Misplaced Pages

Part of a series on
Sociology
History Outline Index
Key themes Society Globalization Human behavior Human environmental impact Identity Industrial revolutions 3 / 4 / 5 Popularity Social complexity Social environment Social equality Social equity Social power Social stratification Social structure Social cycle theory
Perspectives Conflict theory Critical theory Structural functionalism Positivism Social constructionism Social darwinism Symbolic interactionism
Branches Aging Architecture Art Astrosociology Body Criminology Consciousness Culture Death Demography Deviance Disaster Economic Education Emotion (Jealousy) Environmental Family Feminist Fiscal Food Gender Generations Health Historical Immigration Industrial Internet Jewry Knowledge Language Law Leisure Literature Marxist Mathematic Medical Military Music Peace, war, and social conflict Philosophy Political Public Punishment Race and ethnicity Religion Rural Science (History of science) Social movements Social psychology Sociocybernetics Sociology Space Sport Technology Terrorism Urban Utopian Victimology Visual
Methods Quantitative Qualitative Comparative Computational Ethnographic Conversation analysis Historical Interview Mathematical Network analysis Social experiment Survey
Major theorists 1700s: Comte · Sieyès 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias 1900s: Fromm · Adorno · Gehlen · Aron · Merton · Nisbet · Mills · Bell · Schoeck · Goffman · Bauman · Foucault · Luhmann · Habermas · Baudrillard · Bourdieu · Giddens
Lists Bibliography Terminology Journals Organizations People Timeline By country
Society portal
v t e

Part of a series on the
Frankfurt School
Major works Dialectic of Enlightenment Eclipse of Reason Eros and Civilization Escape from Freedom Minima Moralia Negative Dialectics One-Dimensional Man Reason and Revolution The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere The Theory of Communicative Action "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction"
Notable theorists Adorno Apel Benjamin Fromm Forst Grünberg Geuss Habermas Honneth Horkheimer Jaeggi Kluge Kracauer Kirchheimer Kompridis Kuhlmann Löwenthal Marcuse McCarthy Negt Neumann Offe Pollock Schmidt Sohn-Rethel Wellmer Wingert
Important concepts Advanced capitalism Antipositivism Communicative rationality Critical theory Culture industry Dialectic Legitimation crisis Non-identity Popular culture Praxis Privatism Psychoanalysis
Related topics Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory Freudo-Marxism Marxist humanism Recognition Reification Social alienation Western Marxism
Philosophy portal Society portal
v t e

A critical theory is any approach to humanities and social philosophy that focuses on society and culture to attempt to reveal, critique, and challenge or dismantle power structures. With roots in sociology and literary criticism, it argues that social problems stem more from social structures and cultural assumptions than from individuals. Some hold it to be an ideology, others argue that ideology is the principal obstacle to human liberation. Critical theory finds applications in various fields of study, including psychoanalysis, film theory, literary theory, cultural studies, history, communication theory, philosophy, and feminist theory.

Critical Theory (capitalized) is a school of thought practiced by the Frankfurt School theoreticians Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm, and Max Horkheimer. Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them". Although a product of modernism, and although many of the progenitors of Critical Theory were skeptical of postmodernism, Critical Theory is one of the major components of both modern and postmodern thought, and is widely applied in the humanities and social sciences today.

In addition to its roots in the first-generation Frankfurt School, critical theory has also been influenced by György Lukács and Antonio Gramsci. Some second-generation Frankfurt School scholars have been influential, notably Jürgen Habermas. In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism and progressed closer to American pragmatism. Concern for social "base and superstructure" is one of the remaining Marxist philosophical concepts in much contemporary critical theory. The legacy of Critical Theory as a major offshoot of Marxism is controversial. The common thread linking Marxism and Critical theory is an interest in struggles to dismantle structures of oppression, exclusion, and domination. Philosophical approaches within this broader definition include feminism, critical race theory, post-structuralism, queer theory and forms of postcolonialism.

