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Millets (/ˈmɪlɪts/) are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.

Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa, especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger, with 97% of production in developing countries. The crop is favoured for its productivity and short growing season under hot dry conditions. The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivated sorghum; apart from that, pearl millet is the most commonly cultivated of the millets. Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are other important crop species. Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".

Etymology

The name millet is derived via Old French millet, millot from Latin millium, 'millet', ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *mele-, 'to crush'.

Description

Characteristics

Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals.

• Finger millet in the field
• Ripe head of proso millet
• Sprouting millet plants

Taxonomic history

In 1753, Carl Linnaeus described foxtail millet as Panicum italicum. In 1812, Palisot de Beauvois grouped several taxa into Setaria italica.

The genus Pennisetum was divided by Otto Stapf in 1934 into the section penicillaria, with 32 species including all the cultivated ones, and four other sections. In 1977, J. Brunken and colleagues classed the wild P. violaceum as part of the cultivated species P. glaucum (pearl millet).

Finger millet was described as Eleusine coracana by Joseph Gaertner in 1788.

Evolution

Phylogeny

The millets are closely related to sorghum and maize within the PACMAD clade of grasses, and more distantly to the cereals of the BOP clade such as wheat and barley.

Within the Panicoideae, sorghum is in the tribe andropoganeae, while pearl millet, proso, foxtail, fonio, little millet, sawa, Japanese barnyard millet and kodo are in the tribe paniceae. Within the Chloridoideae, finger millet is in the tribe chlorideae, while teff is in the tribe aragrosteae.

Taxonomy

The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the family Poaceae (the grasses), but they belong to different tribes and subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:

Eragrostideae tribe in the subfamily Chloridoideae:

• Eleusine coracana: Finger millet
• Eragrostis tef: Teff; often not considered to be a millet

Paniceae tribe in the subfamily Panicoideae:

• Genus Panicum:
  • Panicum miliaceum: Proso millet (common millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, or white millet, also known as baragu in Kannada, panivaragu in Tamil)
  • Panicum sumatrense: Little millet
  • Panicum hirticaule: Sonoran millet, cultivated in the American Southwest
• Cenchrus americanus: Pearl millet

• Setaria italica: Foxtail millet, Italian millet, panic
• Genus Digitaria: of minor importance as crops
  • Digitaria exilis: known as white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice
  • Digitaria iburua: Black fonio
  • Digitaria compacta: Raishan, cultivated in the Khasi Hills of northeast India
  • Digitaria sanguinalis: Polish millet
• Genus Echinochloa: collectively, the members of this genus are called barnyard grasses or barnyard millets
  • Echinochloa esculenta: Japanese barnyard millet
  • Echinochloa frumentacea: Indian barnyard millet
  • Echinochloa stagnina: Burgu millet
  • Echinochloa crus-galli: Common barnyard grass (or cockspur grass)
• Paspalum scrobiculatum: Kodo millet

• Genus Urochloa (formerly Brachiaria)
  • Urochloa deflexa: Guinea millet
  • Urochloa ramosa: Browntop millet
• Spodiopogon formosanus: Taiwan oil millet, endemic to Taiwan

Andropogoneae tribe, also in the subfamily Panicoideae:

• Sorghum bicolor: Sorghum; usually considered a separate cereal, but sometimes known as great millet
• Coix lacryma-jobi: Job's tears, also known as adlay millet

Domestication and spread

Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea.

The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought, and this has been suggested to have aided its spread. Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BC.

Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BC, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece. Hesiod describes that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer." Millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BC by Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants.

East Asia

Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation. Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago. Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at the Lajia archaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.

Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BC). Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea. Millets and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period sometime after 4000 BC.

Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, a legendary Emperor of China, and Hou Ji, whose name means Lord Millet.

Indian subcontinent

Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 BC in Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) around 3700 BC, also in Indian subcontinent. Various millets have been mentioned in some of the Yajurveda texts, identifying foxtail millet (priyaṅgu), Barnyard millet (aṇu) and black finger millet (śyāmāka), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BC in India. Upon request by the Indian Government in 2018, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations declared 2023 as International Year of Millets.

West Africa

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa from Pennisetum violaceum. Early archaeological evidence in Africa includes finds at Birimi in northern Ghana (1740 cal BC) and Dhar Tichitt in Mauritania (1936–1683 cal BC) and the lower Tilemsi valley in Mali (2500 to 2000 cal BC). Studies of isozymes suggest domestication took place north east of the Senegal River in the far west of the Sahel and tentatively around 6000 BC. Pearl millet had arrived in the Indian subcontinent by 2000 BC to 1700 BC.

