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Ba
Example glyphs
Bengali–Assamese
Tibetan
Malayalam	ബ
Sinhala	බ
Ashoka Brahmi
Devanagari
Cognates
Hebrew	ב
Greek	Β
Latin	B
Cyrillic	В, Б
Properties
Phonemic representation	/b/
IAST transliteration	b B
ISCII code point	CA (202)

Ba is a consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, Ba is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter after having gone through the Gupta letter .

Āryabhaṭa numeration

Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of ब are:

• ब [bə] = 23 (२३)
• बि [bɪ] = 2,300 (२ ३००)
• बु [bʊ] = 230,000 (२३० ०००)
• बृ [bri] = 23,000,000 (२३० ०० ०००)
• बॢ [blə] = 23×10 (२३×१०)
• बे [be] = 23×10 (२३×१०)
• बै [bɛː] = 23×10 (२३×१०)
• बो [boː] = 23×10 (२३×१०)
• बौ [bɔː] = 23×10 (२३×१०)

Historic Ba

There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoṣṭhī, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Ba as found in standard Brahmi, was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta . The Tocharian Ba did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of ba, in Kharoshthi () was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

Brahmi Ba

The Brahmi letter , Ba, is probably derived from the Aramaic Bet , and is thus related to the modern Latin B and Greek Beta. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Ba can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period. As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.

Brahmi Ba historic forms

Ashoka (3rd-1st c. BCE)	Girnar (~150 BCE)	Kushana (~150-250 CE)	Gujarat (~250 CE)	Gupta (~350 CE)

Tocharian Ba

The Tocharian letter is derived from the Brahmi , but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.

Tocharian Ba with vowel marks

Ba	Bā	Bi	Bī	Bu	Bū	Br	Br̄	Be	Bai	Bo	Bau	Bä

Kharoṣṭhī Ba

The Kharoṣṭhī letter is generally accepted as being derived from the Aramaic Bet , and is thus related to B and Beta, in addition to the Brahmi Ba.

Devanagari Ba

Devanāgarī
Abugida Brahmic scripts Inherent vowel
Languages Hindi Marathi Nepali Konkani Maithili Sindhi Bodo Pali Prakrit Sanskrit and more
Transliteration IAST Hunterian NLK ISO 15919 Harvard-Kyoto ITRANS Velthuis SLP1 WX notation (ISCII)
Vowels and syllabic consonants अ a ॲ æ ऄ आ (का) ā इ (कि) i ई (की) ī उ (कु) u ऊ (कू) ū ॶ (कॖ) ॷ (कॗ) ऋ (कृ) r̥ ॠ (कॄ) r̥̄ ऌ (कॢ) l̥ ॡ (कॣ) l̥̄ ए (के) ē ऍ (कॅ) ê ऎ (कॆ) e ऐ (कै) ai (कॕ) (कॎ) ओ (को) ō ऑ (कॉ) ô ऒ (कॊ) o औ (कौ) au ॳ (कऺ) ॴ (कऻ) ॵ (कॏ) (Schwa deletion)
Consonants क k क़ q ख kh ख़ k̲h̲ ग g ग़ ġ ॻ gg घ gh ङ ṅ च c छ ch ज j ज़ z ॼ jj ॹ ž झ jh झ़ zh ञ ñ ट ṭ ठ ṭh ड ḍ ड़ ṛ ॾ ḍḍ ॸ ḍ ढ ḍh ढ़ ṛh ण ṇ त t थ th द d ध dh न n ऩ ṉ प p फ ph फ़ f ब b ॿ bb भ bh म m य y य़ ẏ ॺ र r ऱ ṟ ळ ḷ ऴ ḻ ल l व v श ś ष ṣ स s ह h ॽ (Conjuncts)
Diacritics, punctuation, symbols अं ṁ अः ḥ अँ m̐ अऀ ऽ ’ क़ क् ३ 3 ᳵ ẖ ᳶ ḫ अ॑ ` अ॒ _ अ॓ अ॔ ॐ aum̐ । ॥ ॰ ॱ ₹ INR and more (Devanagari (Unicode block) Devanagari Extended Devanagari Extended-A Vedic Extensions)
Numerals ० 0 १ 1 २ 2 ३ 3 ४ 4 ५ 5 ६ 6 ७ 7 ८ 8 ९ 9 Āryabhaṭa Akṣarapallī Bhūtasaṃkhyā Kaṭapayādi
v t e

Ba (ब) is a consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , after having gone through the Gupta letter . Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter બ, and the Modi letter 𑘤.