Part of a series on
Marxism
Theoretical works Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 The Condition of the Working Class in England The German Ideology The Communist Manifesto The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte Grundrisse Capital Critique of the Gotha Programme Dialectics of Nature The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State What Is to Be Done? The Accumulation of Capital Philosophical Notebooks Terrorism and Communism The State and Revolution Essays on Marx's Theory of Value History and Class Consciousness Prison Notebooks The Black Jacobins On Practice Theses on the Philosophy of History Dialectic of Enlightenment A Critique of Soviet Economics The Long Revolution Guerrilla Warfare The Wretched of the Earth Reading Capital The Society of the Spectacle Pedagogy of the Oppressed Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses Ways of Seeing How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Social Justice and the City Women, Race and Class Marxism and the Oppression of Women Imagined Communities Hegemony and Socialist Strategy The Sublime Object of Ideology Time, Labor and Social Domination The Age of Extremes The Origin of Capitalism Empire Late Victorian Holocausts Change the World Without Taking Power Caliban and the Witch An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital Capitalist Realism Capital in the Anthropocene Towards Socialism or Capitalism? The Revolution Betrayed Literature and Revolution The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice
Philosophy Alienation Dialectical materialism Ideology Philosophy of nature Philosophy in the Soviet Union Reification Marxist ethics
Critique of political economy Capital (accumulation) Crisis theory Commodity Concrete and abstract labor Factors of production Falling profit-rate tendency Means of production Mode of production Capitalist Socialist Productive forces Scientific socialism Surplus product Socially necessary labour time Value-form Wage labour
Sociology Base and superstructure Bourgeoisie Class Class consciousness Classless society Commodity fetishism Communist society Critical theory Cultural hegemony Democracy Dictatorship of the proletariat Soviet Radical Democratic centralism Exploitation False consciousness Human nature Immiseration Imperialism Lumpenproletariat Metabolic rift Proletariat Private property Relations of production State theory Working class
History Class struggle Historical determinism Primitive accumulation Proletarian revolution World revolution Theory of historical trajectory
Aspects Aesthetics Archaeology Criminology Cultural analysis Cultural Studies Ethics Film theory Geography Historiography Literary criticism Marxism and religion Sociology Philosophy
Common variants Structural Autonomist Marxism–Leninism Guevarism Maoism Titoism Trotskyism Neo-Gramscianism Regulation school Third-worldist Hegelian Budapest School Frankfurt School Humanist Neue Marx-Lektüre Open Political Praxis School Both Black Classical Communization Feminist Leninism Neo Post Western
Other variants Analytical Austromarxism Centrist Council communism Eurocommunism Instrumental Marxism–Leninism–Maoism Nkrumaism Orthodox Revisionist Situationist Socialism with Chinese characteristics Wertkritik
People Marx Engels Morris Lafargue Rubin Kautsky Plekhanov Du Bois Connolly Lenin Luxemburg Liebknecht Kollontai Bogdanov Stalin Trotsky Grossman Zinoviev Bloch Lukács Korsch Bukharin Ho Serge Gramsci Galiev Pashukanis Bordiga Benjamin Mao Basu Mariátegui Horkheimer Dutt Brecht Marcuse Kalecki Fromm Cox Lefebvre James Adorno Padmore Sartre Deutscher Hoxha Beauvoir Sombart Nkrumah Sweezy Emmanuel Hill Bettelheim Draper Jones Hobsbawm Althusser Hinton Williams Freire Mandel Sivanandan Miliband Cabral Thompson Bauman Fanon Kosik Berger Castro Guevara Liebman Heller Guattari Mészáros O'Connor Wallerstein Mies Tronti Debord Amin Hall Nairn Parenti Negri Jameson Gonzalo Dussel Harvey Laclau Bahro Poulantzas Vattimo Badiou Harnecker Altvater Anderson Löwy Vogel Sison Easthope Rancière Berman Przeworski Cohen Therborn Losurdo Ture Postone Rodney Bannerji Spivak Newton Sakai Wood Federici Wolff Balibar Eagleton Kurz Hartsock Rowbotham Mouffe Geras Brenner Davis Massey Cleaver Bishop Haraway Panitch Clarke Jessop Davis Wright Fraser Burawoy Holloway Rose Screpanti Tamás Hampton Cano Žižek Berardi Sankara Hennessy McDonnell Douzinas Roediger Foster West Ghandy Marcos Heinrich Prashad Kelley Dean Lordon Linera Fisher Li Coulthard Malm Seymour Toscano Bhattacharya Moufawad-Paul Srnicek Horvat Hamza Saito
Journals Antipode Capital & Class Capitalism Nature Socialism Constellations Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory Historical Materialism Mediations Monthly Review New Left Review Race & Class Rethinking Marxism Science & Society Socialist Register
Related topics 21st-century communist theorists Anarchism Creative destruction Conflict theory Criticism of Marxism Communism Communalism Economic determinism History of communism Left-wing politics Marxian economics New Left Old Left Municipalism Political ecology Socialism Authoritarian Democratic Market Reformist Revolutionary Social Utopian Left-wing populism Universal class Vulgar Marxism Economism Worker cooperative Workers' council
Outline Communism portal Philosophy portal Socialism portal
v t e

History

Max Horkheimer first defined critical theory (German: Kritische Theorie) in his 1937 essay "Traditional and Critical Theory", as a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only toward understanding or explaining it. Wanting to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxist philosophy, Horkheimer critiqued both the model of science put forward by logical positivism, and what he and his colleagues saw as the covert positivism and authoritarianism of orthodox Marxism and Communism. He described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them". Critical theory involves a normative dimension, either by criticizing society in terms of some general theory of values or norms (oughts), or by criticizing society in terms of its own espoused values (i.e. immanent critique). Significantly, critical theory not only conceptualizes and critiques societal power structures, but also establishes an empirically grounded model to link society to the human subject. It defends the universalist ambitions of the tradition, but does so within a specific context of social-scientific and historical research.

