliable, insofar as the Roman policy mainly aimed to unite the conquered nations both politically and culturally, under Roman rule. It is, however, borne out by the example of Gabinius parting the Jewish nation into five conventions, reported by Flavius Josephus in Book I, 169-170 of The Wars of the Jews (De bello Judaico) . Likewise, Strabo reports in Geography, 8.7.3 , that the Achaean League was gradually dissolved under the Roman possession of the whole of Greece, owing to them not dealing with the several states in the same way, but wishing to preserve some and to destroy others.
In modern times, Traiano Boccalini cites "Divide et impera" in La bilancia politica, 1,136 and 2,225 as a common principle in politics. The use of this technique is meant to empower the sovereign to control subjects, populations, or factions of different interests, who collectively might be able to oppose his rule. Machiavelli identifies a similar application to military strategy, advising in Book VI of The Art of War (Dell'arte della guerra ), that a Captain should endeavor with every art to divide the forces of the enemy, either by making him suspicious of his men in whom he trusted, or by giving him cause that he has to separate his forces, and, because of this, become weaker.
The strategy of division and rule has been attributed to sovereigns ranging from Louis XI to the Habsburgs. Its historical reception has been mixed. Thus Edward Coke denounces it in Chapter I of the Fourth Part of the Institutes, reporting that when it was demanded by the Lords and Commons what might be a principal motive for them to have good success in Parliament, it was answered: "Eritis insuperabiles, si fueritis inseparabiles. Explosum est illud diverbium: Divide, & impera, cum radix & vertex imperii in obedientium consensus rata sunt." On the other hand, in a minor variation, Sir Francis Bacon touts the cunning maxim of "separa et impera" in a letter to James I of 15 February 1615. Likewise James Madison recommends in a letter to Thomas Jefferson of 24 October 1787 , summarizing the thesis of The Federalist #10 : "Divide et impera, the reprobated axiom of tyranny, is under certain qualifications, the only policy, by which a republic can be administered on just principles."
Typical elements of this technique are said to involve
- creating or encouraging divisions among the subjects in order to forestall alliances that could challenge the sovereign.
- aiding and promoting those who are willing to cooperate with the sovereign.
- fostering distrust and enmity between local rulers.
- encouraging frivolous expenditures that leave little money for political and military ends.
The use of this strategy was imputed to administrators of vast empires, including the Roman and British, who were charged with playing one tribe against another to maintain control of their territories with a minimal number of imperial forces. The concept of "Divide and Rule" gained prominence when India was a part of the British Empire, but was also used to account for the strategy used by the Romans to take Britain, and for the Anglo-Normans to take Ireland. It is said that the British used the strategy to gain control of the large territory of India by keeping its people divided along lines of religion, language, or caste, taking control of petty princely states in India piecemeal.
Also mentioned as a strategy for market action in economics, it can be applied to get the most out of the players in a competitive market.
Examples of Divide and Conquer strategies
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Europe
- The first big scale application of this rule was in Macedonia. Romans entered Macedonia from the south and helped by Latin, Italian and Greek allies, they defeated King Perseus of Macedon in the battle of Pydna in 168 BC. Immediately afterwards, they divided Macedonia into four republics that were heavily restricted from intercourse or trade with one another and with Greece. There was a ruthless purge, with allegedly anti-Roman citizens being denounced by their compatriots and deported in large numbers.
- Following the October revolution, the Bolsheviks engaged at various times in alliances with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, certain anarchists, and various non-Russian ethnic nationalist groups, against the White movement, Right Socialist-Revolutionaries, and other anarchist and ethnic nationalist groups. This was done in the context of establishing the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (the Bolshevik party) as the sole legal party in the Soviet Union. Similar shifting alliances were played out amongst various dissident factions within the CPSU, such as the Workers Opposition and Left Communists, with Joseph Stalin and his supporters gaining absolute power within the party by the mid-1920s.
- The Salami strategy of Hungarian Communist leader, Mátyás Rákosi.
- Alliances with various parties played a role in the Nazi Machtergreifung and Gleichschaltung, the seizure and consolidation of total power by the National Socialist German Workers Party. The Enabling Act, which banned the Communist and Social Democratic parties, was supported by the Nazi's coalition partner, the German National People's Party, as well as by the Centre Party. Several months later, these parties were themselves banned, along with all other political parties other than the NSDAP.
Cyprus
- Cyprus was placed under British control on 4 June 1878 as a result of the Cyprus Convention, which granted control of the island to Britain in return for British support of the Ottoman Empire in the Russian-Turkish War.
- Famagusta harbour was completed in June 1906; by this time the island was a strategic naval outpost for the British Empire, shoring up influence over the Eastern Mediterranean and Suez Canal, the crucial main route to India.
- A British colonial strategy was to keep the Greek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority of the island separate and discourage intermingling. The British hoped and succeeded to strengthen their hold on this strategically important colony.
- Cyprus Independence was attained in 1960 after exhaustive negotiations between the United Kingdom, as the colonial power, and Greece and Turkey, the cultural 'motherlands' for both of the communities in Cyprus. The UK ceded the island under a constitution allocating government posts and public offices by ethnic quota, but retained two Sovereign Base Areas. The British drafted constitution, reflected mutual distrust bred earlier between the communities by the colonial power . Today, two British Sovereign Base Areas are found in Cyprus and the divide et impera effects endure as the Cyprus dispute.
Middle East
- One of the many factors contributing to the approval of an increase in Jewish immigration to Palestine was motivated by a desire to maintain British dominance in the Middle East by Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour in 1917. The first Governor of Jerusalem Sir Ronald Storrs stated that Israel "will form for England a little loyal Jewish Ulster in a sea of potentially hostile Arabism."