Devanagari-using Languages

In all languages, ब is pronounced as [bə] or [b] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Conjuncts with ब

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.

Ligature conjuncts of ब

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form for an initial "R" instead of repha.

• Repha र্ (r) + ब (ba) gives the ligature rba:

• Eyelash र্ (r) + ब (ba) gives the ligature rba:

• ब্ (b) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature bra:

• ब্ (b) + न (na) gives the ligature bna:

• द্ (d) + ब (ba) gives the ligature dba:

• द্ (d) + ब্ (b) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature dbra:

Stacked conjuncts of ब

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.

• ब্ (b) + ब (ba) gives the ligature bba:

• ब্ (b) + च (ca) gives the ligature bca:

• ब্ (b) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature bcʰa:

• ब্ (b) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature bḍa:

• ब্ (b) + ग (ga) gives the ligature bga:

• ब্ (b) + ज (ja) gives the ligature bja:

• ब্ (b) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature bjña:

• ब্ (b) + क (ka) gives the ligature bka:

• ब্ (b) + ल (la) gives the ligature bla:

• ब্ (b) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature bŋa:

• ब্ (b) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature bña:

• ब্ (b) + व (va) gives the ligature bva:

• च্ (c) + ब (ba) gives the ligature cba:

• छ্ (cʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature cʰba:

• ड্ (ḍ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ḍba:

• ढ্ (ḍʱ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ḍʱba:

• ह্ (h) + ब (ba) gives the ligature hba:

• झ্ (jʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature jʰba:

• क্ (k) + ब (ba) gives the ligature kba:

• ख্ (kʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature kʰba:

• ल্ (l) + ब (ba) gives the ligature lba:

• ळ্ (ḷ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ḷba:

• ङ্ (ŋ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ŋba:

• ञ্ (ñ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ñba:

• फ্ (pʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature pʰba:

• स্ (s) + ब (ba) gives the ligature sba:

• श্ (ʃ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ʃba:

• त্ (t) + ब (ba) gives the ligature tba:

• ट্ (ṭ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ṭba:

• ठ্ (ṭʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature ṭʰba:

• व্ (v) + ब (ba) gives the ligature vba:

Bengali Ba

The Bengali script ব is derived from the Siddhaṃ , not . The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter ব will sometimes be transliterated as "bo" instead of "ba". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /bo/. Like all Indic consonants, ব can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".

ব in Bengali-using languages

ব is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including Bengali and Assamese.

Conjuncts with head ব

Bengali ব exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts, with a tendency towards stacked ligatures. When used in a non-head position in a conjunct, ব is normally not pronounced, but often geminates (doubles) the preceding consonant.

• ব্ (b) + ব (ba) gives the ligature bba:

• ব্ (b) + দ (da) gives the ligature bda:

• ব্ (b) + জ (ja) gives the ligature bja:

• ব্ (b) + ল (la) gives the ligature bla:

• ব্ (b) + র (ra) gives the ligature bra, with the ra phala suffix:

• ব্ (b) + য (ya) gives the ligature bya, with the ya phala suffix:

• র্ (r) + ব্ (b) + য (ya) gives the ligature rbya, with the repha prefix and ya phala suffix:

Gujarati Ba

Ba (બ) is the twenty-third consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from the Devanagari Ba with the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately the Brahmi letter .

Gujarati-using Languages

The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, બ is pronounced as [bə] or [b] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Ba	Bā	Bi	Bī	Bu	Bū	Br	Bl	Br̄	Bl̄	Bĕ	Be	Bai	Bŏ	Bo	Bau	B
Gujarati Ba syllables, with vowel marks in red.

Conjuncts with બ

Gujarati બ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.

• ર્ (r) + બ (ba) gives the ligature RBa:

• બ્ (b) + ર (ra) gives the ligature BRa:

• દ્ (d) + બ (ba) gives the ligature DBa:

• બ્ (b) + ન (na) gives the ligature BNa:

Javanese Ba

Telugu Ba

Ba (బ) is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter . It is closely related to the Kannada letter ಬ. Since it lacks the v-shaped headstroke common to most Telugu letters, బ remains unaltered by most vowel matras, and its subjoined form is simply a smaller version of the normal letter shape. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.

Malayalam Ba

Ba (ബ) is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Grantha letter Ba. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Conjuncts of ബ

As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, put̪iya lipi, may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in paḻaya lipi, due to changes undertaken in the 1970s by the Government of Kerala.