The core concepts of critical theory are that it should:

• be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity (i.e., how it came to be configured at a specific point in time)
• improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology

Postmodern critical theory is another major product of critical theory. It analyzes the fragmentation of cultural identities in order to challenge modernist-era constructs such as metanarratives, rationality, and universal truths, while politicizing social problems "by situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings".

Marx

Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the critique of ideology, linking it with the practice of social revolution, as stated in the 11th section of his Theses on Feuerbach: "The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it." In early works, including The German Ideology, Marx developed his concepts of false consciousness and of ideology as the interests of one section of society masquerading as the interests of society as a whole.

Adorno and Horkheimer

One of the distinguishing characteristics of critical theory, as Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer elaborated in their Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), is an ambivalence about the ultimate source or foundation of social domination, an ambivalence that gave rise to the "pessimism" of the new critical theory about the possibility of human emancipation and freedom. This ambivalence was rooted in the historical circumstances in which the work was originally produced, particularly the rise of Nazism, state capitalism, and culture industry as entirely new forms of social domination that could not be adequately explained in the terms of traditional Marxist sociology.

For Adorno and Horkheimer, state intervention in the economy had effectively abolished the traditional tension between Marxism's "relations of production" and "material productive forces" of society. The market (as an "unconscious" mechanism for the distribution of goods) had been replaced by centralized planning.

Contrary to Marx's prediction in the Preface to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, this shift did not lead to "an era of social revolution" but to fascism and totalitarianism. As a result, critical theory was left, in Habermas's words, without "anything in reserve to which it might appeal, and when the forces of production enter into a baneful symbiosis with the relations of production that they were supposed to blow wide open, there is no longer any dynamism upon which critique could base its hope". For Adorno and Horkheimer, this posed the problem of how to account for the apparent persistence of domination in the absence of the very contradiction that, according to traditional critical theory, was the source of domination itself.

Habermas

In the 1960s, Habermas, a proponent of critical social theory, raised the epistemological discussion to a new level in his Knowledge and Human Interests (1968), by identifying critical knowledge as based on principles that differentiated it either from the natural sciences or the humanities, through its orientation to self-reflection and emancipation. Although unsatisfied with Adorno and Horkheimer's thought in Dialectic of Enlightenment, Habermas shares the view that, in the form of instrumental rationality, the era of modernity marks a move away from the liberation of enlightenment and toward a new form of enslavement. In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism, and progressed closer to American pragmatism.

Habermas's ideas about the relationship between modernity and rationalization are in this sense strongly influenced by Max Weber. He further dissolved the elements of critical theory derived from Hegelian German idealism, though his epistemology remains broadly Marxist. Perhaps his two most influential ideas are the concepts of the public sphere and communicative action, the latter arriving partly as a reaction to new post-structural or so-called "postmodern" challenges to the discourse of modernity. Habermas engaged in regular correspondence with Richard Rorty, and a strong sense of philosophical pragmatism may be felt in his thought, which frequently traverses the boundaries between sociology and philosophy.

Modern critical theorists

Contemporary philosophers and researchers who have focused on understanding and critiquing critical theory include Nancy Fraser, Axel Honneth, Judith Butler, and Rahel Jaeggi. Honneth is known for his works Pathology of Reason and The Legacy of Critical Theory, in which he attempts to explain critical theory's purpose in a modern context. Jaeggi focuses on both critical theory's original intent and a more modern understanding that some argue has created a new foundation for modern usage of critical theory. Butler contextualizes critical theory as a way to rhetorically challenge oppression and inequality, specifically concepts of gender.

Honneth established a theory that many use to understand critical theory, the theory of recognition. In this theory, he asserts that in order for someone to be responsible for themselves and their own identity they must be also recognized by those around them: without recognition in this sense from peers and society, individuals can never become wholly responsible for themselves and others, nor experience true freedom and emancipation—i.e., without recognition, the individual cannot achieve self-actualization.