- Israel has supported Kurdish groups in Iraq, Syria, and Iran. The Israeli foreign-intelligence agency, Mossad, has allegedly conducted covert operations in Kurdish areas as such as training Kurdish commandos. This is denied by the Israeli government, yet supported by an anonymous source in the CIA. This is viewed as a means to reduce the power of Anti-Israeli governments.
- During Israel's occupation of southern Lebanon Israel installed the South Lebanon Army, a Christian-led proxy militia to manage a 12-mile wide occupied zone along the border. Israel supplied the SLA with arms and resources to fight Lebanese resistance forces led by Hizbullah. Israel also used the Phalange as a proxy militia to fight Shia Lebanese and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
- Robert Dreyfuss's Devil's Game presents the support of Islamic Radicalism as a tool against Communists and pro-Soviet Pan-Arabism. He also sees this aspect in Israel's early support of Hamas against Palestine Liberation Organization. Foreign Affairs's review criticizes the author's view as including flaws.
- US military and media allegedly fosters an opposition between Shia and Sunni Muslims, especially in Iraq where people are forcibly moved to be grouped with those of the same sects from previously mixed areas.
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Sri Lanka
The Caste divide
- During the last quarter of the 19th century, British Governors encouraged Inter-caste rivalry among the Sinhala speaking inhabitants of Sri Lanka to prevent the formation of anti-colonial movements. The British administrators helped loyal families of mixed origin who professed the Anglican faith of the British administrators, to merge with the numerically large Govigama middle-caste of cultivators and landlordss to pose as native leaders. Among them were the De Saram family that had married Burghers, and later through other marriage alliances, created a network embracing the Obeysekere, Jayasekara, Dias-Bandaranaike, Ilangakoon, de Alwis, de Livera, Pieris and Siriwardena families. This “Govigama” Anglican Christian network expanded further with the preponderance of native headmen as Mudaliyars, Korales and Vidanes from the Buddhist Govigama section of the community.
- Eventually the British created a very powerful class of Sri Lankan Mudaliyars. Towards the end of the 19th century, appointments to high native positions were restricted for several years only to Anglicans from the Govigama caste. In the Caste system in Sri Lanka, the Govigama caste had been the 4th caste. Nitinighanduwa, a spurious publication on so called native laws which was in reality designed to claim the highest status for the Govigama caste was published by the British government and it sparked the famous caste-conflict of that period. This caste antipathy remained for decades and it effectively prevented the formation of a nationalistic independence struggle in Sri Lanka. It also laid the foundation for the post-independence Govigama hegemony which has led to several youth uprisings followed by brutal mass massacres by Govigama controlled governments to suppress them. The country has been ravaged by a civil war for over two decades driven by demands for democracy and autonomy and there is brewing discontent among youth against the exploitation of the nation by a few political families.
The Race divide
- Through their methods of administration, divide and rule policies, census taking methods and mandatory declaration of one’s ‘Race’ on official documents, The British Governors forced the Sri Lankan population of diverse ethnic origins to become either Sinhalese or Tamils based on the language they spoke in the 19th century.
- Ethnically diverse but Sinhala speaking castes and racial groups who had their own origin myths were virtually compelled to adopt a common origin myth, the myth that all Sinhala speaking people descend from Vijaya the grandson of a lion, even though all of the Sinhalese lower-castes were originally Tamil. This myth was encouraged and popularised by the British colonials ably aided by staunch nationalists. Prince Vijaya died without even a royal heir and subsequent dynasties until the 12th century Kalingas never claimed Vijayan connections. Nevertheless in the modern Sinhala psyche the ‘descent from the lion’ story has a special place and is widely accepted unquestioningly.
- Similarly in northern Sri Lanka, ethnically diverse communities of various origins but speaking Tamil, the language of trade and commerce of the region, were grouped as Malabars and subsequently relabeled as Tamils even though many of them were Malayalis and Telugus.
Africa
Western countries have used the divide and conquer strategy in Africa during the colonial and post-colonial period.
- Germany and Belgium both ruled Rwanda and Burundi in a colonial capacity. Germany used the strategy of divide and conquer by placing members of the Tutsi minority in positions of power. When Belgium took over in 1916, the Tutsi and Hutu groups were rearranged according to race rather than by occupation. Belgium defined "Tutsi" as anyone with more than ten cows or a long nose, while "Hutu" meant someone with less than ten cows and a broad nose. The socioeconomic divide between Tutsis and Hutus continued after independence and was a major factor in the Rwandan Genocide.
- When the British Empire ruled Sudan, it restricted access between the North and the South. The British also neglected to develop southern Sudan or include southern Sudanese in governance. The disparity between the North and South helped lead to the First and Second Sudanese Civil Wars. See also History of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
- During British rule of Nigeria from 1900 to 1960 different regions were frequently reclassified for administrative purposes. The British used conflict between Ibos and Hausa as a means of consolidating their power in the region. Regional, ethnic, and religious splits remain a barrier to uniting Nigeria.
India
The British employed "Divide and Rule" in British India as a means of preventing an uprising against the Raj. The partition of India is often attributed to these policies .
In his historical survey Constantine's Sword, James P. Carroll writes,
- "Typically, imperial powers depend on the inability of oppressed local populations to muster a unified resistance, and the most successful occupiers are skilled at exploiting the differences among the occupied. Certainly that was the story of the British Empire's success, and its legacy of nurtured local hatreds can be seen wherever the Union Flag flew, from Muslim-Hindu hatred in Pakistan and India, to Catholic-Protestant hatred in Ireland, to, yes, Jew-Arab, hatred in modern Israel. Rome was as good at encouraging internecine resentments among the occupied as Britain ever was."
See also
References
- The Partition of India
- James Carroll, Constantine's Sword, Mariner Books, 2002, p81-82