East Africa

Finger millet is originally native to the highlands of East Africa and was domesticated before the third millennium BC. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BC.

Agriculture

Cultivation

Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops.

Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in Burkina Faso, doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials in Zimbabwe. From there it was taken to Namibia, where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Sahelian country where pearl millet—locally known as mahangu—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to Chad. The breed has significantly enhanced yields in Mauritania and Benin.

Pests and diseases

Millets are subject to damage by many insect pests, including corn borers, stem borers, the caterpillars of numerous moths in the families Erebidae and Noctuidae, the millet midge, many species of flies in the Muscidae, Hemipteran bugs of many families including aphids, and species of thrips, beetles, and grasshoppers.

Among the many diseases of millets are serious fungal infections such as anthracnose, blast, charcoal rot, downy mildew, ergot, grain mould, rust, and sheath rot. Bacterial diseases are generally less serious; they include bacterial leaf spot, leaf stripe and leaf streak. Viral diseases are again generally less serious, except for a few diseases such as maize stripe virus, maize mosaic virus, sorghum red stripe virus, and maize streak virus.

Production

Top Millet producers
in 2022
Numbers in million tonnes
1.  India	11.8 (38.19%)
2.  Niger	3.7 (11.97%)
3.  China	2.7 (8.74%)
4.  Nigeria	1.9 (6.15%)
5.  Mali	1.8 (5.83%)
6.  Sudan	1.7 (5.5%)
7.  Ethiopia	1.2 (3.88%)
8.  Senegal	1.1 (3.56%)
9.  Burkina Faso	0.9 (2.91%)
10.  Chad	0.7 (2.27%)
World total	30.9
Source: FAOSTAT

In 2022, global production of millet was 30.9 million tonnes. India is the top millet producer worldwide, with 11.8 million tonnes grown annually – some 38% of the world total and nearly triple its nearest rival. Eight of the remaining nine nations in the top 10 producers are in Africa, ranging from Niger (at 3.7 million tonnes) to Chad (0.7 million tonnes); the sole exception is China, number three in global production, at 2.7 million tonnes.

• A woman threshing pearl millet in Northern Ghana
• Proso millet with bacterial stripe disease
• Production of millet (2008) showing major producing regions of the world

Research

Research on millets is carried out by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research in Telangana, India, and by the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service at Tifton, Georgia, United States.

Uses

As food

In Ukraine, millet was historically a common ingredient in the diet of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, in the form of a porridge called "kulish". This dish, primarily made with millet, served with stewed vegetables and meat, cooked in a cauldron, remains a part of modern Ukrainian cuisine. In Germany, it is eaten sweet, for example with milk and berries for breakfast.

Millet is the main ingredient in Vietnamese, a Vietnamese sweet snack. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mungbean topped with sliced dried coconut meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake. In parts of Africa it is mixed with milk to make a drink, Brukina.

Finger millet is made into ragi rotti flatbread and ragi mudde dough lumps in Karnataka. Dough lumps are eaten as fura in the Sahel region of West Africa.

• Ragi rotti, finger millet flatbread, Karnataka, India
• Ragi mudde, dough lumps of finger millet
• Awaokoshi, candied millet puffs, are a specialty of Osaka, Japan.
• Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack in Hanoi, Vietnam
• Tongba, a millet-based alcoholic brew from Nepal and Sikkim

Alcoholic beverages

In the Himalayas, including in Nepal, Sikkim, and Darjeeling, millet is fermented into Tongba, an alcoholic drink.

In India, alcoholic beverages including rakshi are produced from millets.

As forage

Millet is sometimes used as a forage crop. Compared to forage sorghum, animals including lambs gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter. Millet does not contain toxic prussic acid, sometimes found in sorghum. The rapid growth of millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.

Human consumption

Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa. In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso, Chad and the Gambia. In Mali and Senegal, millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in Niger and arid Namibia it is over 65 percent (see mahangu). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea.

People affected by gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers, who need a gluten-free diet, can replace gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet. There remains a risk of contamination with gluten-containing cereals.

Nutrition

The table shows the nutrient content of the grains of different species of millet, raw, compared to other staples.

See also

• List of ancient dishes and foods
• List of insect pests of millets

Notes

References

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Bibliography

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External links

• "Millet" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911.
• "Millets". Alternative Field Crops Manual.
• Types of Millets and Names in Different Language

• Millets
• Cereals
• Plant common names