Like many others who put stock in critical theory, Jaeggi is vocal about capitalism's cost to society. Throughout her writings, she has remained doubtful about the necessity and use of capitalism in regard to critical theory. Most of Jaeggi's interpretations of critical theory seem to work against the foundations of Habermas and follow more along the lines of Honneth in terms of how to look at the economy through the theory's lens. She shares many of Honneth's beliefs, and many of her works try to defend them against criticism Honneth has received.

To provide a dialectical opposite to Jaeggi's conception of alienation as 'a relation of relationlessness', Hartmut Rosa has proposed the concept of resonance. Rosa uses this term to refer to moments when late modern subjects experience momentary feelings of self-efficacy in society, bringing them into a temporary moment of relatedness with some aspect of the world. Rosa describes himself as working within the critical theory tradition of the Frankfurt School, providing an extensive critique of late modernity through his concept of social acceleration. However his resonance theory has been questioned for moving too far beyond the Adornoian tradition of "looking coldly at society".

Schools and Derivates

Postmodern critical social theory

Focusing on language, symbolism, communication, and social construction, critical theory has been applied in the social sciences as a critique of social construction and postmodern society.

While modernist critical theory (as described above) concerns itself with "forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system", postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems "by situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings". Meaning itself is seen as unstable due to social structures' rapid transformation. As a result, research focuses on local manifestations rather than broad generalizations.

Postmodern critical research is also characterized by the crisis of representation, which rejects the idea that a researcher's work is an "objective depiction of a stable other". Instead, many postmodern scholars have adopted "alternatives that encourage reflection about the 'politics and poetics' of their work. In these accounts, the embodied, collaborative, dialogic, and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are clarified."

The term critical theory is often appropriated when an author works in sociological terms, yet attacks the social or human sciences, thus attempting to remain "outside" those frames of inquiry. Michel Foucault has been described as one such author. Jean Baudrillard has also been described as a critical theorist to the extent that he was an unconventional and critical sociologist; this appropriation is similarly casual, holding little or no relation to the Frankfurt School. In contrast, Habermas is one of the key critics of postmodernism.

Communication studies

When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Habermas redefined critical social theory as a study of communication, with communicative competence and communicative rationality on the one hand, and distorted communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began to overlap to a much greater degree than before.

Critical disability theory

Critical legal studies

Immigration studies

Critical theory can be used to interpret the right of asylum and immigration law.

Critical finance studies

Critical finance studies apply critical theory to financial markets and central banks.

Critical management studies

Critical international relations theory

Critical race theory

Critical pedagogy

Critical theorists have widely credited Paulo Freire for the first applications of critical theory to education/pedagogy, considering his best-known work to be Pedagogy of the Oppressed, a seminal text in what is now known as the philosophy and social movement of critical pedagogy. Dedicated to the oppressed and based on his own experience helping Brazilian adults learn to read and write, Freire includes a detailed class analysis in his exploration of the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. In the book, he calls traditional pedagogy the "banking model of education", because it treats the student as an empty vessel to be filled with knowledge. He argues that pedagogy should instead treat the learner as a co-creator of knowledge.

In contrast to the banking model, the teacher in the critical-theory model is not the dispenser of all knowledge, but a participant who learns with and from the students—in conversation with them, even as they learn from the teacher. The goal is to liberate the learner from an oppressive construct of teacher versus student, a dichotomy analogous to colonizer and colonized. It is not enough for the student to analyze societal power structures and hierarchies, to merely recognize imbalance and inequity; critical theory pedagogy must also empower the learner to reflect and act on that reflection to challenge an oppressive status quo.

Critical consciousness

Critical university studies

Critical psychology

Critical criminology

Critical animal studies

Critical social work

Critical social work is the application to social work of a critical theory perspective. Critical social work seeks to address social injustices, as opposed to focusing on individualized issues. Critical theories explain social problems as arising from various forms of oppression and injustice in globalized capitalist societies and forms of neoliberal governance.

Critical ethnography

Critical data studies

Critical environmental justice

Critical environmental justice applies critical theory to environmental justice.

Criticism

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2024)

While critical theorists have often been called Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to denounce some Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian analysis with other sociological and philosophical traditions has resulted in accusations of revisionism by Orthodox Marxist and by Marxist–Leninist philosophers. Martin Jay has said that the first generation of critical theory is best understood not as promoting a specific philosophical agenda or ideology, but as "a gadfly of other systems".

Critical theory has been criticized for not offering any clear road map to political action (praxis), often explicitly repudiating any solutions. Those objections mostly apply to first-generation Frankfurt School, while the issue of politics is addressed in a much more assertive way in contemporary theory.

