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Dha
Example glyphs
Bengali–Assamese
Tibetan	དྷ
Thai	ธ
Malayalam	ധ
Sinhala	ධ
Ashoka Brahmi
Devanagari
Cognates
Hebrew	ד
Greek	Δ
Latin	D
Cyrillic	Д
Properties
Phonemic representation	/dʰ/ /tʰ/
IAST transliteration	dh Dh
ISCII code point	C5 (197)
^B in Tai languages, Mon and Khmer

Dha is a consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, Dha is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter after having gone through the Gupta letter .

Āryabhaṭa numeration

Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of ध are:

• ध [dʰə] = 19 (१९)
• धि [dʰɪ] = 1,900 (१ ९००)
• धु [dʰʊ] = 190,000 (१ ९० ०००)
• धृ [dʰri] = 19,000,000 (१ ९० ०० ०००)
• धॢ [dʰlə] = 19×10 (१९×१०)
• धे [dʰe] = 19×10 (१९×१०)
• धै [dʰɛː] = 19×10 (१९×१०)
• धो [dʰoː] = 19×10 (१९×१०)
• धौ [dʰɔː] = 19×10 (१९×१०)

Historic Dha

There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoṣṭhī, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Dha as found in standard Brahmi, was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta . The Tocharian Dha did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of dha, in Kharoshthi () was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

Brahmi Dha

The Brahmi letter , Dha, is probably derived from the Aramaic Dalet , and is thus related to the modern Latin D and Greek Delta. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Dha can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period. As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.

Brahmi Dha historic forms

Ashoka (3rd-1st c. BCE)	Girnar (~150 BCE)	Kushana (~150-250 CE)	Gujarat (~250 CE)	Gupta (~350 CE)

Tocharian Dha

The Tocharian letter is derived from the Brahmi , but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.

Tocharian Dha with vowel marks

Dha	Dhā	Dhi	Dhī	Dhu	Dhū	Dhr	Dhr̄	Dhe	Dhai	Dho	Dhau	Dhä

Kharoṣṭhī Dha

The Kharoṣṭhī letter is generally accepted as being derived from the Aramaic Dalet , and is thus related to D and Delta, in addition to the Brahmi Dha.

Devanagari Dha

Devanāgarī
Abugida Brahmic scripts Inherent vowel
Languages Hindi Marathi Nepali Konkani Maithili Sindhi Bodo Pali Prakrit Sanskrit and more
Transliteration IAST Hunterian NLK ISO 15919 Harvard-Kyoto ITRANS Velthuis SLP1 WX notation (ISCII)
Vowels and syllabic consonants अ a ॲ æ ऄ आ (का) ā इ (कि) i ई (की) ī उ (कु) u ऊ (कू) ū ॶ (कॖ) ॷ (कॗ) ऋ (कृ) r̥ ॠ (कॄ) r̥̄ ऌ (कॢ) l̥ ॡ (कॣ) l̥̄ ए (के) ē ऍ (कॅ) ê ऎ (कॆ) e ऐ (कै) ai (कॕ) (कॎ) ओ (को) ō ऑ (कॉ) ô ऒ (कॊ) o औ (कौ) au ॳ (कऺ) ॴ (कऻ) ॵ (कॏ) (Schwa deletion)
Consonants क k क़ q ख kh ख़ k̲h̲ ग g ग़ ġ ॻ gg घ gh ङ ṅ च c छ ch ज j ज़ z ॼ jj ॹ ž झ jh झ़ zh ञ ñ ट ṭ ठ ṭh ड ḍ ड़ ṛ ॾ ḍḍ ॸ ḍ ढ ḍh ढ़ ṛh ण ṇ त t थ th द d ध dh न n ऩ ṉ प p फ ph फ़ f ब b ॿ bb भ bh म m य y य़ ẏ ॺ र r ऱ ṟ ळ ḷ ऴ ḻ ल l व v श ś ष ṣ स s ह h ॽ (Conjuncts)
Diacritics, punctuation, symbols अं ṁ अः ḥ अँ m̐ अऀ ऽ ’ क़ क् ३ 3 ᳵ ẖ ᳶ ḫ अ॑ ` अ॒ _ अ॓ अ॔ ॐ aum̐ । ॥ ॰ ॱ ₹ INR and more (Devanagari (Unicode block) Devanagari Extended Devanagari Extended-A Vedic Extensions)
Numerals ० 0 १ 1 २ 2 ३ 3 ४ 4 ५ 5 ६ 6 ७ 7 ८ 8 ९ 9 Āryabhaṭa Akṣarapallī Bhūtasaṃkhyā Kaṭapayādi
v t e

Dha (ध) is a consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , after having gone through the Gupta letter . Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter ધ, and the Modi letter 𑘠.