• ബ് (b) + ദ (da) gives the ligature bda:

• ബ് (b) + ബ (ba) gives the ligature bba:

Odia Ba

Ba (ବ) is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Ba. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Conjuncts of ବ

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The subjoined form of Ba is one of these mismatched forms, and is referred to as "Ba Phala" or "Wa Phala". The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters.

• ବ୍ (b) + ବ (ba) gives the ligature bba:

Odia Wa and Va

Wa (ୱ) and Va (ଵ) are consonants of the Odia abugida that are largely unified with ବ. ବ is used to represent all three sounds /b/, /w/ and /v/ in different context, while ୱ is only pronounced as /w/. ଵ is an alternate to ୱ with less widespread usage, but all three letters share the same subjoined form.

Kaithi Ba

Ba (𑂥) is a consonant of the Kaithi abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Ba. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Conjuncts of 𑂥

As is common in Indic scripts, Kaithi joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a half form of preceding consonants, although several consonants use an explicit virama. Most half forms are derived from the full form by removing the vertical stem. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjucts of ra are indicated with a repha or rakar mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, there are a few vertical conjuncts that can be found in Kaithi writing, but true ligatures are not used in the modern Kaithi script.

• 𑂥୍ (b) + 𑂩 (ra) gives the ligature bra:

• 𑂩୍ (r) + 𑂥 (ba) gives the ligature rba:

Comparison of Ba

The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Ba, are related as well.

Comparison of Ba in different scripts

Aramaic Kharoṣṭhī 𐨦 Ashoka Brahmi Kushana Brahmi Tocharian Gupta Brahmi Pallava Kadamba - Bhaiksuki 𑰤 Siddhaṃ Grantha 𑌬 Cham ꨝ Sinhala බ Pyu / Old Mon - Tibetan Newa 𑐧 Ahom 𑜈 Malayalam ബ Telugu బ Burmese ဗ Lepcha ᰓ Ranjana Saurashtra ꢨ Dives Akuru 𑤢 Kannada ಬ Kayah Li ꤙ Limbu ᤒ Soyombo 𑩲 Khmer ព Tamil - Chakma 𑄝 / 𑅇 Tai Tham ᨻ / ᨼ Meitei Mayek ꯕ Gaudi - Thai พ / ฟ Lao ພ / ຟ Tai Le - Marchen 𑲀 Tirhuta 𑒥 New Tai Lue ᦗ / ᦝ Tai Viet ꪚ / ꪛ Aksara Kawi 'Phags-pa ꡎ Odia ବ Sharada 𑆧 Rejang ꤷ Batak ᯅ Buginese ᨅ Zanabazar Square 𑨠 Bengali-Assamese Takri 𑚠 Javanese ꦧ Balinese ᬩ Makasar 𑻤 Hangul ㅂ Northern Nagari - Dogri 𑠠 Laṇḍā - Sundanese ᮘ Baybayin ᜊ Modi 𑘤 Gujarati બ Khojki 𑈡 Khudabadi 𑋔 Mahajani 𑅪 Tagbanwa ᝪ Devanagari Nandinagari 𑧄 Kaithi Gurmukhi ਬ Multani 𑊝 Buhid ᝊ Canadian Syllabics - Soyombo 𑩲 Sylheti Nagari ꠛ Gunjala Gondi 𑵮 Masaram Gondi 𑴢 Hanuno'o ᜪ Notes The middle "Kushana" form of Brahmi is a later style that emerged as Brahmi scripts were beginning to proliferate. Gupta Brahmi was definitely a stylistic descendant from Kushana, but other Brahmi-derived scripts may have descended from earlier forms. Tocharian is probably derived from the middle period "Kushana" form of Brahmi, although artifacts from that time are not plentiful enough to establish a definite succession. Pyu and Old Mon are probably the precursors of the Burmese script, and may be derived from either the Pallava or Kadamba script May also be derived from Devangari (see bottom left of table) The Origin of Hangul from 'Phags-pa is one of limited influence, inspiring at most a few basic letter shapes. Hangul does not function as an Indic abugida. Although the basic letter forms of the Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics were derived from handwritten Devanagari letters, this abugida indicates vowel sounds by rotations of the letter form, rather than the use of vowel diacritics as is standard in Indic abugidas. May also be derived from Ranjana (see above) Masaram Gondi acts as an Indic abugida, but its letterforms were not derived from any single precursor script.

Character encodings of Ba

Most Indic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard, and as such the letter Ba in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Ba from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as ISCII.