Another criticism of critical theory "is that it fails to provide rational standards by which it can show that it is superior to other theories of knowledge, science, or practice." Rex Gibson argues that critical theory suffers from being cliquish, conformist, elitist, immodest, anti-individualist, naive, too critical, and contradictory. Hughes and Hughes argue that Habermas' theory of ideal public discourse "says much about rational talkers talking, but very little about actors acting: Felt, perceptive, imaginative, bodily experience does not fit these theories".

Some feminists argue that critical theory "can be as narrow and oppressive as the rationalization, bureaucratization, and cultures they seek to unmask and change.

Critical theory's language has been criticized as being too dense to understand, although "Counter arguments to these issues of language include claims that a call for clearer and more accessible language is anti-intellectual, a new 'language of possibility' is needed, and oppressed peoples can understand and contribute to new languages."

Bruce Pardy, writing for the National Post, argued that any challenges to the "legitimacy can be interpreted as a demonstration of their thesis: the assertion of reason, logic and evidence is a manifestation of privilege and power. Thus, any challenger risks the stigma of a bigoted oppressor."

Robert Danisch, writing for The Conversation, argued that critical theory, and the modern humanities more broadly, focus too much on criticizing the current world rather than trying to make a better world.

See also

• Modernism
• Antipositivism
• Critical military studies
• Cultural studies
• Information criticism
• Marxist cultural analysis
• Outline of critical theory
• Popular culture studies
• Outline of organizational theory
• Postcritique
• Quare theory