Devanagari-using Languages

In all languages, ध is pronounced as [dʱə] or [dʱ] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Conjuncts with ध

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. Dha however, does not have a vertical stem to drop for making a half form, and either forms a stacked conjunct/ligature, or uses its full form with Virama. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.

Ligature conjuncts of ध

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form for an initial "R" instead of repha.

• Repha र্ (r) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature rdʱa:

• Eyelash र্ (r) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature rdʱa:

• ध্ (dʱ) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature dʱra:

• Repha र্ (r) + ध্ (dʱ) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature rdʱra:

• छ্ (cʰ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature cʰdʱa:

• ध্ (dʱ) + न (na) gives the ligature dʱna:

• द্ (d) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature ddʱa:

• न্ (n) + द্ (d) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature nddʱa:

• Repha र্ (r) + द্ (d) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature rddʱa:

• द্ (d) + ध্ (dʱ) + म (ma) gives the ligature ddʱma:

• द্ (d) + ध্ (dʱ) + व (va) gives the ligature ddʱva:

Stacked conjuncts of ध

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.

• ड্ (ḍ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature ḍdʱa:

• ढ্ (ḍʱ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature ḍʱdʱa:

• ध্ (dʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature dʱca:

• ध্ (dʱ) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature dʱḍa:

• ध্ (dʱ) + ज (ja) gives the ligature dʱja:

• ध্ (dʱ) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature dʱjña:

• ध্ (dʱ) + ल (la) gives the ligature dʱla:

• ध্ (dʱ) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature dʱŋa:

• ध্ (dʱ) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature dʱña:

• ङ্ (ŋ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature ŋdʱa:

• ट্ (ṭ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature ṭdʱa:

• ठ্ (ṭʰ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature ṭʰdʱa:

Bengali Dha

The Bengali script ধ is derived from the Siddhaṃ , and is marked by the same lack of a horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, ध. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter ধ will sometimes be transliterated as "dho" instead of "dha". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /d̪ʱo/. Like all Indic consonants, ধ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".

ধ in Bengali-using languages

ধ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including Bengali and Assamese.

Conjuncts with ধ

Bengali ধ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts, with a tendency towards linear (horizontal) ligatures, and few stacked ligatures.

• দ্ (d) + ধ (dʱa) gives the ligature ddʱa:

• ধ্ (dʱ) + ম (ma) gives the ligature dʱma:

• ধ্ (dʱ) + ন (na) gives the ligature dʱna:

• ধ্ (dʱ) + র (ra) gives the ligature dʱra, with the ra phala suffix:

• ধ্ (dʱ) + ব (va) gives the ligature dʱva, with the va phala suffix:

• ধ্ (dʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature dʱya, with the ya phala suffix:

• গ্ (g) + ধ (dʱa) gives the ligature gdʱa:

• গ্ (g) + ধ্ (dʱ) + র (ra) gives the ligature gdʱra, with the ra phala suffix:

• গ্ (g) + ধ্ (dʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature gdʱya, with the ya phala suffix:

• ন্ (n) + ধ (dʱa) gives the ligature ndʱa:

• ন্ (n) + ধ্ (dʱ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ndʱra, with the ra phala suffix:

• ন্ (n) + ধ্ (dʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature ndʱya, with the ya phala suffix:

• র্ (r) + ধ (dʱa) gives the ligature rdʱa, with the repha prefix:

• র্ (r) + ধ্ (dʱ) + ব (va) gives the ligature rdʱva, with the repha prefix and va phala suffix:

Gujarati Dha

Dha (ધ) is the nineteenth consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from the Devanagari Dha , and ultimately the Brahmi letter . ધ (Dha) is similar in appearance to ઘ (Gha), and care should be taken to avoid confusing the two when reading Gujarati script texts.

Gujarati-using Languages

The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, ધ is pronounced as [dʱə] or [dʱ] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Dha	Dhā	Dhi	Dhī	Dhu	Dhū	Dhr	Dhl	Dhr̄	Dhl̄	Dhĕ	Dhe	Dhai	Dhŏ	Dho	Dhau	Dh
Gujarati Dha syllables, with vowel marks in red.

Conjuncts with ધ

Gujarati ધ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.