Character information

Preview					బ		ବ		ಬ		ബ		બ		ਬ
Unicode name	DEVANAGARI LETTER BA		BENGALI LETTER BA		TELUGU LETTER BA		ORIYA LETTER BA		KANNADA LETTER BA		MALAYALAM LETTER BA		GUJARATI LETTER BA		GURMUKHI LETTER BA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	2348	U+092C	2476	U+09AC	3116	U+0C2C	2860	U+0B2C	3244	U+0CAC	3372	U+0D2C	2732	U+0AAC	2604	U+0A2C
UTF-8	224 164 172	E0 A4 AC	224 166 172	E0 A6 AC	224 176 172	E0 B0 AC	224 172 172	E0 AC AC	224 178 172	E0 B2 AC	224 180 172	E0 B4 AC	224 170 172	E0 AA AC	224 168 172	E0 A8 AC
Numeric character reference	ब	ब	ব	ব	బ	బ	ବ	ବ	ಬ	ಬ	ബ	ബ	બ	બ	ਬ	ਬ
ISCII	202	CA	202	CA	202	CA	202	CA	202	CA	202	CA	202	CA	202	CA

Character information

Preview	AshokaKushanaGupta		𐨦				𑌬
Unicode name	BRAHMI LETTER BA		KHAROSHTHI LETTER BA		SIDDHAM LETTER BA		GRANTHA LETTER BA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	69673	U+11029	68134	U+10A26	71076	U+115A4	70444	U+1132C
UTF-8	240 145 128 169	F0 91 80 A9	240 144 168 166	F0 90 A8 A6	240 145 150 164	F0 91 96 A4	240 145 140 172	F0 91 8C AC
UTF-16	55300 56361	D804 DC29	55298 56870	D802 DE26	55301 56740	D805 DDA4	55300 57132	D804 DF2C
Numeric character reference	𑀩	𑀩	𐨦	𐨦	𑖤	𑖤	𑌬	𑌬

Character information

Preview			ྦ		ꡎ		𑨠		𑐧		𑰤		𑆧
Unicode name	TIBETAN LETTER BA		TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER BA		PHAGS-PA LETTER BA		ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER BA		NEWA LETTER BA		BHAIKSUKI LETTER BA		SHARADA LETTER BA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	3926	U+0F56	4006	U+0FA6	43086	U+A84E	72224	U+11A20	70695	U+11427	72740	U+11C24	70055	U+111A7
UTF-8	224 189 150	E0 BD 96	224 190 166	E0 BE A6	234 161 142	EA A1 8E	240 145 168 160	F0 91 A8 A0	240 145 144 167	F0 91 90 A7	240 145 176 164	F0 91 B0 A4	240 145 134 167	F0 91 86 A7
UTF-16	3926	0F56	4006	0FA6	43086	A84E	55302 56864	D806 DE20	55301 56359	D805 DC27	55303 56356	D807 DC24	55300 56743	D804 DDA7
Numeric character reference	བ	བ	ྦ	ྦ	ꡎ	ꡎ	𑨠	𑨠	𑐧	𑐧	𑰤	𑰤	𑆧	𑆧

• See further below for Tai Tham codepoints.

Character information

Preview	𑘤		𑧄		𑩲		ꠛ		𑵮
Unicode name	MODI LETTER BA		NANDINAGARI LETTER BA		SOYOMBO LETTER BA		SYLOTI NAGRI LETTER BO		GUNJALA GONDI LETTER BA		KAITHI LETTER BA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	71204	U+11624	72132	U+119C4	72306	U+11A72	43035	U+A81B	73070	U+11D6E	69797	U+110A5
UTF-8	240 145 152 164	F0 91 98 A4	240 145 167 132	F0 91 A7 84	240 145 169 178	F0 91 A9 B2	234 160 155	EA A0 9B	240 145 181 174	F0 91 B5 AE	240 145 130 165	F0 91 82 A5
UTF-16	55301 56868	D805 DE24	55302 56772	D806 DDC4	55302 56946	D806 DE72	43035	A81B	55303 56686	D807 DD6E	55300 56485	D804 DCA5
Numeric character reference	𑘤	𑘤	𑧄	𑧄	𑩲	𑩲	ꠛ	ꠛ	𑵮	𑵮	𑂥	𑂥

References

1. Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 447–450. ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
2. ^ Bühler, Georg (1898). "On the Origin of the Indian Brahmi Alphabet". archive.org. Karl J. Trübner. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
3. Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838
4. Pall, Peeter. "Microsoft Word - kblhi2" (PDF). Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
5. "The Bengali Alphabet" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-28.

^note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".

• Indic letters