Lists

• List of critical theorists
• List of works in critical theory

Journals

• Constellations
• Representations
• Critical Inquiry
• Telos
• Law and Critique

References

Footnotes

1. "Critical theory". Britannica. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
2. Disco, Cornelis. "Critical theory as ideology of the new class: Rereading Jürgen Habermas." Theory and Society (1979): 159-214.
3. Geuss, Raymond (1981). The Idea of a Critical Theory. Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0521240727. The very heart of the critical theory of society is its criticism of ideology. Their ideology is what prevents the agents in the society from correctly perceiving their true situation and real interests; if they are to free themselves from social repression, the agents must rid themselves of ideological illusion.
4. "The Left Hemisphere". Verso. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
5. Horkheimer 1982, 244.
6. Ritzer, George (2008). "Sociological Theory". From Modern to Postmodern Social Theory (and Beyond). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 567–568.
7. ^ Agger, Ben (2012), "Ben Agger", North American Critical Theory After Postmodernism, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 128–154, doi:10.1057/9781137262868_7, ISBN 978-1349350391.
8. Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. Routledge. 1990.
9. ^ Outhwaite, William (2009) . Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers (2nd ed.). Polity. pp. 5–8. ISBN 978-0745643281.
10. Fuchs, Christian (2021). "What is Critical Theory?". Foundations of Critical Theory. Routledge. pp. 17–51. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139196598.007.
11. Bohman, James; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 ed.).
12. "Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide". Routledge & CRC Press. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
13. Horkheimer 1982, p. 244.
14. Bohman, James (8 March 2005). "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 June 2019.
15. ^ Bohman, James; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin (2021), "Critical Theory", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 10 June 2022
16. ^ Lindlof & Taylor 2002, p. 49: "forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system.
17. "Theses on Feuerbach". §XI. Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 16 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
18. Adorno, Theodor W., and Max Horkheimer. 2002. Dialectic of Enlightenment, translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 242.
19. Habermas, Jürgen. 1987. "The Entwinement of Myth and Enlightenment: Horkheimer and Adorno". In The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, translated by F. Lawrence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 116: "Critical Theory was initially developed in Horkheimer's circle to think through political disappointments at the absence of revolution in the West, the development of Stalinism in Soviet Russia, and the victory of fascism in Germany. It was supposed to explain mistaken Marxist prognoses, but without breaking Marxist intentions."
20. Dubiel, Helmut. 1985. Theory and Politics: Studies in the Development of Critical Theory, translated by B. Gregg. Cambridge, MA.
21. Dialectic of Enlightenment. p. 38: "one are the objective laws of the market which ruled in the actions of the entrepreneurs and tended toward catastrophe. Instead the conscious decision of the managing directors executes as results (which are more obligatory than the blindest price-mechanisms) the old law of value and hence the destiny of capitalism."
22. "The Entwinement of Myth and Enlightenment", p. 118.
23. Katsiaficas, George N., Robert George Kirkpatrick, and Mary Lou Emery. 1987. Introduction to Critical Sociology. Irvington Publishers. p. 26.
24. Laurie, Timothy, Hannah Stark, and Briohny Walker. 2019. "Critical Approaches to Continental Philosophy: Intellectual Community, Disciplinary Identity, and the Politics of Inclusion". Archived 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Parrhesia 30:1–17. doi:10.1007/s10691-011-9167-4. (Discusses critical social theory as a form of self-reflection.)
25. ^ Fazio, Giorgio (21 May 2021). "Situating Rahel Jaeggi in the Contemporary Frankfurt Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 116. doi:10.1080/14409917.2019.1676943. S2CID 210490119.
26. Nancy Fraser (1985). What’s critical about critical theory? The case of Habermas and gender. New German Critique, 35, 97-131.
27. Gessen, Masha (9 February 2020). "Judith Butler Wants Us to Reshape Our Rage". The New Yorker.
28. Boston, Timothy (May 2018). "New Directions for a Critical Theory of Work: Reading Honneth Through Deranty". Critical Horizons. 19 (2): 111. doi:10.1080/14409917.2018.1453287. S2CID 149532362.
29. Condon, Roderick (April 2021). "Nancy Fraser and Rahel Jaeggi, Capitalism: A Conversation in Critical Theory". Irish Journal of Sociology. 29 (1): 129. doi:10.1177/0791603520930989. hdl:10468/10810. S2CID 225763936.
30. Marco, Marco; Testa, Italo (May 2021). "Immanent Critique of Capitalism as a Form of Life: On Rahel Jaeggi's Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 111. doi:10.1080/14409917.2020.1719630. S2CID 214465382.
31. Fazio, Giorgio (21 May 2021). "Situating Rahel Jaeggi in the Contemporary Frankfurt Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 116. doi:10.1080/14409917.2019.1676943. S2CID 210490119.
32. Jaeggi, Rahel; Neuhouser, Frederick (2014). Alienation. New directions in critical theory. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15198-6.
33. ^ Rosa, Hartmut (2016). Resonanz: eine Soziologie der Weltbeziehung (3. Aufl ed.). Berlin: Suhrkamp. ISBN 978-3-518-58626-6.
34. Rosa, Hartmut (31 December 2013). Social Acceleration: A New Theory of Modernity. Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/rosa14834. ISBN 978-0-231-51988-5.
35. Brumlik, Micha (2016). Resonanz oder: Das Ende der kritischen Theorie [Resonance or: The end of critical theory.] (in German). pp. 120–123.
36. Lindlof & Taylor 2002, p. 53.
37. Rivera Vicencio, E. (2012). "Foucault: His influence over accounting and management research. Building of a map of Foucault's approach". International Journal of Critical Accounting. 4 (5/6): 728–756. doi:10.1504/IJCA.2012.051466. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
38. "Introduction to Jean Baudrillard, Module on Postmodernity". www.cla.purdue.edu. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
39. Kellner, Douglas (22 April 2005). "Jean Baudrillard". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 March 2019.
40. Aylesworth, Gary. "Postmodernism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2015 ed.).
41. Hall, Melinda C. (2019). "Critical Disability Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
42. Pothier, Dianne; Devlin, Richard, eds. (2006). Critical Disability Theory: Essays in Philosophy, Politics, Policy, and Law. Law and Society Series. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1204-7.