• ર્ (r) + ધ (dʱa) gives the ligature RDha:

• ધ્ (dʱ) + ર (ra) gives the ligature DhRa:

• દ્ (d) + ધ (dʱa) gives the ligature DDha:

• ધ્ (dʱ) + ન (na) gives the ligature DhNa:

Javanese Dha

Telugu Dha

Dha (ధ) is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter . It is closely related to the Kannada letter ಧ. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.

Malayalam Dha

Dha (ധ) is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Grantha letter Dha. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Conjuncts of ധ

As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, put̪iya lipi, may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in paḻaya lipi, due to changes undertaken in the 1970s by the Government of Kerala.

• ദ് (d) + ധ (dʱa) gives the ligature ddʱa:

• ന് (n) + ധ (dʱa) gives the ligature ndʱa:

Odia Dha

Dha (ଧ) is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Dha. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all. Like other Oriya letters with an open top, ଧ takes the subjoined matra form of the vowel i (ଇ):

Conjuncts of ଧ

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters.

• ଦ୍ (d) + ଧ (dʱa) gives the ligature ddʱa:

• ନ୍ (n) + ଧ (dʱa) gives the ligature ndʱa:

• ଧ୍ (dʱ) + ୟ (ya) gives the ligature dʱya:

Kaithi Dha

Dha (𑂡) is a consonant of the Kaithi abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Dha. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Conjuncts of 𑂡

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a half form of preceding consonants, although several consonants use an explicit virama. Most half forms are derived from the full form by removing the vertical stem. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjuncts of ra are indicated with a repha or rakar mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, there are a few vertical conjuncts that can be found in Kaithi writing, but true ligatures are not used in the modern Kaithi script.

• 𑂡୍ (dʱ) + 𑂩 (ra) gives the ligature dʱra:

• 𑂩୍ (r) + 𑂡 (dʱa) gives the ligature rdʱa:

Comparison of Dha

The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Dha, are related as well.

Comparison of Dha in different scripts

Aramaic Kharoṣṭhī 𐨢 Ashoka Brahmi Kushana Brahmi Tocharian Gupta Brahmi Pallava Kadamba - Bhaiksuki 𑰠 Siddhaṃ Grantha 𑌧 Cham ꨖ Sinhala ධ Pyu / Old Mon - Tibetan དྷ Newa 𑐢 Ahom 𑜔 Malayalam ധ Telugu ధ Burmese ဓ Lepcha - Ranjana Saurashtra ꢤ Dives Akuru 𑤞 Kannada ಧ Kayah Li - Limbu ᤎ Soyombo 𑩮 Khmer ធ Tamil - Chakma 𑄙 Tai Tham ᨵ Meitei Mayek ꯙ Gaudi - Thai ธ Lao ຘ Tai Le - Marchen - Tirhuta 𑒡 New Tai Lue ᦒ Tai Viet - Aksara Kawi 'Phags-pa - Odia ଧ Sharada 𑆣 Rejang - Batak - Buginese - Zanabazar Square 𑨜 Bengali-Assamese Takri 𑚜 Javanese ꦣ Balinese ᬥ Makasar - Hangul - Northern Nagari - Dogri 𑠜 Laṇḍā - Sundanese - Baybayin - Modi 𑘠 Gujarati ધ Khojki 𑈝 Khudabadi 𑋐 Mahajani 𑅦 Tagbanwa - Devanagari Nandinagari 𑧀 Kaithi Gurmukhi ਧ Multani 𑊙 Buhid - Canadian Syllabics - Soyombo 𑩮 Sylheti Nagari ꠗ Gunjala Gondi 𑵹 Masaram Gondi 𑴞 Hanuno'o - Notes The middle "Kushana" form of Brahmi is a later style that emerged as Brahmi scripts were beginning to proliferate. Gupta Brahmi was definitely a stylistic descendant from Kushana, but other Brahmi-derived scripts may have descended from earlier forms. Tocharian is probably derived from the middle period "Kushana" form of Brahmi, although artifacts from that time are not plentiful enough to establish a definite succession. Pyu and Old Mon are probably the precursors of the Burmese script, and may be derived from either the Pallava or Kadamba script May also be derived from Devangari (see bottom left of table) The Origin of Hangul from 'Phags-pa is one of limited influence, inspiring at most a few basic letter shapes. Hangul does not function as an Indic abugida. Although the basic letter forms of the Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics were derived from handwritten Devanagari letters, this abugida indicates vowel sounds by rotations of the letter form, rather than the use of vowel diacritics as is standard in Indic abugidas. May also be derived from Ranjana (see above) Masaram Gondi acts as an Indic abugida, but its letterforms were not derived from any single precursor script.