43. Bell, Christopher, ed. (2011). Blackness and Disability: Critical Examinations and Cultural Interventions. Forecaast Series. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-10126-6. OCLC 1147991080.
44. Meekosha, Helen; Shuttleworth, Russell (November 2009). "What's so 'critical' about critical disability studies?". Australian Journal of Human Rights. 15 (1): 47–75. doi:10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910861. ISSN 1323-238X.
45. Wilkerson, Abby Lynn; McRuer, Robert, eds. (2003). Desiring Disability: Queer Theory Meets Disability Studies. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-6551-0. OCLC 52353836.
46. BA Haller (26 December 2009). "Media dis&dat: Obituary: Chris Bell, disability studies scholar on race, HIV/AIDS, dies". Media-dis-n-dat.blogspot.ca. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
47. Bell 2011
48. Annamma, Subini Ancy; Connor, David; Ferri, Beth (18 November 2015). "Dis/ability critical race studies (DisCrit): theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability". Race Ethnicity and Education. 16 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1080/13613324.2012.730511. S2CID 145739550.
49. Alan Hunt, "The Theory of Critical Legal Studies," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1986): 1-45, esp. 1, 5. See . DOI, 10.1093/ojls/6.1.1.
50. "Critical Legal Theory", Cornell Law School> Retrieved 2017-08-10.
51. Ingram, David (2021). "What an Ethics of Discourse and Recognition Can Contribute to a Critical Theory of Refugee Claim Adjudication: Reclaiming Epistemic Justice for Gender-Based Asylum Seekers" (PDF). Migration, Recognition and Critical Theory. Studies in Global Justice. Vol. 21. pp. 19–46. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72732-1_2. ISBN 978-3-030-72731-4.
52. Pulitano, Elvira (2013). "In liberty's shadow: The discourse of refugees and asylum seekers in critical race theory and immigration law/Politics". Identities. 20 (2): 172–189. doi:10.1080/1070289X.2012.763168.
53. Borch, Christian; Wosnitzer, Robert (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Critical Finance Studies. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315114255. ISBN 9781315114255.
54. See, e.g., Hobden & Hobson 2002.
55. See, e.g., van der Tuin & Dolphijn 2012; Coole & Frost 2010; Connolly 2013.
56. Wallace-Wells, Benjamin (18 June 2021). "How a Conservative Activist Invented the Conflict Over Critical Race Theory". The New Yorker. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
57. Meckler, Laura; Dawsey, Josh (21 June 2021). "Republicans, spurred by an unlikely figure, see political promise in critical race theory". The Washington Post. Vol. 144. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
58. Iati, Marisa (29 May 2021). "What is critical race theory, and why do Republicans want to ban it in schools?". The Washington Post. Rather than encouraging white people to feel guilty, Thomas said critical race theorists aim to shift focus away from individual people's bad actions and toward how systems uphold racial disparities.
59. Kahn, Chris (15 July 2021). "Many Americans embrace falsehoods about critical race theory". Reuters. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
60. ^ "Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed : Book Summary". The Educationist. 9 July 2014. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
61. For a history of the emergence of critical theory in the field of education, see Gottesman, Isaac (2016). The Critical Turn in Education: From Marxist Critique to Postructuralist Feminism to Critical Theories of Race. New York: Routledge.
62. See, e.g., Kołakowski, Leszek. 1979. Main Currents of Marxism 3. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393329437. ch. 10.
63. Mustakova-Possardt, M (2003) "Is there a roadmap to critical consciousness? Critical Consciousness: A Study of Morality in Global, Historical Context." Archived 2013-09-22 at the Wayback Machine One Country. 15(2).
64. Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Critical Criminology. Athabasca University and ICAAP. Retrieved on: 2011-10-30.
65. Meyer, Doug (March 2014). "Resisting Hate Crime Discourse: Queer and Intersectional Challenges to Neoliberal Hate Crime Laws". Critical Criminology. 22 (1): 113–125. doi:10.1007/s10612-013-9228-x. S2CID 143546829.
66. Uggen, Christopher; Inderbitzin, Michelle (2010). "Public criminologies". Criminology & Public Policy. 9 (4): 725–749. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00666.x. Uggen, C. and Inderbitzin, M. (2010), Public criminologies. Criminology & Public Policy, 9: 725-749. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00666.x
67. Allen, Michael, et al. Critical Animal Studies and Social Justice: Critical Theory, Dismantling Speciesism, and Total Liberation. Rowman & Littlefield, 2022.
68. Taylor, Nik; Twine, Richard (2014). "Introduction: Locating the 'critical' in critical animal studies". The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre. Abingdon and New York: Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0415858571.
69. "About". Institute for Critical Animal Studies (ICAS). Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
70. Nibert, David, ed. (2017). Animal Oppression and Capitalism. Praeger Publishing. p. xvii. ISBN 978-1440850738.
71. Original material adapted from presentation by M. Hanlon, School of Social Work, ACU
72. Soyini Madison, D. (2005). Critical ethnography: method, ethics, and performance. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/4957_Madison_I_Proof_Chapter_1.pdf
73. Thomas, J. (1993). Doing critical ethnography. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
74. Dalton, Craig; Thatcher, Jim (12 May 2014). "What does a Critical Data Studies look like and why do we care?". Society + Space. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
75. Vermeylen, Saskia (2019). "Special issue: environmental justice and epistemic violence". Local Environment. 24 (2): 89–93. Bibcode:2019LoEnv..24...89V. doi:10.1080/13549839.2018.1561658. ISSN 1354-9839.
76. Jay, Martin (1996). The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923–1950. University of California Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0520204232. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
77. Corradetti, Claudio. "The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory". Archived 18 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
78. Bohmann, Ulf; Sörensen, Paul (20 June 2022). "Exploring a Critical Theory of politics". Civitas - Revista de Ciências Sociais. 22: e42204. doi:10.15448/1984-7289.2022.1.42204. ISSN 1984-7289. S2CID 249915438.
79. ^ "Understanding Critical Theory". 3 November 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
80. ^ "9.8 PROBLEMS WITH CRITICAL THEORIES OF EDUCATION". members.aect.org. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
81. Pardy, Bruce (24 June 2023). "How Canada's secular religion of cultural self-hate took hold". National Post.
82. Danisch, Robert (10 January 2023). "The humanities should teach about how to make a better world, not just criticize the existing one". The Conversation. Retrieved 25 June 2023.

Works cited

• Bell, Christopher, ed. (2011). Blackness and Disability: Critical Examinations and Cultural Interventions. Forecaast Series. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-10126-6. OCLC 1147991080.
• Connolly, William E. (2013). "The 'New Materialism' and the Fragility of Things". Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 41 (3): 399–412. doi:10.1177/0305829813486849. ISSN 1477-9021. S2CID 143725752.
• Coole, Diana; Frost, Samantha, eds. (2010). New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency, and Politics. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4753-8.
• Hobden, Stephen; Hobson, John M., eds. (2002). Historical Sociology of International Relations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80870-5.
• Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0761924944.
• Van der Tuin, Iris; Dolphijn, Rick (2012). New Materialism: Interviews and Cartographies. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Open Humanities Press. doi:10.3998/ohp.11515701.0001.001. ISBN 978-1-60785-281-0.

Bibliography

• "Problematizing Global Knowledge." Theory, Culture & Society 23(2–3). 2006. ISSN 0263-2764.
• Calhoun, Craig. 1995. Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference. Blackwell. ISBN 1557862885 – A survey of and introduction to the current state of critical social theory.
• Charmaz, K. 1995. "Between positivism and postmodernism: Implications for methods." Studies in Symbolic Interaction 17:43–72.
• Conquergood, D. 1991. "Rethinking ethnography: Towards a critical cultural politics." Communication Monographs 58(2):179–94. doi:10.1080/03637759109376222.
• Corchia, Luca. 2010. La logica dei processi culturali. Jürgen Habermas tra filosofia e sociologia. Genova: Edizioni ECIG. ISBN 978-8875441951.
• Dahms, Harry, ed. 2008. No Social Science Without Critical Theory, (Current Perspectives in Social Theory 25). Emerald/JAI.
• Gandler, Stefan. 2009. Fragmentos de Frankfurt. Ensayos sobre la Teoría crítica. México: 21st Century Publishers/Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro. ISBN 978-6070300707.
• Geuss, Raymond. 1981. The Idea of a Critical Theory. Habermas and the Frankfurt School. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521284228.
• Honneth, Axel. 2006. La société du mépris. Vers une nouvelle Théorie critique, La Découverte. ISBN 978-2707147721.
• Horkheimer, Max. 1982. Critical Theory Selected Essays. New York: Continuum Publishing.
• Morgan, Marcia. 2012. Kierkegaard and Critical Theory. New York: Lexington Books.
• Rolling, James H. 2008. "Secular blasphemy: Utter(ed) transgressions against names and fathers in the postmodern era." Qualitative Inquiry 14(6):926–48. – An example of critical postmodern work.
• Sim, Stuart, and Borin Van Loon. 2001. Introducing Critical Theory. ISBN 1840462647. – A short introductory volume with illustrations.
• Thomas, Jim. 1993. Doing Critical Ethnography. London: Sage. pp. 1–5 & 17–25.
• Tracy, S. J. 2000. "Becoming a character for commerce: Emotion labor, self subordination and discursive construction of identity in a total institution." Management Communication Quarterly 14(1):90–128. – An example of critical qualitative research.
• Willard, Charles Arthur. 1982. Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge. University of Alabama Press.
• — 1989. A Theory of Argumentation. University of Alabama Press.
• — 1996. Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Chapter 9. Critical Theory Solomon, Robert C., ed. (2007). The Blackwell Guide to Continental Philosophy. David L. Sherman. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1405143042. OCLC 437147422.

External links

• "The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Gerhardt, Christina. "Frankfurt School". The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Ness, Immanuel (ed). Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Blackwell Reference Online.
• "Theory: Death Is Not the End" N+1 magazine's short history of academic Critical Theory.
• Critical Legal Thinking A Critical Legal Studies website which uses Critical Theory in an analysis of law and politics.
• L. Corchia, Jürgen Habermas. A Bibliography: works and studies (1952–2013), Pisa, Edizioni Il Campano – Arnus University Books, 2013, 606 pages.
• Sim, S.; Van Loon, B. (2009). Introducing Critical Theory: A Graphic Guide. Icon Books Ltd.

Archival collections

• Guide to the Critical Theory Offprint Collection. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, Cali Guide to the Critical Theory Institute Audio and Video Recordings, University of California, Irvine. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
• University of California, Irvine, Critical Theory Institute Manuscript Materials. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.

• Critical theory
• Conflict theory
• Frankfurt School
• Humanities
• Philosophical schools and traditions
• Social philosophy
• Political ideologies