Character encodings of Dha

Most Indic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard, and as such the letter Dha in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Dha from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as ISCII.

Character information

Preview					ధ		ଧ		ಧ		ധ		ધ		ਧ
Unicode name	DEVANAGARI LETTER DHA		BENGALI LETTER DHA		TELUGU LETTER DHA		ORIYA LETTER DHA		KANNADA LETTER DHA		MALAYALAM LETTER DHA		GUJARATI LETTER DHA		GURMUKHI LETTER DHA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	2343	U+0927	2471	U+09A7	3111	U+0C27	2855	U+0B27	3239	U+0CA7	3367	U+0D27	2727	U+0AA7	2599	U+0A27
UTF-8	224 164 167	E0 A4 A7	224 166 167	E0 A6 A7	224 176 167	E0 B0 A7	224 172 167	E0 AC A7	224 178 167	E0 B2 A7	224 180 167	E0 B4 A7	224 170 167	E0 AA A7	224 168 167	E0 A8 A7
Numeric character reference	ध	ध	ধ	ধ	ధ	ధ	ଧ	ଧ	ಧ	ಧ	ധ	ധ	ધ	ધ	ਧ	ਧ
ISCII	197	C5	197	C5	197	C5	197	C5	197	C5	197	C5	197	C5	197	C5

Character information

Preview	AshokaKushanaGupta		𐨢				𑌧
Unicode name	BRAHMI LETTER DHA		KHAROSHTHI LETTER DHA		SIDDHAM LETTER DHA		GRANTHA LETTER DHA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	69669	U+11025	68130	U+10A22	71072	U+115A0	70439	U+11327
UTF-8	240 145 128 165	F0 91 80 A5	240 144 168 162	F0 90 A8 A2	240 145 150 160	F0 91 96 A0	240 145 140 167	F0 91 8C A7
UTF-16	55300 56357	D804 DC25	55298 56866	D802 DE22	55301 56736	D805 DDA0	55300 57127	D804 DF27
Numeric character reference	𑀥	𑀥	𐨢	𐨢	𑖠	𑖠	𑌧	𑌧

Character information

Preview			ྡྷ		𑨜		𑐢		𑰠		𑆣
Unicode name	TIBETAN LETTER DHA		TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER DHA		ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DHA		NEWA LETTER DHA		BHAIKSUKI LETTER DHA		SHARADA LETTER DHA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	3922	U+0F52	4002	U+0FA2	72220	U+11A1C	70690	U+11422	72736	U+11C20	70051	U+111A3
UTF-8	224 189 146	E0 BD 92	224 190 162	E0 BE A2	240 145 168 156	F0 91 A8 9C	240 145 144 162	F0 91 90 A2	240 145 176 160	F0 91 B0 A0	240 145 134 163	F0 91 86 A3
UTF-16	3922	0F52	4002	0FA2	55302 56860	D806 DE1C	55301 56354	D805 DC22	55303 56352	D807 DC20	55300 56739	D804 DDA3
Numeric character reference	དྷ	དྷ	ྡྷ	ྡྷ	𑨜	𑨜	𑐢	𑐢	𑰠	𑰠	𑆣	𑆣

Character information

Preview	𑘠		𑧀		𑩮		ꠗ		𑵹
Unicode name	MODI LETTER DHA		NANDINAGARI LETTER DHA		SOYOMBO LETTER DHA		SYLOTI NAGRI LETTER DHO		GUNJALA GONDI LETTER DHA		KAITHI LETTER DHA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	71200	U+11620	72128	U+119C0	72302	U+11A6E	43031	U+A817	73081	U+11D79	69793	U+110A1
UTF-8	240 145 152 160	F0 91 98 A0	240 145 167 128	F0 91 A7 80	240 145 169 174	F0 91 A9 AE	234 160 151	EA A0 97	240 145 181 185	F0 91 B5 B9	240 145 130 161	F0 91 82 A1
UTF-16	55301 56864	D805 DE20	55302 56768	D806 DDC0	55302 56942	D806 DE6E	43031	A817	55303 56697	D807 DD79	55300 56481	D804 DCA1
Numeric character reference	𑘠	𑘠	𑧀	𑧀	𑩮	𑩮	ꠗ	ꠗ	𑵹	𑵹	𑂡	𑂡

References

1. Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 447–450. ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
2. ^ Bühler, Georg (1898). "On the Origin of the Indian Brahmi Alphabet". archive.org. Karl J. Trübner. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
3. Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838
4. Pall, Peeter. "Microsoft Word - kblhi2" (PDF). Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
5. "The Bengali Alphabet" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-28.

^note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".

• Indic letters